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Aircraftengine
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anaircraftengineisthecomponentofthepropulsion
systemforanaircraftthatgeneratesmechanicalpower.
Aircraftenginesarealmostalwayseitherlightweight
pistonenginesorgasturbines.

Contents
1Aircraftenginemanufacturingindustry
2Timelineofaircraftenginedevelopment
3Shaftengines
3.1Reciprocating(piston)engines
3.1.1Inlineengine
3.1.2Vtypeengine
3.1.3Horizontallyopposedengine
3.1.4Hconfigurationengine
3.1.5Radialengine
3.1.6Rotaryengine
3.2Turbinepowered
3.2.1Turboprop
3.2.2Turboshaft
4Reactionengines
4.1Jets
4.1.1Turbojet
4.1.2Turbofan
4.2Pulsejets
4.3Rocket
5Newerenginetypes
5.1Wankelengine
5.2Dieselengine
5.3Precooledjetengines
5.4Electric
6Fuel
7Seealso
8Notes
9References
10Externallinks

ARollsRoyceMerlininstalledinapreservedAvro
York

Aircraftenginemanufacturingindustry
Asof2012,thesizeoftheaircraftenginemanufacturingmarketwasalmost$40billion.[1]Thereareover
350manufacturingcompaniesintheUnitedStatesemployingover70thousandpeople.
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Timelineofaircraftenginedevelopment
1848:JohnStringfellowmadeasteamenginefora10foot
wingspanmodelaircraftwhichachievedthefirstpowered
flight,albeitwithnegligiblepayload.
1903:CharlieTaylorbuiltaninlineaeroenginefortheWright
Flyer(12horsepower).
1903:ManlyBalzerenginesetsstandardsforlaterradial
engines.[2]
1906:LonLevavasseurproducesasuccessfulwatercooled
V8engineforaircraftuse.
1908:RenLorinpatentsadesignfortheramjetengine.
1908:LouisSeguindesignedtheGnomeOmega,theworld's
Wrightvertical4cylinderengine
firstrotaryenginetobeproducedinquantity.In1909a
GnomepoweredFarmanIIIaircraftwontheprizeforthe
greatestnonstopdistanceflownattheReimsGrandeSemained'Aviationsettingaworldrecordfor
enduranceof180kilometres(110mi).
1910:Coand1910,anunsuccessfulductedfanaircraftexhibitedatParisAeroSalon,poweredbya
pistonengine.Theaircraftneverflew,butapatentwasfiledforroutingexhaustgasesintotheductto
augmentthrust.[3][4][5][6]
1914:AugusteRateausuggestsusingexhaustpoweredcompressoraturbochargertoimprove
highaltitudeperformance[2]notacceptedafterthetests[7]
191718TheIdfliegnumberedR.30/16exampleoftheImperialGermanLuftstreitkrfte'sZeppelin
StaakenR.VIheavybomberbecomestheearliestknownsuperchargerequippedaircrafttofly,witha
MercedesD.IIstraightsixengineinthecentralfuselagedrivingaBrownBoverimechanical
superchargerfortheR.30/16'sfourMercedesD.IVaengines.
1918:SanfordAlexanderMosspicksupRateau'sideaandcreatesthefirstsuccessful
turbocharger[2][8]
1926:ArmstrongSiddeleyJaguarIV(S),thefirstseriesproducedsuperchargedengineforaircraft
use[9][nb1]tworowradialwithageardrivencentrifugalsupercharger.
1930:FrankWhittlesubmittedhisfirstpatentforturbojetengine.
June1939:HeinkelHe176isthefirstsuccessfulaircrafttoflypoweredsolelybyaliquidfueled
rocketengine.
August1939:HeinkelHeS3turbojetpropelsthepioneeringGermanHeinkelHe178aircraft.
1940:JendrassikCs1,theworld'sfirstrunofaturbopropengine.Itisnotputintoservice.
1943DaimlerBenzDB670,firstturbofanruns
1944:MesserschmittMe163BKomet,theworld'sfirstrocketpropelledcombataircraftdeployed.
1945:Firstturboproppoweredaircraftflies,aGlosterMeteorwithtwoRollsRoyceTrentengines.
1947:BellX1rocketpropelledaircraftexceedsthespeedofsound.
1948:100shp782,thefirstturboshaftenginetobeappliedtoaircraftusein1950usedtodevelop
thelarger280shp(210kW)TurbomecaArtouste.
1949:Leduc010,theworld'sfirstramjetpoweredaircraftflight.
1950:RollsRoyceConway,theworld'sfirstproductionturbofan,entersservice.
1968:GeneralElectricTF39highbypassturbofanentersservicedeliveringgreaterthrustandmuch
betterefficiency.
2002:HyShotscramjetflewindive.
2004:NASAX43,thefirstscramjettomaintainaltitude.

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Shaftengines
Reciprocating(piston)engines
Inlineengine
Thistypeofenginehascylinderslinedupinonerow.Ittypically
hasanevennumberofcylinders,butthereareinstancesofthree
andfivecylinderengines.Thegreatestadvantageofaninline
engineisthatitallowstheaircrafttobedesignedwithalowfrontal
RangerL440aircooled,six
areatominimisedrag.Iftheenginecrankshaftislocatedabovethe
cylinder,inverted,inlineengineused
cylinders,itiscalledaninvertedinlineengine:thisallowsthe
inFairchildPT19
propellertobemountedhighuptoincreasegroundclearance,
enablingshorterlandinggear.Thedisadvantagesofaninlineengine
includeapoorpowertoweightratio,becausethecrankcaseandcrankshaftarelongandthusheavy.Anin
lineenginemaybeeitheraircooledorliquidcooled,butliquidcoolingismorecommonbecauseitis
difficulttogetenoughairflowtocooltherearcylindersdirectly.Inlineengineswerecommoninearly
aircraftonewasusedintheWrightFlyer,theaircraftthatmadethefirstcontrolledpoweredflight.
However,theinherentdisadvantagesofthedesignsoonbecameapparent,andtheinlinedesignwas
abandoned,becomingararityinmodernaviation.
Vtypeengine
Cylindersinthisenginearearrangedintwoinlinebanks,typically
tilted6090degreesapartfromeachotheranddrivingacommon
crankshaft.ThevastmajorityofVenginesarewatercooled.TheV
designprovidesahigherpowertoweightratiothananinline
engine,whilestillprovidingasmallfrontalarea.Perhapsthemost
famousexampleofthisdesignisthelegendaryRollsRoyceMerlin
engine,a27litre(1649in3)60V12engineusedin,amongothers,
theSpitfiresthatplayedamajorroleintheBattleofBritain.
ARollsRoyceMerlinV12Engine

Horizontallyopposedengine
Ahorizontallyopposedengine,alsocalledaflatorboxerengine,
hastwobanksofcylindersonoppositesidesofacentrallylocated
crankcase.Theengineiseitheraircooledorliquidcooled,butair
cooledversionspredominate.Opposedenginesaremountedwith
thecrankshafthorizontalinairplanes,butmaybemountedwiththe
crankshaftverticalinhelicopters.Duetothecylinderlayout,
reciprocatingforcestendtocancel,resultinginasmoothrunning
engine.
AULPowerUL260ihorizontally
opposedaircooledaeroengine

Opposed,aircooledfourandsixcylinderpistonenginesarebyfar
themostcommonenginesusedinsmallgeneralaviationaircraft
requiringupto400horsepower(300kW)perengine.Aircraftthat

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requiremorethan400horsepower(300kW)perenginetendtobepoweredbyturbineengines.
Hconfigurationengine
AnHconfigurationengineisessentiallyapairofhorizontallyopposedenginesplacedtogether,withthe
twocrankshaftsgearedtogether.
Radialengine
Thistypeofenginehasoneormorerowsofcylindersarranged
aroundacentrallylocatedcrankcase.Eachrowgenerallyhasanodd
numberofcylinderstoproducesmoothoperation.Aradialengine
hasonlyonecrankthrowperrowandarelativelysmallcrankcase,
resultinginafavorablepowertoweightratio.Becausethecylinder
arrangementexposesalargeamountoftheengine'sheatradiating
surfacestotheairandtendstocancelreciprocatingforces,radials
tendtocoolevenlyandrunsmoothly.Thelowercylinders,which
areunderthecrankcase,maycollectoilwhentheenginehasbeen
stoppedforanextendedperiod.Ifthisoilisnotclearedfromthe
cylinderspriortostartingtheengine,seriousdamagedueto
hydrostaticlockmayoccur.
Mostradialengineshavethecylindersarrangedevenlyaroundthe
crankshaft,althoughsomeearlyengines,sometimescalledsemi
radialsorfanconfigurationengines,hadanunevenarrangement.
ThebestknownengineofthistypeistheAnzaniengine,whichwas
APratt&WhitneyR2800engine
fittedtotheBleriotXIusedforthefirstflightacrosstheEnglish
Channelin1909.Thisarrangementhadthedrawbackofneedinga
heavycounterbalanceforthecrankshaft,butwasusedtoavoidthesparkplugsoilingup.
Inmilitaryaircraftdesigns,thelargefrontalareaoftheengineactedasanextralayerofarmorforthepilot.
Alsoaircooledengines,withoutvulnerableradiators,areslightlylesspronetobattledamage,andon
occasionwouldcontinuerunningevenwithoneormorecylindersshotaway.However,thelargefrontal
areaalsoresultedinanaircraftwithanaerodynamicallyinefficientincreasedfrontalarea.
Rotaryengine
Rotaryengineshavethecylindersinacirclearoundthecrankcase,asinaradialengine,(seeabove),butthe
crankshaftisfixedtotheairframeandthepropellerisfixedtotheenginecase,sothatthecrankcaseand
cylindersrotate.Theadvantageofthisarrangementisthatasatisfactoryflowofcoolingairismaintained
evenatlowairspeeds,retainingtheweightadvantageandsimplicityofaconventionalaircooledengine
withoutoneoftheirmajordrawbacks.ThefirstpracticalrotaryenginewastheGnomeOmegadesignedby
theSeguinbrothersandfirstflownin1909.Itsrelativereliabilityandgoodpowertoweightratiochanged
aviationdramatically.[10]BeforethefirstWorldWarmostspeedrecordsweregainedusingGnome
enginedaircraft,andintheearlyyearsofthewarrotaryenginesweredominantinaircrafttypesforwhich
speedandagilitywereparamount.Toincreasepower,engineswithtworowsofcylinderswerebuilt.
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However,thegyroscopiceffectsoftheheavyrotatingengineproducedhandlingproblemsinaircraftand
theenginesalsoconsumedlargeamountsofoilsincetheyusedtotallosslubrication,theoilbeingmixed
withthefuelandejectedwiththeexhaustgases.Castoroilwasusedforlubrication,sinceitisnotsoluble
inpetrol,andtheresultantfumeswerenauseatingtothepilots.Enginedesignershadalwaysbeenawareof
themanylimitationsoftherotaryenginesowhenthestaticstyleenginesbecamemorereliableandgave
betterspecificweightsandfuelconsumption,thedaysoftherotaryenginewerenumbered.

Turbinepowered
Turboprop
Whilemilitaryfightersrequireveryhighspeeds,manycivil
airplanesdonot.Yet,civilaircraftdesignerswantedtobenefitfrom
thehighpowerandlowmaintenancethatagasturbineengine
offered.Thuswasborntheideatomateaturbineenginetoa
traditionalpropeller.Becausegasturbinesoptimallyspinathigh
speed,aturbopropfeaturesagearboxtolowerthespeedoftheshaft
sothatthepropellertipsdon'treachsupersonicspeeds.Oftenthe
turbinesthatdrivethepropellerareseparatefromtherestofthe
rotatingcomponentssothattheycanrotateattheirownbestspeed
(referredtoasafreeturbineengine).Aturbopropisveryefficient
whenoperatedwithintherealmofcruisespeedsitwasdesignedfor,
whichistypically200to400mph(320to640km/h).

LeRhone9Crotaryaircraftengine

Turboshaft
Turboshaftenginesareused
primarilyforhelicoptersand
auxiliarypowerunits.A
turboshaftengineissimilar
inprinciple,butina
turbopropthepropelleris
supportedbytheengineand
theengineisboltedtothe
CutawayviewofaGarrettTPE331
airframe:inaturboshaft,the
turbopropengineshowingthe
AnAllisonModel250turboshaft
enginedoesnotprovideany
gearboxatthefrontoftheengine
enginecommontomanytypesof
directphysicalsupporttothe
helicopters
helicopter'srotors.Therotor
isconnectedtoatransmissionwhichisboltedtotheairframe,and
theturboshaftenginedrivesthetransmission.Thedistinctionisseenbysomeasslim,asinsomecases
aircraftcompaniesmakebothturbopropandturboshaftenginesbasedonthesamedesign.

Reactionengines
Reactionenginesgeneratethethrusttopropelanaircraftbyejectingtheexhaustgasesathighvelocityfrom
theengine,theresultantreactionofforcesdrivingtheaircraftforwards.Themostcommonreaction
propulsionenginesflownareturbojets,turbofansandrockets.Othertypessuchaspulsejets,ramjets,
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scramjetsandPulseDetonationEngineshavealsoflown.Injetenginestheoxygennecessaryforfuel
combustioncomesfromtheair,whilerocketscarryoxygeninsomeformaspartofthefuelload,permitting
theiruseinspace.

Jets
Turbojet
Aturbojetisatypeofgasturbineenginethatwasoriginally
developedformilitaryfightersduringWorldWarII.Aturbojetis
thesimplestofallaircraftgasturbines.Itconsistsofacompressorto
drawairinandcompressit,acombustionsectionwherefuelis
addedandignited,oneormoreturbinesthatextractpowerfromthe
expandingexhaustgasestodrivethecompressor,andanexhaust
nozzlethatacceleratestheexhaustgasesoutthebackoftheengine
tocreatethrust.Whenturbojetswereintroduced,thetopspeedof
AGeneralElectricJ85GE17A
fighteraircraftequippedwiththemwasatleast100milesperhour
turbojetengine.Thiscutawayclearly
fasterthancompetingpistondrivenaircraft.Intheyearsafterthe
showsthe8stagesofaxial
war,thedrawbacksoftheturbojetgraduallybecameapparent.
compressoratthefront(leftsideof
BelowaboutMach2,turbojetsareveryfuelinefficientandcreate
thepicture),thecombustionchambers
tremendousamountsofnoise.Earlydesignsalsorespondvery
inthemiddle,andthetwostagesof
slowlytopowerchanges,afactthatkilledmanyexperiencedpilots
turbinesattherearoftheengine.
whentheyattemptedthetransitiontojets.Thesedrawbacks
eventuallyledtothedownfallofthepureturbojet,andonlya
handfuloftypesarestillinproduction.ThelastairlinerthatusedturbojetswastheConcorde,whoseMach
2airspeedpermittedtheenginetobehighlyefficient.
Turbofan
Aturbofanengineismuchthesameasaturbojet,butwithan
enlargedfanatthefrontthatprovidesthrustinmuchthesameway
asaductedpropeller,resultinginimprovedfuelefficiency.Though
thefancreatesthrustlikeapropeller,thesurroundingductfreesit
frommanyoftherestrictionsthatlimitpropellerperformance.This
operationisamoreefficientwaytoprovidethrustthansimplyusing
thejetnozzlealoneandturbofansaremoreefficientthanpropellers
inthetranssonicrangeofaircraftspeeds,andcanoperateinthe
supersonicrealm.Aturbofantypicallyhasextraturbinestagesto
turnthefan.Turbofanswereamongthefirstenginestousemultiple
AcutawayofaCFM563turbofan
spoolsconcentricshaftsthatarefreetorotateattheirownspeed
engine
tolettheenginereactmorequicklytochangingpower
requirements.Turbofansarecoarselysplitintolowbypassandhigh
bypasscategories.Bypassairflowsthroughthefan,butaroundthejetcore,notmixingwithfueland
burning.Theratioofthisairtotheamountofairflowingthroughtheenginecoreisthebypassratio.Low
bypassenginesarepreferredformilitaryapplicationssuchasfightersduetohighthrusttoweightratio,
whilehighbypassenginesarepreferredforciviluseforgoodfuelefficiencyandlownoise.Highbypass
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turbofansareusuallymostefficientwhentheaircraftistravelingat500to550milesperhour(800to
885km/h),thecruisespeedofmostlargeairliners.Lowbypassturbofanscanreachsupersonicspeeds,
thoughnormallyonlywhenfittedwithafterburners.

Pulsejets
Pulsejetsaremechanicallysimpledevicesthatinarepeatingcycledrawairthroughanoreturnvalveat
thefrontoftheengineintoacombustionchamberandignitedit.Thecombustionforcestheexhaustgases
outthebackoftheengine.Itproducespowerasaseriesofpulsesratherthanasasteadyoutput,hencethe
name.TheonlyapplicationofthistypeofenginewastheGermanunmannedV1flyingbombofWorld
WarII.Thoughthesameengineswerealsousedexperimentallyforersatzfighteraircraft,theextremely
loudnoisegeneratedbytheenginescausedmechanicaldamagetotheairframethatwassufficienttomake
theideaunworkable.

Rocket
Afewaircrafthaveusedrocketenginesformainthrustorattitude
control,notablytheBellX1andNorthAmericanX15.Rocket
enginesarenotusedformostaircraftastheenergyandpropellant
efficiencyisverypoorexceptathighspeeds,buthavebeen
employedforshortburstsofspeedandtakeoff.Rocketenginesare
veryefficientonlyatveryhighspeeds,althoughtheyareuseful
becausetheyproduceverylargeamountsofthrustandweighvery
little.

Newerenginetypes

AnXLR99

Wankelengine
AnotherpromisingdesignforaircraftusewastheWankelrotaryengine.TheWankelengineisaboutone
halftheweightandsizeofatraditionalfourstrokecyclepistonengineofequalpoweroutput,andmuch
lowerincomplexity.Inanaircraftapplication,thepowertoweightratioisveryimportant,makingthe
Wankelengineagoodchoice.Becausetheengineistypicallyconstructedwithanaluminiumhousinganda
steelrotor,andaluminiumexpandsmorethansteelwhenheated,aWankelenginedoesnotseizewhen
overheated,unlikeapistonengine.Thisisanimportantsafetyfactorforaeronauticaluse.Considerable
developmentofthesedesignsstartedafterWorldWarII,butatthetimetheaircraftindustryfavoredtheuse
ofturbineengines.Itwasbelievedthatturbojetorturbopropenginescouldpowerallaircraft,fromthe
largesttosmallestdesigns.TheWankelenginedidnotfindmanyapplicationsinaircraft,butwasusedby
Mazdainapopularlineofsportscars.Recently,theWankelenginehasbeendevelopedforuseinmotor
gliderswherethesmallsize,lightweight,andlowvibrationareespeciallyimportant.[11]
Wankelenginesarebecomingincreasinglypopularinhomebuiltexperimentalaircraft,duetoanumberof
factors.MostareMazda12Aand13Bengines,removedfromautomobilesandconvertedtoaviationuse.
Thisisaverycosteffectivealternativetocertifiedaircraftengines,providingenginesrangingfrom100to
300horsepower(220kW)atafractionofthecostoftraditionalengines.Theseconversionsfirsttookplace
intheearly1970s,andwithhundredsoreventhousandsoftheseenginesmountedonaircraft,asof10
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December2006theNationalTransportationSafetyBoardhasonlyseven
reportsofincidentsinvolvingaircraftwithMazdaengines,andnoneof
theseisofafailureduetodesignormanufacturingflaws.

Dieselengine
Mostaircraftenginesusesparkignition,generallyusinggasolineasafuel.
Startinginthe1930sattemptsweremadetoproduceacompressionignition
Dieselengineforaviationuse.Ingeneral,Dieselenginesaremorereliable
andmuchbettersuitedtorunningforlongperiodsoftimeatmediumpower
settings,whichiswhytheyarewidelyusedin,forexample,trucksand
ships.Thelightweightalloysofthe1930swerenotuptothetaskof
Powerplantfroma
handlingthemuchhighercompressionratiosofdieselengines,sothey
SchleicherASH26eself
generallyhadpoorpowertoweightratiosandwereuncommonforthat
launchingmotorglider,
reason,althoughtheClerget14FDieselradialengine(1939)hasthesame
removedfromthegliderand
powertoweightratioasagasolineradial.ImprovementsinDiesel
mountedonateststandfor
technologyinautomobiles(leadingtomuchbetterpowerweightratios),the
maintenanceatthe
Diesel'smuchbetterfuelefficiencyandthehighrelativetaxationof
AlexanderSchleicherGmbH
AVGAScomparedtoJetA1inEuropehaveallseenarevivalofinterestin
&CoinPoppenhausen,
theuseofdieselsforaircraft.ThielertAircraftEnginesconvertedMercedes
Germany.Counterclockwise
Dieselautomotiveengines,certifiedthemforaircraftuse,andbecamean
fromtopleft:propellerhub,
OEMprovidertoDiamondAviationfortheirlighttwin.Financialproblems
mastwithbeltguide,
haveplaguedThielert,soDiamond'saffiliateAustroEngine
[12]
radiator,Wankelengine,
developedthenewAE300turbodiesel,alsobasedonaMercedesengine.
mufflershroud.
CompetingnewDieselenginesmaybringfuelefficiencyandleadfree
emissionstosmallaircraft,representingthebiggestchangeinlightaircraft
enginesindecades.WilkschAirmotivebuild2strokeDieselengine(samepowertoweightasagasoline
engine)forexperimentalaircraft:WAM100(100hp),WAM120(120hp)andWAM160(160hp)

Precooledjetengines
Forveryhighsupersonic/lowhypersonicflightspeedsinsertingacoolingsystemintotheairductofa
hydrogenjetenginepermitsgreaterfuelinjectionathighspeedandobviatestheneedfortheducttobe
madeofrefractoryoractivelycooledmaterials.Thisgreatlyimprovesthethrust/weightratiooftheengine
athighspeed.
ItisthoughtthatthisdesignofenginecouldpermitsufficientperformanceforantipodalflightatMach5,or
evenpermitasinglestagetoorbitvehicletobepractical.ThehybridairbreathingSABRErocketengineis
aprecooledengineunderdevelopment.

Electric
About60electricallypoweredaircraft,suchastheQinetiQZephyr,havebeendesignedsincethe
1960s.[13][14]Someareusedasmilitarydrones.[15]InFranceinlate2007,aconventionallightaircraft
poweredbyan18kWelectricmotorusinglithiumpolymerbatterieswasflown,coveringmorethan50
kilometers(31mi),thefirstelectricairplanetoreceiveacertificateofairworthiness.[13]
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Limitedexperimentswithsolarelectricpropulsionhavebeenperformed,notablythemannedSolar
ChallengerandSolarImpulseandtheunmannedNASAPathfinderaircraft.

Fuel
Allaviationfuelisproducedtostringentqualitystandardstoavoidfuelrelatedenginefailures.Aviation
standardsaremuchmorestrictthanthoseforroadvehiclefuelbecauseanaircraftenginemustmeeta
strictlydefinedlevelofperformanceunderknownconditions.Thesehighstandardsmeanthataviationfuel
costsmuchmorethanfuelusedforroadvehicles.
Aircraftreciprocating(piston)enginesaretypicallydesignedtorunonaviationgasoline.Avgashasa
higheroctaneratingthanautomotivegasolinetoallowhighercompressionratios,poweroutputand
efficiencyathigheraltitudes.CurrentlythemostcommonAvgasis100LLthatreferstotheoctanerating
(100octane)andtheleadcontent(LL=lowlead).
RefineriesblendAvgaswithtetraethyllead(TEL)toachievethesehighoctaneratings,apracticethat
governmentsnolongerpermitforroadvehiclegasoline.TheshrinkingsupplyofTELandthepossibilityof
environmentallegislationbanningitsusehasmadeasearchforreplacementfuelsforgeneralaviation
aircraftapriorityforpilot'sorganizations.[16]
TurbineenginesandaircraftDieselenginesburnvariousgradesofjetfuel.Jetfuelisarelativelyheavyand
lessvolatilepetroleumderivativebasedonkerosene,butcertifiedtostrictaviationstandards,with
additionaladditives.

Seealso
Aircraftdieselengine
Aircraftenginepositionnumber
Airsafety
Engineconfiguration
Hyperengine
Listofaircraftengines
Modelengine
UnitedStatesmilitaryaeroenginedesignations

Notes
1. Theworld'sfirstseriesproducedcarswithsuperchargerscameearlierthanaircraft.ThesewereMercedes
6/25/40hpandMercedes10/40/65hp,bothmodelsintroducedin1921andusedRootssuperchargers.G.N.
Georgano,ed.(1982).Thenewencyclopediaofmotorcars1885tothepresent(3rded.).NewYork:Dutton.
p.415.ISBN0525932542.

References
1. "PellResearchAircraftEngineManufacturingIndustryReport"(https://www.pellresearch.com/AircraftEngine
andEnginePartsManufacturing.htm).Pellresearch.com.Retrieved7April2013.
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2. IanMcNeil,ed.(1990).EncyclopediaoftheHistoryofTechnology(http://books.google.com/books?id=fj96Dpp3
5gC&lpg=PA315&dq=rateau%20engine&pg=PA315#v=onepage&q&f=false).London:Routledge.pp.31521.
ISBN0203192117.
3. GibbsSmith,CharlesHarvard(1970).Aviation:anhistoricalsurveyfromitsoriginstotheendofWorldWarII
(http://books.google.com/books?id=hxEOAQAAIAAJ).London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.
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(http://books.google.com/books?id=XkBWAAAAMAAJ).TheAeronauticalJournal(RoyalAeronautical
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6. Antoniu,DanCico,GeorgeBuiu,IoanVasileBartoc,Alexandruutic,Robert.HenriCoandandhis
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7. Guttman,Jon(2009).SPADXIIIvs.FokkerDVII:WesternFront1918(http://books.google.com/books?
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Osprey.pp.2425.ISBN1846034329.
8. Powell,Hickman(Jun1941)."HeHarnessedaTornado..."(http://books.google.com/books?
id=UycDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA66&ots=1wK1pz44JD&dq=altitude%20record%20supercharger%20british&pg=P
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Externallinks
AircraftEnginesandAircraftEngineTheory(includeslinks
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todiagrams)(http://www.aviationhistory.com/index
mediarelatedtoAircraft
engine.htm)
engines.
TheAircraftEngineHistoricalSociety
(http://www.enginehistory.org/)
Lookupaircraftenginein
JetEngineSpecificationDatabase(http://www.jet
Wiktionary,thefree
engine.net/)
dictionary.
AircraftEngineEfficiency:ComparisonofCounterrotating
andAxialAircraftLPTurbines(http://www.softinway.com/news/articles/CounterRotatingand
TraditionalAxialAircraftLowpressureTurbines/1.asp)
TheHistoryofAircraftPowerPlantsBrieflyReviewed:Fromthe"7lb.perh.p"Daystothe"1lb.
perh.p"ofToday(http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1935/1935%20%201222.html)
"TheQuestforPower"(http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20
%200959.html)a1954FlightarticlebyBillGunston
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