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Draft Guide for

Harmonic Limits for Single-Phase Equipment
Sponsoredbythe
TransmissionandDistributionCommittee
ofthe
IEEEPowerEngineeringSociety

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Introduction
(ThisintroductionisnotpartofIEEEP1495,GuideonHarmonicLimitsforSinglePhaseEquipment.)

With increasing quantities of non-linear loads being added to electrical systems, it has become necessary
to establish criteria for limiting problems from system voltage degradation. Presently, IEEE Standard
519-1992 addresses harmonic limits at the consumer and service provider interface. The intent of IEEE
519 is to limit harmonic current injection into power systems and ensure voltage integrity. This standard
is manageable and practical when properly applied to industrial and commercial three-phase consumers.
However, when IEEE 519 is applied to single-phase system connections (particularly residential
consumers), it can become highly impractical.

Furthermore, engineering studies indicate that the

cumulative effect of single-phase non-linear loads may potentially cause voltage degradation on power
distribution systems even with individual single-phase consumer IEEE 519 compliance.
The following guide recommended practice/standard for equipment is developed to help preserve voltage
integrity by limiting harmonic current injection of single-phase loads which are likely to appear in
increasing numbers in power distribution systems. By addressing harmonic current distortion at the
individual sources, system problems may be avoided, particularly in areas where IEEE 519 limitations are
not likely to be followed. The harmonic current limits established in this standard are proposed with the
intent of minimizing the impact on existing equipment design. Coordination with existing industry
practices, and international harmonic standards is also considered.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Atthetimethisstandardwascompleted,theworkinggrouphadthefollowingmembership:

The following persons were on the balloting committee: (To be provided by IEEE editor at time of
publication.)
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Note:new text (i.e.,changesfrompreviousversion)isaddedinitalics. Deletionsareshownwitha

strikethrough.

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Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................................................................
1.Overview.....................................................................................................................................................4
1.1Scope........................................................................................................................................................
1.2Purpose.....................................................................................................................................................
2.References.....................................................................................................................................................
3.Definitions...................................................................................................................................................5
4.Loadscoveredinguidestandard.................................................................................................................6
5.Background..................................................................................................................................................9
6.Existingrelatedindustrystandardsandpractices.....................................................................................11
6.1IEEE519..............................................................................................................................................11
6.2IEC6100032and6100034.............................................................................................................11
6.3SocialSecurityAdministrationrequirementsforITequipment..........................................................13
6.4CaliforniaEnergyCommissionelectricvehiclechargerrequirements...............................................13
7.Recommendeddistortionlimits................................................................................................................14
7.1Differencesindistributiondesign.......................................................................................................15
7.2Considerationofmultiplenonlinearloads..........................................................................................17
7.3Diversityeffects...................................................................................................................................17
7.4Cancellationeffects..............................................................................................................................17
7.5Loadlevelsandharmonics...................................................................................................................18
7.6Limits....................................................................................................................................................18
8.Testingrequirements.................................................................................................................................18
9.Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................23

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Guide for Harmonic Limits for Single-Phase

Equipment

1. Overview
Thegrowthinpowerelectronicshasimpactedmanyloadsthattraditionallywereconsideredlinearin
nature.Asaresult,thenumberofnonlinearloadshasincreasedandisexpectedtoincreasedramatically
intheyearsahead.
Highharmoniccontent shouldberegardedasanundesirable loadcharacteristicmuchlikelowpower
factororlowefficiency.Witheachofthese,itsamatterofdegree.Whilesomecanbetolerated,an
excessiveamountshouldbeavoided.
Althoughthenumberofproblemscausedbyharmonicsisnotyetasignificantwidespreadproblem,the
potentialforsuchproblemsismuchgreatertodaythanitwas10yearsago,andtheeffectsofnonlinear
loadsarebecominganincreasingconcerninmanypartsoftheworldtoday. Inaddition,singlephase
converters,foundinmanydevices,haveparticularlyhighamountsofalloddharmonics,particularlythe
thirdharmonic.
Avarietyofsinglephaseequipmentcanbecategorizedasnonlineartoday.Switchmodepowersupplies
arefoundinavarietyofdeviceslikecomputers,televisions,VCRs,etc.Compactfluorescentlampsare
nowavailablewithelectronicballasts. Variablespeedcontrol isevolvingtoincludewashers,dryers,
spaceheatingandairconditioning.Batterychargersarebeingdevelopedforelectricandhybridelectric
vehicles,andthelistcontinues.
Therehavebeenanumberofdifferentstudieswhichinvestigatedoneofthesenewtechnologiestoseeif
and when a potential problem might surface onthe distribution system due tosinglephase harmonic
sources.Forthemostpart,thesestudiesdidnotconsidertheseloadsincombination.
What wefindisfoundisawiderangeofnonlineardevicesthathavebeenidentifiedwhichcollectively
need to be considered for future power distribution systems. In addition, there are some newer
technologiesbeingexploredwhichcouldaddtothepreviousmix.
Theobjectiveistoarriveatareasonablesetoflimitsforsinglephaseequipmentsuchthatthelikelihood
ofaproblemcausedbyharmonicsissmall.

1.1 Scope
Currentdistortionlimitsforsinglephaseutilizationequipmentratedunder600Vandupto40A.

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1.2 Purpose
Toestablishequipmentharmoniclimits,muchlikeIEC100032,whichdealswithboththreephaseand
singlephaselimitsfordevicesunder16Aandwith230Vnominalrating.ExistingStd519containssite
limitsonharmonics,andisprimarilythreephase.

2. References
Inthisdocument,twotypesof"references"areused:thosethataredirectlyrelatedtothesubjectbeing
discussedreferencesandthosethatprovidesupportinginformationtothesubjectbeingdiscussed
bibliographiccitations.Fortheconvenienceofthereaderinnotbreakingthepaceofreading,"references"
and"citations"arebrieflyidentifiedinthetextasdescribedbelow.
References contain information that is implicitly adopted in the present document; complete
implementationoftherecommendationsmadeinthepresentdocumentwouldrequirethereadertoconsult
thatreferenceforthedetailsofthesubject.Thisfirsttypeisintroducedinthetextas[xx],andthelisting
isprovidedbelow,inthissection.
Citationsarenotessentialtoimplementationoftherecommendations,butareprovidedfortheuseof
readersseekingmoredetailedinformationorjustification.Thissecondtypeisintroducedinthetextas
[Ayy]andthelistingisprovidedintheBibliography.
Thisdocumentshallbeusedinconjunctionwiththefollowingpublications:
[1]

IEEE Std 100-1996, Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms

3. Definitions
3.1 Abbreviations
ECM
electronicallycommutatedmotor
EV
electricvehicle
THD
totalharmonicdistortion
THDI
totalharmonicdistortionofcurrent
THDV
totalharmonicdistortionofvoltage
_______________________________________________________________________________________

3.2 Definitions
Whenever possible, the definitions of the terms used in this document are those found
in IEEE Std 100-1996 [1] or Std 519-199x [Azz]. In some instances, the IEEE definition
in the current dictionary may be either too broad or too restrictive; in such a case, an
additional definition is included in this section.
3.1distortionfactor:Theratiooftherootmeansquareoftheharmoniccontenttotherootmeansquare
valueofthefundamentalquantity,oftenexpressedasapercentofthefundamental.Alsoreferredtoas
totalharmonicdistortion.
3.2harmonic:Asinusoidalcomponentofaperiodicwavehavingafrequencythatisanintegralmultiple
ofthefundamentalfrequency.
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3.3harmonicdistortion:Themathematicalrepresentationofthedistortionofapuresinewaveform.See:
distortionfactor.
3.4linearload:Anelectricalloaddevicewhich,insteadystateoperation,presentsanessentiallyconstant
loadimpedancetothepowersourcethroughoutthecycleofappliedvoltage.
3.5noise:Electricalnoiseconsistsofunwantedelectricalsignals,whichproduceundesirableeffectsinthe
circuitsofthecontrol systemsinwhichtheyoccur. ForthisGuide,"control systems" isintendedto
includesensitiveelectronicequipmentintotalorinpart.
3.6nonlinearload:Electricalloadthatdrawscurrentdiscontinuouslyorwhoseimpedancevariesduring
thecycleoftheinputacvoltagewaveform.
3.7totaldemanddistortion:Thetotalrmscurrentdistortioninpercentofmaximumdemandcurrent.
3.8voltagedistortion:Anydeviationfromthenominalsinewaveoftheaclinevoltage.

4. Loads covered in this guidestandard

Thissectionwillcharacterizethemorecommontypesofsinglephasenonlinearloads,includingswitch
modepowersupplies,electroniclightingballasts,variablespeedheat pumpsandairconditioners,and
batterychargersforelectricvehicles.

4.1 Switch-Mode Power Supplies

Avarietyofacelectronicequipment ispoweredinternallybydc. Intheearlydaysofpowersupply
design,thecommonsinglephasepowersupplywaslinear,moreorless. InFig.41,aschematicofa
linearpowersupply,theoutputvoltageiscontrolledbymeansofatransistor(notshown)whichoperates
initsactiveregion. Comparativelyspeaking,thelinearpowersupplyhashighpowerlosses(overall
efficiencyinthe3060%range).Inaddition,the60Hztransformerrepresentsasignificantweighttothe
powersupplyandresultsinamorecostlydesign.

L
ac

dc

Fig. 4-1 Linear Single-Phase dc Power Supply

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L
ac
Switching

Regulator

dc

Fig. 4-2. Switch-Mode Power Supply

Fig.42isaschematicofaswitchmodedcpowersupply.Thedcvoltagechangeisattainedthroughdc
todc converter circuits which employ transistors orMOSFETS toperform the switching (on oroff).
Unlike the linear power supply, the solidstate devices do not have to operate in their active region,
resultinginreducedpowerlosses.Inthisdesign,the60Hztransformerhasbeeneliminated,resultingin
reducedweightandimprovedoverallefficiency(inthe7090%range).Thereisstillatransformer(not
shown),butitissmaller,lighterandlesscostlybecauseitoperatesathighfrequencies.

1.0

Fig. 4-2 Switch-Mode dc Power Supply

0.0

-1.0

Fig. 4-3 Voltage and Current for a Switch-Mode Power Supply

With a switchmode power supply, the ac voltage is converted to dc through diode rectifiers. The
regulateddcoutputisattainedbymeansofhighfrequency(e.g.,20100kHz)switching.Althoughnot
shown,ahighfrequencyisolationtransformerisused.Thistransformerismuchlighterandsmallerthan
theoneusedinthelinearpowersupply.Thecurrentdrawiscontrolledbythevoltageappearingacross
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thelowvoltagecapacitor.TheresultingcurrentwaveformappearslikethatshowninFig.43,inwhich
thecurrenthasazerovalueuntilsomeminimumcapacitorvoltageisreached,andthenrisestoapeak
valueandbacktozeroagain.Ascontrastedwiththelinearpowersupply,thecurrentappearingontheac
sidelastsforonlyaportionofeachhalfcycle.Asaresult,thecharacteristicisnonlinearandthedeviceis
asourceofharmonics. Thetermcrestfactor,theratioofpeaktormscurrent,isoftenassociatedwith
harmonics. Forapuresinewave,thecrestfactoris1.414. Commonswitchmodepowersuppliescan
havecrestfactorvaluesexceeding5.
Measurements[fromGrady]indicatethecurrentwaveformforacolortelevisionhasaTHD Iof121%and
athird harmoniccontent of84%. Similarmeasurements for adesktop computer withalaserprinter
indicateaTHDIashighas140%andathirdharmoniccontentof91%.

4.2 Electronic Ballasts for Fluorescent Lighting

Fluorescentlampswithmagneticballastsarethreetofourtimesmoreefficientthanincandescentlamps.
Electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps result in a further 2030% in efficiency over the magnetic
ballasts.MostoftheolderhighlossmagneticballastscannolongerbesoldintheUnitedStates.Likethe
switchmodepowersupply,electronicballastsemployhighfrequencyswitching,usuallyinthe2045kHz
range. Whenelectronicballastswerefirstintroduced,theTHD I wasaround100%,withalargethird
harmoniccomponent.
Manycommercial servicesemploythreephase4wiredistributionsystems,withtheneutralconductor
oftenasmallersizethanthephaseconductor. Withthistypeofelectrical design,thethirdharmonic
current(andoddmultiplesof3 rd)fromeachphaseaddsintheneutral.Itwasnotsurprisingtofindneutral
currentsgreaterthanphasecurrentswheremanyoftheearlyelectronicballastswereinstalled.Infact,the
neutralcurrentcouldeasilybetwicethemagnitudeofthephasecurrentsduetothehighthirdharmonic
content.
Arelativenewcomeristhecompactfluorescentlamp(CFL)withelectronicballast.Generallyfoundin
therangeof15to27W,CFLsareusedtoreplace40to100Wincandescentlamps.Manyutilitiesenergy
conservation programs encouraged their customers to install these more efficient lamps and later
discoveredtheyintroducedasignificantsourceofharmonics.Pileggietalconcludedthatafeederwith
just2or3compactfluorescentsperhouseholdwouldleadtoexcessivevoltagedistortion[1].Obviously,
theamountofcurrentdistortionfromsuchadevicecanvary.
Following complaints resulting from high neutral currents in threephase commercial and industrial
environments,ANSIestablishedlimitsoncurrentharmonics.ThemaximumTHD Iis32%andthetriplens
(thirdharmonicandoddmultiplesofthird,i.e.,3 rd,9th,15th,etc.)arelimitedto30%perANSIC82.11
1993.

4.3 Variable Speed Heat Pumps and Central Air

Conditioning

Some newer heat pump and central airconditioningdesignsincorporate variable speedcontrol ofthe
compressor, blower and fan motors. If the temperature is very hot or cold, the heat pumps run at
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maximumspeed;however,ifthetemperatureismilder,theyrunatlowspeeds.Theresultismoreenergy
efficient,morecomfortableandquieterthanconventionalsystems.
Employingelectronicallycommutatedmotors(ECMs),theinputofavariablespeedheatpumpresembles
alargeswitchmodepowersupply(e.g.,3kWormore). TheECMisadcbrushlessmotorwithstator
constructionsimilartoathreephaseacinductionmotor. Thestatorwindingcurrentissequencedand
switchedcreatingarotatingmagneticfield. Thisswitchingisperformedelectronicallybyaninverter.
Therotorusespermanentmagnetconstruction.
ConventionalheatpumpshaveacurrentTHDof13%witharound9%thirdharmoniccontent;someofthe
newerECMdesignshavecurrentTHDvaluesof123%withthethirdharmoniccontentof85%.
Becauseofthelargeload,thereisconcernthatitwouldonlytakerelativelyfewinstallationsofthistype
ofheatpumptocausevoltagedistortionproblems.In[2],theauthorsfoundthevoltagedistortionona
distributionfeederreached10%whenthepenetrationrateforthesevariablespeeddrivesreached10%,
i.e.,when10%ofthehomesinstalledthenewECMdesigns. Thougha10%THD V wouldbedeemed
unacceptablebymostofus,itdoesgiveusasenseofhowmuchofaparticularnonlinearloadwouldcause
problemsonaresidentialfeeder.

4.4 Electric Vehicle Battery Chargers

Manyutilitiesarepresentlymarketingelectricvehicles(EVs)orareprovidingthebatterychargersfor
EVs.Atissueisthefactthatthetechnologyexiststoproducelowdistortionchargers.However,without
any harmonic limit to meet, manufacturers will likely opt for a lower cost, higher distortion design.
Considering that the singlephase chargers represent a 240V load of around 6 kW, the potential for
harmonic problems isgenuine, particularly at the residential level. Many distribution engineers have
focusedmoreontheloadimpactsofchargersontransformersandfeeders. Theloadimpactscanbe
significant;however,theharmoniceffectsarepotentiallylargetoo.
SomeoftheleastexpensivebatterychargershaveTHD Ivaluesof91%.Basedon[2]andtheassumption
thattheEVchargerloadistwicethatofthevariablespeeddrive,thepenetrationratewouldonlyhaveto
be5% beforetheTHD V reaches10%. Obviously, tomeet therecommendedTHD V limit of5%, the
penetrationwouldhavetobelessthan5%ortheequipmentharmoniclimitwouldhavetobelower.

5. Background
Anapproximateexpressionfordeterminingtheamountofeachcurrentharmonicpresentforsinglephase
convertersisgivenbythefollowingequation:

% n 200 / n

where:n=harmonicorder(3,5,7,9,11,13,etc.)

Asimilarapproximateexpressionfordeterminingtheamountofeachcurrentharmonicpresentforthree
phase(6pulse)convertersisgivenbythefollowingequation:

%n 100 / n

where:n=harmonicorder(5,7,11,13,17,etc.)

Inbothoftheseexpressions,theharmonicisexpressedintermsofthefundamentalfrequencyterm.The
resultsofthesetwoexpressionsareshowninthetablebelow.
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Table 4-1. Approximate Current Harmonic Content (%) for 1-Phase and 3-Phase Converters

Harmonic

11

13

15

1phaseconverter

67

40

29

22

18

15

13

3phaseconverter

20

14

Ascanbeseen,mostsinglephaseconvertersproducealltheoddharmonicsatabouttwicetheamountof
theirthreephaseconvertercounterparts.Inaddition,singlephaseconvertershavesignificantamountsof
thirdharmoniccontent,whichthethreephaseconvertersdonothave.
Itshouldbenotedthatthesinglephaseequationunderestimatesthe%ofeachharmonicandthethree
phaseequationoverestimatestheharmoniccontentinmostcases.Thecurrenttotalharmonicdistortion
(THD),whichistheweightedorrmsassessmentofallharmonics,approaches100%formanyofthese
devices.TheexpressionforTHDisasfollows:

THD I

I1

I n2

I 32 I 52 I 72 ...
I1

where: THDI=currenttotalharmonicdistortion
In=harmonicrmscurrent(inampsor%)
I1=fundamentalfrequencyrmscurrent(inampsor100%)
AsimilarequationforvoltageTHDresultsfromVbeingsubstitutedforIintheabove.Usingthevalues
from Table 11, the THD I for a singlephase converter is around 95% versus 30% for a threephase
converter,basedonoddharmonicsuptothe50 th.Upuntilnow,becausethetypicalsystemimpedanceup
toaharmonicsourceisreasonablylowandthetypicalharmonicsourceisarelativelysmallload,the
resultingTHDV(in%)willusuallybeinthesingledigits.
The harmonic content and THD can be obtained for different levels of load for some devices. For
example,abatterychargerhasavariableloadcharacteristicandtheharmoniccontentandTHDvariesasa
functionofload.ItususuallysufficienttonotetheTHDand%ofindividualharmonicsatratedload.At
lowerlevelsofload,theresultingpercentages(ofindividualharmonicsandTHD)areusuallyoffsetbythe
lowerbasecurrent atthatload. Forexample,withtwoloadshavingthesamebasecurrent,onethat
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produces20%THDIat50%loadisnoworsethanonewhichproduces10%THD Iat100%load.They
bothproducethesamedistortioninamperes.

INCLUDERESULTSOFVARIOUSSYSTEMSTUDIES

6. Existing related industry standards and practices

6.1 IEEE 519
IEEE 5191992, Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power
Systems,establishedlimitsonharmoniccurrentsandvoltagesatthepointofcommoncoupling(PCC),or
pointofmetering[6].
ThelimitsofIEEE519areintendedto:
1) Assurethattheelectricutilitycandeliverrelativelycleanpowertoallofitscustomers;
2) Assurethattheelectricutilitycanprotectitselectricalequipmentfromoverheating,lossoflifefrom
excessiveharmoniccurrents,andexcessivevoltagestressduetoexcessiveharmonicvoltage.
EachtablefromIEEE519liststhelimitsforharmonicdistortionatthepointofcommoncoupling(PCC)
ormeteringpointwiththeutility.Thevoltagedistortionlimitsare3%forindividualharmonicsand5%
THD.
Table61containscurrentdistortionlimitswhichapplyforuservoltagelevelsrangingfrom120Vto69
kV.Theharmoniccurrentlimitsarebasedonthesizeoftheuserwithrespecttothesizeofthepower
systemtowhichtheuserisconnected.TheratioofI SC/IListheshortcircuitcurrentavailableatthePCCto
themaximumfundamentalloadcurrentorthatcurrentassociatedwiththemeasureddemandoftheload.
Itisrecommendedthattheloadcurrent,I L,becalculatedastheaveragecurrentofthemaximumdemand
forthepreceding12months.ThevalueslistedinTableIIshouldbeusedassystemdesignvaluesforthe
"worstcase"ofnormaloperations.Asnotedearlier,theTDDisnormallybasedonthemaximumdemand
current.
Theheaviestelectricalusershavethemoststringentharmoniclimits.However,asthesizeoftheuserload
decreaseswithrespecttothesizeofthesystem,theusercaninjectalargerpercentageofharmoniccurrent
intotheutilitysystem.Thisprotectsotherusersonthesamefeederaswellastheutility,whichisrequired
tofurnishacertainqualityofpowertoitscustomers.

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NotethatalloftheharmoniclimitsinIEEE519arebasedonacustomerloadmixandlocationonthe
power system. The limits are not applied to particular equipment, although, with a high amount of
nonlinearloads,itislikelythatsomeharmonicsuppressionmaybenecessary.Astheloadmixchanges,it
isoftennecessarytoreevaluatethelimitsofIEEE519.ThisisoneofthedifficultieswiththeStandard.

6.2 IEC 61000-3-2 and IEC 61000-3-4 (formerly 1000-3-2 and 1000-3-4)
6.2.1 IEC 61000-3-2 (1995-03)
Specifieslimitsforharmoniccurrentemissionsapplicabletoelectricalandelectronicequipmenthavingan
inputcurrentuptoandincluding16Aperphase,andintendedtobeconnectedtopubliclowvoltage
distribution systems.Thetestsaccording tothisstandardare typetests.Test conditionsfor particular
equipmentaregiveninannexC.Forsystemswithnominalvoltageslessthan220V(linetoneutral),the
limitshavenotyetbeenconsidered.
6.2.2 IEC/TS 61000-3-4 (1998-10)
Therecommendationsofthistechnicalreportareapplicabletoelectricalandelectronicequipmentwitha
rated input current exceeding 16Aper phase and intended tobe connected topublic lowvoltage ac
distributionsystemsofthefollowingtypes:
-

nominalvoltageupto240V,singlephase,twoorthreewires;

nominalvoltageupto600V,threephase,threeorfourwires;

nominalfrequency50Hzor60Hz

Theserecommendationsspecifytheinformationrequiredtoenableasupplyauthoritytoassessequipmentregarding
harmonicdisturbanceandtodecidewhetherornottheequipmentisacceptableforconnectionwithregardtothe
harmonicdistortionaspect.ThisdocumentisnottoberegardedasanInternationalStandard.

TheEuropeanstandards,IEC6100032&6100034,placingcurrentharmoniclimitsonequipment,are
designedtoprotectthesmallconsumer'sequipment.Theformerisrestrictedto16A;thelatterextendsthe
rangeabove16A.Twoparticularclassesofequipmentcoveredare:
ClassC

Lightingequipment

ClassD

Equipmenthavingcurrentwitha"specialwaveshape"

TableIIIgivesthelimitsforlightingequipment.ClassDisdefinedbyaspecialwaveshape(Fig.1).Ifthe
currentwaveshapeofanonlinearloadiswithinthelimitsofFig.1for95%ofahalfcycle,thenitis
deemedtobeClassDequipmentandmustsatisfythelimitsofTableIV.
ClassDequipmentismorerepresentativeofmanyofthesinglephasenonlinearloadsthatwerepreviously
discussed. ReferringtoTableIV,thecurrent limit for agiven harmonic isbased ontheinput power
(mA/W)aswellasamaximumcurrentvalue.TableVshowsthelatestproposalforlimits.
ItisnotclearfromthetablesinIEC6100032and6100034howrestrictivethelimitsareasafunction
ofequipmentrating.ThetablebelowshowswhattheresultingcurrentTHDlimitisfora220Vdevice
designedtomeetthelatestIECproposals.

Table 6-1. THD Limits from IEC 61000-3-2 and 61000-3-4

Wattage

THDLimit(%)

<600

90

10001500

60

>3500

26

Fig. 2 show the same information contained in this table, but also shows the linear decline between
intervals(i.e.,between600W&1000W,andbetween1500W&3500W).

IEC Limits from 1000-3-2 & 1000-3-4

100

THDi(%)

80

60

40

20

BycomparisonwiththelimitssuggestedbyIEEE519,theIEClimitspermithigherlevelsofharmonic
0
distortion.
0

1000

2000

3000

Watts

6.3 California Energy Commission electric vehicle charger requirements

Figure 6-3. IEC Harmonic Limits as a Function of Wattage

4000

7. Recommended distortion limits

Atthispoint,wecaneitherdevelopourownlimitsorwecanadoptlimitsofothers,liketheIEC.Weare
fortunateinthatanumberofstudiesintheU.S.thathavealreadybeenundertaken.Thereportsonthese
effortscoverthespectrumoflowpowerdeviceslikecompactfluorescentlamps[Pileggi&Emanuel],
largerloadslikevariablespeedheatpumpsandcentralairconditioning[Grady]andlargeelectricalloads
likebatterychargersforelectricvehicles[Grady].Thesestudiesdeterminehowmuchofagivennonlinear
loadadistributionsystemcantoleratebeforeoneexceeds5%voltageTHD. Thisisprobablyamore
meaningful starting point since these studies involve system models conforming to the distribution
systemsfoundintheU.S.andtheharmonicspectrumofmodernsinglephaseconverters.
TheotheroptionistoadopttheproposedIEClimits(i.e.,6100032and6100034).Ifthedistribution
systemsweresimilarenougharoundtheworld,andiftheuseofsuchastandardwasvalidatedbyfield
experience,thiswouldmakesense.However,therearetwobasicdistributionsystemsfoundaroundthe
worldandthetwoaredifferentenoughintermsofharmonicimplications.

7.1 Differences in distribution design

A typical distribution system found in the U.S. (and in North America in general) operates at 12.5 kV
(phase-to-phase). It is radial in that the loads are connected to only one source of supply. Main feeders
are 4-wire (3 phases and a neutral) and branches are usually single-phase with a limited amount of threephase used for branches. Transformers are connected wye wye. The large majority of transformers are
single-phase connected from phase-to-neutral at 7.2 kV, and stepping the voltage down to 120/240 V (3wire) for residential and most single-phase commercial loads. A typical transformer rating for residential
application is 25 kVA or 50 kVA with services run to between 6 and 10 homes.
The European style of distribution system operates at 11 or 12 kV (phase-to-phase), but does not have a
neutral. Thus, the main feeders are 3-wire circuits. Transformers are three-phase connected delta wye;
they are more like a miniature substations with 500, 750 or 1000 kVA ratings being popular. Secondaries
operating at 400/230 V are usually tapered (i.e., 2 or 3 conductor sizes are used, with the conductor size
close to the transformer is considerably larger than that found near the end of the secondary) and cover
extensive distances to provide service to 60 or 100 customers. Individual 230 V (2-wire) services are
tapped off the secondary system.
A much less common system in the U.S. is secondary network distribution, in the form of either a
secondary grid network or a spot network. Grid networks are found in the downtown areas of many older
cities to supply office buildings and other commercial loads. With secondary grid networks, 6 or more
feeders and network transformers in parallel supply a low voltage grid (208/120 V or so). Transformers
are large (e.g., 500 or 1000 kVA) compared to radial distribution and are connected delta wye, similar to
the European distribution systems, making the third harmonic of little concern. Due to high rise
construction, spot networks have replaced grid networks in popularity. With spot networks, each major
load is served from a combination of 3 or more circuits and transformers in parallel (at 480/277 V
typically). With the grid or spot networks, the equivalent source impedance to the point of common
coupling is an order of magnitude smaller than that found in a radial system. Thus, the ability of a
secondary network system to handle harmonics is much greater than a radial system. However, it should
be remembered that the secondary network is not the typical distribution system; most utilities utilize
radial distribution as their standard.
Table 6-2 summarizes the important differences between the two systems. The U.S. distribution system is
more susceptible to problems brought about by the third harmonic. Third harmonics readily pass through
the wye wye connected transformers in the U.S., while the European delta wye transformers provide a
closed path for third harmonics in the delta winding, thus providing third harmonic isolation between the
secondary and the primary. In addition, stray voltage can also result due to the presence of third
harmonics on the neutral of U.S. systems [Conrad et al].

The equivalent impedance to the customer is greater with the European style of distribution largely due to
the extensive amount of secondary used. However, the service transformer is usually the point of common
coupling for U.S. distribution systems. Because of the smaller transformers ratings used in the U.S., the
equivalent system impedance to the point of common coupling is higher with the U.S. type of distribution,
suggesting that the U.S. harmonic limits ought to be lower than those for the European distribution. One
could argue that the point of common coupling for the European type of distribution would be beyond the
transformer, i.e., including some amount of secondary. Nonetheless, the equivalent system impedance at

SAVE for Table 6-2.

the point of common coupling would still be greater for the U.S. type of distribution, suggesting that lower
harmonic limits are needed for equipment used on U.S. systems.
Since the service wires in the U.S. system connects to both 120 V and 240 V loads, suitable limits must be
adopted for each. From the standpoint of the primary distribution system, a 1 amp 240 volt load will have
the same impact as a 2 amp 120 V load. Thus, the ampere limits for 120 V will be twice the 240 V limits.

7.2 Consideration of multiple nonlinear loads

Ineachnonlinearloadcategory,someassessmentofmarketpotential andcoincident usageshouldbe
madeinitiallytoguidethelimitsultimatelychosen.Forexample,ifonelooksatanarbitraryrankingof
low,mediumandhigh,onecanseewherepotentialproblemsarelikelytooccur.Ahighmarketpotential
combinedwithhighcoincidentusageindicatestheworstabadsituationfromaharmonicsstandpoint.On
theotherhand,alowcoincidentusagecombinedwithlowmarketpotentialmightbejudgedagoodisthe
best situationfromaharmonicsstandpoint. Thesearethetwoextremes;allothercombinations are lie
somewherebetweenthesetwolimits.

Coincident
Usage

High

WorstBad
situation

Medium
Low

BestGood
situation
Low

Medium

High

MarketPotential
In addition, the criticality of a particular type of nonlinear load can be established by the additional
rankingofitswattageratingtimesitsTHD I.
Whilethismatrixclassificationsortsouttheextremecases,casestudiesandorexperienceisneededto
establishwhetherthesescenariosyieldacceptableperformance(i.e.,donot violatevoltageharmonic
limits).
Itisimportanttoconsidernonlinearloadsincombination,ratherthanthinkofprincipallyonesourceof
harmonics.

7.3 Diversity effects

Whentwoormoresimilarloadsareconnectedtoaportionofadistributionsystem,theirusagepatterns
may be different. As a result, the maximum coincident demand is usually less than the sum of the
individualdemands.Thisresultisreferredtoasdiversity.
Diversityhas animportant roleindistribution designpractice. Whenever possible,itisimportant to
incorporaterealisticusepatternsfornonlinearloadstoavoidoverstatingtheirimpact.

Table 7-1. Recommended Current Distortion Limits

7.4 Cancellation effects

Cancellationamonggroupsofparticularharmonicsresult principallyfrom phasedisplacement forthe
harmonicorharmonicsinvolved.
Cancellationduetophaseanglediversitybetweendispersedsinglephasenonlinearloadsisinsignificant
forthe3rdand5thharmonics,butbecomesincreasinglysignificantforhigherharmonics[Mansoor].
However, in threephase commercial service, there is phase shift introduced by having some loads
connectedphasetophaseandothers,phasetoneutral. Inaddition,isolationtransformersresultina30
degreephaseshiftfortheloadsthattheyserve,makingcancellationmorelikely.
However,forresidentialapplicationsandsinglephasecommercialuses,thedominantuseofthewyewye
transformerconnectiontendstominimizecancellationeffects.
Likediversity,cancellationeffectsshouldbeincluded.

7.5 Load levels and harmonics

Most often, the harmonic spectrum for a particular device is given at nameplate load. For PCs and
compactfluorescentlamps,thecharacteristicisfixedanddoesntvarythroughtime.Withvariablespeed
heatpumpsandEVbatterychargers,therecanbequiteabitofvariationintheharmonicspectrumasa
functionofload.Careshouldbeexercisedinassigningtheappropriateharmonicspectrumtoaparticular
nonlinearload.Thisisparticularlytrueformonitoringstudiessincemostmonitoringequipmentcomputes
theharmonicdistortionasafunctionofthefundamentalfrequencycurrent.

7.6 Limits
Basedonthesystemstudiesdonetodate,andallowingforcombinationsofnonlinearloads,themaximum
recommendedTHDlevelsareshowninthetablebelow.

MaximumTHDI

15%

Maximum3rdharmoniccurrent

10%

8. Testing requirements
Thissectiondescribesthefundamentalrequirementsforharmonicvoltageandcurrentmeasurementsfor
lowvoltageequipment.Itisexplainedthatsuchmeasurementsmustbeperformedusinganearlyperfect
sinusoidalvoltagewithastandardinternalimpedance.Thisconditionprovidesthebasisforcomparison

amongdifferentnonlinearloads.Anothertopicdiscussedinthispaperistheimportanceofaccurateand
calibratedtransducersandanalyzers.

8.1 Background
Todaysengineertakesforgrantedthatelectricalequipmentmanufacturerswilllistthemajorvaluesthat
characterizeequipmentperformance:ratedvoltage,frequency,kVA,powerfactor,outputpower,rmsline
currentandmore.Suchinformationisneededforseveralreasons:

Equipmentselection,installationandprotection.

Selectionanddesignofauxiliaryequipment.

Comparisonamongsimilarproducts.

Simulationsthatwillhelppreventorexplainundesirablesituations.

Thelasttwoitemsareprobablythemainmotivationforthecorrectinformationonthecurrentharmonics
spectrum.Weshouldrememberthat,forusefulsimulationsandmeaningfulpredictions,itisnecessaryto
knowreasonablywell(i.e.,within5%)thevaluesofthedominantharmoniccurrentphasors(amplitude
aswellasphaseangle).
Veryfewmanufacturers,however,listinformationdescribingharmoniccurrent spectrum producedby
theirequipment.Thisisespeciallytrueforsinglephaseunits.Evenwhensuchinformationisprovided,
theaccuracyofthelistedvaluesisquestionablesincetheindustrydoesnotyethavestandardsthatcallfor
certainproceduresandtypesofinstrumentation.
Thissectionmentionstheproblemsassociatedwiththemeasurementsofharmoniccurrentsproducedby
singlephaseloadsandsuggestsameasurementprotocol.

8.2 The voltage supply

Amongmanyfactorsthat control thefrequency spectrum (harmonics) ofthelinecurrent supplying a
nonlinearload,fiveitemsareessential:

Thedesignofthenonlinearload(circuittopology,components,geometryandphysicalpropertiesof
theactivematerials)

Thermsvalueandthefrequencyspectrumoftheappliedvoltage.

ThevalueandfrequencydependenceoftheTheveninimpedancemeasuredatthebussupplyingthe
observednonlinearload.

Theamountofpowerconvertedanddeliveredbythenonlinearloadandthecharacteristicsofthe
outputpower. Forexample,amechanicalloadwillrequireacertaintorqueandspeed,andanarc
welderwillbecharacterizedbythearccurrentandgap.

Nonelectricalenvironmentalparameterssuchastemperatureandpressure.Someelectricaldischarge
lampsareverysensitivetosuchparameters.

Table 8-1. Maximum Allowable Errors

Welearnfromherethat,whenmeasuringthecurrentharmonicemissionproducedbyanonlinearload,it
isimperativetoenergizetheobservednonlinearloadfromavoltagesupplywithastandardizedinternal
impedanceandanearlyperfectsinusoidalvoltage.Thisapproachwillhelpprovideacommonreference
levelforcomparingdifferentnonlinearloads.
ThebasicmeasurementcircuitsarepresentedinFig.81.Thevoltagesourcemusthaveafrequencyof60
0.01Hzandverylowdistortion(THDV<0.5%).ItissuggestedthattheTheveninimpedance,measured
at60HzandincludingthecurrenttransducerCTandtheanalyzervoltageinputimpedance,is:
Zs=10+j50

fora240Vload

fora120Vload.

and
Zs=3+j15

Atoleranceof5%totheabovevaluesispermitted.ThefrequencydependenceofZ smustbelinear(see
Fig.82)withamarginoferrorof5%.Thisrequirementisintendedtohelpavoidresonancesthatwill
leadtoerroneousmeasurements.

8.3 Harmonics Analyzer

Theanalyzer(harmonic,waveorspectrumanalyzer)mustoperatewiththemaximumallowableerrors
showninthefollowingerrorsshowninthefollowingtable.

Measurement

Conditions

Max.AllowableError

Voltage(V)

1%VN

5%V

<1%VN

0.05%VN

1%IN

5%I

<1%IN

0.05%IN

Current(I)

Theanalyzermustbecalibrated,anditscalibrationshouldbetraceable.Periodic,adhocverificationscan
beimplementedwiththehelpofaperfectsquareortriangleinputwaveformofknownamplitude.The
spectrumofsuchwaveformsisknownandenablesanimmediateevaluationoftheanalyzer.

8.4 The Transducers

Itiswellknownthatthemostsignificantsourceoferrorsinharmonicmeasurementsisduetocurrentand
voltagetransducers.Thecurrenttransducermusthaveaflatfrequencyresponseintherangeof50to2500
Hz. Ifsubharmonics(h<1)aremeasured,thenthecurrenttransducermustalsobeadequateforthe
lowest frequency measurement, and in certain applications, this can be a dc component. The same
requirementsapplytovoltagetransducers,usuallyincludedintheanalyzer.
8.4.1 Current Transformers
The major source of errors caused by current transformers istraced toits magnetizing current. The
magnetizingcurrentisnonsinusoidalandcontainsharmonicsthatareincludedinthemeasuredcurrent.
When the measured harmonic current is of the same order of magnitude as the magnetizing current
harmonic,thenlargephaseangleerrorsoccurandeventhemeasurementofharmonicmagnitudesmaybe
compromised. It is imperative to use metering class current transformers, with magnetizing current
harmonics(Imh5%Ih,i.e.,themagnetizingcurrentharmonicislessthan5%ofthemeasuredharmonic
current).
Theburdenofthecurrenttransformer,consistingoftheinputimpedanceatthecurrentterminalsofthe
analyzerplustheimpedanceoftheconductorsthatconnecttheanalyzerwiththesecondaryterminalsof
thecurrenttransducer,mustnotexceedtheratedburdenofthecurrenttransformer.Thelowertheactual
burden,helowerarethephaseandamplitudeerrorscausedbythecurrenttransformer.
Clampontypecurrenttransformersshouldnotbeusedforsuchmeasurements.Theirmagnetizingcurrent
islarge.Oxidation,impuritiesandnicksonthebuttjointsurfacesofthecorecausetheincreaseofthe
magnetizingcurrent.Moreover,manyofthecommerciallyavailableclamponunitsareoverlysensitive
tostraymagneticfieldsproducedbyadjacentcurrentcarryingconductors.
8.4.2 Rogowski coils
A type of current transducer that is rising in popularity is an aircore current transformer called a
Rogowskicoil.Thisisatoroidalcoilwoundonarigidorflexiblenonmetalliccore.Asinusoidalcurrent
i

I h sin( h t h )

willinduceinthecoilavoltage
vm

2 M

hI

sin( h t h 90)

whereMisthemutualinductancebetweenthetransducerandthecircuitthatcarriesthedistortedcurrent
tobemeasured.Ahighinputimpedanceanalyzer(10M)canmeasurethemagnitudesMhIh.The
systemiscalibratedat60HzwithaknowncurrentI KthatyieldsareadingVK.Themagnitudeofacertain
harmoniccurrentisdeterminedfromtheexpression

Ih IK

Vh
hV K

This method isconvenient for large harmonic currents. Forsmaller currents, alarger value ofMis
required.Thistranslatesinalargernumberofturnsandtheinterturncapacitancesmaydeterioratethe
linearityofthefrequencyresponse.
Commercial unitsuse precision integrators that reconstruct the signal [3]. The geometry of the coil,
shieldingmethod,lengthandcharacteristicsofthecoaxialcablesconnectingthecoilwiththeintegrator
andtheintegratorwiththeanalyzer,andespeciallythedesignoftheintegratorwillaffecttheaccuracyof
the measurement. A simulated frequency response is shown in Fig. 84. Accurate amplitude
measurementscanbeobtainedforawidefrequencyrange.Thephaseangle,however,maybemeasured
withasignificanterror.AmostannoyingproblemsistheeffectcausedbythelocationofRogowskicoil
withrespecttotheconductorwhosecurrentistobemeasured.Basedonthedatapublishedin[3]and
graphed in Fig. 85, results that it is imperative to run the instrument calibration and the actual
measurementswithRogowskicoilfixedinonerigidlocationwithrespecttotheconductor.Thisshould
notpresentaproblemforlaboratorymeasurements,butmaydisqualifythismethodforprecisionfield
measurements.
8.4.3 Hall-Effect Transducers
NewgenerationsofcurrenttransducersusingHalleffectsensorsandclosedloopsystems[4],Fig.86,are
advertisedtooperatewithin 1%amplitudeerror. Suchtransducerscanmeasuredcandsubharmonic
currentsaswellascomponentsinthetensofkHzrange.Basedonthepublisheddata[4],itisstilldifficult
toascertainhowtheaccuracyofsuchunitscompareswithcurrenttransformers. Fordcmeasurements
however,itisthetransducerofchoice.
8.4.4 Noninductive Shunt Resistors
Thisisamostaccuratemethodiftheshuntimpedanceisproperlybuiltandcalibrated,Fig.87. The
impedanceoftheshuntmustbeincludedinthevalueofZ S.Thismethodisconvenientlyapplicableinthe
laboratory in situations where the supply source and the analyzer can share one common point of
connection.

8.5 Suggested Protocol

Withthenonlinearloaddisconnected,measurethevoltagesourcedistortiontoascertainthatTHD V
0.5%.

AdjusttheTheveninimpedancetotheprescribedvalue.

CheckthelinearfrequencyresponseoftheTheveninimpedance.Thisprocedurerequiresinjectionof
harmoniccurrentsintothevoltagesource.Inmanysituations,theinjectioncanbeprovidedbythe
nonlinearloadundertest,otherwisea2kVAorlargernonlinearload,withTHD I>1.0,canproduce
therightharmonicsourceforthistask.Theanalyzerisusedtomeasuretheharmonicvoltages(V h)
andharmoniccurrents(Ih).TheTheveninharmonicimpedanceiscomputedfrom

Z S ( h)

Vh
Ih

Thenormalizedvalues

andmustbefoundwithinthelines

pu Z S ( h)

Vh I 1
I hV1

puZs=(10.05)h;

h>1

Ifabackgroundharmonicvoltage,V hO,(i.e.,asourceharmonicvoltage)hasthesameorderofmagnitude
asthemeasuredvoltage,V h,thenthemeasurementoftheTheveninimpedanceatthisparticularfrequency
maybecompromisedsince,inthiscase,theexpressionofZSis
Zs

Vh Vh0
Ih

Therequirementthatthesupplyvoltageissinusoidaladdressesthisneed;nevertheless,itisnecessaryto
verifythatthecondition
Vh = ZS(h)Ih20VhO
is always satisfied, especially when the measured harmonic voltage Vh < 0.5 %V1.

Connect and energize the nonlinear load to be evaluated. Allow for the unit to
stabilize thermally. Measurements are taken for different input rms voltages
(e.g., 0.95, 1.00 and 1.05 rated voltage) and, if applicable, a set of output powers
(e.g., no-load, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 and 1.10 rated load). It is recommended to
start with the conditions that cause the largest temperature rise, i.e., maximum
power.

9. Bibliography
_______________________________________________________________________________________
[B1]PowerElectronics,Mohan,UndelandandRobbins,JohnWileyandSons,1995
[B2] Grady, W.M., TU Electric WholeHouse Measurements (field tests of Jan./Feb. 1991), Panel
Presentationfromthe1996T&DConference
Pileggi, D.J.etal,TheEffect ofModern Compact Fluorescent Lights onVoltage Distortion, IEEE
TransactionsonPowerDelivery,v8,n3,July1993,pp145159
Thallam,R.S.etal,EstimatingFutureHarmonicDistortionLevelsDuetoSinglePhaseAdjustableSpeed
DriveAirConditioners,IEEEICHPQ1992
ANSIC82.111993,AmericanNationalStandardforLampBallasts:HighFrequencyFluorescentLamp
Ballasts
L.Sulfstede,ResidentialVariableSpeedTechnology,TheTraneCompany,1989
EPRIJournal,FieldTestingoftheHydroTech2000HeatPump,December1991
PowerQualityHarmonics,OntarioHydro,1990
IEEE 5191992, Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power
Systems

Steciuk,P.B.,K.A.Puskarich,W.E.Reid,HarmonicConsiderationsonLowVoltageSystems,presented
atthe1991IEEETextile,Fiber,andFilmIndustryTechnicalConference
[1] A. Mansoor, W.M. Grady, A.H. Chowdhury and M. Samotij, An Investigation of Harmonic
AttenuationandDiversityAmongDistributedSinglePhaseElectricLoads,IEEETransactionsonPower
Delivery,Vol.10,No.11,Jan.1995,pp.46773.
[2] International Standard IEC 100047, Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), Part 4: Testing and
MeasurementTechniques.
[3]W.F.RayandR.M.Davis,WideBandwidthRogowskiCurrentTransducers. PartI:TheRogowski
Coil.PartII:TheIntegratory,EPEJournal,Vol.3,No.1,March1993,pp.519andNo.2,June1993,pp.
11622.
[4] T. Twitchell, ASICBased, ClosedLoop Transducer Meets Motion System Current Measurement
Requirements,PCIM,March1998,pp.5862.

Standard Design
Practice
United States

Comments
Europe

wye wye

delta wye

mostly 1, some 3

50

500 or 1000

6-10

60-100

higher

lower

12.5

11 or 12

service voltage

120/240 V

230 V

number of wires

lower

higher

Transformers
Connection
number of phases
kVA rating
number of customers
equivalent impedance to transf. sec.

US is limited by 3rd, Europe by 5th

US single-phase is connected phase-to-neutral

point of common coupling issue

main feeder or circuit

kV phase to phase
number of conductors

not much difference

neutral (US) is ampacity limited by primarily 3rd, also stray voltage possibility

customer services

equivalent impedance to customer

need to address both 120 V limits as well as 240 V limits w US

Europe just has 230 V limit
point of use