SYSTEM

System 33 (2005) 593608

www.elsevier.com/locate/system

Theatre voice training and technology in

teaching oral skills: Integrating the
components of a speech event
Debra M. Hardison *, Chayawan Sonchaeng
Department of Linguistics and Languages, A-714 Wells Hall, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, MI 48824, United States
Received 28 August 2004; received in revised form 11 February 2005; accepted 15 February 2005

Abstract
This paper provides a sequence of specic techniques and examples for implementing theatre
voice training and technology in teaching ESL/EFL oral skills. A layered approach is proposed
based on information processing theory in which the focus of learner attention is shifted in stages
from the physiological to the linguistic and then to the discourse level of speech where the components of a speech event are integrated. Objectives move from awareness to practice for
improvement of voice quality, uency, and intelligibility. Learner responses move from choral
to individual to interactive. Techniques address expansion of vowel space, breathing linked to
rhythm and pausing, voice projection and ow, enhancement of pitch range, shadowing and mirroring, monologue and dialogue. Technology is incorporated through visual pitch displays that
provide informative learner feedback, and a Web-based tool that provides integration of video
with the associated pitch contour and allows annotations for feedback on various elements
(e.g., gestures) of a speech event. Techniques draw from drama pedagogy emphasizing contextualized meaningful communication.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pronunciation; Technology; Language teaching; English as a second language; Voice training; Prosody; Drama

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 517 353 0800; fax: +1 517 432 1149.
E-mail address: hardiso2@msu.edu (D.M. Hardison).

0346-251X/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.system.2005.02.001

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1. Introduction
The traditional domain of second-language (L2) pronunciation has been concerned
with the segmental and suprasegmental features of the spoken language. Integrating both
into the curriculum and teacher education remain current issues (Burgess and Spencer,
2000). Both features play important roles in achieving L2 learners communicative goals
and psychosocial development (Derwing et al., 1998).
We suggest broadening the scope of L2 oral skills development to the domain of a multifaceted contextualized event, addressing both the accuracy and uency of speech as a
medium of transmission, without losing sight of its expressive function as language in
communication. This paper proposes an approach to the teaching of the various components of such an event (e.g., segmental production, prosody, lip movements, hand-arm
gestures, body position) that draws on the use of music and theatre voice-training techniques, drama-based learning, and tools from speech technology. The existing literature
in this area includes works that focus on voice and accents specically for actors (e.g., Blumenfeld, 1998; Jones, 1996; Kopf, 2001), the parallels between theatre arts and language
teaching with a focus on suggestions for role-play situations and play productions (Smith,
1984), the learning of English through drama with ancillary mention of voice, breathing
and body exercises (e.g., Miccoli, 2003), and the application of commercial accent modication programs using auditory input (e.g., Stern, 2002).
Our approach addresses two gaps in this literature: (1) a sequence of specic techniques
applicable to a variety of classroom language teaching situations including the use of technology (e.g., for visualizations of pitch contours), and, (2) importantly, a rationale for
these techniques. This rationale is grounded in speech research ndings, drama pedagogy,
and information processing theory, which holds that learners initially direct attention to a
specic feature, and with continued practice and feedback, begin to utilize the skill more
automatically allowing attentional resources then to be directed to a new feature (e.g.,
McLaughlin, 1987). In its current instantiation, automatization of L2 skills, like other cognitive skills, is viewed as a continuum rather than a series of discrete stages (DeKeyser,
2001).
These techniques may be part of a general oral skills class, speech class, pronunciation
course, or part of a drama course. They are adaptable for dierent environments, and different learners at various levels of prociency, including international teaching assistants
(ITAs). The major objectives are to (a) raise awareness to the various elements of speech
such as breathing, volume, pitch, stress, rhythm, and individual sounds, (b) enhance pitch
range, speech uency, intelligibility, and enjoyment in language learning, (c) present activities for practice as a class or individually, and (d) encourage students to transfer the skills
they learn and condence they build to their daily speech. Beyond the initial preparatory
techniques focused on individual sounds, oral skill development is encompassed within
meaningful contextualized language use, borrowing monologue, dialogue, and pantomime
activities from drama pedagogy. Liu (2002) notes that the benet of drama in second or
foreign language classrooms is its focus on interaction to reach the goal of communicative
competence. Drama-based learning emphasizes experiencing the L2 as a more personal
intercultural process, which can contribute to cognitive growth (Wagner, 2002), and
may enhance learners reection on their social identities, and the relationships between
language and culture (Schmenk, 2004). For example, role-playing has greater potential
within the context of drama where it is more deeply contextualized in a theme of recurring,

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meaningful, and authentic communicative events in contrast to routine classroom dialogues. As such, it is compatible with the interactionist theoretical framework in second
language acquisition (e.g., Gass, 1997).
Schewe (2002) discusses the foundation of drama-based teaching within Gardner (1993)
theory of multiple intelligences, which include linguistic, musical, interpersonal and bodily
kinesthetic (e.g., gestural). Schewe suggests that a classroom promoting eective language
learning is one where learning opportunities take into account as many of these intelligences as possible. The voice training techniques in this paper draw upon the above four.
There is evidence that L2 learners have positive attitudes toward participation in drama
activities. For example, results of a survey of 24 ESL learners revealed they believed drama
activities had improved pronunciation, intonation and their ability to express themselves
(Stern, 1981). They also reported gaining self-condence and feeling less embarrassed
when speaking before others. In general, they enjoyed the activities, especially improvisations, and were motivated to continue participation.
The implementation of voice training, and drama techniques in general, is challenging
for teachers in structured language classrooms that are driven by the need to meet standardized objectives (Schmenk, 2004). The drama-oriented language course usually emphasizes speech uency over accuracy (Kao and ONeill, 1998, p. 122) a principle that
generally characterizes the view toward oral skills in communicative language teaching.
However, recent studies (e.g., Derwing et al., 1998) point to the benets of both uency
and segmental accuracy, and are compatible with research that suggests a focus on form
in grammatical accuracy is not at odds with a primary focus on meaning in the classroom
(e.g., Doughty, 2001). In such an approach, form is addressed in meaningful contexts
involving the temporary shift of learners attention to a specic form. With application
to pronunciation, Firth (1992) refers to this as the Zoom Principle (p. 178). L2 learners
often express a desire to focus their attention on form at the segmental level before proceeding to the production of discourse-level chunks of language. By encompassing both
form and meaning, theatre-based voice training techniques address these needs, initially
with sounds in isolation and ultimately within meaningful contexts. The sequence of techniques takes the learners from individual sounds to a consideration of other components
of a meaningful communicative speech event (e.g., facial expression, posture, gesture).
Once at that level, where uency in context is the focus, one can return to form accuracy
issues as needed. Therefore, the techniques are cyclic. These perspectives on the sequencing
of techniques are compatible with comments by DeKeyser (2001) based on the cognitive
psychology literature on skill automatization. Fluency, accuracy and performance in social context contribute to skill development through practice with a range of interactions,
beginning with basic structures and moving to role-plays and ultimately extended discourse in context.
In a layered approach, the focus of learner attention is shifted in stages from the physiological to the linguistic components of speech. Objectives at each layer begin with awareness
and move to practice. Learner responses move from choral to individual and nally to interactive. Participation initially involves non-linguistic responses and gradually moves toward
video shadowing (i.e., imitating anothers speech production), and ultimately to monologues
and dialogues in meaningful contexts with increasing learner autonomy. Although lexical
content may appear in the early stages, it does not become the focus until attention is directed toward prosodic features. Music is incorporated at various layers given its motivating
role through enhancing a learners psychological involvement (e.g., Miller, 1994).

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The roles of the teacher include selecting materials, modeling techniques, facilitating practice, and providing feedback. Do teachers need special training? In terms of English as the L2,
awareness of the role of prosody in pragmatics and information structure is important for the
teacher in addition to the ability to describe articulations, and demonstrate the wide range of
intonation patterns and emotional expressions. Experience in a variety of interactional situations contributes to a teachers ability to convey context-appropriate intonation and body
language to learners. Equally important is the teachers awareness of and comfort in creating
an atmosphere that can contribute to the development of the multiple intelligences noted
earlier. The teacher need not be the sole source of control in the classroom. When students
contribute ideas to the content and direction of a course as in workshop formats, they
become greater stakeholders in its success and more deeply involved in the process.
Technology plays a valuable role in our approach. Training using visualizations of prosodic features (e.g., displays that represent intonation patterns, stress and rhythm) are easy
for learners to interpret (Chun, 1998, 2002; Hardison, 2004), and can enhance their awareness and understanding of prosody (e.g., Hardison, 2004). Programs such as MacCecil
(Computerized Extraction of Components of Intonation in Language) developed by SIL for
the Macintosh, and the Windows counterpart WinCecil are readily available (http://
www.sil.org)1 and easy to use (Chun, 2002; see also Jenkins, 2004, for recent advances
in technology for pronunciation teaching). Some programs (e.g., Real-Time Pitch, Kay
Elemetrics Computerized Speech Lab) display pitch contours in real time and oer the option of overlaying one contour on another in contrasting colors for comparison of a learners utterance with that of a native speaker (e.g., Hardison, 2004).
Prosodic features should be discussed within naturally occurring contexts at the discourse level of communication (e.g., Couper-Kuhlen and Selting, 1996). Multimodal tools
such as Web-based Anvil (Kipp, 2001)2 take contextualized speech a step further by providing a screen display that integrates the audio and video components of a speech event (e.g.,
dramatic performance) with the associated pitch contour created in Praat,3 a public domain
phonetic tool. Discourse-level auditory-visual input (e.g., with Anvil) in the training of nonnative speakers produces better transfer to production of novel natural discourse than individual sentences presented auditorily only (Hardison, 2005a). Anvil is also an annotation
tool that can be congured to provide feedback on various features such as gesture use.
Multimodal tools emphasize the larger constellation of activity that surrounds the spoken language including movement of the head and body, facial cues, and hand-arm gestures (Clark, 1996; McNeill, 1992), each of which can be broken down further; for
example, facial cues include mouth movements, eye gaze, eyebrow position, and other
muscular movements. Thus, auditory-visual tools can capture the multiple dimensions
of verbal and non-verbal expression. This combination of the observable cues of a speech
event, and the use of natural discourse-level speech are parts of the overarching view of
oral skills as forms of interpersonal and intercultural communication, and are the basis
of the following recommendations for voice training in L2 speech development.
First the techniques are presented including their purpose and description with directions for implementation and specic examples. This is followed by feedback from the
1

SIL now oer a new program called Speech Tools for a low cost (US$20).
See http://www.dfki.de/~kipp/anvil. Directions are given for those who wish to obtain the address for
downloading the les. It is free for research purposes.
3
Praat, created by Boersma and Weenink, is available at http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat.
2

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presentation of these techniques at an ITA workshop, and suggested assessment options

for the classroom.
2. Classroom implementation
These techniques are intended to make students aware of the various elements of
speech. They can be the focus of a course, practiced at the beginning of a class, or before
embarking on a specic task that requires language production. For classes with exible
schedules, the complete sequence may be used; however, one- or two-class hours a week
for a few months are adequate for students to acquire basic voice training information
and skills to speak with greater eectiveness.
Overall, there are eight techniques. The rst three are physiological preparatory stages.
The fourth and fth begin to focus on language, and the nal three techniques integrate
what the student has learned with discourse-level production. The lexical content may
be tailored to student needs and interests.
(1) Relaxation.
(2) Breathing.
(3) Voice projection and communication.
(4) Flow of the voice.
(5) Song: Melody and lyrics.
(6) Shadowing and mirroring.
(7) Dramatic monologue.
(8) Dramatic diaologue.
For each technique, its purpose and description are given including the research ndings that support its use, directions for practice and specic examples.
2.1. Relaxation
Purpose and description. To warm up, release muscle tension, control muscles of the
mouth and the tongue, activate voice and speech articulators, and prepare for L2 voice
settings.
The more relaxed the speaker feels, the more accurate and uent the pronunciation of a
second language (e.g., Celce-Murcia et al., 1996); therefore, the relaxation exercise is indispensable in the warm-up phase. Both actors and language learners need to be relaxed for
eective voice production tasks.
Improving articulation by exercising facial muscles has a long historical tradition.
Demosthenes (384322 BC) reportedly overcame a speech impediment to become a successful Greek orator by talking with pebbles in his mouth.4 Face-mouth aerobics help
warm up the face, mouth, and tongue before actual voice projection. It should be emphasized to learners that enunciation (clear articulation) is more important than a rapid rate
of speech as many equate a rapid rate with sounding more native-like.
4
In the movie My Fair Lady, the character of Professor Henry Higgins (played by Rex Harrison) makes
reference to Demosthenes to justify one of his accent training tools having Eliza Doolittle (Audrey Hepburn)
recite with marbles in her mouth (Warner and Cukor, 1964).

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2.1.1. Relaxation
(a) Close the eyes and nd a relaxed position while sitting in a chair; the head should be
lowered while the arms should lie at the sides with the palms of the hands
downwards.
(b) Lift the shoulders up for a few seconds and then drop them.
(c) Bend the head forward to touch the chest, and slowly roll the neck around a couple
of times in both directions.
(d) Finally, yawn and stretch.

2.1.2. Face and mouth aerobics

(a) Push the lips as far forward as possible as if exaggerating the production of the
vowel sound /u/ (to), and then pull them as far back as possible as when making
the sound /i/ (tea). Then try /o/ (toe) and /e/ (bay). Shape the mouth to produce
the dierent vowel sounds in sequence as uidly as possible /u/, /o/, /a/, /e/, /i/.
With this sequence, one begins with the high back rounded vowel with lips protruded (/u/) and gradually unrounds the lips, opens the mouth with a lower jaw
drop (/a/) and then begins to close it again while spreading the corners of the
mouth out to the sides ultimately reaching the high front unrounded vowel /i/.
The articulatory gestures are more important than their status as vowel sounds.
Continue the sequence several times without interruption. Watch your lip movements in a mirror.
(b) Imagine you are chewing gum and start chewing for 1 min.
(c) Tap the tip of the tongue repeatedly against the alveolar ridge area (behind the upper
teeth) and make a continuous tapping sound (e.g., the medial sound in American
English butter).

2.2. Breathing
Purpose and description. To increase awareness of the breathing mechanism and ability
to pause language-appropriately in long sentences; to expand use of the vowel space for
greater intelligibility.
The rst step in achieving ecient control over voice and speech is to understand the
breathing mechanism. Inspiration patterns during speech vary according to a speakers native language and can transfer to the L2. Keithly (1999) found that speakers of Chinese,
Japanese, and Vietnamese adjusted the inspiration patterns they used to produce English
following accent modication training. Unfortunately, no training details were given.
Maintaining thought-group boundaries in pausing is important to the comprehensibility
of the discourse level of speech (Chun, 2002; Wennerstrom, 1998).
2.2.1. Abdominal breathing
(a) Place the hands under the ribs around the abdominal area. Take a deep breath and
slowly exhale to feel the movement in the abdominal area. Notice that the abdominal
region is the origin of breathing.
(b) Inhale to a count of 2 and then exhale.
(c) Repeat step (b) to a count of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, respectively.

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(d) Take a deep breath and hold it for a few seconds and then exhale slowly making a
humming /i/ sound holding it as long as possible. Note the tactile feedback provided
by the tongue position.

2.2.2. Practising vocal production with breathing

After students become accustomed to abdominal breathing, they practice projecting
the voice by inserting vowel sounds, then CV (consonant-vowel) syllables, and then
phrases. Attention should be drawn to the shape of the mouth. When producing /i/,
the upper and lower teeth should approximate each other as when one smiles. For /a/,
the lower jaw drops to create an open-mouth position. Students may benet from an initial exaggeration of the articulatory settings for each of these productions, and awareness
that an expanded use of the vowel space contributes to more intelligible speech (Bradlow
et al., 1996).
(a) Take a deep breath and repeat the sequence of vowel sounds in step (2.1.2a) until a
complete sequence is produced uently and comfortably in a single breath.
(b) Produce dierent vowel sounds starting from the basic /a/ sound common across
languages preceded by a variety of consonant sounds beginning with /h/ to facilitate vowel production (e.g., who-who-who, ho-ho-ho, hah-hah-hah, hay-hay-hay,
he-he-he).
(c) Practice with dierent consonants such as /m/, /b/, /s/. The focus is the production of
combined articulatory gestures rather than their status as speech sounds although
many of these CV combinations are words (e.g. who, me, bow, etc.).
(d) Increase the challenge by alternating the vowels (i.e., ha, hay, ha, hay, ha, hay and so
on).
(e) Produce the following short commands, each in a single breath. They gradually
increase in length. These examples were used in a workshop for ITAs: Lets go.
Do it now. Silence, please. Give him a hand. May I have your attention? Well talk
about this matter later.

2.2.3. Breathing for pausing

(a) Students are given a set of sentences diering in length.
(b) Produce each sentence in a single breath. In the examples below, the heavily voiced
phonetic environments allow sustained phonation that contributes to blending and
linking in the production of English. One can continue to build on the basic
sentence.
We were away.
We were away a year ago.
You know we were away a year ago.
Computerized visual displays, as described earlier, are useful here for feedback as sustained phonation produces a continuous display (see Fig. 1).
To pause appropriately in discourse-level speech, students should: (1) listen to an audio/
video tape of a person speaking/reading while following along with the script, (2) put the

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Fig. 1. Visualizations of pitch contours with sustained phonation. In View Screen A, the stress was placed on the
second syllable of away; in B, stress was placed on We and on year. Both were produced by the rst author using
Kay Elemetrics Real-Time Pitch Program.

mark / whenever there is a pause, and (3) then practice reading sections to a partner.
Negotiation may occur if the partner disagrees with the pausing. The teacher gives the correct pausing afterwards and discusses any dierences that could occur in interpretation
with dierent pausing. Students may record their own reading of paragraphs from books
or magazines they select. Activities such as these develop their awareness for when they
should pause in English. Hamlets soliloquy (To be or not to be. . .) from the Shakespearean play is a good example for the more advanced student.
2.3. Voice projection and communication
Purpose and description. To increase the ability to speak aloud with communicative intent in order to improve voice quality, condence, and spontaneity.
Projection is the conscious eort to direct or beam the voice to a particular group or
spot (Ecroyd et al., 1966). A voice projection exercise, commonly practiced by actors,
can help language learners overcome their shyness, quietness, and lack of condence,
and thus improve their communication. Individuals are less likely to feel uncomfortable
if the exercise is initially practiced as a group with choral response and a condent instructor, and when the class atmosphere is friendly.

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The Making Your Voice Heard technique is designed to help improve volume; however, good speakers also need to be communicative to send meaningful messages. The
way things are said frequently controls the way a person replies as well as controlling
the intonation and stress of the replies (Via, 1976, p. 18). The Being Loud and Communicative exercise helps learners succeed in loudness and communication. This is followed
by a communicative role-play.
At this point, students can begin to create the content of the exercises. This may be related to specic disciplines or represent the early stages of playwriting (Elgar, 2000) providing an authentic context for language practice, an integration of skills, and
opportunities for negotiation among students who may develop skits in a workshop context. This integration of language skills is expanded when students reach the stages of performing monologues and dialogues.
2.3.1. Making your voice heard
(a) Find a partner and stand in the middle of a room.
(b) Face your partner. One person produces a sound. If the partner hears the sound
clearly, s/he takes one step back. If not, s/he must stand still, signaling that the
speaker needs to speak louder to be heard. Then the other person produces a sound
and the sequence continues.
(c) Steps are repeated until both partners reach the perimeter of the room.
(d) Repeat the exercise with syllables, words and sentences.
Demosthenes reportedly increased the projection of his voice by shouting while near the
ocean to make his voice heard above the sound of the waves. When all pairs of students
practice this exercise simultaneously, it becomes necessary for them to project their voices
to overcome ambient noise. This exercise can also be done outdoors.
2.3.2. Being loud and communicative
(a) Work in pairs, each in a dierent area of the room.
(b) Each member of a pair has a card. Each card has dierent sentences on it so that
the cards for each pair together make up a scene. Each person is allowed to read
her/his own lines silently but does not see the partners card.
(c) When ready, practice the scene. Refer to the cards as necessary.
(d) Practice with the goal of producing a natural conversation and reect on the relationship between the interlocutors.
(e) Compose new scenes.

2.3.3. Role play (guided and improvisation)

The teacher prepares role-play cards that contain a brief description of a situation that
will involve two people/roles, but not the specic words. The situation may relate to a particular occupational setting to address individual needs.
(a) Find a partner.
(b) Each member of a pair has a card. Each card describes a dierent role for the situation. Do not look at your partners card.
(c) The pairs improvise a scene.

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2.4. Flow of the voice

Purpose and description. To establish an individuals optimal pitch level (a comfortable
sustainable level from which speakers can increase and decrease pitch), to expand pitch
range, and utilize the vowel space fully.
To speak and communicate meaningfully, one should be able to control a variety of
pitch levels. In this exercise, students practice various CV sequences (i.e., ma, me, may,
mow, moo) with variation in pitch. Teachers may assume the role of an orchestra conductor directing the students voices. This exercise is appropriate for the production of continuous sounds such as vowels, fricatives (e.g., /f/, /s/) and nasals (e.g., /m/).
(a) Determine a comfortable pitch level by taking a deep breath and saying uhm-mm
(represents a high and low tone). Then produce ma-me-may-mow-moo with focal
stress on ma. Produce the sequence with stress on me, and so on until the sequence
has been practiced with stress on each of the syllables.
(b) Next, the teacher models an English consonant sound to the class that they are able
to produce (e.g., /b/). Students repeat it. Place the sound in CV syllables ba-bee-baybow-boo. Repeat this step with dierent pitch scales and sound combinations. A
good melody for this exercise is Handels Gloria in excelsis Deo (available from
URL http://wilstar.com/xmas/angelswehaveheardonhigh.htm ).
(c) Practice these CV syllables by shifting focal stress (shown in bold type) to each syllable in sequence (e.g., ba-bee-bay. . .; ba-bee-bay. . .). This stress will correspond to
the highest pitch in the sequence.
(d) Practice diphthongs (e.g., the vowel sound in by) from lowest to highest tone and vice
versa.
(e) Produce the following with a rise in pitch on each word:
higher
and
higher
climb
voice
my
make
can
I
Repeat in the reverse step-down manner with the sentence I can make my voice fall
lower and lower beginning on a high tone and ending on a low one.
Computerized visual displays are helpful as feedback and emphasize the relationship between stress, intonation, and pragmatics. Fig. 1 shows the pitch display for the sentence We
were away a year ago. In View Screen A (top), pitch rise is on the stressed syllable of the word
away, which would be a pragmatically appropriate response to a question such as What were
you doing last year at this time? In contrast, in B, pitch rise and stress are on We and year,
which could represent a response to another speakers statement about his/her activities.
2.5. Song: melody and lyrics
Purpose and description. Motivation, maximize pitch range, ow of voice, rhythm.

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Music is highly motivating, and helps blending and linking, the ow of speech, and the
rise/fall of the voice all of which maximize pitch range.
Initially, teachers should select familiar simple melodies for practice. In this exercise,
start by having students become familiar with the melody without the lyrics (similar to
the prosody of language) in order to draw their attention to the rhythm rather than the
production of individual segments. Then they hum and tap along with the music (i.e., a
non-linguistic response). After that, insert sounds into the notes. This activity is set for
choral singing as some students may be reluctant to sing alone, at least at rst. For lower
prociency levels, consider using childrens songs or folk songs as their lyrics are generally
more comprehensible.
(a) Play the song (without lyrics) completely. The second time, lower the volume, and
tap along with your hands, feet, or a pencil, or hum.
(b) Repeat the melody, and sing the whole tune using the syllable ha.
(c) Play the melody again and again singing with dierent combinations of sounds.
(d) Look over the lyrics ensuring comprehension.
(e) Sing the song as a group.
(f) Rewrite the lyrics of the song.

2.6. Shadowing and mirroring

Purpose and description. To raise awareness to and practice the components of a
speech event including lip movements, facial cues and hand gestures as well as the
voice.
Shadowing is an exercise that involves repetition or echoing of a speakers utterance.
Recorded shadowing of a variety of speakers is a technique used in simultaneous interpreter training (Sueyoshi, A., personal communication, 2003) allowing a focus on the
development of clarity and uency in speech (attention is later directed toward the content
of the discourse). The shadowing task may be followed by a comparison of the native
speakers recording with the shadowed version to note the areas where improvement
may be needed. In addition to vocal repetition, mirroring expands the imitation to include
a speakers posture, facial expression, gestures and other movements. The number of elements one chooses to focus on and their sequence depend on the learners objectives and
prociency level.

2.6.1. Shadowing in a circle

(a) Sit in a circle. Each person chooses a visually salient sound (consonants rst, then
vowels, then CV sequences). The leader starts.
(b) The person next to the leader looks carefully at the leaders face and mouth movement and copies it. Then s/he pronounces that sound aloud and the leader conrms
if this is correct. Lip movements contribute signicantly to perceptual accuracy and
exercises that increase their information value for L2 learners facilitate perception of
individual sounds (Hardison, 2003) and earlier identication of words (Hardison,
2005b).
(c) Continue the exercise around the circle.

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2.6.2. Shadowing or mirroring with video

Videotaped/DVD material is also useful as the same input may be repeated any number
of times allowing a focus on a specic section, the opportunity to stop at a particular spot,
and self-study. Recorded material that demonstrates dierent types of hand and arm gestures such as iconic/representational (associated with meaning) and beat gestures (linked
to rhythm) (see McNeill (1992) for a summary and diagrams) is helpful. A layered approach is recommended here also, focusing initially on body position, general facial
expression, and hand gestures. Then direct attention toward the lip movements and associated speech sounds.
(a) First, select and watch a short video segment (e.g., a portion of a movie) without the
sound. Focus attention on elements sequentially; for example, body position and
general gesture use, facial expression (e.g., indication of emotion through brow raise,
etc.), degree of mouth movement when talking. Discuss impression(s) of the character without the sound.
(b) Watch the same segment again with sound. First, notice the components of the
speech event, then shadow the speech, then mirror the speaker. Focus in stages; for
example, on
(i) Gesture use.
(ii) Pausing: Download a movie script from the Web and have the students mark
the pauses as they listen to a segment. Discuss the structural groups separated
by pauses and the meaning they convey.
(iii) Prosodic features: Pitch rise and fall, rhythm, stress, tempo.
(iv) Individual sounds and their corresponding lip movements: Scripts allow a
viewer to predict where dicult sounds will occur.

2.7. Dramatic monologue

Purpose and description. To speak with eective pitch variations, hold attention, and
communicate shades of meaning and emotion. Focus sequentially on prosodic characteristics and then individual sounds.
Dramatic monologue is a speech made by an individual character who narrates a story
or his/her feelings, emotions, or thoughts. To perform a monologue eectively, one needs
to understand the character and the story in order to be able to express the material with
appropriate intonation, rhythm, and stress. Dramatic monologue is an excellent exercise
for language students after they have practiced techniques (1) through (6) and are ready
to integrate what they have learned about intonation, rhythm and pitch modulation to
make the monologue authentic and expressive. The teacher selects a monologue from a
play, story, or poem (e.g., Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, Arthur Millers Death of a
Salesman, etc.) and prepares dierent recordings of the selected monologue varying the
emotional tone and style of speech for later use (see (d) below). The script is distributed
to the class.
(a) Discuss as a class the meaning of the monologue.
(b) Teacher models a reading of the monologue in a slow, monotone manner. The class
critiques this version.

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(c) The class reads the monologue together. Discuss problematic sounds, words, or
phrases.
(d) Listen to the dierent styles of speech previously recorded. Mark the intonation patterns (i.e., the rise and fall of pitch), stress, and pauses on the script. Put the class into
groups and have them discuss the dierences between the two recordings.
(e) Conduct individual performances of the monologue. Teachers may assign dierent
characteristics (age, occupation, or other backgrounds) and emotions to be incorporated into the performance. Students may select their own materials or work in
groups to create them.
(f) Performances may be videorecorded. Anvil (Kipp, 2001) can be used to provide feedback on features (e.g., gestures) of selected video segments with associated pitch contours. Integrating prosodic features and pragmatics through technology (as noted for
Fig. 1) can be recycled throughout this sequence of techniques.
2.8. Dramatic dialogue
Purpose and description. To communicate meaningfully with discourse-level speech by
applying all the previous elements the students have practiced. To provide feedback by
videorecording performances that can be viewed later by the participants and the teacher
separately or together to share observations and areas in which to improve.
A dramatic dialogue can be employed in the nal step of the voice-training sequence.
This pair work gives students an opportunity to help each other interpret the characteristics and the interaction of two characters in a given situation, and express it by combining
a variety of intonation patterns, uctuations in volume, and so forth according to the situation and the interlocutors reaction.
The teacher selects various dialogues (e.g., femalefemale, malemale, and female
male) appropriate for the interests and needs of the class. Dialogues from one-act plays
or scenes for young actors are good choices because they are short and the language, plot,
and situation are not complicated. This exercise would become the focus of a drama-based
curriculum. The teacher explains the background and situation of the dialogues to the
class and then has each person choose a partner to perform one of the dialogues.
(a) Partners help each other interpret the dialogue they have chosen.
(b) Each pair practices the dialogue with the script to mark features such as stress, intonation, pauses, etc.
(c) Each pair performs in front of the class without the script. Remind them to make eye
contact and to concentrate on communication rather than the lines themselves.

3. Feedback and assessment options

The above voice-training sequence is based on our combined experiences in the classroom and theatre, related research ndings, theoretical foundation, and the positive comments from various audiences to which they have been presented including L2 learners,
pronunciation teachers, and ITAs. At a recent workshop for pre-service ITAs (Hardison
and Sonchaeng, 2003), over 80% of the attendees indicated on anonymous questionnaires
that they had learned a lot during the session that could be transferred to their teaching.

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A course using drama activities including voice-training techniques to improve pronunciation can also
(a) integrate reading and writing as well as listening and speaking skills through selection, discussion and adaptation of existing materials by the learners, and perhaps
development of their own;
(b) use technology to enhance learning as a class and/or as self study;
(c) allow students to create a portfolio that includes individual and pair or group performance samples (e.g., monologues, dialogues, specic interactional tasks), perhaps
culminating in a theatrical performance;
(d) provide the opportunity to assess the various components of learners communicative competence (grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic) within meaningful contexts (see Kao and ONeill, 1998 for a discussion).
Young (2002) emphasized that the L2 learners use of the spoken language is a challenging issue in language assessment. Communicative interaction takes place within the
linguistic and situational dimensions of a context with coordination between speech and
non-verbal communication; . . . the conversation is not constructed through the single
modality of speech (p. 249). To capture a contextualized speech event, Riggenbach
(1998) proposed the use of oral language portfolios for assessment purposes including a
variety of exchanges, speech acts, some monologues and dialogues, some scripted and some
spontaneous (e.g., casual conversations). Audio and/or audiovisual recordings of monologues, dialogues and other extended stretches of speech or actual performances within a
drama context can become part of a portfolio that demonstrates improvement over time
to both student and teacher. Reective pronunciation journals as suggested by Huntley
(1999) and Miccoli (2003) have revealed improvement in the L2 speech of ESL learners
following voice training in classes taught by the rst author. Reection on the part of
the students directs their attention to the progress they have made over time in a language
skill that often requires patience and a longitudinal view in terms of improvement.
4. Conclusion
Training of the voice is a valuable component in the teaching of oral communication to
L2 learners across levels of prociency and learning environments. The suggested techniques, their sequence, and the use of technology are based on our combined experiences
and the results of related research. There is an increasing role for computer-assisted learning with tools that provide easily interpretable displays such as those for prosodic features,
and multimodal environments that combine the auditory and visual components of a
speech event.
Even teachers without a substantial amount of class time to devote to the full sequence
of techniques can incorporate some of the elements into their classrooms such as an understanding of the articulatory mechanism and voice settings, breathing, resonance and relaxation techniques, monologue rehearsal to enhance tonal memory, and imitation of songs
at dierent pitch levels to increase vocal range. Imitation as in shadowing and mirroring
facilitates noticing and practicing of the components of a speech event. The ultimate goal
is the development of automaticity in their acquisition and context-appropriate use in
spontaneous speech.

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607

Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the comments from those who attended our Speech/Pronunciation
Discussion Session at the TESOL conference held in Baltimore in March, 2003, Julia
Lenardon of the Michigan State University Theatre Department, Anne Todd, and an
anonymous reviewer.
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