3 Live of A Well

Schlumberger
Basic Petroleum Engineering
FTC
Drilling
Drilling
Objectives
Exploration
Well Types
Drilling process
Life of a well
Perforation
Production problems
JJ Consulting 1997
Notes
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Hydrocarbon in Place
This is the formula giving the amount of oil in place, vital for the
exploitation of the reservoir.
Logs give
porosity
The Objective of most wells is to find

hydrocarbons.
The volume of hydrocarbons in place is given
by:
saturation
height (from the depth)
This means they are vital to the operator.
Area comes from surface seismic and/or well testing
H=Constant
(1Sw)h
where
Notes
H = initial oil in place

= effective porosity
Sw= initial water saturation
h = productive interval
A = drainage area
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Hydrocarbon in Place - 2
The constant in the equation is used to put the result into the required
units, for example in oilfield units it is acre-ft.
Logging measurements form a major part of the input to this equation,
hence their importance. Errors in reading or interpreting the logs is
reflected in the results of the hydrocarbon in place.
This is simple to visualise

A - area of the reservoir
h - the thickness of the reservoir
together the product gives the total volume of
rock
- percentage of pore space in that volume of
rock. i.e. the volume that contains fluids
Notes
Sw = percentage of the pore space containing

water so
(1-Sw) = percentage of pore space containing
hydrocarbons
Hence the equations for the hydrocarbons in
place
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Exploration - Seismic
The seismic source was originally dynamite; this has largely been
replaced by air and water implosion guns and VibroSeis trucks on land.
The latter drop a heavy weight to create the noise.
The modern 3D survey has lines spaced about 25 - 50m apart with the
geophones spaced every 25m or so giving a detailed picture of the
subsurface.
The processing of the data is quite simple but takes a considerable time
due to the high volume of data.
Surface seismic consists of making a noise and

listening for the returning reflected signals.
There are two types of survey
2D - with widely spaced lines of geophones
3D - with closely spaced lines
The raw seismic data is processed to give a time
picture of the subsurface.
Notes
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Seismic example
This picture shows a seismic section clearly showing the bedding planes.
The interpreted cross section shows how the geophysicist puts the various
rock types into the picture. At this time he will also make a time to depth
conversion. Surface seismic is always recorded as two-way-time, which is
useless for drilling. This time is converted into a depth. On this example is
also shown the logs that assist the conversion.
Notes
A surface seismic with the interpreted model

above.
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Exploration - Geology
The seismic only gives the structure of the formations, there is no

information on the rock types. The geologist goes to an outcrop which
may be tens of kilometers away and tries to match up the rocks there with
the sub-surface picture seen on the seismic.
The job of the geochemist is more difficult as he must identify, not only
the source rock but also show a potential migration path. This is a difficult
task even in a known basin.
In addition to seismic there are other techniques

that must be applied to evaluate an exploration
prospect.
Geology
The geologist goes to outcrops (where the
formations are exposed on surface) and identifies
potential cap and reservoir rocks.
Notes
Geochemistry
The geochemist tries to identify the source
rock and also the possible migration path to the
reservoir rock.
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Drilling Objectives
The objective of a well is to reach a reservoir zone
safely and efficiently and then produce the fluids.
The driller has to have a lot of data before he can design the drilling plan.
He needs to have the rock type to chose his bits, estimate his drilling
speed, and identify potential problems such as swelling shales. He needs
to have the pressures to ensure his mud weight is correct to balance the
reservoir.
The resulting plan will be a time - depth plot showing the expected time
for drilling each section, the depth of the expected casing points and any
additional time for other operations. There will also be detailed
specifications on casing, etc to be used.
Step 1
identify the reservoir and the beds above it
which have to be drilled.
Step 2
identify the reservoir fluids and pressures
expected; in addition the fluids and pressures of
the zones above also have to be estimated.
Step 3
plan a series of casing points to minimise
the risks.
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This is a typical geological section that the driller would have to work
with. It shows all the expected formations. The additional information
needed is the depth of each and the pressures and fluids in each zone.
Well Prognosis
Conglomerate
Shale with
sandstone
layers(?)
Salt with
Carbonate
Stringers
This is the geology

of the proposed well.
The drilling
engineers job is to
plan a well to arrive
at the target
reservoirs safely and
efficiently.
Notes
Cap Rock
Reservoir 1
Reservoir 2
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Drilling Plan
The surface hole is
drilled to the top of
the salt zone.
Potential problems
in the top zone here
include
- caving in
unconsolidated
conglomerate
formations.
- shallow gas in the
sandstone layers.
The first casing is set across the conglomerate and the shale/sandstone.
The potential of caving in the surface layer is high but should pose few
problems. Shallow gas can be a considerable problem in some areas. Not
only is there the possibility of a blow out but gas is difficult to cement
properly. This could mean that there will be gas leaking between the
casings.
Conglomerate
Shale with
sandstone
layers(?)
Salt with
Carbonate
Stringers
Notes
Cap Rock
Reservoir 1
Reservoir 2
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Final Well
The final well finished in two more stages. The first through the very
difficult salt formation. Here is the problem of which mud to use, salt
saturated or oil base, to avoid the salt dissolving. Then there is the
problem of possible overpressured stringers, where heavy mud will be
required to control them.
The reservoir zones should give few problems. Some operators insist on
an intermediate stop if there are two reservoirs such as found here. This
allows them to evaluate one reservoir at least in case they lose the well.
The next stages are toConglomerate

drill the well to the
cap rock and then set
with
casing before drilling Shale
sandstone
layers(?)
the reservoir.
Potential problems
here are
with
- salt dissolving in the Salt
Carbonate
drilling mud, need to Stringers
use oil base mud or
salt saturated mud.
Cap Rock
- high pressure in the
carbonate stringers Reservoir 1
- a gas gap and hence
high pressure in the
reservoir zones.
Reservoir 2
Notes
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Vertical wells are most common in exploration situations. The well is

drilled to its target without the complications of deviation.
Vertical Wells
Wells can be split into three categories
1) Vertical
drilled to a specific target
measured depth = true depth
Notes
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Deviated well
Deviated wells are very common in a lot of situations. The well track can
be almost anything; starting vertical and then deviating, starting vertical,
deviating and then vertical again, starting deviated and then going vertical.
The change in direction is called a dog-leg. Severe doglegs can cause
problems for logging as it makes it difficult for the tool to go down and
sometimes to come out. The deviation angle is measured with respect to
the vertical. The true depth has to be computed, knowing this angle and
how it has changed.
possible well tracks
Notes
Target formation
2) Deviated
usually from a platform or
from land to near offshore
measured depth has to be
converted to true vertical depth
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Horizontal well
The ultimate deviated well is a horizontal well. Here the well is drilled in
three sections, the vertical section, the curved section and finally the ramp.
The curved section is typically a couple of hundred metres but can be less
for specific cases. The ramp is as long as required, several kilometres is
common. Guiding the well is done from surface using sensors mounted
near the drill bit. These give information on direction and deviation as
well as logging data such as gamma ray which helps in guiding the well
paths.
Vertical section
Curvature
Notes
Ramp
3) Horizontal
drilled to maximise production or
minimise problems such as coning
well is precisely guided along a
predetermined track
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Depth Overview
The depth is different depending on whether the wells are vertical or

horizontal. In addition there are differences if the drilling is on land or
offshore. However the reservoir is at a constant depth irrespective of the
surface topography. Hence a reference is used to give a precise repeatable
depth. The reference is mean sea level.
Notes
The depths and position of all wells has to be well

known. This is important in mapping and
evaluation.
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Rig Personnel
The Company Representative (company man) is the Operating companys man on

site. He directs the operations on the rig. Service Company personnel report to him.
The Tool Pusher is employed by the drilling company. He oversees all operations on
the rig, primarily the drilling but also service company activities.
The Driller and the drilling crew actually drill the well under the control of the tool
pusher. He drills from the drillers console on the rig floor. The rest of the crew are
Assistant driller - the number 2 on the rig floor
Derrick man - works on the mast during trips handling the stacking of the drill strings
Roughneck - general helper both on the rig floor and elsewhere on the rig site.
Company representative
Toolpusher
Maintenance
Driller
Asst Driller
Derrick man
Notes
Roughneck
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The rigs hoisting system consists of two parts; the mast itself which is the
supporting structure for the lifting system and the lifting system itself. The latter
consists of
Crown Block - a set of sheaves fixed at the top of the mast
Rig Hoist
Travelling block - a set of sheaves at the other end of the loop of the drilling line
with a hook at the bottom
Elevators - heavy duty clamps attached to the hook on the travelling block.
During drilling the hang to the side of the swivel. they are used during tripping to
lift the drill pipe and collars
crown block
crown block
Drilling line - heavy steel wire

Draw works - located on the rig floor near the rotary table, provide the winch
system
drilling line
travelling block
mast
hook
links
draw works
drill floor
elevator
Notes
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The Swivel permits the Kelly and hence the drill string to rotate freely during
drilling operations. It is attached to the travelling block via the hook. It also allows
the passage of the drilling fluids down the drill string. It is a large bearing.
Swivel
gooseneck
drilling fluid in
fixed
bearing
Notes
free
to drill string
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The rig floor contains most of the major rig components. The draw works provide
the lifting power.
The rotary drive gives torque to the drill string.
Rig Floor
The mouse hole is the storage for the next bit of drill pipe to be added to the
string.
The rat hole is a temporary store for the kelly while the drill pipe is being attached.
The console is the centre for the entire operation. The driller has all the
necessary controls to manage the drilling plus readouts to give him measurements
of the weight on the bit, torque and so on.
draw works
The V-door and the associated ramp are the access points for any items to be
brought on to the rig floor.
dog house
drive
mouse hole
rat hole
Drillers console
Notes
V-door ramp
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The rotary system has a number of major components

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Rotary system
The Rotary Table provides the rotational power to the system. It transmits this via
the master bushing and the kelly bushing to the drill string. The Kelly bushing has
the same cross section as the kelly hence the kelly rotates.
These components are removable.
Notes
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Top Drive System
The top drive system uses a dc electric motor to drive the drill string
instead of the rotary table. The motor is attached to the standard swivel
above it and to the drill string below. There is no need for a special kelly.
This means that one stand of drill pipe can be drilled at one time, saving
on the connection time and hence rig time.
This system is used on about 70% of offshore and 30% of land rigs.
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The Master bushing is also used to suspend the drill string during running in or
pulling out of the hole. In this case the drill string is held by the slips. These are a
set of tapered grips.
Rotary table
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BOP stack
The BOP stack is the main safety system on the rig. It consists of several devices.
The first are pipe rams, designed to fit snugly around the drill pipes and prevent
any fluid passing up the annulus. The annular preventer is a rubber device which,
within reason, can fit any shape, e.g. the kelly. The blind rams will seal if there is
no drill pipe in the hole simply closing the hole. Shear rams will cut through
anything in the borehole sealing it off entirely.
Also in the stack is a kill line to be able to pump mud into the well at any stage to
kill it. The choke line is used to regulate pressure on the annulus.
BOP stacks are hydraulically operated.
Notes
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There are three basic types of tubulars used in the drilling phase of a well. The
Kelly is a square (or other flat sided shape) pipe used in the rotation system to
transmit torque.
Drill collars are used down near the bit to provide weight to the drill string. They
are very thick walled.
Tubulars
Drill pipes form the major part of a drill string.

All the tubulars are hollow to allow transmission of the drilling fluids. The
dimensions are given by the outer diameter and the weight. The weight (in pounds
per foot) determines the inner diameter. The normal length of a drill pipe or drill
collar is 30 feet (10m). In normal operations the dp is made up into stands of
three. This also occurs with dcs.
There are some specialised items such as stabilisers in the bottom hole assembly.
Notes
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The mud is circulated down the drill string and and back up the annulus. When it
reaches surface it is first passed over the shale shakers to remove the cuttings
debris. It may then be passed through a degasser, desiltter, desander or mud-gas
separator to recondition it before it is returned to the mud pits for reuse.
Drilling Fluids
The drilling fluid is an essential part of the drilling and
well control system
It can be either water or oil based
Oil based is an emulsion of diesel and water
water based uses anything from salt saturated to fresh
water
Additives to the mud give it weight. the basic additive is
bentonite. Barite is added for very heavy muds
Mud is used to
Notes
Cool the bit

Remove cuttings
Lubricate the bit
Provides a pressure to overcome that of the
formation
Makes a mud cake to seal permeable
formations
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The mud weight is an important parameter in drilling. New mud is made for each
section of the well as the pressures and formations are different.
Mud weights
The mud density is kept at a level to overcome
expected reservoir pressures and keep the well
at a positive overpressure.
It should not be too heavy or it will crack the
formation.
Mud weights are quoted in g/cc, lb/ft or lb/gal.
This is essentially a density.
Notes
If the formation pressure is known the mud

weight for equilibrium can be computed.
Example
The reservoir pressure is 5400 psi. The depth is
10000.
The gradient is 0.54 psi/ft.
This is equivalent to 1.25 g/cc or 78 lb/cu ft or
10.4 lb/gal
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Conversion factors:
Mud Weight Example
0.433psi/ft = 1g/cc
1 psi/ft = 19.27lb/gal
Compute the mud weight need to drill into the

gas at the top of the reservoir.
1 psi/ft = 144 lb/cu ft
Notes
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In addition to these a surface casing, the conductor pipe is usually set. This has a
normal diameter of 30.
Casing
Casing sizes depend on the
purpose . They start large
and gradually become
smaller
Casing sizes are always
given as Outer Diameter.
The Inner Diameter depends
on the weight
Notes
The drift is the maximum
difference with the nominal
value of the id.
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Cementing
The process of cementing is a simple one, a cleaning fluid is first pumped

up behind the casing to break up the mud and mud-cake ensuring a good
bond to the formation. The cement is then pumped, and a completion fluid
is left in the wellbore.
An essential requirement for a good cement job is centralised casing. The
numbers of centralisers needed is predicted using a computer program
with inputs such as well depth and deviation.
Cementing is used to fix the casing in place and

provide mechanical strength to the system.
The most essential use of cementing is to seal one
zone from another.
The cementing of a casing is performed by
pumping cement slurry down the casing and
forcing it up between the casing and the
formation.
Great care is taken to ensure a complete coverage
of the cement.
If the cement is found to be poor, a squeeze has to
be made to repair the deficit.
The cement is usually left to set for a couple of
days before drilling ahead.
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Notes
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Logging
The major initial use of logging is to tell the oil company where the
hydrocarbon is and how much is there. In addition to this service logs
provide a lot of data that could not be easily obtained by any other
method.
Logging is a process of obtaining information

about the formation after the well has been
drilled.
A sensor is lowered into the well on the end of an
electrical cable. This provides power and
transmits the data to the surface where it is
presented in the form of a graph against depth.
Notes
There are many types of logs;

resistivity logs show where the hydrocarbon may
be, high resistivity means hydrocarbon
porosity logs show porous reservoir zones
sonic and density logs give information about the
rock types.
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Testing and Logging
There are many log services that are used in testing. One important one is
depth measurement. This is made at the initial logging of the well and is
then used as the depth reference for the rest of that wells life.
Cement Bond Logs, Corrosion logs and Production Logs give detailed
information on the well which helps explain test results.
Some logs that are useful in Testing operations.

Gamma Ray - shows shale and clean zones, gives
net and gross pay.
Cement bond logs - show how good the cement is
and if there may be channels and problems.
Corrosion logs - show possible problems inside
and outside the casing.
Production logs - show flow in the well.
CCL - shows the casing collars
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Notes
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Life of a well-1
The information requirements in a wells life depend on the stage. The first
stage of the well is short, a few months. Once the well is drilled the
question is where is the hydrocarbon? The logs are run for this purpose.
Once the well is cased and cemented, the question is how good is the
cement. Then the zone(s) are perforated.
Once cased it is difficult to make measurements, especially of the
important resistivity.
Notes
Drilled well
Cased Well
Perforated Well
Need to find:
Saturation
casing integrity
Porosity
cement quality
Zones
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Life of a well-2
In the second half of a wells life the questions are different. Here the
emphasis is on production , fluids and pressures. Different techniques are
employed. Well testing and reservoir monitoring tools are used to answer
most of the questions. Some specialist devices such as corrosion
monitoring tools may be required. The phase of the wells life lasts for a
much longer time, often years; hence there will be a number of surveys
during this time.
Notes
Well Produced
Workover activity
Recompleted
Production
Perforation efficiency
Flow rates
fluid mix
new zones
Zone Production
Pressures
Flow rates
Pressures
Need to know:
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Completing a well
The choice of a completion is a essential part of the well construction.

Numerous computer programs help the engineer decide on the type he will
employ.
For example the choice between single and dual tubing depends on the
zones to be completed their individual pressures, the reservoir
performance in each zone. If a dual is selected this means a smaller tubing
in the same casing or a larger hole and the same tubing's. In either case
there is an expense involved.
When a well is drilled it needs to be completed

The objective of a completion is to produce the wells
fluids safely and efficiently
Completions can take a lot of different forms
single string tubing
dual string tubing
annulus
Notes
there is also a choice in how the reservoir zone is

handled:
perforated casing
open hole
gravel pack
The choice of the correct type of completion is vital to
the future of the well
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Tubing completion is made up of a tubing set in a fixed packer, the

annulus is sealed.
The tubing itself has a number of nipples and seats at the bottom to
accommodate valves and so on.
Tubing Completions
Notes
The most common type of completion. The fluid

is directed to surface in a tubing set in a packer.
There can be a lot of zones using either one single
tubing or flowing through a tubing per zone. (the
normal maximum is two tubings in a well).
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The tubing is by far the most common type as it is easy to control the
behaviour of the well. It is also relatively simple to change with a
workover.
Tubing completions
This common type of completion has several

advantages over the others:
Flow is sent up a narrow tubing, hence easily
controlled
the tubing can be removed or replaced easily
during workover
Notes
the well is easily controlled

zones can be selectively produced without
mixing
The disadvantage is that there is extra material
in the well thus extra cost.
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This type of completion is used for wells at the opposite end of the flow
rate spectrum.
In ultra high flow rate wells the well is allowed to flow up through the
annulus itself, there is no flow up the tubing. This is done as a tubing
would be too small to accommodate the flow rate of the well.. The tubing
here is for well control, is the well needs a workover it can be killed.
Annulus Completion
At the opposite end wells which will not produce to surface have to be
pumped. A pump is placed in the tubing and the well flowed through the
tubing.
A variation on the tubing completion. Fluid is

allowed to flow up both the tubing and the
annulus
Notes
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annulus
This
pumped
but not
completion
to surface.shows
The pump
the well
pulls
flowing
the fluid
up up
to athe
level
tubing.
in theThis
can either be, as shown, a sucker rod pump (nodding donkey) or a
submersible pump run by electricity from surface.
Pumped Completion
Notes
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This sort of completion works in very consolidated formations. It is

flowed up through a tubing as with a standard completion.
Open Hole Completion
Notes
The simplest form of completing a reservoir

zone is the open hole completion. The casing is
set in the overlying cap rock. The reservoir is
penetrated for a few metres
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Open Hole Completions
Flowing a well from the maximum possible area gives a very good
performance with little or no damage. However the problem with an open
hole completion is formation collapse, only the very consolidated rocks,
carbonates, will stand such a system.
Advantages
Full bore diameter for flow
no perforating is needed, cost saving
can be easily recompleted or deepened later
formation damage in the reservoir is
minimised
Disadvantages
Notes
no control of fluid entry

no selective treatment of the formation is
possible
well is difficult to kill
rock may collapse
This type of completion is usually employed in
high flowrate wells and consolidated
formations
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Gravel Pack Completion
The placing of a gravel pack can be difficult, there are a number of

methods. The gravel is put in first and the screen lowered on drill pipe
and forced into the gravel or the screen fixed first and the gravel placed in
a similar manner to the cement.
Notes
The gravel pack completion is used where there

is a need to control sand production. It retains
the high flow area of the open hole completion
The major elements are a wire screen and the
gravel pumped behind it.
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Gravel packs are common, retaining the advantages of the large flow area
of the open hole completion while containing the formation collapse.
The disadvantages are that in placing the gravel pack the reservoir may be
damaged.
Gravel Pack Completions
Gravel packs are commonly used in

unconsolidated sands.
Advantages are:
keeps sand production down
provides a large flow area
Notes
Disadvantages are:
Expensive and complex to install
difficult to perform any workover operation
can introduce a skin effect in the reservoir
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Gravel Pack Example
This is a complex completion with three sand formations, each with a

gravel pack. The three intervals can be flowed simultaneously by opening
the sliding side doors (SSD) or each can be flowed separately by closing
the unwanted zones. The expense of such a system is offset by its
expected long lifetime allowing the separate layers to produce without
interference.
Notes
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Gas Lift Completion
A gas lift completion is a very common device to assist the reservoir

production. A typical reservoir will produce to surface for a number of
years; as time goes on the reservoir pressure declines and the reservoir is
no longer able to push the oil all the way to surface.
The solution is to lighten the oil column in the tubing. This is achieved by
injecting gas into the tubing via valves from the annulus. This gas is
usually produced gas making this a very efficient system.
Notes
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Perforated reservoir
Perforation in casing is by far the most common method. This is done in

both a normal completion and a gravel pack although the requirements are
different. The gravel pack needs a lots of shots and an entry hole as big as
possible. The standard completion needs deep penetration. Both are
possible using varied charges
The commonest method of handling the reservoir

zone.
A casing is set across the entire reservoir.
The zone to be produced can then be selectively
perforated.
Advantages
- The reservoir is produced in only the best
intervals
Notes
- Stimulation and repair are simple

- unwanted fluids are excluded
- production logging/monitoring of the reservoir
performance is easily performed
Disadvantages
- the area for flow is small
- the perforations may not all produce
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Explosives are used in perforating and other well operations such as

sample taking.
Explosives
Explosive Categories
An Explosion
Sudden release of chemical, mechanical or
atomic energy - Expanding gas, High Pressure
Chemical Explosives
Two main types:
Notes
1. Low Explosives or deflagrating.

2. High Explosives or detonating
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Low Explosives
Others
- 83% Ammonium perchlorate (Cl NH4) + 17% Carbazol. White powder,
looks like flour. Less powerful than Western Ball Powder. Flash point 550
degF. Rated at 450 degF for 1 hour.
- Uses: brass cst cartridges high temp.
Low Explosives
- 86% Ammonium Perchlorate + 14% Carbozol. White powder. Flash

point 550 degF. Rated at 450 degF for 1 hour.
- Initiated by heat or flame.
- Uses: aluminium cst cartridges high temp.french high temp. (lb-51)

.american high temp.
- Pressure reaches 50 Kpsi.

- Used in CST guns.
Black Powder
- 75% Saltpetre KNO3 + 10% Sulfur + 15%
Charcoal.
- Fine, black powder.
Notes
-- Uses: primer "needle" igniters (cst) & squibs

Western Ball
- Nitrocellulose
- Small black ball.
- Very hydroscopic (takes water from its
surrounding).
- Uses: sealed plastic cst cartridges.
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High Explosives
Primary - Lead Azide Sulfone- Pb N6 - Very sensitive to friction. Will

self detonate when heated sufficiently at atmospheric pressure. Flash point
625 degF. Uses: Blasting Caps, Boosters.
Secondary - RDX - White crystalline solid (dyed pink) with a melting point
of 388 degF , crystal density 1.82 gr/cc, with detona tion velocity of 8,400
m/sec. RDX "outgasses" or decomposes harmlessly when heated or burned
at atmospheric pressure, however, will detonate if heated in confinement
above 180 degC Rated at 340 degF for 1 hour, when not exposed to well
pressure or 320 degF when exposed. This rating corresponds to an average
rate of descent of 20,000 ft/hr without appreciable lowering of charge
performance. Insoluble in water and alcohol.
High Explosives
Detonate rather than burn.
- Pressure reaches 50 K to 4Mpsi.
- Uses: Detonating Cord, & Shaped Charges of All Types SN6 O14
(Picryl-Sulfone) Yellow powder. Flash point 584 degF. Rated at 470 degF
for 1 hour.
Two categories:
- Uses: Shaped Charges & Detonating Cord High Temp.Secondary High

Explosives
1. Primary High Explosive

- Initiated by hot wire / flame.
Notes
- Burn first, then undergo transition from

deflagrating to detonating
- Sensitive to shock / friction.
- Use in blasting caps.
2. Secondary High Explosive
- High energy shock wave will initiate the
detonation.
- Can explode if heated in confinement.
- Use in primacords and shaped charges.
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Perforation
Gun systems use three
components:
Perforation is the most popular method of reservoir completion. The

objective is to create a path for flow from the formation to the well
through the casing and cement. The requirement is thus for a hole to be
made in the casing, cement and into the formation for a short distance.
Standard perforations have an entrance hole of about 0.4 and a
penetration of around 20.
The perforation gun contains these three components. The detonator to
start the reaction, the prime cord to propagate it and the shaped charge to
make the holes.
- detonator - primary high

explosive ignited by heat or
shock
- primacord - secondary high

explosive ignited by the
detonator, burns at 8400 m/
sec
- shaped charges - create the

perforations, detonated by
the primacord.
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Schlumberger
FTC
Shaped Charges were developed shortly after World War II from the
military bazooka weapon.
Three basic elements of a shaped charge
Shaped charge
1. Case (Steel or Aluminium).

2. Cylinder of High Explosive & a Primer.
3. Conical Metallic Liner.
It was found that the conical shape produced a depression / hole in a metal
target. The addition of the liner increased the efficiency of the system.
Modern liners are made of powdered metal and leave a powder residue at
the end of the perforation. A Typical charge has only about 20 grams of
explosive material.
The pressure causes the material in the path of the jet of metal to move
out of the way creating the perforation.
If the liner opening is widened the entrance hole size increases but the
penetration decreases. These type of charges are used for applications
such as gravel pack.
Notes
The dimensions of the perforation, length of the

tunnel, and diameter of the entrance hole are
linked and depend on the geometry of the
shaped charge.
A wide mouth gives a large entry hole and
shallow penetration.
A narrow mouth gives deep penetration but a
smaller hole.
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Jet Formation
The liner is forced inside out to create the liner. The liner tip is at several
million psi hence the penetration. The depth of penetration is at maximum
about 35 inches as the objective of perforation is to create a pathway for
flow between the formation and the wellbore. The liner is made of
powdered metal which ends up as dust which is washed away by the flow.
Detonator Cord
The explosion
starts at the base
of the liner.
Case
Liner
Primer Charge
Explosive
Detonation
Front
The detonation
front forces the
liner to flow
forming a
characteristic jet
shape.
Tips (7000m/s)
Tail (500m/s)
Notes
Jet Tip
(15 x 106 psi)
The jet tip is

moving at high
speed but the
main reason for
the penetration
is the pressure.
Tail Particles
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A Perforation
A picture of a glass being perforated.
It happens so quickly that the glass remains
intact after the jet has passed through.
It will shatter a very short time later when the
shock wave arrives.
Notes
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Types of Perforation
Three Types of perforated completion
a) Wireline - Carried on an electric line
1) Casing Gun Completion
Well Pressure > Formation Pressure
The advantage of a casing gun completion is that all perforation material

is carried inside the carrier hence it is protected from the well fluids. The
resulting debris is also brought out of the well in the same carrier. The
carrier can be either re-usable or not depending on the type of operation
being performed. The more complex gun types are all throw-away type
carriers. The disadvantage of overbalanced perforation is that the mud in
the well bore will enter the well as it is at a higher pressure. Through
tubing perforation eliminates the invasion problem and gives the
formation the chance to flow immediately. The disadvantage is that
smaller guns have to be used, which means either smaller charges in a
small carrier, or larger charges exposed to well fluids and debris left in the
well. The choice depends on the type of well being perforated.
Overbalanced perforating
Large diameter carrier gun
2) Through Tubing Perforation
Notes
Well Pressure < Formation Pressure.

Completion and final surface production
equipment, or a temporary completion and
testing facilities are in place
Underbalanced perforating, with pressure
control equipment
Through tubing gun (small guns)
Gauges can be run with the string
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Tubing Conveyed Perforating
Tubing conveyed perforation ( TCP ) connects a carrier gun to the end of

the drill pipe or tubing. The gun can be fired by a number different types
of detonators such as drop bar, pressure firing heads or inductive coupling.
The choice depends on the conditions and type of well.
The advantages of this method are mainly the long interval (s) possible
and the possibility of a simultaneous well test using downhole gauges.
b)Carried on Drill Pipe or Tubing

3) Tubing Conveyed Perforating
Perforation gun is carried on either the drill pipe
or on tubing.
Well Pressure < or > Formation Pressure
Large interval of perforation in one run - in - hole
Notes
High explosive content, perforation spacing

Gauges can be run at the same time
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Perforation Characteristics
The number of shots per foot depends on the application and the reservoir
parameters. The objective is to obtain the best flow efficiency most
economically. Computer program exists which allow the reservoir
engineer to select the best combination of shots per foot and phasing. The
most common number of shots per foot is four or six.
Guns are classified by the

number of shots per foot,
spf.
The current maximum is
21 spf.
Notes
Guns are also described

by their Phasing- the
directions of the
perforations. This ranges
from 0 degrees to 30/60
degrees
The example shows
90 degrees.
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Carrier guns have in common, an outer casing into which is put an

expendable tube loaded with the charges.
They vary from the reusable casing guns to hsd carriers and the through
tubing scallop guns.
Carrier Guns
These guns consist of pressure tight tubular
steel carrier into which explosive shaped
charges are mounted.
They are:
Casing Guns
- 3 3/8" , 4" and 5" O.D. Guns.
- for overbalanced perforating.
- reusable carrier
Scallop Guns
Notes
- small size.
- for underbalanced through-tubing
perforating.
- disposable carrier.
High Shot Density (Hsd) Guns
- Large size
- HSD Guns can be run with Wireline or TCP.
-- disposable carrier.
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Casing Guns
Casing Guns
Features
- Retrievable gun.
- 4 shots per foot , 90 deg. phasing (22.5 deg.
for squeeze guns).
- Common lengths: 10ft and 15ft per gun.
Notes
- Re-usable guns (15 to 20 times), mechanically

rugged.
- Limited to 45ft in one run-in-hole.
- Mainly for overbalanced through casing
perforating .
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Casing Guns 2
Advantages
- High reliability ,charges protected.
- High temperature (up to 400F)
- High pressure rating (25 000 psi).
- Gas tight.
- Resistant to chemicals.
- Selective firing system.
- No debris left in well.
Notes
- Little casing damage.

- Re-usable carrier.
- Large charge gives deep penetration.
Disadvantages
- Perforating holes not surged
- Drilling mud invades formation
- Limited length up to 45ft.
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HSD
High Shot Density Guns
Features
- Retrievable gun with wireline operation.
- Retrievable or non-retrievable with TCP.
- Up to 21 shots per foot.
- 60, 120, 135/45, and 140/20 deg. phasing
between shots.
Notes
- Common lengths: 5 ft , 10 ft and 20 ft.

- High explosive density and very good phasing.
- Big range of sizes ( 2 7/8" to 7 O.D.).
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HSD Guns
Advantages
- High reliability, charges protected.
- High temp & pressure rating.
- Gas tight.
- Resistant to chemicals.
- 21 shots per foot (high density)
- Large charge gives deep penetration.
- No debris left in well.
Notes
- Selectivity for small gun sizes.

Disadvantages
- Carrier not reusable.
- Very heavy guns.
- Big guns with maximum 20 ft in one run - in hole.
- Overbalanced perforating has holes not surged
clean and drilling mud invades formation
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Through Tubing Guns

Enerjet Guns
Features
-Semi-expendable for 0 deg. phasing (strips
are retrievable, but not reusable).
-Expendable for 45 deg. phasing (strips are
not retrieved).
- 6 shots per foot , 0 or 180 degree phasing
between shots.
Notes
- Shaped charges are attached to steel or

aluminium carrier strip.
- Shaped charges are exposed to well condition.
- Mainly for underbalanced through tubing
perforating
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Enerjet Guns
Advantages
- Excellent charge performance for its size.
- Stiff , but flexible.
- 40 to 50 ft in one run-in-hole
-Temperature limitation.
- Easy assembly.
- Deeper penetration than scallop.
Notes
- Perforating holes surge clean.

Disadvantages
- Can only fire 2 guns selectively in one run-inhole.
- Non H2S resistance.
- A lot of debris left in well after perforation.
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TCP
Tubing Conveyed Perforating
Features
- HSD Guns used.
- Run with Drill Pipe or Tubing (Permanent
or Temporary).
- Normally underbalanced perforating, but
long interval may be with overbalanced.
Notes
- Very long gun string is possible.

- Gun string is retrievable ( but can also be
dropped in the well ).
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TCP 2
Advantages
- Same as HSD.
- Top down firing.
- Very long gun string is possible
- Very safe underbalanced perforating.
- Overbalanced is also possible.
- Different types of firing methods.
- Pressure gauges to monitor well pressure.
Notes
Disadvantages
- Needs correlation of string with GR + pip tags.
- Much hardware required.
- Unreliable indication of whole string firing.
- A misfire will have a long lost time.
- Temp. rating of explosive needs to be high (long
exposure).
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A typical problem. This is the result of poor cementation. It can happen in

either a water or a gas. The only solution is to pull the completion , squeeze
cement to block the channel and reperforate.
Channelling
Unwanted fluids are
produced because of
channels in the
cement.
The only solution is to
pull the completion
and squeeze.
Notes
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FTC
Crossflow is usually impossible to tell from surface measurements, a tool

such as a downhole flowmeter is required.
The flow can go in either direction and can be substantial. If the lower
zone is producing water it is possible to block it off, however if it is
producing oil this will waste that production. A dual completion may be
necessary.
Crossflow
When more than one
zone is producing
commingled the
pressure in each
zone will change in a
different manner.
Eventually one zone
will be a a higher
pressure and flow
into the other.
Notes
The solution is to
block off the
problem zone or
install a dual
completion.
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Coning
A typical problem in a producing well. Gas can cone down from the gas
cap and be produced through the upper perforations. Water can cone up.
The reasons for such problems are perforations too close to the contacts or
too high a pressure drawdown.
Notes
Excess drawdown and a perforation interval

that is too long could lead to coning problems.
Here there is unwanted production of both gas
and water.
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Fingering
This is caused by having a number of different permeabilities in the same

completed interval. The high permeabilities will be produced first caused
the water level to rise there. A the point shown there will probably be only
water produced as this is the high permeability layers.
Notes
Higher permeability layers produce first

bypassing some oil.
A solution is selective zone completion.
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The near wellbore is often damaged by the drilling or completion process.

The objective of stimulation is to create a permanent zone near the
wellbore with a higher permeability.
Stimulation
Stimulation is used to improve the permeability
of the near well bore environment
There are two major methods
Fracturing
Acidising
Notes
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Fracturing creates artificial fractures to enhance production.

They are made by increasing the wellbore pressure and breaking the rock.
A proppant is used to keep the cracks open.
Fracturing
Only hard rocks such as carbonates, or tight sandstones are fractured.
Notes
A Fracture is made by pumping water at a high

enough pressure to crack the formation.
Proppant is used to keep the fracture open.
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Acid Wash
This technique is normally carried out in carbonates, where a simple HCl

(hydrochloric acid) solution can be used. The normal strength of the acid
is 15%, i.e. 15% acid, the rest water.
The acid cleans up any perforation damage and adds some small pathways
for flow.
Notes
Acid is pumped into the formation. It cleans up

any near wellbore damage improving the
permeability.
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This is a combination of both techniques. The fracture thus created is

etched by the acid; there is no need for proppant.
The wing length, as with a normal fracture, is of the order of 10m.
Acid Fracturing
Notes
Acid is pumped under high pressure, a fracture

is created and the rock is etched creating a
fracture.
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Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

Basic Petroleum Engineering

The Objective of most wells is to find

H = initial oil in place

Basic Petroleum Engineering

This is simple to visualise

Sw = percentage of the pore space containing

Basic Petroleum Engineering

Surface seismic consists of making a noise and

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A surface seismic with the interpreted model

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The seismic only gives the structure of the formations, there is no

In addition to seismic there are other techniques

Basic Petroleum Engineering

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This is the geology

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The next stages are toConglomerate

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Vertical wells are most common in exploration situations. The well is

Basic Petroleum Engineering

possible well tracks

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The depth is different depending on whether the wells are vertical or

The depths and position of all wells has to be well

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The Company Representative (company man) is the Operating companys man on

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Drilling line - heavy steel wire

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The rotary system has a number of major components

Basic Petroleum Engineering

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Top Drive System

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Basic Petroleum Engineering

Drill pipes form the major part of a drill string.

Basic Petroleum Engineering

Cool the bit

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If the formation pressure is known the mud

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Mud Weight Example

Compute the mud weight need to drill into the

1 psi/ft = 144 lb/cu ft

Basic Petroleum Engineering

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The process of cementing is a simple one, a cleaning fluid is first pumped

Cementing is used to fix the casing in place and

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Logging is a process of obtaining information

There are many types of logs;

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Testing and Logging

Some logs that are useful in Testing operations.

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Basic Petroleum Engineering