Data Structure and Algorithm

Analysis
13 CS- I & II
Engr. Maria Shaikh
maria.sheikh@faculty.muet.edu.pk

Course Structure and Contact

Info
Schedule
3+1 (Theory + Practical)

Exams
3 Sessional Tests
Home Assignments / Presentation
Mid Term + Final Exams

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Engr. Maria Shaikh

Relevant Literature + Lecture

Foils
1. A. M. Tanenbaum; Data Structure using C,
(latest edition)Prentice hall publishers
2.A. A. Puntambekar, Data Structure using,
Technical Publications Pune
3.Clifford A. Shaffer; Data Structure and
Algorithm Analysis, Edition 3.2 by Dover
Publications
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Curiosity killed the cat

How many of you have your own
computers/laptops?
Familiar with Programming?
Ever used any Computer Software?
Why we do programming?

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Read Ahead
You are expected to read the lecture
notes before the lecture.
This will facilitate more productive
discussion during class.
Also please
proof read
Like in an
assignments
English class
& tests.
5

Introduction to Basic Concepts

and Data Structures
Basic Terminologies
1.

Data: Data are simply raw Facts and Figures. Or

Data are simply values or set of values.

2. Data Items: A data items refers to single unit of

values.
Or
A unit of data stored in a field. For example,
"M000675are data item in the "Account Number
3. Group Items: Data items that are breakdown into
subitems are called Group Items.
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Introduction to Basic Concepts

and Data Structures
Example: An Employees name may be divided into three
subitems- First Name, Middle initial and Last Name.
4. Elementary Items: Data items which can not be further
divided into subitems are called Elementary Items.
Example: The Social Security number would normally be
treated as Single Item.

5. Entity: An entity is something that has certain attributes

or properties which may be assigned values. The values
may be either numeric or non numeric.

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Introduction to Basic Concepts

and Data Structures
An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable
from other objects. For instance, John Harris with
S.I.N. 890-12-3456 is an entity, as he can be uniquely
identified as one particular person in the universe.
An entity may be concrete (a person or a book, for
example) or abstract (like a holiday or a concept).
Example: The following are possible attributes and their
corresponding values for an entity, an Employee of a
given organization:
Attributes: Name
Values:
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Marium

Age

21

Sex

Female

Engr. Maria Shaikh

Social Security No

1325-76899-09

Pictorial View of Entity and its

Attributes
Sex

Age
SSNO

Name

EMPLOYEE

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Introduction to Basic Concepts

and Data Structures
6. Entity Set: Entities with similar attributes (e.g. all the
employees in an organization forms an entity set.
7. Information: It is meaningful or processed data.

8. Hierarchy: The way the data are organized into

hierarchy of fields, records and files reflects the
relationship between attributes, entities and entity set.
i. Field: A field is a single elementary unit of information
representing an attribute of an entity.
OR
Fields are vertical columns in a table.
ii. Record: A record is a collection of field values of a
given entity.
OR
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Introduction to Basic Concepts

and Data Structures
A record is the collection of fields that relate to a single
entity. For example, we could have a student record that
includes fields for the students name, address,
homeroom, date of birth, etc.
OR
Records are horizontal rows in a table.
iii. File: A file is a collection of related records. For
example, a student file might include all of the records of
students enrolled at a school. A police department might
keep a file of criminal records, which includes details
about all known criminals.

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Introduction to Basic Concepts

and Data Structures
Within a file, all records usually have the same
structure. That is, every record in the file contains
the same fields. Only the data stored in the fields of
different record will be different

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Programs and Programming

What is a program?
A set of instructions working with data
designed to accomplish a specific task
The recipe analogy
Ingredients are the Data
Directions are the Program Statements

What is programming
The art and craft of writing programs
The art to control these idiot servants and
nave children
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Introduction to Programming
Programming is to solve problems using computers
How to do it at all ?
How to do it robustly ?
How to do it effectively ?
Programming consists of two steps:
Algorithmic design (the architects)
Coding (the construction workers)
Programming requires:
A programming language (C/C++/C#) to express your
ideas
A set of tools to design, edit, and debug your code
A compiler to translate your programs into machine code
A machine to run the executable code
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Crafting Programs Effectively

Program design
design process
stepwise refinement & top-down design
bottom-up design
modularization, interfaces
use of abstractions
Programming style
structured programming
readable code
effective use of language constructs
formatting
software organization
Documentation and comments
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Good Programs

There are a number of facets to good programs: they

must
run correctly
run efficiently
be easy to read and understand
be easy to debug and
be easy to modify
better running times will generally be obtained from
use of the most appropriate data structures and
algorithms

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Preliminary Info Regarding Data

Structures
Before introducing data structures we should
understand that computers do store, retrieve, and
process a large amount of data.
If the data is stored in well organized way on
storage media and in computer's memory then it can
be accessed quickly for processing that further
reduces the latency and the user is provided fast
response.

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Data Structures
Data structure introduction refers to a scheme for
organizing data, or in other words a data structure is an
arrangement of data in computer's memory in such a way
that it could make the data quickly available to the
processor for required calculations.
A data structure should be seen as a logical concept
that must address two fundamental concerns. First, how
the data will be stored, and second, what operations will
be performed on it?

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Data Structure
Definition
A data structure is a collection of data, generally
organized so that items can be stored and retrieved
by some fixed techniques.
A particular format of representing information.

Example
An array
Stored and retrieved based on an index assigned to
each item

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Types of Data Structure

DATA
STRUCTURE

LINEAR

NON
LINEAR
Engr. Maria Shaikh

Algorithm
Along with data structures introduction, in real life,
problem solving is done with help of data structures and
algorithms.
An algorithm is a step by step process to solve a
problem in a finite amount of time.
In programming, algorithms are implemented in form of
methods or functions or routines.
To get a problem solved we not only want algorithm but
also an efficient algorithm.
One criteria of efficiency is time taken by the
algorithm, another could be the memory it takes at run
time.
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Algorithm
The best algorithm is the one which has a fine
balance between time taken and memory consumption.
But, as we know the best exists rarely, and we
generally give more priority to the time taken by the
algorithm rather than the memory it consumes.

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Analysis
Generalized information gathering
i. How much time an operation will take?
ii. How much memory will be utilized?
iii. Which data Structure will be more
effective?

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Why Data Structure and Algorithms

Computer is becoming ubiquitous

programming gets you more out of computer

learn how to solve problems
dealing with abstractions
be more precise
Software is designed to help people solve problems
in reality
To solve the problems, there are some THINGS, or
INFOs in reality to be processed
Those THINGS or INFOs are called DATA
DATA and their RELATIONS can be complicated
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Why Data Structure and

Algorithms
Reasonable organization of DATA helps
improving software efficiency, decreasing
software design difficulty.

DATA STRUCTURE is a smart way to organize DATA,

depends on the features of DATA, and how the DATA
are processed.

Unfortunately, most people

know little about Computer Science

know little about Programming
write bad or buggy programs
become lost when writing large programs

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Data Structure & Data Structure

Operations
Any logical or mathematical organization of
data is referred to as a Data Structures.
There are two basic criteria to this choice.
i. It must be rich enough in structure to
mirror the actual relationships of the data
in the real world.
ii. The structure should be simple enough that
one can effectively process the data when
necessary.
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Elementary Data Structure

Organization

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Primitive Data Structure

The primitive data types are the basic data types that
are available in most of the programming languages. The
primitive data types are used to represent single values.
Primitive data are only single values; they have no special
capabilities.
There are 8 primitive data types: byte, short, int, long,
float, double, char, Boolean.
Primitive data are only single values; they have no special
capabilities.

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Non Primitive Data Structures

The data types that are derived from primary
data types are known as non-Primitive data
types. These data types are used to store
group of values.
The non-primitive data structures are
Linear Data structures
Non Linear Data structures

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Linear Data structures

This Data Structures involve arranging the elements in
Linear fashion.
Eg.
Stacks
Queue
Linked Lists
Arrays

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Linear Data structures

Arrays:

data items.

It is linear collection of homogeneous

Stacks:

A data structure where insertion can only

be done in the end part and deletion can only be done
in the end part as well
Last-in first-out data structure (LIFO)
Supports the following operations
push inserts an item at the end
pop deletes the end item
peek returns the last element
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Linear Data structures

Stacks:
The Queue is like the List but with limited insertion
and deletion.
Insertion can be done only at the end or rear
Deletion can only be done in the front
FIFO first-in-first-out data structure
Operations
enqueue
dequeue

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Linear Data structures

Linked Lists:
Each element (node) inside a linked list
is linked to the previous node and
successor (next) node.
This allows for more efficient insertion
and deletion of nodes.

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Non Linear Data structures

This Data structures involve representing the
elements in Hierarchical order.
Eg:
Trees
Graphs

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Non Linear Data structures

Trees:
A tree has a set of nodes and directed
edges that connect them
a directed edge connects a parent to its
children

Tree properties
one node is distinguished as the root
every node (except the root) is connected by an
edge from exactly one other node
A unique path traverses from the root to each
node
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Non Linear Data structures

Graphs:
Graph is a mathematical structure used to model pair
wise relations between objects from a certain collection.
Vertices

Edges

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Data Structures Operations

a) Traversing: Accessing each record exactly once so that
certain items in the record may be processed.
b) Searching: Finding the location of the record with a
given key value, or finding the locations of all records
which satisfy one or more conditions.
c) Inserting: Adding a new record to the structure.
d) Deleting: Removing a record from the structure.

Following two are special operations:

a) Sorting: Arranging the records in some logical order.
b) Merging: Combining the records in two different
sorted files into a single sorted file.
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ALGORITHM
"An algorithm is a well defined list of steps to solve a
particular problem". "It is an abstract form of a
program."
A set of algorithms are always used to perform operations
on data structure. Data may be organized in many ways
and many levels so algorithm has to be designed in such a
manner so that it can perform the desired operation on
the stored data.
An algorithm is a well defined list or sequence of steps to
solve a particular problem. There may be more than one
algorithm to solve a particular problem. The choice of a
particular algorithm depends on the following
considerations:
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ALGORITHM
Performance requirements i.e. time complexity
Memory requirements i.e. space complexity
Each algorithm is a list of well-defined instructions
for completing a task. Starting from an initial state,
the instructions describe a computation that
proceeds through a well-defined series of successive
states, eventually terminating in a final ending state.

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ALGORITHM COMPLEXITY
"The complexity of an algorithm is the
amount of time and the amount of space
that is consumed by algorithm to run
to completion". The complexity is of the
following types
Space Complexity: - It is also known as memory
requirement.
Time Complexity: - It is also known as
performance requirement.

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SPACE COMPLEXITY
"The space complexity of an algorithm is the
amount of memory it needs to run to
completion". The space needed by a program
consists of following componentsInstructions space- to store executable version
of program.
Data space- to store all constants, variables etc.
Environment stack space- it is used in case of
recursive program .

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SPACE COMPLEXITY
The total space needed by a program can be
divided in two parts- A fixed part that is
independent of particular problem, and
includes instructions space, space for
constants, variables and fixed size structure
variables A variable part that includes
structure variables whose size depends on the
particular problem being solved dynamically
allocated space and the recursion stack space.

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TIME COMPLEXITY
"The time complexity of an algorithm is the
amount of time it needs to run to
completion". Some of the reasons for studying
time complexity are
We may be interested to know in advance
that whether the program will provide a
satisfactory real time response.
There may be several possible solutions with
different time requirements or with
different time complexity.
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ALGORITHM: Time-Space
Trade Off
The best algorithm to solve a given problem is one that
requires less space in memory and takes less time to
complete its execution.
But in practice it is not always possible to achieve both
these objectives.
As we know there may be more then one approach to
solve a particular problem. One approach may take more
space but takes less time to complete its execution while
the other approach may take less space but takes more
time to complete its execution.

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ALGORITHM: Time-Space
Trade Off
We may have to sacrifice one at the
cost of the other. If space is our
constraint, then we have to choose a
program that requires less space at the
cost of more execution time. On the
other hand if time is our constraint
then we have to choose a program that
takes less time to complete its
execution at the cost of more space
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Variables
A variable are place holders to store data.
Variables in a computer program are analogous to
"Buckets" or "Envelopes" where information can be
maintained and referenced. On the outside of the bucket
is a name. When referring to the bucket, we use the name
of the bucket, not the data stored in the bucket.
Variables can be characterized as a 6-tuple of attributes:
Name:
identifier
Address: memory location(s)
Value:
particular value at a moment
Type:
range of possible values
Lifetime: when the variable accessible
Scope:
where in the program it can be accessed
Engr. Maria Shaikh

Data Types
A data type in a programming language is a set of data
with values having predefined characteristics.
Examples of data types are: integer, floating point
unit number, character, string, and pointer.
Usually, a limited number of such data types come
built into a language.
The language usually specifies the range of values for
a given data type, how the values are processed by
the computer, and how they are stored

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Type Checking
Generalize the concept of operands and operators to
include subprograms and assignments
Type checking is the activity of ensuring that the
operands of an operator are of compatible types
A Compatible type is one that is either legal for the
operator, or is allowed under language rules to be
implicitly converted, by compiler-generated code, to a
legal type.
This automatic conversion is called a coercion.
A type error is the application of an operator to an
operand of an inappropriate type
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Compatibility of a Variable
Type compatibility by name: means the two
variables have compatible types if they are in
either the same declaration or in declarations
that use the same type name.
Type compatibility by structure: means that
two variables have compatible types if their
types have identical structures
More flexible, but harder to implement

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Scope and life time of a variable

Variables come into existence when the program starts
(but are uninitialized) and go away when the program
ends
Programs so far are a collection of variables that can be
accessed by any instruction in any part of the program.
The programmer has to make and enforce all decisions
over how variables are used and accessed
We want to give variables
A scope - defining which parts of a program can access a
variable.
A lifetime - defining when a variable is created and
destroyed.
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Scope
Files, function bodies and compound
statements define a scope
A scope is a region of a program text in
which declarations are valid
The concept of locality states that
declarations are local to their scope
A name cannot be used outside of its scope
A name can only be defines ONCE in any scope

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File Scope
A C++ source file defines a file scope
Splitting a program into different files restricts
variables defined in the file to the file scope
Programs have a global scope
Variables in the global scope may be accessed from
any part of the program
By default any name declared in file scope is GLOBAL
The scope of a global name extends from its point of
declaration to the end of the file it is declared in
Try to avoid the use of global variable

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Local Scope
Names declared in a function body or compound
statement are local to that scope
{
int local_x ;
// local to this scope
// some statements
}
The name local _ x is valid from its point of
declaration to the end of the scope - the closing
bracket.
Outside of the compound statement local _ x is not
accessible.
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Nesting Scopes
Scopes can be nested
{
int x;
int y;
// some statements
{
int x;
// hide outer x
x = 1; // use the local x
y = 2; // y still visible
}
// more statements
}

Note - Names in an outer scope are accessible unless they are hidden by
a local declaration of the same name
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Lifetimes of Variables
A variable is created when its scope is
entered during the execution of a program.
A variable is destroyed when its scope is left
during the execution of a program.
{

// enter scope here

int local_x;
// some statements using local_x
} // leave scope here

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Lifetimes of Variables
When the program enters the scope
local_x is created.
When the program leaves the scope
local_x is destroyed.
When the program enters the scope
again a NEW variable called local_x is
created.

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Control Structures
Control
structures

Sequential

Iterative /
Repetitive
For Loop
While Loop
Do Loop

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Conditional
If-Statement
If-else
Switch Case

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END OF SLIDE SET 1

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