CompilationoftheDifferentTheoriesinPsychology

Submittedby:

CarenB.Chavez
JD1

Submittedto:
JaisCampanillaIII
Instructor

TableofContents

Title

Page

ResearchMethods

TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning

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TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion

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TheoriesofHumanDevelopment

a. FreudsPsychosexualTheory
b. EriksonsPsychosocialStageofDevelopment
c. PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment
d. KohlbergsMoralStagesofDevelopment

ResearchMethodsinPsychology
Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic
settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas ofabnormal psychology,
biological psychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental
psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and others. All branches of
psychology can have a research component to them. Research psychology is
contrastedwithappliedpsychology.
Research in psychology is conducted in broadaccordwith the standardsof the
scientific method, encompassing both qualitativeethological andquantitativestatistical
modalities to generate and evaluate explanatory hypotheses with regard to
psychological phenomena. Where research ethics and the state of development in a
given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by experimental
protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other
fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Qualitative
psychological research utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including
action research, ethnography, exploratory statistics, structured interviews, and
participant observation, to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by
classical experimentation.Research inhumanistic psychologyismoretypicallypursued
byethnographic,historical,andhistoriographicmethods.
The testing of different aspects of psychological function is asignificant area of
contemporarypsychology. Psychometric and statisticalmethodspredominate,including
variouswellknownstandardized tests as wellas thosecreated adhocas thesituation
orexperimentrequires.
Academic psychologists mayfocuspurely onresearchandpsychologicaltheory,
aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other
psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploysuchknowledgeforimmediate
and practical benefit.However, these approaches are not mutually exclusiveandmost
psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some
pointduring their career. Clinicalpsychology, among many ofthevarious disciplines of

psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and

experience withresearch andexperimentalmethodswhichtheywillcontinue tobuildup
aswell as employ asthey treat individualswith psychologicalissuesorusepsychology
tohelpothers.
When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge,
especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing
body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for
universitydegrees inpsychology, so that students acquireanadequateknowledgeina
number of areas. Additionally, areas ofpractical psychology,where psychologists offer
treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government
regulatorybodiesaswell.
Quantitative psychology involves the application of statistical analysis to
psychological research, and the development of novel statistical approaches for
measuringand explaining human behavior. It isayoung field (onlyrecentlyhavePh.D.
programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it is loosely comprised of the
subfieldspsychometricsandmathematicalpsychology.
Psychometricsisthefieldof psychologyconcernedwiththetheoryandtechnique
ofpsychologicalmeasurement,whichincludesthe measurementofknowledge,abilities,
attitudes, interests, achievement in particular degree or course, and personality traits
(CarlDellomos,2009). Measurement of theseunobservablephenomenaisdifficult,and
much oftheresearchandaccumulatedknowledgeinthisdisciplinehasbeendeveloped
in an attemptto properlydefine and quantify suchphenomena.Psychometricresearch
typically involves two major research tasks,namely:(i)the construction ofinstruments
and procedures for measurement and (ii) the development and refinement of
theoreticalapproachestomeasurement.
ResearchMethods

Naturalisticobservation
is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social

scientists. This techniqueinvolvesobserving subjectsin their naturalenvironment.This

type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is

unrealistic,costprohibitive,orwouldundulyaffectthesubject'sbehavior.
Example:
ObservingTeensinamallduringfilmshowingasaschoolactivity.
ObservingKidsatplayinaparkincomparisontoagamezone.

Casestudy
aspecific reallifesituation orimaginedscenario,usedasatrainingtoolin

business schools and firms. Students ortrainees arerequiredtoanalyzetheprescribed

cases and present their interpretations orsolutions, supported by the line ofreasoning
employedandassumptionsmade.
Example:
Acase studyinvolving business transaction where employees coniveina
fraudulent transactions. What should employers set up as internal controls to avoid it
fromhappening.

Surveys,Questionnaires,Interviews
List of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to

extract specific information. Itserves fourbasicpurposes: to (1) collect theappropriate

data, (2) make data comparable and amenable to analysis, (3) minimize bias in
formulatingandaskingquestion,and(4)tomakequestionsengagingandvaried.

Correlationalstudies
is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other, sothat when you

canseeone changing,youhaveanideaofhowtheotherwillchange.Thisoftenentails
theresearcherusingvariablesthattheycan'tcontrol.
The goal of correlational research is to find out whether one or more variables
can predict other variables. Correlational research allows us to find out what variables
may be related. However, the fact that two things are related or correlated does not
mean there is a causal relationship. It is important to make a distinction between

correlation and causation. Two things can be correlated without there being a causal
relationship.
Example:
Decker (1987) found that a supervisor's perceived sense of humor was
positivelycorrelatedwithpeople'sjobsatisfaction.

TheExperimentalMethod
Conducting psychology experiment can bealong, complicated, andintimidating

process. It can be confusing especially when one is not quite sure where to begin or
which steps to take. Like other sciences,psychologyutilizesthe
scientific methodand
bases conclusions upon empirical evidence. When conducting an experiment, it is
importanttofollowthefivebasicstepsofthescientificmethod:
1. Askaquestionthatcanbetested
2. Designastudyandcollectdata
3. Analyzeresultsandreachconclusions
4. Sharetheresultswiththescientificcommunity
5. Replicatetheresults
Thesefivestepsserveasageneraloutlineoftheentireprocess.
Step1:FindaResearchProblemorQuestion
Picking a research problem can be oneof the most challenging steps.After all,
there are so many different topics you might choose to investigate. Consider some of
thefollowing:
Investigate a commonly held belief. Folk psychology is a good source of
unanswered questions that can serve as the basis for psychological research. For
example, many people believe that staying up all night to cram for a big exam can
actually hurttestperformance.Astudy canbe conducted inwhichtocomparethetest
scores of students who stayed up all night studying, versus the scores ofstudentswho
gotafullnight'ssleeppriortotheexam.

Review psychology literature. Published studies are a great source of

unanswered research questions. Inmanycases,theauthorswillevennotetheneedfor
further research. Find a published studythat is intriguing, and then come upwithsome
questionsthatrequirefurtherexploration.
Think about everyday problems. There are many practical applications for
psychology research. Explore various problems that you or othersfaceeach day,and
then considerhow could the researchbe a potentialsolutions. For example, you might
investigate different memorization strategies to determine which methods are most
effective.
Step2:DefineYourVariables
Variables are anything that might impact the outcome of the study. An
operational definition describes exactly what the variables are and how they are
measured within the contextof the study. For example, if astudyisdoneontheimpact
of sleep deprivationondrivingperformance, it wouldneed tooperationallydefine what
ismeantbysleepdeprivationanddrivingperformance.
In this exampleitmightdefinesleepdeprivationasgettinglessthansevenhours
of sleep at night and define driving performance as how well a participant does on a
driving test. Whatis the purpose ofoperationally defining variables? The mainpurpose
iscontrol.Byunderstandingwhatismeasured,onecancontrolitbyholdingthevariable
constantbetweenallofthegroupsormanipulatingitasan
independentvariable
.
Step3:
Develop
aHypothesis
The next step is to develop a testable
hypothesis that predicts how the
operationally defined variables are related. In our example in the previous step, our
hypothesismightbe:"Studentswhoaresleepdeprivedwillperformworsethanstudents
whoarenotsleepdeprivedonatestofdrivingperformance."
In order to determine if the results of the study are significant, it isessentialto
also have a null hypothesis. The null hypothesisis theprediction thatone variable will
have no association tothe othervariable. In otherwords, the null hypothesisassumes

that there will be no difference inthe effects of thetwotreatments inourexperimental

andcontrolgroups.
The null hypothesis is assumed to be valid unless contradicted by the results.
The researchers can either reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative
hypothesisornotrejectthenullhypothesis.
It is important to remember that not rejectingthe null hypothesis does not mean
thatthe researchers areaccepting the null hypothesis. Tosaythatoneisacceptingthe
null hypothesis is to suggest that something is true simply because itdid not find any
evidence againstit. This representsalogical fallacy that should be avoidedinscientific
research.
Step4:ConductBackgroundResearch
Once there is a developed testable hypothesis, it is important to spend some
time doing some background research.What do researchers alreadyknow about your
topic?What questionsremain unanswered? Onecanlearn about previousresearchon
a topic by exploring books, journal articles, online databases, newspapers, and
websitesdevotedtothesubject.
Reasonstoconductbackgroundresearch:
Reading previous research gains a better understanding of what will one
encounterduringtheexperiment.
Understanding the background of the topic provides a better basis for the
hypothesis. After conducting a thorough review of the literature, one might
choosetoaltertheirhypothesis.
Background research also allows to explain why one chose to investigate a
particularhypothesisandarticulatewhythetopicmeritsfurtherexploration.
As one research the history of its topic, it is remembered to take careful notes
andcreateaworking
bibliographyofthesources.Thisinformationwillbevaluablewhen
tobeginawriteupoftheexperimentresults.

Step5:ChooseanExperimentalDesign
After conducting background research and finalizing the hypothesis, the next
step is to develop an experimentaldesign. There are threebasictypes of designsthat
youmightbeutilize.Eachhasitsownstrengthsandweaknesses.
PreExperimentalDesigns: This typeofexperimentaldesigndoesnotincludea
control group. A single group of participants is studied, and there is no
comparison between a treatment group and a control group. Examples of
preexperimental designs include
case studies (one group is given a treatment
and the results are measured) and pretest or posttest studies (one group is
tested,givenatreatmentandthenretested).
QuasiExperimental Designs:
This type ofexperimental design does includea
controlgroup,butthedesigndoesnotincluderandomization.
True Experimental Designs: A true experimental design include both of the
elementsthatthepreexperimentaldesigns andquasiexperimentaldesignslack
ontheirowncontrolgroupsandrandomassignmenttogroups.
Step6:StandardizeYourProcedures
In order to arrive at legitimate conclusions, it is essential to compare apples to
apples. Each participant in each group must receive the same treatment under the
same conditions. For example, in our hypothetical study on the effects of sleep
deprivation on driving performance, the driving test must be administered to each
participantin the sameway.The driving course must bethe same,theobstaclesfaced
mustbethesame,andthetimegivenmustbethesame.
Step7:ChooseYourParticipants
In addition to making sure that the testing conditionsarestandardized,itis also
essential to ensure that the pool of participants is the same. If the individuals in the
control group (those who are not sleep deprived) all happen to be amateur race car
drivers while theexperimental group (thosethat are sleepdeprived) areallpeoplewho
justrecentlyearnedtheirdriverslicenses,yourexperimentwilllackstandardization.

Whenchoosingsubjects, there area numberof differenttechniques that canbe

used. A simple random sample involves randomly selecting a number of participants
from agroup. A stratified randomsample requires randomlyselecting participantsfrom
differentsubsets of thepopulation.Thesesubsetsmightincludecharacteristics suchas
geographiclocation,age,sex,race,orsocioeconomicstatus.
Step8:PerformTestsandCollectData
After one have selectedthe participants, thenextsteps are to conduct thetests
and collect the data. Prior to doing any testing, however, there are a few important
concerns that needs to be addressed. First, the need to be sure that the testing
procedures are ethical. Generally, it needs to gain permission to conduct any type of
testing with human participants by submitting the details of the experiment to the
school's Institutional Review Board, sometimes referred to as the 'Human Subjects
Committee.'
After the approval from the academic institution's IRB, it needs to present
informed consent forms toeach oftheparticipants. This form offers informationon the
study, the data that will be gathered, and how the results will be used. Theformalso
givesparticipantstheoptiontowithdrawfromthestudyatanypointintime.
Once this step has beencompleted, the researchercanbeginadministeringthe
testingproceduresandcollectingthedata.
Step9:AnalyzetheResults
After collecting the data, it is time to analyze the results of the experiment.
Researchersutilizestatistics to determine if theresultsof the studysupporttheoriginal
hypothesis and to determine if the results are statistically significant. Statistical
significancemeansthat theresultsof the study areunlikely to haveoccurredsimplyby
chance.
The types of statistical methods a researcher may use to analyze the data
depends largely on the type of data that was collected. If the researcher is using a
randomsampleofalargerpopulation,heorshewillneedtoutilizeinferentialstatistics.

These statistical methods make inferences about how the results relate to the
population at large. Because in making inferences based upon a sample, it has tobe
assumedthattherewillbeacertainmarginoferror.
Step10:WriteupandSharetheResults
The final task in conducting a psychology experiment is to communicate the
results. By sharing the experiment with thescientific community, oneis contributingto
the knowledge base on that particular topic. One of the most common ways to share
research results is to publish the study in a peerreviewed professional journal. Other
methods include sharing results at conferences, in book chapters, or in academic
presentations.
In the case, it is likely that the researcher will have a formal writeup of the
experimentinthesameformatrequiredinaprofessionaljournalarticleor
labreport
:
TitlePage
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Tables
andFigures

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TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning
In psychology, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in, or
acquisition of, knowledge or behavior. The key term here is relatively, because
although we tend to hold on to what we learn, it can be changed a later date. For
example, your friend teaches you how to play tennis, but later you get a qualified
instructor who modifies and improves your technique. What we learn can also be
forgotten over time, especially if wedo notregularlyusetheskillsorknowledgethatwe
have acquired. For example, you may learn to drive a car, but if you dont drive for
several years, you will probably forget what you had previously learned andsowould
needtopracticeagain.
In addition tothis, inorderforus tolearn something,wefirstneedtoexperience
itatthelevelofsensationviaourfivesenses (i.e.touch,taste,hearing,sight andsmell).
Aswithout our senses,learningwouldbevirtuallyimpossible.Belowwelookatsomeof
themaintheoriesoflearningthataretaughtinpsychology:
1. Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning that has been
acquired through experience. One of the best known examples of classical
conditioning can be found with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his
experimentsondogs.
In these experiments, Pavlov trained hisdogsto salivatewhentheyheard
abellring. In orderto dothis, hefirstshowedthem foodwhich naturallycaused
themtosalivate.
Later, Pavlov would ring a bell every time he brought the food out, until
eventually, he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without
giving them any food.In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed
how a reflex (i.e. salivation,anaturalbodilyresponse)couldbecomeconditioned
(modified) to an external stimulus(the bell)thereby creating aconditionedreflex
orresponse.
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ThecomponentsofClassicalConditioningare:

Theunconditionedstimulus

Theconditionedstimulus

Theunconditionedreflex

Theconditionedreflex

In its strictest definition, classical conditioningisdescribedasapreviously

neutralstimuluswhich causes areflex,wherestimulusmeanssomethingwhich
causesaphysicalresponse.
TheUnconditionedStimulus(food)
An unconditioned stimulus is anything which can evoke a response
withoutpriorlearningorconditioning.Forexample,whenadogeatssomefoodit
causes the dogs mouth to salivate. Therefore, the food is an unconditioned
stimulus because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and
without the dog having to learnhow to salivate. Unconditioned Stimuluscauses
anautomaticreflexresponse.
ConditionedStimulus(bell)
The conditioned stimulus is created by learning, and therefore, does not
create a response without prior conditioning. For example, whenPavlov rang a
bellandcausedthedogstosalivate,thiswasaconditionedstimulusbecausethe
dogs had learned to associate the bell with food. If they had not learned to
associate the bell with food, they would not have salivated when the bell was
rung.
ConditionedStimulus
A need tolearn beforehand so thatthe stimuluswillcreate a response. It
isanacquiredpowertochangesomething.

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UnconditionedReflex(salivation)
An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without
you having to think about it, such as your mouthsalivatingatthe smell offood.
Unconditioned Reflexhappens automatically and youdidnt havetolearnhowto
doit.
ConditionedReflex
A conditioned reflex is a reflex that you have learned to associate with
something. For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when
previously (without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.
Conditioned Reflex be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus (i.e. a
previouslyneutralstimulus).
BehavioralPatternsofClassicalConditioning
The word conditioning is used to mean a type of learning that occurs
without you having to think about it, almost like an automatic type of learning.
Although later on, this learning may be reinforced by reflecting upon that
experience. For example, sometimes you will see a dog flinch when you raise
your hand. This flinching is a conditioned reflex, and can be seen in dogs who
havebeen mistreated bytheir owner.Thesamecanbefoundinwomenwhoare
beatenbytheirhusbands.Thislatterexampleshowsthatclassicalconditioningis
notsolelyconfinedtoanimals,asitcanjustaseasilyoccurinhumans.
The three main behavioral patterns that are associated with classical
conditioningare:
a. Extinction
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented a
number of times without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if we
ring a bell and cause a dog to salivate, then we have a conditioned
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stimulus. But if we keep ringing that bell withoutgiving thedog any food
(unconditioned stimulus), then eventually the dog will disassociate
(unlearn) the bell from the foodand so will no longersalivate. Therefore,
extinction has occurred because the bell no longerhas any effect on the
dog. This process of extinction is used by psychologists to help people
overcometheirfearsorphobias.
For example, if you have a strong fear of heights, then by
constantly exposing yourself to heights you will eventually unlearn your
fear via a process known as desensitization. This can be done through
immediate exposure, whereby you go to the top of a very tall building
immediately.Orby gradualexposure, whereyou graduallyworkyourway
upatall building floor by floor.Note: Extinction isdifferentfromforgetting,
becauseextinctioninvolvesunlearningsomething.
In brief: Extinction occurs whenwe unlearn something,or become
desensitized to it,and thestimulus no longercreates the effect it used to
cause.
b.StimulusGeneralization
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus thatis similar toa
conditioned stimulus creates the conditioned reflex. For example, if we
can make a dog salivate by ringingabell (conditionedstimulus), andwe
can make the same dog salivate by ringing a slightly different sounding
bell, then what wehave demonstrated isstimulus generalization.Inbrief:
Stimulus generalization occurs when something similar toourconditioned
stimuluscreatesthesameresponse(theconditionedreflex).
c.Discrimination
Continuing from theexample above,ifwewerethentouseanother
bell which produced a different sound but this time the dog did not
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salivate, then what we have demonstrated is discrimination because the

dog no longer associates that sound with food (i.e. it has discriminated
against it). In brief: Discrimination occurs when our new stimulus is too
differentfromouroriginalconditionedstimulustocausetheeffectwewant
(theconditionedreflex).
2. Operant conditioning is a term used to describe behavior which has been
reinforced by reward or discouraged through punishment. For example, if a
motherwantshe daughtertocleanherroom,thenshemaygivehersomecandy
everytimeshecleansit.
Given enough time, the girl will start to clean her room more often
becausesheknowsthatshewillgetsomecandyinreturnfordoingso.
As a result, the girls behavior (cleaning her room) has been modified
(conditioned) because she has learned to associate a behavior with a reward.
Although this may soundsimilar inprinciple to classical conditioning,itis infact
differentbecause operantconditioning requiresaction on the part of thelearner.
Asaresult, the girlwillnotgetanycandyuntilaftershehascleanedherroom.In
classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (candy) is used regardless of
what the learner does. Operant behavior is defined as actions which have
consequences.
The
Skinner Box was introduced by B.F.Skinner who is best knownfor
operant conditioning and the device he invented to research it, a device called
the operant conditioningapparatus ortheSkinnerBox.TheSkinnerboxinvolved
placing an animal (such as a rat or pigeon) into a sealed box with a lever that
would release food when pressed. If food was released every time the rat
pressedthe lever, it would press it moreand morebecause itlearnedthatdoing
sogivesitfood.

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Lever pressing is described as an operant behavior, because it is an

action that results in a consequence. In other words, it operates on the
environment andchanges it insomeway.Thefoodthatisreleasedasaresultof
pressing the lever is known as a reinforcer, because it causes the operant
behavior (lever pressing) to increase. Food could also be described as a
conditionedstimulusbecause it causesan effectto occur.It is importantto note
though, that there is a difference between a reward and a reinforcerin operant
conditioning.
Areward issomething that hasvaluetothepersongivingthereward,but
may not necessarily be ofvalueto the person receiving thereward. Areinforcer
issomething that benefitsthepersonreceivingit,andsoresultsinanincreaseof
acertaintypeofbehavior.
Thereareseveralofthedifferentwaystocategorizeareinforcer.
A
positive reinforcer has some sort of value to whoever is
receiving it. For example, food when you are hungry or water when you
arethirsty.Apositivereinforcerservestoincreaseanoperantbehavior
A
negative reinforcer has novalue to whoever receivesit. Itmay
also injure, harm or cause discomfort in some way. For example, a very
hot room, an electricshockoradangeroussituation.Anegativereinforcer
causes the recipient to try to escape from it oravoid it. For example, if a
roomisveryhot,thenyoumayswitchontheairconditioningorafantotry
to escape from the heat.Ifthisis successful, you are likelyto repeat this
behavior the next time you are in a very hot room. Negative reinforcers
therefore also serve to increase operant behaviors. Note: Negative
reinforcersarenot aformof punishmentbecausetheyprecede(i.e.come
before) an operant behavior. Punishment occurs after a behavior has

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already occurred, such as smacking a child after they have done

somethingbad.
Another way to classify reinforcers, are as a
primary or secondary
reinforcer.
Primaryreinforcer
has some value towhoever isreceivingit,and
this value has not beenlearned.Forexample,foodwhenyouarehungry
orwaterwhenyouarethirsty.
Secondary reinforcer has an acquired valueto whoeverreceives
it. Thismeansthat you are taughtitsvalue or worth over a periodoftime
before you see it as being valuable to you. For example, money is a
secondary reinforcer because you have to learn the valueof money and
what it does before it has any meaning to you. If you are short of cash,
then receiving money can also be categorized as a positive reinforcer
becauseithasvaluetoyou.
Extinction
Just like inclassical conditioningwhere presenting aconditionedstimulus
a number of times without the unconditioned stimulus results in extinction, a
similar process also occurs in operant conditioning when an operant behavior
begins to declines.Forexample,ifaratreceivesno foodwhenitpressesalever
(reinforcement is withheld), then it will gradually press that lever less and less
until eventually it stops doing so entirely. In effect,theratgivesupon pressing
the lever (stops an operantbehavior) becauseitnolonger results initreceiving
food(reinforcer).Theoperantbehaviorhasthereforebecomeextinct.
Stoppingbadhabits
This knowledge of extinction can be applied to behavior shaping,
suchaswhen trying to stopabad habit. So ratherthantrying topunish a
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certain behavior, it is usually far more effective to take away the

reinforcer(s) associated with it. By doing so, the habit will no longer be
seenashavinganybenefit,andsotheundesirablebehaviorwillgradually
start to fade away (extinction). Punishment may temporarily reduce a
certain behavior, although in the long run, because that behavior is still
seen as bringing some sort of benefit, it will continue. Inadditionto this,
punishment can also make the person being punished resent you and
thendothingsbehindyourbackoutofspite.
Partialreinforcement
Behavior that is acquired under partial reinforcement is much more
resistant to extinction than behavior whichhasbeen acquiredunder continuous
reinforcement. For example, if a rat receives a reinforcer every time it presses
the lever, then this would be continuous reinforcement. However, if the rat
receives a reinforcer at random, or every second or third time it presses the
lever, then this would be partial reinforcement because it does not get the
reinforcer every time. If you were to stop giving the reinforcer, therat receiving
partialreinforcement would display agreaterresistancetoextinction(i.e.itwould
keeppressing the lever forlongerafterthe reinforcerhadbeenstopped).Agood
example of partial reinforcement can be seen in casinos. This is why you will
oftenfind that despitewinningalarge sumofmoney,manygamblersareunable
tostopandenduplosingallofwhattheyhadwon.
Discriminativestimulus
In a slight variation of the original Skinner box, a light bulb was placed
above the lever. Wheneverthe light is on, pressingthe leverwould resultin the
rat receiving the reinforcer. But when the light is off, pressing the lever would
result inno reinforcer. Given enoughtime, the rateventuallylearnstoonlypress
the leverwhen the lightis on andignores thelever when thelight isoff.Skinner
called the light a discriminative stimulus, which he defined as a stimulus which
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allows the animal to tell the difference between a situation which isreinforcing
andone that isnot.In other words,thelight allowsyoutodeterminewhetheror
not you will get a reward (reinforcer). Some real life examples ofdiscriminative
stimuli include hearing a bell before lunch or seeing a traffic lightwhenyouare
driving. Inboth cases, a signal (bell or light) tellsyou what sortof reinforcement
youwillreceiveinthatsituation.
Putting this all together, you can now see that operant conditioning is a
modification (conditioning) of an action (operant behavior) which has
consequences (e.g. lever pressing releases food) through the use of positive
reinforcementornegativereinforcement.
3. Observational Learning occurs when a behavior is acquired by watching the
behavior ofsomeoneelse. Thissecond person isknownasamodelandeither
intentionally orunintentionally demonstrates abehavior toyou.Ifthe observeris
able to identify with this behavior and receive some sort of satisfaction from it,
then they are said to have received vicarious reinforcement (imagined
gratification). For example, if your favorite sports team wins a game, then you
receive an internal sense of satisfaction as a result of their victory. You have
received vicariousreinforcement,whichmaythenmotivateyoutoplaythatsport.
Vicariousreinforcementcan occurin virtually any circumstance inwhichyou,as
the observer, receive some sort of gratification from watching the behavior of
anotherperson(themodel).
Social Learning Theory is an expansion of observational learning, and
deals with how social groups can be affected by their environment. A good
example of social learning theory can be found amongst teenagers who follow
various celebrity role models. If the teen receives some sort of gratification
(vicarious reinforcement) from observing the behavior of their role model, then
they are likely to adopt a similar type of behavior. For example, a teen that

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idolizes a rock star may start playing a musicalinstrumentsuchasaguitar.Asa

result,theirbehaviorhasnowbeenaltered.
It is further subdivided into the type ofbehavior weacquire as aresult of
sociallearningintoeitherprosocialorantisocialbehavior.
Prosocial behavior is behavior that benefits another person, a
group of people or society as a whole. For example, if a child learns to
recycle and live an environmentally friendly lifestyle from their parents,
thentheyare likelytoactthatwayfortherestoftheirlife.Theirbehavioris
prosocial,becauseitbenefitstheenvironmentandsocietyasawhole.
Antisocial behavior isbehavior which isdestructiveto othersand
very often to yourself. For example, a teenwho stealsfromother people
or who vandalizes propertyis exhibiting antisocialbehavior,because it is
destructivetootherpeopleandthesurroundingenvironment.
4. Latent learning is learning whichoccurswithout reinforcement,and which may
later bereactivated withareinforcer.Forexample, if a rat isleftinamaze,itwill
randomlyexploringthat mazeand try to find a way out. If werepeatthisseveral
times,theratmayappearto exhibitthesametypeofbehaviorwhereitrandomly
explores the maze looking for the exit. Although the rat has been in this maze
severaltimes,itappearsnottohavelearnedanythingbecauseitstilltakesalong
time togetout. Ifhowever,weweretothenintroducesomefoodintothemaze(a
reinforcer), the rat would quickly learn to escape themaze. Almost as though it
suddenlylearnedhowtodoit.
The purpose of the reinforcerwas to actasan incentive, whichactivates
what the rat had previously learned. Inthis case,the firstfewtimesthe ratwas
exploring the maze it was learning, even though it appeared not to belearning
anything. When we added food to the maze, this prior learning which had
remainedlatent(dormant),suddenlybecamereactivatedtherebyallowingtherat
20

to use its previous knowledge of the maze to quickly learn the escape route.
Basically, what this all means is thatyou learnthingsthroughexperience,even
thoughyoumaynotthinkthatyouarelearninganythingatthetime.
Later, if something reactivated what you had (latently) learned from that
experience,you willthenbeableto learnitvery quickly.Forexample,whenyou
are at school, oneof thebestwaystoimproveyour understandingofasubjectis
to research it before you are meant to learn it. So if you have a lecture next
week,bystudying forthatlecturenowyouwillbeabletounderstanditbetterand
faster once you actually take thatlecture. Your prior latent learning hasallowed
foranacceleratedfuturelearning.
This is hardly surprising if you look at things from the perspective of the
brain, as when you learn something, you form neural pathways in the brain
related to that activity. This means that the next time you do it, your existing
neuralpathwayswillbestrengthenedandrefinedtherebyallowingyoutoperform
better.
Latent learning may therefore be described as the creation of these
pathways, which provides a foundation for future learning. This is why it is
important to expose your mind to as much information as you can about a
subject, becauseeven though it may seemdifficult now, the nexttimeyoucome
acrossit,youwillfindthingstobealoteasier.
5. Insight Learning isan aha! moment, whensomethingsuddenly seemstoclick
into place and makesense. Agood exampleof this canbefoundwith research
doneby Wolfgang Kohler on an apecalled Sultan. Sultanwasputinacageand
given two sticks which could be clicked together to make a longertool.Slightly
outsidethereachof the sticks wasanorange.Sultanspentalotoftimetryingto
get the orange. First with his hands,and thenwith the sticks.However, he was
unable to reach theorange no matterwhat he did. Then one day Sultan clicked
the two sticks together, and was able to reach the orange. This insight that
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Sultan received, came as a result of his past attempts to get theorange and a
reorganization of those experiences. So whereas previously Sultan had two
seemingly uselesssticks,henowhadausefullongstick,somethingwhichhedid
not have the insight toseebefore. So insight learning isan insightintoourpast
experiences,fromwhich, wecan then use tosolveproblemswewerepreviously
unable to. This has most likely happened to you many times. For example,
someonemaybetryingtoexplainsomethingtoyou,butnomatterwhattheysay,
youjustdont seem toget it. Then, all of a sudden, it clicks andahayounow
seewhattheyweretryingtosay.
Resistancetoextinction
Since insight learning isacquired as a resultofpastexperiences,it
tends to be fairlyresistanttoforgetting.Inotherwords,onceyouvegotit,
youve got it. On the other hand, if you were to learn something simply
through memorization, then youarelikely toforgetwhat you hadlearned
very quickly. This is why it is extremely important to try toactively apply
whatyoumentally do, tosolidifythat knowledgein thebrain.If you areat
school, and are trying to learna subject well, then a goodway tosolidify
your learning would be to teach it to someone else as you will now be
activelyusingyourmentalknowledge.

6. Learning to Learn describes the use of learning sets in learning. Basically, it

states that we become better at what we repeatedly do. Sofor example, if you
solve crossword puzzles, then over time you are likely to find them easier and
easier and so will need harder puzzles to challenge you. The same applies to
learning a new subject. At first it seems hard, but the more you study it, the
easier it becomes. The idea of learning sets first came from research done by
psychologist Harry Harlow, whotested a monkeysabilitytofindagrapeundera
container. Thetestwas to see if the monkey coulddiscriminatebetweenthetwo
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different shapes ofthe containers, by getting the grape from theunderneaththe

correct container. What Harlow found was that after the first exercise, the
monkeys ability to discriminate betweendifferent shapes (and get thegrape)in
subsequentexercises rapidly increased. Themonkeywas saidto haveacquired
alearningset,usingpreviousknowledgetoquicklysolvefutureproblems.
7. TheRoleofMemory
Memory is defined as the ability to retain knowledge, and is therefore
necessaryforlearning.
Theprocessofmemoryinvolvesthreemainstages:
Encoding is the process of making information meaningful to you, and a good
example of encoding, can be foundwith anagrams.Forexample,ifyouarepresented
with the letters ABT they would be meaningless to you. If however, you are told that
ABT represents an animal which can fly, then youcanrearrangethose lettersto form
BATwhichnowhasmeaningtoyou.
Storageis the ability toretaininformationforaperiodoftime,andcanbefurther
subdividedintoshorttermmemoryandlongtermmemory.
Short term memoryis alsocalled workingmemory.Itallows youto hold
ontoinformationforafewminutes,afterwhich,youwillthenforgetit.
Long term memory is information which has been more or less
permanently stored. This type of memory is what allows you to remember your
past. Long term memory tends to be associated with shortterm memory,
because if your shortterm memory is impaired,thenthiswillinterferewith your
capacitytoformlongtermmemories.
Retrievaloccurswhenyouaccessapreviouslystoredmemory.Inotherwords,it
comesintoyourconsciousawareness.

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There are three main processes which can occur during the retrieval of
memories.
a. Recall is the ability to easily recall a memory. For example, you know
whatyourfriendsnameis.
b. Recognition occurs when something helps you to remember something
else. For example, amultiplechoice testwill containone correct answer.
Whenyousee thecorrectanswer,itwillhelp youto recall any previously
storedmemorythatyoumayhaveofit.
c. Repression occurs when a memory isforced into the unconscious inan
attempt to protect the ego from some sort of psychological threat. For
example,apainfulortraumaticexperienceinyourlife.

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TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion
Motivation
Some "Why" questions: Why do you go to class each day? Why did Cain kill
Abel? Why do students study for hours (sometimes even days) to pass examinations
(and don't say,"topassexaminations")?Whydoprofessorsteachstudents,andwhydo
theyteststudents?Whydidyoupickoutthoseshoesorthosepantstoweartoday?
Each of these questions has an answer, there is some motive for engaging in
those behaviors. We may define a motive (or motivation)as a need, want,interest,or
desirethatpropelssomeone(oranorganism)inacertaindirection.
This motivating mechanism canbecalled many things a habit,abelief,adesire,
aninstinct, a need,aninterest,acompulsion,oradrivebutnomatterwhatitslabel,itis
this motivation that prompts us to take action. Indeed, the motivation comes from the
verb"tomove."

Some Introductory Psychology books define the field of motivation as the study
of goaldirectedbehavior.Withthisdefinitioninmind,arehumanstheonlytypeofliving
organism that can have motivation? (this isfor you to think about,notaquestion Iam
goingtoanswerforyouatthispoint)

I.TheoreticalPerspectives
A)InstinctTheories
Many of thedifferenttheories ofmotivationaresimilar, exceptfor theamountof
emphasis theyplace oneitherbiology orenvironment. Mostincludesomelevelofboth
(some nature, some nurture).However, thereisonetheorythatcompletelyemphasizes
biology,Instincttheory.

1) InstinctTheorystates that motivationistheresultofbiological,geneticprogramming.

Thus,allbeingswithinaspeciesareprogrammedforthesamemotivations.

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a) At the heart of this perspective, is the motivation to survive we are

biologically programmed to survive. And, all of our behaviors and motivations
stemfrombiologicalprogramming.Thus,areactionsareinstincts.
For example,ahumanmother,unlikemanyotherspecies,willstayawake
with a crying infant all night long trying toprovide comfort.Why?Instinct theory
suggests that she is programmed to behave in this manner it is not due to
learning or conditioning, not to being raised properly or poorly, not to having
strong female role modelsor weak role models, or anythingelse,otherthatpure
biology.
This perspective is very much the sort that was offered recently in the
controversial article that stated, Parents don't matter that much in the developmentof
theirchildren.
b) William McDougal (1908) influential theorist who viewed instincts as
behaviorpatternsthatare:
1.unlearned
2.uniforminexpression
3.universalinaspecies
For example,withinaspecies of bird, all themembers maybuild identical nests
and work in the same ways. This is trueeven forthose birdsof thatspecies born and
raised in captivity and isolation, and thus could not have learned the appropriate nest
buildingbehaviorfromother,experiencedrolemodelbirds.
McDougal carried it astep furtherbystatingthathumansarethesameandhave
instinctsforbehaviorssuchas:parenting,submission,jealousy,mating,andmore.
c)Problemswiththisperspective
1. theorists have never been able to agree on a list of instincts
Many instincts are NOT universal and seem to be more dependent on
individual differences (for example, jealousy. Not all humans exhibit the
samejealouslylevels,behaviors,etc.).

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2.todayinstincttheoryhasamorebiologicalemphasisforspecific
motives and not all (like aggression and sex). But, there is still a strong
instinctperspectiveinthestudyofanimals(ethology)
B)Sociobiological Perspective (Sociobiology) the studyofgenetic and evolutionary
bases of behavior inallorganisms, including humans.Thisviewspawned from instinct
theory,butitisnotpurelyaninstincttheory.
1) Major Viewpoint sociobiology states that natural selection favors social
behaviors that maximize reproductive success. Thus, the primary motivating force for
living organisms (includinghumans) istopassonourgenesfromonegenerationtothe
next.
This theory, inspired by Charles Darwin, argues that in thelast15 millionyears
the human species has evolved socially as well as physically. Throughtheprocessof
naturalselection, individuals whowere even slightlypredisposed to engageinadaptive
social behaviors were the "fittest" and tended to survive longer and to be more
successful in passing their genes along to future generations. Over countless
generations, this selection process weeded out individuals who lacked these
predispositions and those who possessed them prospered. Even though these
tendencies may not enhance our fitness in today's world, eons spent in harsher
environments have left us genetically predisposed to perform certain social behaviors
whensituationalcuescallforthancientinstincts
Instinct theory argued that people try to survive, and that any quality that
increases survivalwill eventually becomegenetically based.However,sociobiologyhas
changed this view slightly by arguing that the organism's fundamental goalis not mere
survival,oreventhesurvival of its offspring. Rather,the fittest individualistheonethat
succeedsin passing the maximumnumberofgenesontothenextgeneration.Why,for
example, do animals go to all the trouble of breeding and raising offspring? Because
having children isanextremelyeffective means ofensuring the survivalofone'sgenes
in a future generation. Caring for offspring mayseemselfsacrificing,butthese actions
are prompted by the gene's selfish tendency to seek survival at all costs. Even if the

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parent perishesprotectingitsyoung,itsgeneswillcontinuetoflourishinitsoffspring.To
Darwin, the fittest animal is the one that can survive longest. To Hamilton, the fittest
animalistheonethatmaximizesthesurvivalofitsgenesinfuturegenerations.
2) This perspective can explainmotivessuchascompetition,aggression,sexual
activity,anddominance.
3) It can also explain differences in men and women's mating preferences. For
example:
In one study an attractive man or woman (the researchers' accomplice) asked
strangers of the oppositesexone ofthe following questions: "I have beennoticingyou
around campus. I find you very attractive." The accomplice then asked one of the
following questions, depending on the group the subject had been assigned to: (a)
"Would you go out with me tonight" (b) "Would you come over to my apartment
tonight?"(c)"Wouldyougotobedwithmetonight?"
The Results: None of the women agreed to the third request compared to the
75% hit rate for men.Is it possiblethatthedifferences weredue toinstinctsordoyou
thinktheymustbeduetosomethingelse?
In another example: Studieshaveshownthatwomen are morelikely toengage
in extramarital affairs during ovulation, when they are more likely togetpregnant (the
studiesdid NOTstate oreven insinuate that the women weremakingconsciousefforts
to getpregnantfromamaleotherthantheirspouseorboyfriend,only thatwomenwere
indeed more likely to be ovulating duringthe time theydecidedtohavetheextramarital
affairs).
4) Seems Selfish this perspective may seem selfish, but it can also explain
seeminglyaltruisticbehaviors:
For example: A Blackbird will risk death to signal the flock that a hawk (a
predator)is nearby? Insodoing,theBlackbirdincreasesitschanceofgettingkilled,but
also increases the chancesof the otherBlackbirdssurvivingand,therefore, increasing
the odds thatmore geneswillbepassedonanorganismwillriskitsownlifetokeepthe
possibility of passing on familial genes alive. Others of the same genetic strain will

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surviveandkeepthegenepoolgoingevenifthatparticularbirddoesnotsothismaybe
aselfishperspective,butithasthepotentialtoproduceremarkablyunselfishbehavior.
C)DriveTheories
a) ADrive isaninternal stateoftensionthatmotivatesanorganismtoengagein
activitiesthatshould(hopefully)reducethistension.
b) Most organisms seem to try and maintain Homeostasis a state of
physiologicalequilibrium.
For example,we have a homeostatic temperature of98.6 degreesFahrenheit.If
this temperature begins to waiver enough you have a number of possible autonomic
responses: if temperature increases, you perspire. If temperature decreases, you
shiver.
So, when you experience a drive, you are motivatedto reducethisstate oftensionand
pursueactionsthatwillleadtoadrivereduction(reducethestateoftension).
For Example hunger leads to physical discomfort (internal tension drive),
which leads to the motivation to get food, which leads to eating, which leads to a
reduction in physical tension (drive reduction), which finally leads to therestoration of
equilibrium.
c)Therearesomeproblems:
1) homeostasis seems irrelevant to some human motives "thirst for
knowledge"...whattheheckisthat?
2) motivation may exist without adrivearousal. For example, humans do
not eat only when they are hungry. Don't believe me? Ever go out for a nice
dinner, eat enough to be full, but then still decide to have that great chocolate
dessertanyway?Ithoughtso.
D)IncentiveTheory
Anincentivemaybedefinedasanexternalgoalthathasthecapacitytomotivate
behavior.Thisdoesnotmeanthatitwillalwaysmotivatebehavior,onlythatitcan.Now,
we get to a situation in which we can see a difference with previous theories: Drive

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theory acts by an internal statepushingyou in aspecific direction. However,incentive

theoryactswhenanexternalstimuluspullsyouinacertaindirection.
This isdirectly related toSkinner. Here wecan seeamoveawayfrombiological
influence toward the environment and its influence on behavior. You attend class not
because you were biologically programmed to become a student, but rather, because
there is something external that is rewarding toyou.Is it thegrade you seek? Is it the
desire to avoid going into the job market? Is it the desire to obtainabetterjobwith a
degreethan possiblewithout one?Regardlesswhichitis,theideaisthatthemotivation
issomethingexternal,notinternal.
E)Maslow'sNeedHierarchy
This Humanistic perspective is a blend of biological and social needs and is a
sweeping overviewof human motivation. BecauseMaslowbelieved that all needsvary
in strength,he arrangedtheminapyramidalformtoindicatewhichhavemorestrength.
The most basic needs (like shelter and food) are vital to dailysurvival, andare at the
bottom,whileneedsthatarelessimportanttostayingalivearehigheronthepyramid.
We may define the Need Hierarchy as a systematic arrangement of needs
according to priority, which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic
needsarearoused. Thus, like stage theories, we mustmeet oneneed beforewemove
ontothenext.
Levels:
1) physiological theseincludetheneedforfood,water,andothervitalcomponentsof
life. If these needs are not met, the organism can't survive. Thus, these arethe most
basicandimportant.
2) safety and security these needs refer moreto the longtermsurvivalthandayto
day needs. Humans tend to seekout order and haveadesire to live in aworld thatis
not filled with chaos and danger. As a result, they seek out stable lives with careers,
homes,insurance,etc.

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3)belongingnessandlove
afterobtainingasafeenvironmenttoliveandestablishing
some long term plans, peopleseekoutlove andaffectionfromfamilymembers,friends,
andlovers.
4) esteem at this level, people become concerned with selfesteem which may be
basedonachievementsthattheyearn,recognitionfromothersforjobstheydo,etc.
5) cognitive needs atthislevelarebasedonacquiringknowledgeandunderstanding
of the world, people, behavior, etc. If you are in college to learn (not simply to get a
degree)thenyouareattemptingtofulfillyourcognitiveneeds.
6) aestheticaesthetic needsinclude beauty andorderinlife.Gettingyourlifeinorder
may provideasenseofcomfortthatpeopleoftenlack.Inaddition,spendingtimefinding
and observing beauty in the world becomes an option and a desire as people do not
have to struggle andfightto stayalive. Remember the episode ofStar Trek: The Next
Generation in which people from our century who had been frozen are found and
thawed? These people could not understandthat money wasnolonger important, that
starvation had been abolished on Earth, and that people now had the opportunityand
will to better themselves through learning about art, music, etc. Picard waspreaching
theaestheticlevelofMaslow'shierarchy.
7) selfactualization this is the highest and most difficult level to reach. In fact,
according toMaslow, veryfewpeopleactuallyreachthislevel. Selfactualization is the
needto fulfill one'sown potential. AsMaslowstated,"Whatamancanbe,hemustbe."
Interestingly, Maslow indicated that people will be frustrated if they can't pursue their
true loves and talents. For example, if a person has a talent for painting, but they
becomeadoctor,they will be foreverfrustrated becausethe needfor selfactualization
willbehindered.

Emotion
We all havethem,and yetmost ofuscan't explainthem.Do peoplereallyknow
why they have them, when they have them, how to control them, etc.? Like so many
other aspects of our psychological makeup, emotions are comprised of several

31

components. We will discuss emotions in terms of the cognitive, physiological, and

behavioralcomponents.
A.CognitiveLevel
(thisisthelabelornameassociatedwiththeemotion)
1) Onekeyaspect ofemotions,accordingtoWoodworth&Schlosberg,isthatwe
have perceptions of them that usually ranges from pleasantnessunpleasantness &
weakstrong(thisisthelevelofactivation)
So, we perceive our emotions as having some level of pleasantness and
strength. For example, if your boyfriendorgirlfriendbreaksupwithyou,youexperience
some type of emotion, like sadness. Then, you experience this emotion along the
pleasantness and strength dimensions if you loved this person, you may experience
sadnessthatisveryunpleasantandintense(strength).
1. Usually, research on emotions involve a person's subjective report or
experience of an experience. Aside from all of the normalproblems associated
with selfreport data, thereareafew othersthatoccurwith self reportmeasures
ofemotions:
a) there are over 400 words in the English language that refer to
emotions. So how do we know exactly what is meant (how do we
operationalize) when someone says, for example, they feel "sad"? What
doesthatmeancomparedtoalltheotherwords?
b) people can't turn emotions on and off so control over thesefor
studyisverydifficult.
c) as weknow,emotionsinvolvesometypeofpersonalevaluations
that normally ranges from pleasantunpleasant. However, we may have
experiences that involve both. For example getting a promotion =more
money, but also more responsibility and more time away from others
activities.So thereare both pleasantandunpleasantemotions associated
withthisoneexperience.

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B.PhysiologicalLevel
Emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal, usually at an autonomic
level(involuntary/automatic).
For example have you ever had the experienceof being ina carwhen it spins
out of control on an icy road? Almost instantly upon the car spinning off track, you
experience an increasein heart rate, bloodpressure, breathing, yourpupils dilate, etc.
Thisoccurs,atsomelevel,withallemotions.Thesystemsinvolvedwiththisactivityare:
1)CentralNervousSystem(CNS):limbicsystemandcortex
2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): somatic andautonomic, sympatheticand
parasympathetic.But, veryoften physiologicalchanges aretoosmalltonotice.Inthese
cases,werelyon:
1) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) measures fluctuations in electrical
conductivityoftheskinthatoccurwhensweatglandsincreaseactivity.
2) Polygraph "lie detector" used to measure the subtle variations in muscle
tension,heartrate,etc.,associatedwithemotionthatoccurverysubtly.
C.BehavioralLevel:NonverbalExpression
Very often organisms communicate without words. They may rely on smiling,
frowning, clenching their fists, turning their backs, etc. Thus, we may communicate
emotionsnonverballythroughbodylanguage.
One of the most influential and important researchers in thefield of emotion,is
Ekman.HereareacoupleofexamplesfromEkman'swork:
Ekman showed photos to people and asked them to identify what emotion wasbeing
expressedin those photos.Hefoundthatpeoplefromdifferentculturescouldrecognize
common facialfeatures (peoplefromdifferentculturesallidentified,forexample,smiling
asasignofhappiness).
He found 7 basic emotions most often identified from photos of facial
expressions:happiness,sadness,anger,fear,surprise,disgust,andcontempt.
He alsoindicatedthattheuseoffacialexpressionstocommunicateseemstobeinnate
peoplewhohavebeenblindfrombirthmakemanysimilarfacialexpressions.

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THEORIESOFEMOTIONS
A.JAMESLANGETHEORYOFEMOTION
1.Background:
James and Lange (a Danish physiologist) proposed the same explanation of
emotionataboutsametimethusthetheorywasnamedforbothofthem.
2.Acommonsenseideaaboutemotionwouldbe:
Environmental influence (some event) > Psychological experience >
Physiologicalstatechanges(emotions)
BUT:theJamesLangetheorystates:
Environmental influence (event) > Physiological change > Psychological
experience
Inotherwords,JamesandLangewouldsay,"IfeelafraidbecauseItremble".Ifa
personseesabearwhile walking alonginthewoods,JamesandLangewouldsuggest
that the person would tremble and then realize that, becausetheyare trembling, they
areafraid.
3.Jamesstated:
"My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the
exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion.
Common sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep we meet a bear, are
frightened andrunweareinsultedbyarival,andangryandstrike.Thehypothesishere
to be defendedsaysthat this orderof sequence is incorrect and thatthe more rational
statementisthat wefeelsorrybecausewecry,angrybecausewestrike,afraidbecause
we tremble. Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be
purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute ofemotional warmth. We might then
see the bear, and judge it bestto run, receive the insultand deem it righttostrike,but
weshouldnotactuallyfeelafraidorangry."

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4.Problems:
Later studies separated theinternal organsthatJamessaidcausedarousalfrom
the CNS, but this did not eliminate emotional responding. So, perceptions of bodily
changescouldnotbetheonlyfactorinvolvedinemotions.
B.TheCannonBardTheory
1. Background: again two people had the same perspective at roughly the same time
(althoughCannonwasconsideredtobethemoreinfluentialone).Thistheorymadeuse
ofinformationaboutphysiologicalstructuresnotavailabletoJamesandLange.

2. Cannon's critique (1929) of JamesLange Theory He indicated that some of the

problemswiththeJamesLangetheorywere:
a) People who show different emotions may have the same physiological
(visceral)stateExample:crywhenhappy&sad
b) visceral changes are often too difficult to notice by a person having the
experiencetobeusedascues
c) visceral changes are often too slow to be a source of emotions,whicherupt
very quickly. For example, when something bad happens to you, do you always cry
beforeyoufeelsad?Orcanyoufeelsadbeforecrying?
d)physiologicalarousalmayoccurwithouttheexperienceofanemotion:
For example: exercise > increased heart rate > no emotional
significance
3.backtocommonsensetheory:
Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals to BOTH the cortex (which
produces conscious experience of emotion) and autonomic nervous system (visceral
arousal)atthesametime.
BUT as we already know, the thalamus is not the only player involved in
emotion.
Thelimbic system,hypothalamus andothersareallinvolved.So,thisleadsusto
theCognitiveview.

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C.CognitiveView:SchachterandSingerTwoFactorTheory
1) Schachter and Singer maintainthat wedon't automatically knowwhenweare
happy,angry, orjealous.Instead,welabelouremotionsbyconsideringsituationalcues.
We feel some emotion. To really understand what emotion we are having at that
particulartime, we usethe cuesin theenvironment atthetimetohelpusdeterminethe
currentemotion.Thislabelingprocessdependsontwofactors:
a) some element in the situation must trigger a general, nonspecific
arousal marked by increased heart rate, tightening of the stomach, and rapid
breathing.
b) people search the situation/environment for cues that tell them what
hascausedtheemotion.
TheinfamousSchachterSingerstudyofemotion:
1) Schachter and Singer told men who volunteered they werestudyinga vitamin
supplementcalledSuproxin. Themenwere asked if they were willingto take the drug,
and those who consented were injected with epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine,
whichis alsocalledadrenaline,is releasedbyourhormonal system whenever we face
astressful situation, andgenerallyincreasesbloodpressure,heartrate,andrespiration.
Thus the men who received the epinephrine were more physiologically aroused than
thosewhoreceivedtheinertplacebo.
2) Schachter and Singer manipulated subjects' interpretations of their physical
sensations. They told some of the epinephrineinjected subjects that even though the
drug wasn't harmful, side effects were quite common: they might feel flushed, their
handsmightshake,andtheirhearts might pound. Theother subjects,incontrast,were
given no information atallabouttheeffectsofthedrug.SchachterandSingerreasoned
that once theepinephrine kickedin, theirsubjects would begin tosearchfor thecause
of their arousal. People who had been told that the drug would arouse them should
haveassumedthat thedrugwascausingtheirhandstoshakeandtheirhearttopound.
But if they weren't warned about the drug's effects, then they would be more likelyto
interprettheirarousalasanemotion.

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3) Whatkindofemotionwouldtheseuninformedsubjectsexperience?Schachter
and Singer believedthat their reaction would depend on the availablesituationalcues.
They therefore manipulated this variable as well. They arranged for their subjects to
wait for the Suproxin'seffectsin a small roomwith anotherperson. This individualwas
one of Schachter and Singer's accomplices, and he was trained tobehave ineithera
euphoric or angry fashion. The euphoric confederate clowned around during the 20
minutes, doodling on scratch paper, playing a game of "basketball" with wadded up
balls of paper, making and flying a paper airplane, building a tower outof filefolders,
andplaying withaHulaHoop. Theangry confederate,incontrast,becameincreasingly
agitated during the 20 minutes. The subjects were asked to complete questionnaires
that contained very personal questions. The accomplice, after loudly criticizing
questions that requested information about childhood diseases, father's income, and
family members' bathing habits and psychiatric adjustment, flew into a rage at the
question"Howmanytimeseachweekdoyouhavesexualintercourse?"
4) Schachter and Singer observed andcoded theactionstakenbyeachsubject,
and also asked them to describe their emotional state. As they had predicted, the
physiologically aroused subjects who hadn't been told about the drug's sideeffects
responded with emotions thatmatched the confederate'sactions. Ifthey werearoused
and hadn't been expecting the arousal, then they felt happy when their fellowsubject
was happy, but angry when their fellow subject was angry. Forewarned subjects and
unaroused subjects whoreceived a placebo,however, didnot displayanypronounced
emotion. Also, the subjects in a special control condition people who had been given
epinephrine but had been misinformed about its possible effect also displayed the
emotionsenactedbyaeuphoricconfederate

37