Drinking Water Research

Advancing the Science of Water

JulySeptember 2009 volume 19, number 3 corrosion control biological filtration customer information systems webcasts published reports

Corrosion Control

Biological
Filtration
Webcast

Drinking Water Research

Advancing the Science of Water

FEATURES

DEPARTMENTS

The Water Research Foundation Offers 24/7 Access

to Research Information
Tracey Feist, Water Research Foundation writer

Research in Progress
14

The Water Research Foundation Web site allows subscribers to

download research reports, view archived Webcasts, and access
a host of other information any time of day.
2

Reports of Note
17
Foundation Contacts
20

Textbook Offers Relevant Information on Corrosion Control

for Water Distribution Systems
Tracey Feist, Water Research Foundation writer

The effect of corrosion on distribution systems is a constant

cause of concern for water utilities. The 1996 textbook, Internal
Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems, Second Edition, is still
the most informative source on internal corrosion for utilities
even though it is over ten years old.
4
Water Research Foundation Presents Webcast
on Biological Filtration
John Albert, Water Research Foundation senior account
manager

On July 29, the Foundation held its first ever simultaneous

Webcast and Workshop on the topic of biological filtration.
This extended presentation gave Foundation subscribers the
opportunity to learn more about biological filtration technology
and hear firsthand the Birmingham Water Works Boards
experiences with it.
7
Behind the Curtain: Revealing and Revisiting the Value of
Water Research Foundations Webcasts
Tracey Feist, Water Research Foundation writer

Foundation Webcasts offer subscribers a way to get valuable

information directly from the researcher without having to
spend money and time on travel.
12
JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

The Water Research Foundation is a member-supported, international, nonprofit organization that sponsors research to enable water utilities, public
health agencies, and other professionals to provide safe and affordable
drinking water to consumers.
Editor: editor@WaterResearchFoundation.org
Contributing editor: Adam Lang
Art director: Cheri Dougherty
Drinking Water Research (ISSN 1055-9140) is published quarterly for $40 a year in
North America ($50 elsewhere) by the Water Research Foundation,
6666 W. Quincy Ave., Denver, CO 80235-3098
Telephone: +1 303.347.6100
Periodicals postage paid at Denver, Colo.
Postmaster: Send address changes to Water Research Foundation, 6666 W. Quincy
Ave., Denver, CO 80235-3098
The Water Research Foundation provides contracts for studies of problems in the
water supply industry. The Foundation assumes no responsibility for the content of
the research studies reported or for the opinions or statements of fact expressed by
contributors in this publication. The mention of tradenames or commercial products
does not represent or imply the Foundations approval or endorsement. Drinking
Water Research is published for general information purposes only.
Copyright 2009 Water Research Foundation. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Published in the U.S.A. Printed on recycled paper.
No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced or otherwise utilized
without permission.

VIEWPOINT

As the world slows down to adjust to our current economic downturn, many are
re-evaluating their lives, needs, and wants. The Water Research Foundation continues
to find new ways to provide subscribers with valuable water-related research.
In times like these, it has become more critical to examine our current economic
situation and focus on what we already have, and not what we think we need or want.
Call it what you will, the concept of repurposing gives us the opportunity to promote
the wealth of information that is already stored behind the doors at the Water
Research Foundation.
In addition to the multitude of research studies generated each year at the Foundation,
there are over one thousand support documents available for your use.
Current Webcast technology allows us to transfer valuable research findings at a cost savings to you, our subscribers.
Our Webcasts are exclusive to subscribers and are available around the world. They save travel time and allow for more
subscribers to take advantage of our research findings. Rebroadcasting Webcasts from our Web site allows for many
more users to see, to listen, and to learn.
Strategically targeted research, organizational accountability, and transparent communications are all goals of the
Water Research Foundation. The following are examples:

Eight projects were reviewed by the Foundations board of trustees, and approved for funding in the Unsolicited
Program at the June Board meeting. The Unsolicited Program focuses on fundamental research that has the potential
to lead to practical applications for utilities. This program relies on ideas that are developed externally and submitted
to the Foundation in the form of research proposals for funding consideration.

The Research Advisory Council (RAC) recently met in Denver to achieve greater coordination among projects. Fortyone projects worth $8.5M were identified as high priority. This represents roughly 200 percent of the available budget
for 2010. During the next several months, staff will work with the RAC to finalize the project descriptions
and prioritization.

Expert panel members for our three key initiatives on climate change, distribution system water quality, and EDC/PPCP
also met in order to prioritize issues for 2010 funding. Sixteen projects worth over $2.8M were identified. During the
next several months, staff will work with those members to finalize the project descriptions for presentation to the
board in January 2010.

We look for ways to communicate the knowledge and findings we already have and carefully assess and allocate research
dollars for the greater good. We do it so that our valued partners and stakeholders benefit from a well thought out, fiscally
responsible strategy.
The Water Research Foundation is committed to serving our subscribers and stakeholders with valuable, timely research
that will positively support the needs of the water community today and for years to come.
Best regards,

David E. Rager
Chair, Board of Trustees

Robert C. Renner, P.E., D.E.E.

Executive Director

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

24/7 Access

The Water Research Foundation Offers

24/7 Access to Research Information
Tracey Feist, Water Research Foundation writer

The Internet has drastically changed how

we function. Think back on how life was
different without this technology. The
advancement of the Internet has changed
our technological road by providing us with
a great deal of information at a rapid rate.
Technology has changed how we think,
and most importantly, where we go to get
current, relevant research information.
Google wasnt even a word 15 years ago.
Today, we have 24/7 access to the Internet,
our Blackberries, and even the Smithsonian
Library anytime we want.

the Webcast recently held in July; and 70

more subscribers have since gone in to
view the sessions.
Many made constructive comments at the
conclusion of the webcast. One participant
said, Our budgets are poor right now. I have
now attended two webcasts in the last two
months. This will be my preferred form of
education for the near future since travel
is generally not an option that is available
to me. Another commented that I did
like the fact the Webcast washosted by a
subscribing utility. I personally enjoy seeing
information shared within an industry, as it
benefits us all.

Given the current economic times, the

Internet has provided many affordable ways
to research, to learn, and to become more
educated. The Water Research Foundation
has over one thousand different documents
that are available in the archived pages
on its Web site for subscribers to access
anytime, day or night. As a Foundation
subscriber, you have exclusive access to the
latest in water research information. Timely,
accurate research documents are literally at
your fingertips, 24/7.

Recently, the Foundation offered to provide

subscribers access to the Foundations Web
site, Webcast agenda, copies of slides, and
an e-mailedcertificate of attendance to each
attendee. Attendees would then be responsible
for contacting their respective state/provincial
continuing education unit (CEU) entity. A few
states have accepted this offer. Foundation
staff will continue to support the CEU Award
process with select states.

This issue of Drinking Water Research

includes articles on how many are using the
Internet as a technology transfer method to
access research information. John Albert,
Water Research Foundation senior account
manager, was on the planning team for
the biological filtration Webcast. With
biological filtration being such a hot topic,
more than 300 subscribers were able to join

The economic downturn has also forced

utilities to address higher rates and
customer nonpayment. The article
Best Practices in Customer Payment
Assistance Programs (CPAP) (Foundation
project #4004) provides substantial material
to help utilities develop core processes to
help their staff design and administer an
effective CPAP.

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

24/7 Access

When the Foundation was known as

AwwaRF, it published a cooperative
research report titled Internal Corrosion of
Water Distribution Systems (order #90508).
The second edition textbook consists of 10
chapters that cover corrosion principles.
Throughout the book, the authors
emphasize the importance of considering
the secondary effects of approaches to

corrosion control. Although this book

may be over 10 years old, the information
contained within is still relevant in helping
solve todays corrosion control problems.
So, whether the information comes from
the Internet, a textbook, or from an article
published in Drinking Water Research, the end
result is still the same: knowledge is power.

As technology advances, so do we
The Water Research
Foundation has always
provided timely and
accurate information.
In 2010, our Web site
will be updated to better
meet your needs.

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

Corrosion Control

Textbook Offers Relevant Information

on Corrosion Control for Water
Distribution Systems
Tracey Feist, Water Research Foundation writer

Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution

Systems still offers the best information
into the theory and practice of corrosion
and water treatment processes.

somewhat new to the field of corrosion

control, or when they are dealing with difficult
simultaneous compliance issues with diverse
distribution systems, this book is still the
first place I send them, says Mike Schock, a
corrosion research specialist with the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agencys Drinking
Water Research Division in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Schock worked as an author and co-author of
chapters for both editions.

Elevated trace minerals in drinking water

have gained national attention and brought
the water industry together on recognizing
the importance of corrosion control. The
effect of corrosion on water distribution
systems is a constant cause for concern
There isnt any other book or monograph like
when it comes to water quality and the
it, with comprehensive coverage of nearly
implications for public health. That concern
all metallic and cement materials used in
is warranted, as many water systems across
drinking water distribution systems. There
North America have been in place for
is no other text with so much information
hundreds of years, and the complexity of
on the behavior of cement-based materials
meeting various regulatory requirements
in drinking water. You cant find this kind of
challenges distribution system chemistry
information in corrosion or water treatment
and scale stability.
process textbooks, Schock says.
Many years ago this growing concern
led the Water Research Foundation to
join together with the German Gas and
Waterworks Association, (Deutscher Verein
des Gas- and Wasserfaches or DVGW) to
address the complex issues of corrosion
through its water technology center
(Technologiezentrum Wasser or TZW).
In 1994, the two groups gathered leading
researchers together to write the Internal
Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems,
a 586-page textbook (order#90508) that
features leading industry research and case
studies, all designed to address the complex
issues of corrosion.
Whenever I get inquiries from consultants,
water utilities, or regulators who are
4

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

Two Internal Corrosion Problems

for Water Utilities

Internal corrosion of water distribution

systems leads to two major problems
for water utilities. The first is the failure
of the distribution system pipes. This
failure results in water leakage and loss of
hydraulic capacity caused by the buildup
of corrosion products. The second problem
is an unwanted change in quality as the
water is being transported through the
distribution system. The change is caused
by corrosion products entering the water.
Examples of these problems include an
increase in the concentration of lead and
copper, which are released from pipes and
solder and are very important because of

Corrosion Control

their toxic properties; the presence of iron

corrosion products, which can color the
water and create nuisance conditions; and
the occurrence of high pH, which results
from leaching of lime from cement.
Even though 13 years have passed, the
information in Internal Corrosion of Water
Distribution Systems, Second Edition is
still very relevant, says Gregg Kirmeyer,
the National Director of Drinking Water
for the Ohama-based employee-owned
architectural, engineering, and consulting
firm HDR, Inc. Kirmeyer sat on the American
side of the volunteer committee that brought
together U.S. and European corrosion
experts to write the text, all led by co-chairs
professor Vernon Snoeyink of the University
of Illinois, and Dr. Ivo Wagner of TZW.
The group of researchers gathered to write
the second edition in order to emphasize the
importance of considering the secondary
effects of approaches to corrosion control.
Such effects can increase corrosion
problems or adversely affect water quality.
The reference manual includes numerous
summary tables, which appear principally in
chapters 8 through 10. These tables provide
information on topics such as
water quality conditions that affect
corrosion of various types of materials;
chemicals used for corrosion control;

The intent was to bring the best in the

business together to write a book for water
distributors, utility companies, and water
treatment plants. It is critical to understand
the current conditions of your piping
system materials before you can estimate
any future life. Corrosion is an important
issue that has been elevated so that people
are attuned to life expectancy, costs
involved, and the programs needed to be
put into place in order to extend the life of
those pipes, says Kirmeyer.
continued next page

Corrosion and the Corrosion Cell

Corrosion is the gradual deterioration or destruction of
a metal or its properties as result of a reaction with the
metals surroundings. (Symons, J.M., 2000. The Drinking
Water Dictionary. AWWA) Electrochemical corrosion is
the destruction of a metal by electron transfer reactions.
For this type of corrosion to occur, all components of an
electrochemical cell must be present. The components
include an anode and a cathode, which are sites on
the metal that have different electrical potential; a
connection between the anode and cathode for electron
transport (internal circuit); and an electrolyte solution
that will conduct ions between the anode and cathode
(external circuit). If any one of these components is
absent, a corrosion cell does not exist and corrosion
will not occur.

corrosion assessment options for metal

plumbing materials; and
coupon protocols for distribution system
corrosion measures.
Second Edition Continues to Elevate
Awareness of Corrosion Control

Kirmeyer became involved in the project

when it became evident that a second
edition was needed. AwwaRF (now the
Water Research Foundation) was looking
for people who were heavily involved in
corrosion and corrosion control issues.

Schematic of a corrosion cell. Source: Internal Corrosion

of Water Distribution Systems, Second Edition

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

Corrosion Control

Editors note:
Water Research
Foundation subscribers
obtain a copy of
Internal Corrosion of
Water Distribution
Systems, Second
Edition (order#90508)
free of charge by calling
+1 888.844.5082, by
e-mailing rfreports@
WaterResearch
Foundation.org, or by
going to Web site at
www.WaterResearch
Foundation.org.

The second edition, published in 1996,

Kirmeyer. Every situation is different, and
consists of 10 chapters that cover corrosion
there are so many different piping materials
principles of various materials, including
being used everywhere, such as iron, steel,
copper alloys and solder, mitigation of
galvanized steel, copper, and lead. A lot of
corrosion impacts, assessment technologies,
the basic metal materials have been the same
and approaches to corrosion control
for centuries. But there are a lot of common
studies. The intent was to demonstrate to
factors involved when you make a decision
subscribing utilities and the drinking water
on determining exactly how much corrosion
community that the information contained
has taken place. It is much easier to review
within continues to be an excellent resource the information in this textbook, go through
on internal corrosion. It maintains a
the case studies presented, the charts offered,
focus on getting utility engineers, water
before you arrive at a decision.
quality managers, corrosion control
specialists, local and federal regulators,
The book will help you do two very
and consultants to recognize and
important things, stresses Kirmeyer. It will
understand the complexities of lead and
help you assess the condition of your pipes
copper corrosion, lead and copper corrosion
and it will provide you with the insight
control, and water quality and treatment
to water treatment processes to help you
effects on lead and copper corrosion.
identify what the necessary steps are to get
your infrastructure to last longer.
While there were many breakthroughs in
corrosion control research between the first
Schock describes how an international
and second editions of this book, particularly team of drinking water researchers and
with respect to copper, brass, and iron
practitioners with diverse experiences
corrosion, the scientific fundamentals
came together to write and critically review
remain highly accurate, even though it is
the book. He says the book is useful for
now over 10 years old, explains Schock.
consultants and utility staff who are not
There was even discussion of tetravalent
specialists and is more consistent and reliable
lead occurrence and possible problems with
than wading through the research literature.
disinfection changes to lead and copper
release. There have been some chemistry
I continue to use this book myself, as my
refinements, but the basics are still good.
primary basic reference to refresh my
memory, and to use as a starting point to
The second edition also differs in three
get more deeply into refinements of theory
significant ways from the original report.
and practice from new research literature,
There is a separate chapter on copper
declares Schock.
alloys and solders. The topics of inhibitors
and low mineral content waters have been
consolidated into a single chapter covering
mitigation of corrosion impacts, and a new
chapter describes a technical approach to
studying corrosion and implementing a
control program.
The mechanisms of corrosion control
basically have not changed. We still
experience the same cause and effect today,
as we did hundreds of years ago, explains

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

Bilogical Filtration

Water Research Foundation Presents

Webcast on Biological Filtration
John Albert, Water Research Foundation senior account manager

Over 300 people watched the Water

Research Foundations first simultaneous
workshop and Webcast on Biological
Filtration on July 29. Since that time,
70 more viewers have gone online to
watch the Webcast, on demand, from the
Foundations Webcast archives. To access
the archived Webcast, go to this link: http://
www.WaterResearchFoundation.org/
newsAndEvents/calendar/.
Presenting research over the Internet
offers an affordable alternative for getting
current research information in a timely
manner to the individuals who need it. It
also offers some the opportunity to attain
credits toward continuing education. The
Foundation offers viewers to download
presentations and speaker resumes to
present to state crediting authorities.
Initially, the Birmingham Water Works
Board (BWWB) came up with the idea for
the Webcast. Their intent was to hold a
technical transfer meeting on biological
filtration, since they have been conducting
their own research on this topic.

Hosted by BWWB in Birmingham, Alabama,

at the historic Cahaba Pumping Station
Museum, the Webcast covered the use of
biological filtration and focused on the
engineering and operation of such filters from
a national perspective. It also highlighted the
local research that is being performed on this
technology. Patty Barron P.E. from BWWB,
Dr. Zaid Chowdhury from Malcom Pirnie,
and John Albert from the Foundation formed l
the team to organize the Webcast.
Since the 1980s, the Foundation has
supported over 31 projects on biological
filtration, worth over $12 million. With the
recent increase in exposure of biological
filtration technology, it was decided that
the technical transfer meeting should be
broadcast to a wider audience through an
extended Webcast. The goal of the three-hour

Theres been an increased interest in

biological filtration over the past two years.
AWWA formed a Biological Drinking Water
Treatment Committee. Several special topic
sessions dedicated to biological filtration
have been featured at the Water Quality
Technical Conference (WQTC) 2008 and
Annual Conference and Exposition 2009.
One is also planned for WQTC 2009. These
were all good signs for the initial planning
of the Webcast.
Cahaba Pumping Station Workers Exhibit in the Museum
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

Bilogical Filtration

meeting was to present how biological

filtration technology is being used in North
America. It also sought to highlight some
applied uses at specific utilities, including
those currently in place in Birmingham.
Webcast Brings Leading
Researchers Together

A great lineup of speakers included Dr.

Peter Huck from the University of Waterloo,
Dr. Patrick Evans from CDM, Patty Barron
P.E. from BWWB, and Dr. Jess Brown from
Carollo Engineers. Perhaps this is the
greatest feature of a Webcastits ability
to gather together leading researchers, no
matter where they may be located.

Peter Huck
presented from
Germany

Dr. Huck joined the Webcast from Germany

where he was currently conducting
research. During his talk, The History
and State of the Science of Biological
Filtration, Dr. Huck gave a great overview
of how this technology has been applied
in the United States and Canada. He said
that the traditional primary objectives for
biological filtration are particle removal

Webcast presenters and organizers (from left to right): John

Albert, Patty Barron, Patrick Evans, Jess Brown, Zaid Chowdhury
8

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

and total organic carbon removal. Dr. Huck

stated that these primary objectives have
recently expanded to include disinfection/
inactivation of microorganisms, the
removal of chemical contaminants
(i.e., MIB, Geosmin, and pharmaceuticals),
and most recently, as a technology for
membrane pretreatment. The secondary
goals he identified were maximizing
both biological and chemical stability
and maintaining quality water to the tap.
Throughout his session, he highlighted
the basic aspects of biological filtration
and the various parameters that influence
this technology. Dr. Peter Huck has been
the principle investigator to several
Foundation reports including Filter
Operation Effects on Pathogen Passage
(order#90874), Optimizing Filtration in
Biological Filters (order#90793), and
Design of Biological Processes for
Organics Control (order#90722).
The application of biological filtration in
North America is relatively new and its
acceptance as a treatment technology is
not clear. Dr. Patrick Evans discussion
on Biological Drinking Water Treatment:
National Survey Results, focused on how
people view biological filtration. Part of
the survey asked how biological processes
should be implemented. The graph on
the next page illustrates the wide range of
perspectives from different drinking water
stakeholders. Vendors and academics
seem to be much more optimistic about
the implementation of biological filtration,
while regulators are much more cautious.
Evans is the principle investigator of
Potable Water Biological Treatment
(project#4129), an ongoing joint project
with the Department of Defense (DoD).
Dr. Evans said that current results illustrate
that the perceived barriers to accepting
biological filtration vary amongst drinking

Bilogical Filtration

water stakeholders. However, the survey

also highlighted that continued education
and outreach about this technology would
help improve acceptance.
Implementing new technology into any
water treatment plant takes a considerable
amount of upfront assessment. Patty
Barrons talk, Birminghams Experience
with Biological Filtration, follows BWWBs
evaluation of biological filtration using
both pilot and demonstration scale filter
units. BWWBs move toward biological
filtration was due to the promulgation of
the Stage 2 Disinfection By-Product Rule.
Throughout her talk, Patty highlighted
critical information BWWB gained from
the application of the mobile pilot plant
and the testing done at the demonstration
plant. Although the final evaluation is not
complete, the research done at BWWB
has shown a 10 to 20 percent reduction
in total organic carbon through the use of

biological filtration. The BWWB project was

funded in part by Foundation project#4155,
GAC Biofilters in Retrofit Applications:
An Approach for Cost Effective Regulatory
Compliance, with Dr. Zaid Chowdhury
leading as the principle investigator.
Dr. Jess Browns presentation on Anoxic/
Anaerobic Applications of Biofiltration,
focused on the removal of a wide range of
contaminants (i.e., inorganics, organics,
and trance organics), especially nitrate and
perchlorate. The biofiltration processes he
discussed operate under extremely low or
no oxygen environments. He discussed two
demonstration plants treating nitrate and
perchlorate contaminated source waters.
These demonstration plants had stable and
robust removal performance. Dr. Brown
also discussed considerations for fullscale applications of anaerobic biological
filtration processes.
continued next page

Aerobic
VENDORS
ACADEMICS
CONSULTANTS
DoD
UTILITIES
REGULATORS
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Implemented preferentially since they represent a "green" technology

Implemented cautiously due to concerns over uncertain public health impacts

Results for survey question: How should biological processes be implemented?

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

Bilogical Filtration

Where to Find More on Biological Filtration

A summary of Foundation projects was done in the April-June 2009 edition of Drinking Water Research, and is available
by going to this link: http://www.WaterResearchFoundation.org/newsAndEvents/publications/DWR.aspx

A panel discussion followed the series of

presentations, where Webcast viewers
and attendees of the technical transfer
conference could ask the presenters
questions. Over 50 questions were
submitted during that time and the
presenters were able to address a handful of
them during the panel discussion. All of the
questions, along with answers, are archived
on the Foundation Web site. A few of the
questions and answers are also included on
the next page.

We appreciate the Water Research

Foundation hosting Webcasts, its easy
and convenient (no travel is a bonus) and
its FREE. Also, our operators get contact
hours and laboratory staff get continuing
education units for their certification.
With such positive feedback, the
Foundation will continue to deliver quality
Webcasts to its subscribers. The Foundation
also encourages its subscribers to go to the
archived Webcasts on its Web site.

At the end of Webcast, it was apparent that

it was well received by the audience. Over
30 viewers responded with comments such
as the following:
This was one of the best Webcasts that I
have listened to.
All 4 presentations were worthwhile
Do it againit was very well done
with people knowing their stuffand
presenting it well.
Excellent blend of theory and real world
experience.
Hosting by a subscribing facility helped
to make the rest of the information seem
more relevant. Having a representative
from the host facility participateturned
her experienceinto a more interesting
and effective case study.

10

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

Webcast Definition
A Webcast is a media file distributed
over the Internet using streaming media
technology. A Webcast may either
be distributed live or on demand. Essentially,
Webcasting is broadcasting over the
Internet. The generally accepted use of the
term Webcast is a transmission of sound
and images (as of an event) via the World
Wide Web.Merriam-Webster, online
dictionary

Bilogical Filtration

Questions and Answers from the Webcast

Q: Do you see any future regulation of biological filtration?
A: I am not aware of any planned regulations regarding biological filtration in the U.S. There
were references to biological filtration in the draft Stage 1 DBPR but these references are
absent in the final. Rather than regulations, a more likely scenario will be guidelines and/or
standards of practice for biological filtration.
Q: Is biofiltration performance temperature dependent? Does it vary seasonally? How do the
utilities handle this variation during winter months?
A: I have seen little impact of temperature on biological nitrate/perchlorate removal (down
to 5C). Aerobic biofiltration, which are lower growth systems, can be greatly impacted by
temperature. Longer contact times can be required during colder months. Fortunately, water
demand tends to go down in colder months as well, which can allow a utility to increase
contact times while still meeting demand. Media selection may help as well (e.g., GAC tends
to hold more biomass, which can help improve degradation kinetics during cold periods).
Q: What is the realistic replacement frequency of GAC media?
A: For a biological filtration use, GAC does not have to be theoretically replaced at all. However,
to accommodate attrition of media, 10 to 15 percent additional media should be added per
year to top off the filter bed. At that rate, the equivalent replacement frequency would be
in the seven to 10 years. Some utilities are of the opinion to replace media in two to five
years to take advantage of slow adsorption of trace contaminants. If GAC is used as a filter
absorber for TOC removal, the replacement frequency will be in months (six to 18 months).
Q: Has biofiltration changed your removal efficiency of turbidity and particle counts?
A: All filtered turbidity results from the demonstration filters are well below 0.1 NTU.
Q: What is the typical dosage for acetic acid for the anaerobic systems discussed? And what is
this dosage based on?
A: The acetic acid dose is determined by the raw water dissolved oxygen and nitrate
concentration. Stoichiometric acetic acid demand is calculated, and then 60 to 70 percent
excess is added to that to account for cell synthesis (determined empirically). As an example,
weve been removing 3 mg/L dissolved oxygen and 70 mg/L nitrate (as NO3-) with an acetic
acid dose of 76 mg/L.

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

11

Foundation Webcasts

Behind the Curtain: Revealing and

Revisiting the Value of Water Research
Foundations Webcasts
Tracey Feist, Water Research Foundation writer

Foundation Webcasts offer a win-win

situation when it comes to technology
transfer and information gathering.
Attending conferences can get costly,
especially during times when money is
tight. It also takes time away from work and
family. The Water Research Foundation
offers a way to get valuable research
information, all by visiting the archive area
that houses the Foundations Webcasts.
Since 2006, 17 Webcasts have been archived
on the Foundations Web site. Its all
available by clicking on the Research link,
and going to the Topics and Projects area.
From there, click on Supporting Resources,
and then on the Presentations link.
Its easy to register for a Webcast. Two
weeks before the Webcast is set to be
broadcast, the Foundation will send an
email to its 900 plus subscribers. That email
offers a registration link for the Webcast.
Once youve registered, youll receive a
confirmation email containing the date and
time of the Webcast, speakers, and topics
that will be covered.

Direct Web site Address

for Webcasts
http://www.WaterResearchFoundation.
org/research/TopicsAndProjects/resources.
aspx?type=presentation

12

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

Currently
there are over
17 Webcasts
posted on the
Foundation Web
site, offering
valuable research
information on

a wide range of topics. One Webcast from

March 2008 examined the Toxicological
Relevance of Endocrine Disruptors and
Pharmaceuticals in Drinking Water. In
the Webcast, presenters Shane Snyder of
Southern Nevada Water Authority and Rick
Pleus of Intertox Inc. discussed analytical
methods and occurrence data on endocrine
disrupting compounds and pharmaceuticals,
as well as the exposure comparison to
phytoestrogens in plants. The work and
results of the toxicological risk assessment of
the chemicals of interest are also presented.
The Webcast is based on the Foundation
report, order #91238, which is co-sponsored
by the Foundation, California Urban Water
Agencies, WateReuse Foundation, and
Southern Nevada Water Authority. The
Web site also hosts an area where you can
download PDF files of the presenter slides.
The first ever Town Hall Webcast was
held in July 2008. The Webcast featured
speaker David Rager, Foundation Chair,
with Executive Director Robert Renner
moderating the session. The purpose of
this one hour Webcast was to provide an
avenue for subscribers to learn firsthand
what is going on at the Foundation as well
as to provide a format where questions and
concerns may be addressed.
Wendell James, a research engineer for
EPCOR Water Services in Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada, recently attended the Foundation
Webcast on Biological Filtration held in
Birmingham, Alabama on July 29, 2009.

Foundation Webcasts

Two of us at the E. L. Smith Water Treatment

Plant in Edmonton watched the Webcast and
appreciated the presentations. We found
Dr. Hucks information on fundamentals
and Jess Browns talk on Anoxic/Anaerobic
Applications most valuable. Hosting by a
subscribing facility also helped to make the
rest of the information seem more relevant.
Having a representative from the host facility
participateturned her experience into a
more interesting and effective case study. Its
always hard to justify a three-hour block of
time away from other duties, but the length
of the Webcast was probably appropriate and
the range of topics and the length of each
presentation were both good, said James.
As with any new technology, there are
always a few wrinkles that need to be ironed

out. Weak audio and lag times between

telecommunications companies in different
countries are a couple of the issues the
Foundation is working on to help improve
your Webcast experience. The added
benefit of having those Webcasts archived
allows subscribers to go back to listen to
certain areas of the presentation a second
or even third time.
Other Webcast benefits, besides the fact
they are easy, convenient, and free, is that
many operators can get contact hours and
laboratory staff get continuing education
units for their certification. Its a win-win
situation for all involved when it comes
to technology transfer and gathering
important research information.

Upcoming Webcasts

Critical Assessment of Implementing Desalination Technology (based on order #91253) and Guidelines for
Desalination (based on project #4078)

Cross-Connection and Backflow Vulnerability: Monitoring and Detection and Continuous System Leak
MonitoringFrom Start To Repair (based on order #91141 and project #3183)

Incorporating Climate Change Information in Water Utility Planning: A Collaborative, Decision Analytic Approach
(based on project #3132)

Localized Treatment for Disinfection By-Products (based on order #91254)

Criteria for Optimized Distribution Systems (based on project #4109)

Remember that the Webcast schedule is subject to change. Watch for email notifications or call Adam
Lang at 303.347.6259 for further information.

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

13

RESEARCH IN PROGRESS
INTERIM FINDINGS FROM SELECTED PROJECTS NOT YET COMPLETED

Best Practices in Customer

Payment Assistance Programs
(Foundation project #4004)
Susan Turnquist, Water Research Foundation project manager

A new Foundation study will assist utilities

in using a quality management approach
when creating and implementing a
customer payment assistance program.
In the current economic downturn, many
utilities have struggled with higher rates
of customer nonpayment. In an August
2009 Webcast, 63 percent of 49 utilities
responding to the online poll said that
customer nonpayment is a growing
problem. Most utilities have policies
and practices to manage the problem of
residential customer nonpayment. Many,
perhaps most of these, are ad hoc policies
and practices, adapted over time, designed
to meet the single objective of recovering
payment. They may not be integrated with
other business processes and may not be
easily adapted to conditions of higher rates
of nonpayment.
Project #4004, soon to be published,
offers a business process to improve the
design and performance of customer
payment assistance programs (CPAP).
Using a Quality Management approach, a
utilitys CPAP can contribute directly to
other business objectives in areas such as
customer loyalty, corporate image, and
public health. These, in turn, contribute to
the bottom line and community support.
Project #4004 uses the Plan-Do-Check-Act
business process framework as a multiobjective, whole-cycle, and systematic tool

14

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

for developing a customized CPAP. In this

process framework, utility staff will
1. define the objectives of a customer
payment assistance program,
2. develop several strategies and
associated best practicesthe core
processes,
3. deploy the processes and measure
performance of the program, and
4. implement continuous improvement
practices (see Figure 1).
The project also provides substantial
material to help utilities review and adapt
support processes such as legal issues,
personnel training, information technology,
and communication strategies for typical
customers as well as vulnerable and hard
to reach populations.
In reviewing existing practices in customer
payment assistance, the researchers found
that many utilities have used a somewhat
ad hoc approach. Many characterize
nonpaying customers as simply cannot
pay and will not pay. The business
process framework provided in the report
draws upon existing research to better
characterize reasons for nonpayment and
match these to effective best practices. It
also reviews a multitude of strategies and
practices currently in use, and organizes
these into strategy menus. Additionally, the
business process framework is useful to
identify gaps in a utilitys program.

RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

Taking a Business Approach

to Developing a CPAP

What is the business case for taking a

business process approach to developing
a CPAP? As with all business enterprises,
a principal goal is to recover costs. For
many cases, the cost of collection efforts,
including the costs of service disconnection,
may exceed the actual payment recovered.
In addition, water utilities have other
business goals to which a CPAP can make
significant contributions, such as customer/
stakeholder perceptions, public health, and
sustainability. While at any point in time
most utilities have uncollectible rates of one
percent or lower (for residential customers),
the population of low-income households
is much greater than that. Many of those

Promoting a Favorable
Corporate Image
Building Customer
Satisfaction, Loyalty
and Trust

Protecting public health is a compelling

reason to develop a multi-objective, holistic
CPAP. Water service sustains public health.
When water service is disconnected, it
renders a property uninhabitable. A
household is, in effect, evicted. To avoid
that, many low-income households will
juggle trade-offs over which costs to incur or
what bills to pay. They may pay a water bill
at the expense of other critical necessities,
such as medical care and sufficient food. A
considerable public health impact is at stake

ACT

Assisting Target Sub

Groups of Customers
Recovering Costs and
Optimizing Collections

households cycle in and out of that one

percent of nonpayment; so, the percentage
of the customer base exposed to a utilitys
collections practices may go as high as 15
percent, with obvious impacts on a utilitys
corporate profile and community image.

Uncollectibles,
Disconnections,
Recividism

Continuous
Improvement

PLAN

CHECK

Caseload Processing
Benchmarks

Define
Objectives

Measure
Performance

Cost of Collections and

Assistance Programs
Customer and
Stakeholder Perceptions
Community Measures of
Health & Well Being

Improving Public
Health

DO
Strategy 1
Shrink the Bills

Strategy 2
Shrink the Overdue
Caseload and Arrearages

Strategy 3
Shrink the Cost of Collections

Conservation

Prevention Before-the-Fact

Minimize Caseload & Arrearages

Billing Practices

Effective Intervention After-the-Fact

Bill Discounts

Crisis Assistance Programs

Maximize Efficiency of Caseload

Processing

Alternative Rate Structures

Deferred Payment Plans

Programs to Minimize Recurrences

core process
support processes
Legal Support

Personnel Training

Minimize Repeat Occurrences of

Non Payment
Cost Benefit Analysis of the
Overall Program

Information Technology

Communications

Figure1: Business Process Model of Customer Payment Assistance Program

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

15

RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

in terms of how utilities obtain revenue from

low-income households.

communicating with vulnerable and hard

to reach populations.

Finally, the sustainability of customer

accounts is a significant business concern.
Overall economic trends of the past
two decades show that lower-income
households incomes have not kept pace
with inflation. The current economic
upheavals have further reduced the
incomes of both lower- and middle-income
households. The steady or rising cost of
water service has been taking a growing bite
out of household resources, leaving larger
numbers of customers newly in default.
These customers need a payment assistance
program that will enable them to remain in
good standing until they can improve their
financial footing.

The third step is to deploy the core

processes, develop measurements for
performance, and activate a measurement
process. The report provides tools
for selecting or devising a basket of
measurements customized for the
combination of strategies and practices
selected. The authors particularly focus on
metrics to indicate how well the program
is reaching and effectively serving targeted
subgroups (elderly, medically disabled,
those with limited language proficiencies,
economically disadvantaged, and so forth).

A Holistic CPAP Needs Objectives

As noted above, a first step in developing

a holistic CPAP is to identify objectives. A
second step is to develop the core processes
for meeting those objectives. The research
team grouped these processes into three
strategies: shrinking the bills, shrinking
the overdue caseload and arrearages, and
shrinking the cost of collections. A key
component to selecting practices within
these three strategies is to understand
the causes of nonpayment within the
local customer base. Different causes of
nonpayment call for a range of approaches
in the utilitys CPAP. The report provides a
table for mapping causes of nonpayment
versus elements of assistance programs.
Another key component in developing
the core processes is to review all support
processes that enable staff to design and
administer an effective CPAP. The report
identifies and discusses in detail four
main support processes: legal, personnel
training, information technology, and

16

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

The final step in the business process

model is to routinely review performance
outcomes and identify areas that can
be improved. This step may also lead to
changes in program objectives, continuing
the process cycle as a routine activity.
Additionally, the authors provide guidance
on an advanced approach to documenting
a universal service performance review.
The report should be available to subscribers
in the fall of 2009. Meanwhile, subscribers may
wish to access the August 2009 Webcast on
this research at the following link: http://www.
WaterResearchFoundation.org/whatsNew/.

REPORTS OF NOTE
BRIEF SUMMARIES OF REPORTS RECENTLY RELEASED BY THE FOUNDATION

Occurrence and
Formation of Nitrogenous
Disinfection By-Products

Non-Uniform Corrosion
in Copper Piping
Monitoring Techniques

Critical Assessment
of Implementing
Desalination Technology

(order #91250, project #3014)

(order #91251, project #3109)

(order #91253, project #4006)

William A. Mitch, Stuart W.

Krasner, Paul Westerhoff, and
Aaron Dotson

Marc Edwards, Paolo Scardina,

Russell Taylor, and
Nigel Goodman

Pei Xu, Tzahi Cath, Gary Wang,

Jrg E. Drewes, John Ruetten,
and Sara Dolnicar

Although DBP research

has traditionally focused
on the formation
of carbonaceous
chlorination DBPs
(C-DBPs), two trends
in the drinking water
industry make the study
of nitrogenous DBPs
(N-DBPs) increasingly
important. First, due to
population growth, an
increasing number of
drinking water supplies
exhibit elevated dissolved
organic nitrogen
(DON) concentrations
resulting directly from
wastewater discharges
or from algal activity
fostered by increased
inorganic nitrogen
loadings (e.g., agricultural
runoff, stormwater
runoff, wastewater
discharges, septic tank
releases, etc.). Secondly,
drinking water utilities
are considering altering
disinfection schemes
from chlorination to
other disinfectant
combinations to meet
more stringent standards
on trihalomethanes
and haloacetic acids
promulgated under the
USEPAs DBP Rules.

Copper pitting corrosion

in residential plumbing
is expensive to repair,
stressful to utility
customers, and the
exact water quality and
hydraulic factors that
cause pitting remain
difficult to discern.
While many factors are
proposed or suspected
of causing copper
pittingincluding
faulty grounding,
improper grounding,
manufacturing defects
of the copper pipe,
microbial corrosion,
and improper plumbing
installationnone
have been proven
in a laboratory
under scientifically
reproducible conditions.
A number of different
corrosion monitoring
techniques have been
used in an attempt to
assess the likelihood that
a given water quality
could induce or allow
copper pitting corrosion
to occur in a particular
water system.
The goal of this study was
to rigorously evaluate the

In recent decades,
the application of
desalination has grown
substantially. Seawater
and brackish water
desalination have
become viable solutions
in addressing safe water
supplies in addition to
other water management
approaches such as
water transfer, water
reuse, and conservation.
The driving forces
for implementation
of desalination are
mainly directed at
expanding water source
portfolios and resolving
water deficits due to
drought conditions,
limited availability of
conventional freshwater
resources, increases in
water demand due to
population growth and
economic development,
and needs of improving
water quality of current
impaired water resources.
There are a number of
technical, environmental,
economic, social, and
institutional implications
associated with the
implementation of
desalination technologies.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 19

CONTINUED ON PAGE 20

CONTINUED ON PAGE 18

Supply of Critical
Drinking Water and
Wastewater Treatment
ChemicalsA White Paper
for Understanding Recent
Chemical Price Increases
and Shortages
(order #91264, project #4225)

Jim Henderson and

Jeff Oxenford

Water treatment
chemicals play a critical
role in providing
clean water to protect
public health and the
environment. Due to
fluctuating commodity
costs, water and
wastewater utilities have
experienced considerable
water treatment chemical
price increases and also
chemical shortages in
the last several years.
This issue has significant
implications for utility
finance, regulatory
compliance, public and
environmental health,
security, and long-term
utility sustainability.
The goal of this project
was to develop a white
paper that describes
the nature of the recent
treatment chemical
supply issue for drinking
water and wastewater
utilities. The main
approach was to gather
available information
on key water treatment
chemicals from water
CONTINUED ON PAGE 21

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

17

REPORTS OF NOTE

Occurrence and Formation of Nitrogenous Disinfection By-Products

CONTINUED From PAGE 17

The objectives of this project were to

(1) perform an occurrence survey of
organic and inorganic nitrogen precursors
in source waters and N-DBPs in chlorinated
and chloraminated finished waters, and
(2) determine organic and inorganic
nitrogen precursor characteristics and
water quality parameters that contribute
to N-DBP formation, and mechanisms
of N-DBP formation.
The researchers first examined pathways
responsible for the degradation of simple
amino precursors and their transformation
into nitriles, aldehydes, halonitromethanes
(HNMs), and nitrosamines. Second, algaland wastewater-impacted waters were
fractionated and subjected to formation
potential (FP) tests to examine which
dissolved organic matter (DOM) fractions
yielded the highest concentrations of
N-DBPs. Third, N-DBP FP tests were used
to evaluate precursor levels in a range of
algal- and wastewater-impacted source
waters. Precursor removal was examined
within drinking water treatment process
units. Finally, N-DBP concentrations were
quantified in the effluents of treatment plants
employing a range of disinfection schemes.
The formation pathway studies indicated
that nitrosamine formation during
chloramination can be substantially
accounted for by reactions involving
dichloramine. Nitrosamine formation was
also promoted under certain breakpoint
chlorination conditions, or from the use of
certain anion exchange resins.
Studies involving DOM isolates indicated
that nitrogen-rich colloidal, hydrophilic
base and hydrophilic acid/neutral fractions
were significant sources of certain N-DBP
precursors. Although certain isolates were
nitrogen-rich, Nnitrosodimethylamine
(NDMA) precursors were particularly
18

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

associated with fractions obtained from

wastewater treatment plants.
The survey showed that DON tended to be
higher in wastewater and/or algal-impacted
waters. The survey confirmed that NDMA
precursors were associated with wastewaterimpacted supplies, but also indicated that
polyDADMAC (a coagulation polymer) was
a significant source of NDMA precursors.
Ozonation was found to increase HNM FP
or that of cyanogen chloride, whereas it
sometimes destroyed NDMA FP. Biofiltration
was often found to decrease the FP for HNMs
or cyanogen chloride.
Due to population growth, wastewater and
algal impacts to water supplies are likely to
continue to increase, resulting in more DON
and precursors for N-DBPs in source waters,
which may result in increased formation of
certain N-DBPs. The field survey indicated
the range of concentrations of N-DBPs likely
to form in utilities treating wastewater- and/
or algal-impacted source waters. Moreover,
the results of the survey showed ways to
optimize the treatment/disinfection process
to control the formation of N-DBPs. In
addition, the formation pathway studies and
the characterization of N-DBP precursors
will provide utilities with information
on how to better understand and design
treatment/disinfection processes that
minimize N-DBP formation.

REPORTS OF NOTE

Non-Uniform Corrosion in Copper PipingMonitoring Techniques

CONTINUED From PAGE 17

accuracy of several electrochemical

monitoring techniques in predicting
pitting propensity of copper tubing in
potable water supplies. Four waters of
known pitting propensity were used to test
various electrochemical techniques. The
research team also used a continuallycirculated pipe loop system of copper
piping to test the electrochemical
techniques with four test watersa known
pitting water, a biologically active water that
is suspected to cause pitting, a non-pitting
water, and a pitting water that also produces
blue water events. Furthermore, the team
tested the electrochemical techniques
under real conditions at participating
water utilities.
Each of the electrochemical corrosion
monitoring techniques was found to
have inherent flaws or inconsistencies
rendering them unreliable. For instance,
some electrochemical data was artificially
skewed by the concentration of chlorine,
even in one water system where chlorine
is necessary to stop blue water and micropitting in this system. Additionally, most
of the methods were affected to some
extent by fluid flow. This finding led to the
discovery of another mechanism, known as
flow electrification, which could increase or
enhance the extent of pitting or corrosion
activity via water flowing past the pipe
surface; consequently, it was unclear
whether spikes in electrochemical data
were due to real pit activity, activation of
the pump, or flow electrifications resulting
from water movement. Other problems
occurred when attempting to use these
corrosion monitoring techniques onsite
at participating utilities.

The following were lessons learned during

the course of the research:
Results of electrochemical measurements
depend on the test conditions
Orientation and placement of the
electrodes can control the results
Turning the pump on/off creates
spikes electrochemical indicators
related to pitting
Free chlorine and chloramine levels
control electrochemical potential (ECorr)
and electrochemical noise (ECN)
It is highly unlikely that ECorr rise will
always accompany copper pitting
It is clear that electrochemical techniques
have fundamental limitations and cannot
be used solely as a tool for indicating the
pitting propensity of an unknown water
system. In some cases, these methods could
be used in conjunction with other methods
or after there are extensive experiences
with a given water system. The fact that ECorr
and ECN data trends could be completely
controlled by factors like oxidant/reductant
level, flow duration, flow electrification,
and position in the apparatus were almost
completely unrecognized prior to this work.
Until a fundamental understanding of
pitting is improved, these methods cannot
be applied with a high degree of confidence
in the drinking water industry.

DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

19

REPORTS OF NOTE

Critical Assessment of Implementing Desalination Technology

CONTINUED From PAGE 17

However, there is not a well developed and

disseminated knowledge base on the critical
issues affecting the implementation of these
systems, and an in-depth analysis was needed
to identify the broad spectrum of challenges
associated with desalination technologies.
The objective of the study was to identify
and evaluate the full range of water quality,
energy, environmental, economic, social,
and regulatory aspects of implementing
desalination technologies. This was
accomplished through a comprehensive
literature review, a survey of facilities, an
expert workshop, case studies, and analysis.
Based on the research, the criteria
identified as the major challenges in
implementing desalination planning are
associated with the following elements:
Intake systems and pretreatment
Product water quality and post-treatment
Concentrate management and disposal
Energy consumption
Associated costs
Environmental impacts
Social, political, and institutional
perspectives

Foundation Contacts
Customer Service
Phone: +1 888.844.5082 or +1 303.347.6121
Fax: +1 303.730.0851
E-mail: rfreports@WaterResearchFoundation.org
Editorial Questions
Phone: +1 303.347.6111
E-mail: editor@WaterResearchFoundation.org
Order Drinking Water Research
Phone: +1 303.347.6248
E-mail: tfreeman@WaterResearchFoundation.org
Address/Phone Changes
Phone: +1 303.347.6243
E-mail: emahoney@WaterResearchFoundation.org

20

JULY SEPTEMBER 2009 S DRINKING WATER RESEARCH

The report describes each of these elements

and includes an academic review of the
multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA)
process and highlights its use as a potential
tool for assessing desalination projects.
The researchers also made four main
recommendations to improve the
implementation of desalination:
conduct a thorough feasibility study
and pilot testing
address environmental concerns early
and effectively
lead a collaborative, open, and
transparent dialogue with the general
public, special interest groups, political
parties, and regulatory agencies
consider an MCDA approach to evaluate
the full aspects of desalination projects, and
to support the decision making process
This report documents a wide range
of information pertinent to planning
and applying desalination technologies
from feed water intake, product water
distribution, energy use and carbon
footprint, to concentrate management.
The study focuses on challenges, risks,
risk-mitigation strategies, failures, barriers,
and unforeseen
issues associated
with implementation
of desalination.

Foundation Subscription Program

Phone: +1 303.347.6128
E-mail: pschrader@WaterResearchFoundation.org
Solicited & Unsolicited Research Programs
Phone: +1 303.347.6188
E-mail: crayburn@WaterResearchFoundation.org
Tailored Collaboration Program
Phone: +1 303.347.6104
E-mail: rkarlin@WaterResearchFoundation.org

REPORTS OF NOTE

Supply of Critical Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment ChemicalsA White Paper for
Understanding Recent Chemical Price Increases and Shortages
CONTINUED From PAGE 17

and chemical industry experts and from

a literature review.
The white paper describes how utilities
have witnessed skyrocketing and then
falling commodity prices all within the most
recent decade. From 2003 to 2008, the world
experienced the largest commodity price
boom compared to any experienced in the
20th century. Many of the same factors
that drove up the prices in the commodity
markets are the ones that drove the water
treatment chemical market. They compete
with the water sector for several key
commodities. They include the following:
strong, sustained international economic
growth
excess commodity production capacity,
which deterred investment in new
capacity
significant increase in biofuel production,
including corn production, which is very
fertilizer intensive
Limited supply relative to demand in
commodity markets translated into
increasing prices and shortages for water
treatment chemicals.
Next the financial crisis and recession
hit and commodity prices fell worldwide.
Oil prices fell more than 60 percent, with
prices for other commodities falling
rapidly as well. The decrease in demand for
commodities during the recession has led
some production facilities to close. So while
shortages for water treatment chemicals,
before the bust, were led by competing
demands for the same input, shortages after
the bust were led by a lack of production.

purchasing strategies water utilities

can use to minimize the cost of water
treatment chemicals and plan for a more
secure supply. These include long-term
purchasing contracting, dual sourcing,
joint purchasing, storage, contingency
planning, working with policy makers,
and new system design. Two of the most
helpful steps that utilities can take to
understand how to control costs and
protect public health and the environment
are to track chemical markets over time and
to invest in planning that can help them
manage the risk associated with future
water treatment market volatility.
This white paper is designed to identify
what is known about the issue and the
driving forces behind the recent price
and chemical availability concerns. The
paper identifies critical knowledge gaps
and potential research needs, identifies
important stakeholders and potential
sources of information that can help clarify
the issue, and develops recommendations
for next steps toward effectively managing
the issue. Better understanding of
the variables that govern the cost and
availability of these chemicals will help
managers make better decisions to
minimize impacts from changes in the
price or availability of chemicals.

Subscribers may
download free copies
of most Foundation
reports from the
Web site at www.
WaterResearch
Foundation.org. They
may also request free
printed reports by
contacting Foundation
Customer Service
by telephone at +1
888.844.5082 or by
e-mail to rfreports@
WaterResearch
Foundation.org.

To deal with these issues, the researchers

describe a number of planning and
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH S JULY SEPTEMBER 2009

21

For Your Convenience

Drinking Water Research can now be accessed online.

Be sure to check out the new interactive version of Drinking Water Research accessible from the Foundation Web site.

Download PDF or interactive version to your desktop

Customize layout and zoom
Search across multiple issues
Bookmark specific pages for later reference