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ffiibrarg
of Iltr
llntupraitg nf UtfirattBtn
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= FLU =
I
R. C.
New York
MECHANICS
By
Associate Professor of
BINDER, Ph.D.
Mechanical Engineering
Purdue University
: 1943
PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
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Copyright,
1943, by
PRENTICE-HALL,
70
Fifth
Avenue,
INC.
New York
all fights
First Printing
Second Printing
PRINTED
August,
December,
1943
1943
560084
6fM</2^
Preface
is that study of fluid motion involving
a rational method of approach based on general physical laws
and consistent with the results of modern experimental study.
The word fluid implies a treatment of both liquids and gases.
Fluid mechanics uses the same principles employed in the mechanics
of solids.
The modern trend is to avoid a collection of specialized
empirical data of limited applicability; the trend is to develop
general relations, and to organize experimental observations in a
form suitable for use over a wide range of conditions.
It is difficult to find a branch of engineering which is not con
As Dr.
cerned with fluids or which does not make use of fluids.
Hugh L. Dryden, one of the prominent workers in fluid mechanics,
states, "Fluid mechanics is one of the basic sciences which finds
practical application in such diverse fields as aeronautics, hydraulic
engineering, ventilation, chemical engineering, sanitary engineer
ing, marine engineering, automotive engineering, railroad engineer
ing, turbine design, and ballistics."1 To this list might be added
mechanical engineering, acoustics, meteorology, and a host of
other applications. At first thought it might appear that the flow
phenomena observed in these and other fields have little in common.
Closer examination, however, reveals that the complicated
flow phenomena involved have a common foundation in the princi
The basic equilibrium and dynamical
ples of fluid mechanics.
In numerical cases,
equations have the same form for all fluids.
of course, due allowance must be made for the different properties
of the fluids.
There is real economy and value in studying at one time the
Such a
same principles underlying the flow of different fluids.
and
to
make
one
a
sound
background
study tends to develop
Studying fluid
versatile in approaching problems new to him.
mechanics is analogous to studying applied mechanics and thermo
dynamics as a broad, unified preparation for subsequent specialized
courses.
The aim of this book is to present an introduction to the funda
The wisdom of concentrating on all
mentals of fluid mechanics.
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FLUID
G2
X
n
7
MECHANICS
University
of Pennsylvania
Press, Philadelphia,
1941, page 1.
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iv
PREFACE
PREFACE
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R. C. Binder
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Contents
PAGE
Ill
Pkeface
CHAPTEB
1.
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(I) Fluids. (2) Pressure. (3) Specific weight and density. (4) Specific
weight of liquids.
(6) Gas processes.
(5) Equation of state for gases.
2.
Fluid Statics
(9)
(8) Fundamental equation of fluid statics.
(7) Nature of static fluid.
relation for incompressible fluids.
Pressure-height
(10) Manometers.
(II) Barometers. (12) Bourdon gages. (13) Total force on plane sub
merged surfaces.
(15) Total
(14) Location of total force on a plane area.
forces on submerged curved surfaces.
(16) Buoyancy.
(17) Stability.
relations for compressible fluids.
(19) Standard
(18) Pressure-height
atmosphere.
(21) Acceler
(20) Convective stability of masses in fluids.
ated liquids in relative equilibrium.
(22) Relative equilibrium of rotating
liquids.
3.
32
systems of reference.
(24) Steady flow
(23)
distribution.
(27) Two(26) Velocity
(25)
dimensional source and sink flow.
(28) Superposition of rectilinear, source,
Path lines and streamlines.
Equation of continuity.
4.
39
5.
49
of viscosity.
(41) Kine
(40) Units of dynamic viscosity.
matic viscosity.
(43) Fluids and
(42) Numerical values of viscosity.
other substances.
(39) Definition
6.
57
69
7.
(53)
(55)
CONTENTS
viii
CHAPTER
7.
PAGE
8.
Fluid-measuring Instruments
89
Pitot tubes.
9.
Momentum Relations
for
Steady Flow
115
10.
129
11.
Dynamic
Lift
and Propulsion
143
12.
effect.
Dynamics of Compressible
Flow
160
Bulk modulus.
of pressure propagation.
(102) Velocity
(101)
(103)
Dynamic similarity for compressible flow Mach's number.
(104) Some
thermodynamic relations for gases.
(105) Energy equation for compres
sible flow.
(106) Pressure at a stagnation point.
(107) Adiabatic flow
through stream-tubes.
(108) Action at subsonic and supersonic velocities.
study of compressibility effects.
(110) Discharge
(109) Photographic
through a converging tube or orifice.
(Ill) Flow through a convergingdiverging nozzle.
(112) Compressible flow through fluid meters.
(113)
Drag at high velocities.
13.
(115) Compari
(114) Compressible flow in pipes at constant temperature.
son of incompressible flow and compressible isothermal flow relations.
(117) Limiting pressures and veloci
(116) Flow of gases in insulated pipes.
ties for adiabatic flow.
pipe. (119)
relations.
Comparison
(118) Conditions
184
CONTENTS
ix
CHAPTER
PAGE
14.
199
15.
Lubrication
218
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16. Pumps
239
17.
verters
257
Types of turbines.
(150) Impulse turbines.
(151) Reaction tur
bines. (152) Turbine runners.
(153) Some performance features of water
turbines.
(154) Power plants.
(155) Cavitation.
(156) Fluid couplings.
(157) Fluid torque converters.
(149)
18.
(158)
(159) Simple circuits.
cuits.
(161) Accumulator and intensifier.
systems.
19.
press.
Mathematical
273
combination cir
(160)
(162) Characteristics of fluid
Some
281
Answers to Problems
297
Index
301
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CHAPTER
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[Ch. 1
the distances involved, and the flow phenomena can be studied by refer
to bulk properties, without a detailed consideration of the behavior of
ence
the molecules.
2.
Pressure
Shear force, tensile force, and compressive force are the three kinds of
Fluids move continuously
force to which any body may be subjected.
Fluids will support tensile
under the action of shear or tangential forces.
forces to the extent of the cohesive forces between the molecules.
Since
such forces are very small, it is common practice in engineering problems
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It is well
established
mass, between specific weight and density, because such distinctions are
Weight is not the same as mass.
essential for a correct and clear account.
A body of mass m is attracted towards the center of the earth with a force
of magnitude mg, where g is the gravitational acceleration, or the accelera
The force mg is termed the weight of the
tion of a freely falling body.
body of mass m. The weight of a given mass changes when the gravita
tional acceleration changes.
A consistent set of units, following modern practice, will be employed
When using the American system, the
in order to avoid confusion.
pound will be taken as the unit of force, and the slug as the unit of mass.
Specific
This terminology follows the practice in rigid-body mechanics.
Specific volume v is
weight w is defined as weight per unit volume.
defined as volume per unit weight, and is the reciprocal of specific weight.
Since
Density p (Greek letter rho) is defined as mass per unit volume.
force equals mass times acceleration,
w = pg
or
p =
4]
For example, if the specific weight of water is 62.42 pounds per cubic
and pressure), and g is taken as 32.174 feet
per second per second, then the density is 62.42/32.174, or 1.94 slugs per
cubic foot. Figure 2 shows the variation of the specific weight of water
with temperature at atmospheric pressure. Precise calculations may
foot (at
a certain temperature
i-
62.6
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SJ 62.2
o
ec
UJ
o
-
=1
61.4
61.0
ii.
&
50
60.6^}0
Fig.
2.
150
90
130
70
110
TEMPERATURE, DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
170
ence works.1
[Ch. 1
1*
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Temperature,
degrees
Fahrenheit
Alcohol, ethyl
Benzene
Gasoline
Glycerine
Mercury
Oil, castor
Oil, Unseed (boiled)
Turpentine
0.807
0.899
32
32
1.260
13.546
0.969
0.942
0.873
32
0.66-0.69
68
59
59
60.8
relation.
The "ideal" or "perfect" gas
or pressure-volume-temperature
If v is specific volume, p is absolute pres
law is commonly employed.3
sure, and T is absolute temperature, this simple equation of state is
pv =
where
R is the
460
gas constant.
RT
(1)
= t
+ 459.69
(approximately), where t is the usual thermometer reading.
If p is expressed in pounds per square foot, v in cubic feet per pound, and T
in degrees Fahrenheit, R has the dimensions of feet per degree Fahren
heit.
Some average values of R are listed in Table 2.
Application of Avogadro's principle, that "all gases at the same pres
sures and temperatures have the same number of molecules per unit vol
ume," indicates that the product of molecular weight M and the gas
constant R is the same for all gases.
Table 2 shows some variation. The
t
2
Smithsonian Physical Tables, Eighth Revised Edition, vol. 88, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., 1933.
3 In thermodynamics the term "ideal" or "perfect"
gas is sometimes denned as
one which obeys the relation pv = RT.
In hydrodynamics an "ideal" or "perfect"
Although this book will avoid
fluid is sometimes defined as one which is frictionless.
this double use, the distinction should be noted in reading current literature.
MR is termed
the
" universal
gas constant
"
a convenient
approxi
gas.
Table
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R
feet per degree
Fahrenheit absolute
MR
53.3
34.9
55.1
1545
1536
1543
1544
1546
1539
1544
Air
Carbon dioxide . .
Carbon monoxide
Helium
Hydrogen
Methane
Oxygen
386.
767.
96.2
48.25
1.40
1.30
1.40
1.66
1.40
1.31
1.40
If a mass
See Chapter
values of
4.
fc
[Ch. 1
SELECTED REFERENCES
The Physics of Solids and Fluids by P. P. Ewald, T. Poschl, and L. Prandtl.
Blackie and Son, Ltd., London, 1932, page 153.
Cambridge University Press, 1933, page 199.
Statics by H. Lamb.
Applied Thermodynamics by V. M. Faires. Macmillan, New York, 1938.
PROBLEMS
1.
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2. A fluid weighs 25.0 pounds per cubic foot at a location where the gravita
tional acceleration is 32.17 feet per second per second. What is its density?
What is the specific weight of this same fluid at a different location where the
gravitational acceleration is 32.13 feet per second per second?
3. What is the specific weight and density of carbon dioxide at 90 Fahrenheit
and an absolute pressure of 110 pounds per square inch?
4. Calculate the density, specific weight, and specific volume of air at
Fahrenheit and 60 pounds per square inch absolute.
45
5. What is the gas constant R for air with pressure in pounds per square foot,
specific volume in cubic feet per pound, and temperature in degrees centigrade?
6. A submarine is closed at the surface, with the air content at 80 Fahrenheit
and 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute.
After submerging, the air temper
ature drops to 58 Fahrenheit.
What is the air pressure for the submerged con
ditions if the hull has not changed in size?
7. Hydrogen, initially at 40 pounds per square inch absolute and 60 Fahren
heit, expands isothermally to 15 pounds per square inch absolute.
What is the
final specific volume? What is the final specific volume if the expansion is
adiabatic?
CHAPTER
Fluid Statics
Nature
of
7.
static fluid
is
it
is a
is
is
is
is
pt
pids sin
0,
and dy = ds sin
- P\
pady
pi =
pi
0,
P2
= 0.
6,
= ds cos
pids cos
0,
As dx
p*dx
P2
Pz-
of
is
is
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it,
Archimedes, Cambridge
FLUID STATICS
[Ch. 2
the pressure at a point within a fluid is the same for any state of motion
provided there is no shear stress (as with a frictionless fluid).
It is common
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as
"
a "free surface.
Fig.
Equilibrium of
3.
wdzdA
or
dp = wdz.
(2)
Since z is measured positively upward, the minus sign indicates that the
pressure decreases with an increase in height.
Equation
(2)
is
the
funda
FLUID STATICS
91
/?-/*-- (2
zl)
(3)
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pdA
dA=AREA
wdzdA
dz
(p+dp)dA
Fig.
articles
case
(a)
4.
consider separately
(6)
element.
fluids
and the
In some
pi
pi
= w(z2 2i)
or
Ap = wh
(4)
If w
where Ap is the pressure difference and h is the difference in levels.
is expressed in pounds per cubic foot, and h in feet, then Ap is in pounds
h is commonly called a pressure head, and may be
per square foot,
expressed in feet or inches of water, inches of mercury,
of any liquid.
or some height
FLUID STATICS
10
[Ch. 2
Several pressure and head equivalents for common liquids are con
for problem solutions.
The use of special conversion factors,
whose physical significance may be obscure or easily forgotten, is not
venient
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static
GAS
D
_
OIL
Fig.
5.
20'
_ _ _
n
u
Ji
30'
Fig.
6.
Open manometer.
,
0.9(62.4)30
Pc = wh =
the pressure at B is 11.7 pounds per square inch gage, or 26.4 pounds per square
As
inch absolute.
0.9(62.4)20
pc Pd =
tt-7
the absolute pressure at
10. Manometers
The term manometer is applied to a device that measures pressure by
balancing the pressure against a column of liquid in static equilibrium.
A wide variety of manometers is in use: vertical, inclined, open, differen
Fundamentally, the use of a manometer is good
tial, and compound.
technique; the instrument is simple, and may be employed for precise
Both the specific weight of a liquid and the
pressure measurements.
height of a liquid column can be measured accurately.
FLUID STATICS
Ho]
11
manometers
Pc =
U>22/2.
at
Pa = pc = w2y2.
Pa = wiyi.
gage pressure at
= w2y2
A is
wiyi
(5)
As an example, assume that the liquid in the right leg is mercury, that the
liquid at A is water, that 2/1 = 5 feet, and y2 = 10 feet. The pressure at A is
pA = 62.4(13.55)10
62.4(5)
= 8140 pounds per square
or the pressure at
foot
gage,
is
The name
shown in Fig.
piezometer
difference pA Pb-
leg,
Pe = w^yi + w3(y3
2/2)
pc = Pe = wiyi + Pa-
Pb.
leg,
FLUID STATICS
12
Wiyi
pa
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Equation
F10. 7.
1 1 .
[Ch.
(6)
Differential manometer.
Barometers
into
end
and
mercury,
a vertical
then
inverted
submerged
in
small
vessel
The
containing
mercury.
is illustrated in Fig. 8.
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
(cistern)
principle
The direct reading of the barometer
gives the height of a column of
mercury; the weight of this mercury
column balances the weight of the
air column above the barometer.
Fig.
8.
Main features of
curial barometer.
the
mer
recording devices.
An aneroid barometer is
a*
liqflidless instrument
and
for
FLUID STATICS
12]
13
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measuring
Fig.
9.
Barograph.
Courtesy of
J.
The barograph,
the pressure.
This movement is transmitted by a mechanism to a pen
which records a trace on a sheet of paper fastened to a revolving drum.
FLUID STATICS
14
[Ch. 2
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Fig.
10.
Note that the position of the free end of the Bourdon tube depends
upon the difference in pressure between the inside and the outside of the
tube.
If the outside of the Bourdon tube is exposed to atmospheric
pressure, the instrument responds to gage pressure.
Various adaptations of the Bourdon tube are found in current indus
trial instruments.
In some instruments the tube is wound in the form
of a spiral or helix with several complete turns.
In some cases the Bour
don tube is employed for temperature measurements.
The inside of the
Bourdon tube is filled with a fluid sensitive to temperature changes. A
correlation between temperature and pressure gives a scale reading which
can be interpreted in terms of temperature.
1
3.
fpdA
pfdA
pA
(7)
FLUID STATICS
13]
liquid,
as shown in
15
liquid,
13
submerged
as shown
BC
makes
in Fig.
12,
plane
angle 6 with
the free surface of the liquid. The
problem is to calculate the total
force exerted by the liquid on one
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the pressure is
In Fig.
an
i ginx}
P=wh
F=whA
U-
11,
relation
Ap = wh.
area
Fig.
of
Horizontal
liquid,
surface
in
dV = pdA = whdA.
In
/
/ J
Pi=whi
hi
'
-/
\
1
p2=wh2
Fig.
12.
F
F
is
=
0,
F
Equation
fdF
= w sin
is defined
- wAy
efydA
by the relation yA
sin
whA.
Since
(8)
is the product
Equation (8)
of
provides a means for calculating only the magnitude of the total force;
the direction of this force is normal to the surface.
The location is yet
the
fydA .
to be determined.
FLUID STATICS
16
[Ch. 2
plane area
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gives
Fy,
fydF,
Total force
Fro. 13.
on a plane area,
fdF
Fyr
fydF
and
yF =
in which
I is the moment
fwdAy
sin
6,
fwdAy2 sin
fyHA
fydA
Since
(9)
Ay
= la + Ay2, where la
y is measured, and y is the centroidal distance.
is the moment of inertia of the area about a parallel axis through the
centroid.
Then
y^
Ay
Ay
(10)
(10) shows
v
Example.
= y
whA
T
k02
14 is immersed
(11)
in water.
la
4(8)3
FLUID STATICS
15]
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The total force of 17,300 pounds passes through a point 10.53 feet below
measured down the plane.
Fig.
14.
17
Plate in water.
In some
Fig.
15.
FLUID STATICS
18
[Ch. 2
W is the weight of the fluid in the volume ABCD, and acts through the
The total force of the surface ABC on the body
centroid of this volume.
of fluid is represented by the combination of the vertical force Ry and
For equilibrium the sum of all the forces in any
the horizontal force Rx.
direction must equal zero, and the sum of all the moments about any
point must equal zero. In the horizontal direction, then, Rx = Fx. The
line of action of Rx coincides with that of Fx. This condition explains the
rule that is sometimes stated, that the total horizontal component of
the forces acting on any area is equal to the horizontal force acting on a
plane which is the vertical projection of the curved area.
In the vertical
=
0.
direction, Fv + W
Rv
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16. Buoyancy
When a body is partly or completely immersed in a static fluid, as
shown in Fig. 16, every part of the surface in contact with the fluid is
pressed on by the latter, the pressure being
greater on the parts more deeply immersed.
The resultant of all these forces exerted by
fluid pressure is an upward, buoyant, or lift
force.
Application
of a convenient
concept
will show the magnitude and direction of this
force for any body form.
Fio.
16.
Body in
a fluid.
rounding mass.
17. Stability
FLUID STATICS
17]
19
A body is
unstable,
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Fig.
17.
In Fig.
a fluid.
If
submarine, when the center of buoyancy is above the center of gravity.
such a body is tilted, a couple is developed which tends to swing the
body back to its original position.
Figure 18a indicates a floating body, like a surface vessel. The
buoyant force FB equals the weight W. For equilibrium it is necessary
that G and 5 lie on a vertical line. G is usually above B for surface ships
In Fig. 186 the line of action of the
except some fast sailing boats.
buoyant force intersects the center line of the body at point M. Point
M is called the metacenter. For the case shown in Fig. 186 there is a
couple tending to rotate the body back to the original position. The
magnitude of this couple equals the product of the weight and the perpen
dicular distance between the line of action of the weight and the line of
FLUID STATICS
20
[Ch. 2
/
/
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>
G1
Bj
yf
'I
6'
lB
Fb
FB
(a)
Fig.
Equilibrium of
18.
(b)
a floating body.
The fundamental
of incompressible
Substitution in Equation
= piVi
layer of
RT1
gas.
2.
w
(3) gives
-/>-/>
/>-/'*
z2
si =
RTl
log, Hi.
(12)
For
of the temperature
For
R is
FLUID STATICS
191
21
polytropic,
case, the
pvn = constant.
-,
1
T\
Si
Wi
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RTh
!-()
"OT
gives
d3)
20.
FLUID STATICS
22
[Ch.
used
For example, the United States
Weather Bureau has adopted the bar unit for reporting pressure on
The following conversions apply:
weather maps.
1
1000
daily
millibar
millibars
0.08
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30t
>
<r
=>
o
rr
20
Io
w
UJ
10- -i
=)
(/>
<n
ui
<r
a.
0-
20,000
10.000
30,000
40,000
ALTITUDE, FEET
Fig.
1013.2
19.
Standard atmosphere.2
millibars corresponds
to the "standard"
pressure of 29.92
inches of mercury.
Chart, Miscellaneous
Publication of the
Bureau
FLUID STATICS
20]
23
varies with latitude and season; on the average, the height is about 35,000
feet.
is,
Some important features of stability, other than those previouslytreated, can be conveniently illustrated by reference to the vertical move
ment of air masses (convection) in the atmosphere.
If an air mass at the surface were moved aloft (by some thermal or
mechanical means, as by a gust of wind or a mountain) the air mass
would cool as it expanded.
Such cooling is a common occurrence, and
to
may be sufficient
cause condensation (in moist air) with the subsequent
formation of rain, fog, or cloud.
If the air mass moved earthward from
aloft, the compression would result in a temperature rise, in a manner
similar to the familiar action in a tire pump.
It is commonly considered that such vertical movements in the atmos
phere follow the adiabatic law; the mass motion is so rapid that the
It is usually assumed that when
heat addition or removal is negligible.
no condensation occurs, the process follows the dry adiabatic law; that
n = 1.4 in the relation pvn = constant.
The temperature change per
unit height, or temperature gradient, can be computed with the aid of
v
RT
gives
(13) yields
--"%4r[i-t]
?w,__(_^lU
n
a
zi
(14)
Zi
is
- Tl
Z\
-0.0054 (nearly).
it
in Fig.
Imagine a mass of air at the surface, as represented by point
If this air mass were to move aloft would experience a drop in
temperature of about 5.4 Fahrenheit for each 1000 feet, as indicated
"
"
"
by the dotted line marked dry adiabatic." The line labeled unstable
indicates an existing condition of the surrounding atmosphere (as might
At certain level, say
be determined by balloon or airplane sounding).
colder than the air mass which
3000 feet, the surrounding atmosphere
a
20.
is
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FLUID STATICS
24
[Ch. 2
has just moved to this altitude. A lower temperature means denser air;
the mass moved from the surface would be pushed upward further by the
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8000
^
o
3
/
1
4000
UNSTABLE
DRY ADIABATIC
\\
V^
STABLE
\
\\ Vs
\
V.
^^
20
40
60 A
TEMPERATURE, DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
Fig.
20.
Types of equilibrium
80
in the atmosphere.
FLUID STATICS
221
25
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^\
*
Fig.
21.
-a
A tank containing
a liquid has
a.
The pressure distribution
will be the same as if the liquid were at rest under gravitational accelera
tion and an acceleration a. The effect is the same as if the direction of
gravity were turned an angle 0 back from the vertical, such that
tan
(15)
FLUID STATICS
26
[Ch.2
sliding
Since these
sin
052x
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Fig.
22.
(17)
FLUID STATICS
27
If
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Fundamentals
1934.
Physics of
the
Air by W. J. Humphreys.
L. Prandtl.
1929.
PROBLEMS
8. Find the pressure in tons per square yard at a depth of 15 fathoms in the
sea (specific gravity = 1.025; 1 fathom = 6 feet).
9. How many feet of water are equivalent to 25 pounds per square inch?
How many inches of mercury are equivalent to 25 pounds per square inch ?
10. A tube is closed at one end and open at the other.
This tube, originally
containing air at standard conditions, is lowered vertically into the sea (specific
gravity = 1.025.), with the closed end up. When the tube was raised, it was
Find the depth
found that the water had risen 0.80 of the length of the tube.
reached.
interior?
13.
in Fig.
force
vA
"TZZZZk
hz
Fig.
23.
FLUID STATICS
28
[Ch. 2
piston B?
KEROSENE
15"
&
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30"
Fig.
is open
MERCURY
24.
to the atmosphere.
Fig.
Fig.
17.
points
25.
26.
FLUID STATICS
22]
29
rectangular tank 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 5 feet deep is filled with
What is the total force on the bottom, on one side, and on one end?
glycerine.
location of the total force on one end?
is
the
What
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19.
Fig.
20.
28.
FLUID STATICS
30
[Ch. 2
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24. A rectangular gate 7 feet high and 5 feet wide is placed vertically on the
side of an open rectangular container of oil (specific gravity = 0.84).
The free
oil surface is 4 feet above the upper edge of the gate. What force must be
applied at the upper edge of the gate to keep it closed if the gate is hinged at the
lower edge?
25. A tank, separated in the center by a vertical partition, contains water on
The other side contains nitric acid (specific gravity
one side to a depth of 10 feet.
= 1.50) to a depth of 12 feet.
A rectangular opening in the center partition,
1.5 feet wide by 2 feet high, is closed by a fiat plate.
The plate is hinged at its
What force applied
upper edge, which is 2 feet above the bottom of the tank.
at the lower edge of the plate is necessary to keep it closed?
26. A rock weighs 90 pounds in air and 62 pounds in water.
and specific gravity.
27. A barge 60 feet X 30 feet sank 1 inches in fresh water when an elephant
What was the elephant's weight?
was taken aboard.
28.
rectangular
80 tons, is
water is 18
20 feet
be
29. An iceberg has a specific weight of 57.2 pounds per cubic foot.
What
portion of its total volume will extend above the surface if it is in fresh water?
30. An airship contains 5 tons of hydrogen at the surface of the earth.
What
will be the lift in air, and the volume of the hydrogen at 56 Fahrenheit and
30.2 inches of mercury? Assume that the air and hydrogen are at the same
temperature.
31. An airship is to have a lift of 40 tons when the gas temperature
that of the air. What weight of helium must it have in its cells?
equals
32. The hull of a certain ship has sides sloping outward and upward at the
water line. Explain why this design is more stable than a hull with parallel sides.
For
34. The barometric pressure at sea level is 30.10 inches of mercury when that
If the air temperature is constant, at 58
on a mountain top is 29.00 inches.
Fahrenheit, what is the elevation at the mountain top?
35. Atmospheric pressure at the ground is 14.70 pounds per square inch at a
Determine the absolute pressure 12,000 feet
temperature of 60 Fahrenheit.
above the ground : (a) if the air is incompressible, (b) if the air follows the iso
thermal relation, and (c) if the air follows the dry adiabatic relation.
36.
An air
20
of 8000 feet.
22]
FLUID STATICS
31
A rectangular tank 4 feet wide, 9 feet long, and 5 feet deep contains water
depth of 3 feet. It is accelerated horizontally at 8 feet per second per second
Calculate the depth of water at each end of the
in the direction of its length.
tank, and the total force on each end of the tank.
37.
to a
38. A cylindrical tank 1 foot in diameter and 3 feet high is half full of glycerine.
The tank is rotated about its vertical axis. What speed of rotation will cause the
liquid to reach the top? What will then be the maximum pressure?
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CHAPTER
Kinematics
of Fluid Flow
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A path line is a
Certain lines are helpful in describing fluid motion.
during
a period of time.
line made by a single particle as it moves
The
trace made by a single smoke particle, as it issues from a chimney, would
A path line may be obtained with a long exposure on a
be a path line.
fixed photographic plate.
A streamline is a line which gives the velocity direction of the fluid at
each point along the line.
Consider a series of particles at an instant in a
Imagine that at each particle a line is drawn showing the
flowing fluid.
direction of the instantaneous velocity at each point. A smooth curve
tangent to each of these lines would be a streamline.
Note that a path
line refers to the path of a single particle, whereas a streamline refers to an
instantaneous picture of the velocity direction of a number of particles.
Streamlines are analogous to the lines of force in a force field, like a
magnetic field.
Source
1935.
25]
33
velocity and other such characteristics vary with time at a point. Path
lines are identical with streamlines in steady flow.
Sometimes it is convenient to change a nonsteady flow into a steady
flow by shifting the reference system or the position of an observer.
Picture the flow around a bridge pier. An observer on the pier will note
On the other
steady flow if the streamlines do not change with time.
hand, an observer in a rowboat moving with the same stream will find
If an observer on an airship (or airplane) witnesses
the flow unsteady.
steady flow, another observer on the ground would find an unsteady flow
of the fluid as the aircraft approaches and passes.
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AiViWi
For liquids and
= constant.
= A2V2W2.
(18)
Q =
AlVl
= A2V2 = constant.
w is
(19)
AV
The product Q
34
[Ch. 3
There is
increase in the velocity of the fluid between the streamlines.
a crowding of streamlines above the tapered section and in the nozzle
throat.
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Fig.
30.
Fig.
26.
Flow around
31.
a tapered section.
Flow through
a nozzle.
Velocity distribution
A general problem is to
of a flowing fluid.
If
application of an energy equation2 yields the pressure at each point. The
total force acting on a body in a fluid can be determined from the pressure
distribution around the body.
Chapter
4.
27]
35
is
is,
In such
potential or possible flow the streamlines
patterns.
may be considered as solid boundaries, since no fluid crosses a streamline.
closed streamline, then, may be replaced by solid body without affect
a
streamline
Fig.
32.
Two-dimensional
is
a
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In Fig.
'*
= 2kBVb,
2tR
(20)
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36
Fig.
33.
a half-streamline
[Ch. 3
(a)
body.
37
Fig. 33a shows a uniform rectilinear flow with a velocity V0; the
are parallel.
A source is placed at point A. At point B
the velocity component V0 is added vectorially to the radial velocity VR
(due to the source) to give the resultant velocity vector V. The stream
line at B is tangent to the velocity vector V. Extension of this vector
addition to other points in the field gives a series of streamlines as shown
in Fig. 33b. A solid body can be substituted for any of the streamlines
In Fig. 33b the boundary C has
because no fluid crosses a streamline.
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streamlines
Fig.
34.
Two-dimensional
rectilinear flow V0 (along the fine AB) with a source at A and a sink at B.
The discharge rate Q from the source exactly equals the input rate to the
sink.
Different oval shapes can be obtained by employing different
If the point A is brought closer to
values of Q, V0, and distances AB.
B, the oval approaches a circle as its limit, like that shown in Fig. 35.
This limiting combination of a source and sink is called a doublet.
Various graphic techniques can be developed for expediting the vector
addition, for plotting streamlines, and for obtaining a qualitative picture
of the flow.
For computation purposes involving a large class of fluid
motions, the velocity distribution can be obtained analytically by means
of potential functions.
Potential functions are helpful in other studies
A simplified treatment of the use of these
besides those of fluid flow.
functions, in mathematically superposing simple flows, will be given in
Chapter 19.
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38
Fig.
35.
frictionless
Two-dimensional
cylinder.
flow
[Ch. 3
around
SELECTED REFERENCES
An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by A. H. Jameson. Longmans, Green
Co., New York, 1937.
Applied Wing Theory by E. G. Reid. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1932.
and
PROBLEMS
40. A pipe 12 inches in diameter reduces to a diameter of 6 inches, and then
If the average velocity in the 6-inch pipe
expands to a diameter of 10 inches.
is 15 feet per second, what is the average velocity at the other sections for any
incompressible fluid?
Air flows
pipe 8 inches in diameter expands to 14 inches diameter.
a rate of 15 pounds per minute.
At one section, in the 8-inch
pipe, the gage pressure is 40 pounds per square inch, and the temperature is
120 Fahrenheit.
At another section, in the 14-inch pipe, the gage pressure is
25 pounds per square inch and the temperature is 80 Fahrenheit.
Barometric
What is the mean velocity at each section?
pressure is 30.0 inches of mercury.
41.
CHAPTER
Any Fluid
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...
it
be
MOTION. Rumford.i
The energy equation for steady flow is a powerful, easily applied, and
useful tool for the engineer.
It is simply an energy accounting. The
purpose of the following is to discuss this equation, and to indicate its
generality
and usefulness.
1935.
40
[Ch. A
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distance),
it asserts that
The heat added to unit
weight of the flowing
fluid between entrance
and exit
(done
to
upon) unit
total
the
in
gain
energy of unit weight
of the flowing fluid
between entrance and
exit.
Fig.
36.
Figure
36
apparatus.
as
EQUATION
ENERGY
831]
p1v1
778
p2v2
778
FLOW
FOR STEADY
F22
work
WM2~Ml+
TV
2g(778)
41
Zi
"W'
z2
/01>1,
(21)
g =
is,
The term
it
It
is
entrance.
= u
Ul +
JhVi
778
Vi2
2ff(778)
_Zi_
+
778
~ "2 +
(22)
regrouped by
frequently
==~
enthalpy
using
- TO,
cv(T2
piO2
778
written as:
V22
2y(778)
_L
778
- ui
is
u2
is
includes any other work transferred to the fluid by the action of external
forces. "Work"
positive for a pump, and negative for fluid turbine.
The internal energy u for steam, ammonia, and other vapors can be
For gas obeying the equation pv = RT,
found from suitable tables.
work
778
is
There
no essential difference between this equation and Equation (21).
The background for this relation may be found in the usual text on elementary
thermodynamics, or in Article 104 in Chapter 12.
3
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z = elevation
42
[Ch. 4
work
~778-h2
hl +
IV
- IV
~2^778T
z2
Zl
(23)
"778~
The enthalpy of steam, ammonia, and other vapors can be found from
For a gas obeying the relation pv = RT,
suitable tables.
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h,-h1
where
cp
cP(T2
- TO,
(24)
heat at constant
and 2.
how fric
tion is taken into account by the general energy equation expressed in the
two alternate forms given in Equations (21) and (23). Work done
against friction is dissipated as thermal energy at the rubbing point.
There are two possibilities:
(1) The thermal energy thus developed may pass through the walls
That part of the thermal
of the apparatus, either wholly or in part.
walls
of
the apparatus is included in the
energy which passes through the
If the heat transfer q were measured, frictional heat could not be
q term.
distinguished from heat from any other source.
(2) That thermal energy due to friction which does not pass through
the apparatus walls does not appear in the q term, but adds to the total
energy of the fluid, and hence is included (or concealed) in the right-hand
side of Equations (21) or (23).
as to
34.
ENERGY EQUATION
43
Nonflow equation
If
work
q = u2
Mi
35.
(25)
"778"
F22
- Fi2 =
2<7(778)
z2 = Zi.
If
Equation
the
(23)
(26)
//////////////////
77777777777777777Ztyr
2
Fig.
If Vi
37.
Fig.
Nozzle.
is so small that
it may
be neglected, then
common form
V2 = .V/2g(778)(/i1
For
a gas
pv =
Orifice.
Equation
h2).
RT, Equation
V2 = .V/2(7(778)cJ>(r1
36.
38.
Ts).
(27)
(27) becomes
(28)
Referring to Fig. 38, suppose that the flowing fluid is throttled by some
device such as an orifice or a valve.
Let z2 = i. The "work" term is
zero.
It is common to assume that the process is adiabatic. If Vi = F2,
Equation (23) becomes
hi
= h2.
(29)
44
For a number of
cases
[Ch. 4
thermal aspects
p^2
778
,
~*~
work =
778
V22
V?
2^(778)
~*
Z2
zl
'
778
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.
K
'
Multiplying
-*-[++*]-[++}
<31>
constant.
(32)
mechanical
Negative work
to
work
work
to
to
fluid as in the
fluid as in the
a negative
quantity of work
to
the fluid.
ENERGY
38]
EQUATION
FOR STEADY
FLOW
45
It was pointed out in Chapter 3 that if the velocity at each point in the
field of flow is known, an application of an energy equation yields the
Consider the flow around the body shown in
pressure at each point.
Fig. 39, for a Motionless, incompressible fluid with negligible thermal
aspects.
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The pressure is
Po
Vo
At
po
'
Fig.
39.
w
since
p =
w/g,
p.
The term
po =
+ 0;
Pyo2-
(33)
be discussed
in detail in
Chapter 8.
Applying the energy equation between points 0 and B in Fig.
po
Vo2
2g
pb
I
~l~
Vb2
2g-
39 gives
(34)
If po
ENERGY EQUATION
46
p. = po
ipVo2;
- I I [12
X 5280 ]' pounds
,
p. = 55(64) +
[Ch. 4
36Q0
Example
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Vi
-7 -r
4(12)
V2
0.223
r-r
-j
4(12)
WOTk =
6^85)
= 259.3
Since
horsepower
(10
5)
6T4
((1-22)2
(4J54)2)
= 550
horsepower
-
= 259.3(0.223)62.4(0.85)
55U
ra
5.58.
Work =
hi-h1
- hi
= cp(T2
and
h2
V2 can be determined
state:
TO
_ yi2
-wm->
y22
= 0.24(200
60).
AiVi
A2V2
Pii
r,
EQUATION
ENERGY
38]
FOR STEADY
FLOW
47
Therefore
+ 460)
(200
(60
Since
pit>i
+ 460)
RTi,
53.3(460 + 60) =
13.09 cubic feet per pound.
14.7(144)
Weight flow
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Since
horsepower-hour
AiVi
30
13.09
= 2545 B.t.u.,
WOfk
"
2.29(3600)
Rt-U-
^P0^
(38.6)'
(30)'
20(778)
= 35.15 B.t.u. per pound added to fluid.
SELECTED
REFERENCES
Energy Transfer Between a Fluid and a Rotor for Pump and Turbine Machinery
A.S.M.E. Transactions,
by S. A. Moss, C. W. Smith, and W. R. Foote.
August, 1942, vol. 64, no. 6, page 567.
A Thermodynamic Analysis of the Steady Flow of Fluids by C. H. Berry. Mechan
ical Engineering, November, 1929, page 816.
PROBLEMS
43. An airship flies through still standard
the gage pressure on the nose?
air at
What is
48
[Ch. 4
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CHAPTER
Viscosity or
Internal
Friction
is,
39. Definition
of
The flow of any real fluid gives rise to tangential rictional forces which
The action of such internal shearing forces
are called viscous forces.
results in a degradation of mechanical energy into heat or unavailable
thermal energy.
viscosity
a
is
is
shear stress
is
When
40.
The
stationary.
G,
is
lower plate
is
Fig.
is
G
is
is
is
is
V,
is
a
is
of
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Isaac Newton.1
University
1934.
49
of California
VISCOSITY
50
OR INTERNAL FRICTION
[Ch. 5
Such flow
and fluctuations superimposed on the main flow.
P
maintain
the
flow, to slide
is called laminar.
is the force required to
motions
the fluid layers relative to each other by overcoming the internal fluid
If A is the area of the plate in contact with the fluid, then
resistance.
the shear stress is P/A = r (Greek letter tau).
The linear velocity distribution in the fluid is shown in Fig. 40.
The
of shearing strain of the fluid is V/h. During each unit of time there
is an angular change equal to V/h. The coefficient of viscosity of the
rate
fluid is defined
as
follows:
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viscosity =
the foregoing
Sometimes
shearing stress
rate of shearing
Probably a
viscosity.
Its symbol is n (Greek letter
mu):
dynamic viscosity
T = H
If
P/A
V/h
V/h
(36)
'
7*
.7
dy
dy
du
Nonlinear
velocity
bution.
(37)
gradient
41.
as
du
(35)
strain
distri-
FT
-tt
OR INTERNAL FRICTION
VISCOSITY
41]
or the
...
.,
,.
dimensions of dynamic viscosity are
51
MLT~*T
M
or j-=,^
pound-second
square foot
slug
foot-second
dyne-second
square centimeter
gram
centimeter second
..
inch
= 2.54 centimeters;
Then
_,
"
dyne = 2.248
10-6 pounds.
dyne-second
centimeter squared
= 2.248
X 10-(2.64 X i2)Pud^ecod
foot squared
2.089X10-'
*-
i1 poise
vx in_, pounds-second
= nnon
j2.089 X 10 *
foot squared
fUgS
foot-second
Kinematic viscosity
is
density.
Dimensions of
are
ML3
LTM
=U
T'
stoke.
is
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In the metric system, dynamic viscosity may be expressed in dynessecond per square centimeter or grams per centimeter-second.
VISCOSITY
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52
|Cl
OR INTERNAL FRICTION
'
150
200
TEMPERATURE, DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
50
100
[Ch. 5
'
250
1933.
VISCOSITY
41]
OR INTERNAL FRICTION
53
0.060
0.055
0.050
(/><
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s:
0.045
x
0.040
o
o
CO
0.035
s
<
z
>Q
0.030
0.025
0.020
100
200
300
TEMPERATURE, DEGREES
Fig.
400
500
FAHRENHEIT
600
43.
Dynamic viscosity of some gases, at atmospheric pressure, and of steam.3
Data for steam from The Viscosity of Superheated Steam, by G. A. Hawkins,
H. L. Solberg, and A. A. Potter, A.S.M.E. Transactions, vol. 26, no. 8, November,
Other data adapted from Der Chemie-Ingenieur by M. Jakob and
1940, page 677.
S. Erk, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft M.B.H., Leipzig, 1933, vol. 1, part 1, page 73.
3
54
[Ch. 5
exchange or momen
Table 3
SOME VALUES OF VISCOSITY AT STANDARD CONDITIONS
Fluid
Dynamic
Air
Water.
. . .
viscosity,
rslugs
ft.-sec.
Kinematic
0.0373 X 10-5
2.391 X 10"5
1.57
3160
1 . 692
10-5
1 . 233
viscosity,
X
X
X
ft.
10"4
10~6
10s
are given in
15.
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tum diffusion between adjacent gas layers which have different velocities.
This momentum exchange is caused by molecular motion, and results in
a tendency to reduce the relative motion between neighboring layers.
This theory agrees with the fact that the dynamic viscosities of gases
increase with temperature increase ; as the temperature rises the molecular
activity increases, and the resistance to relative motion increases.
The effect of small pressure changes on the dynamic viscosity of fluids
is usually considered negligible for ordinary conditions.
Table 3 gives
some values at 59 Fahrenheit and 29.92 inches of mercury.
The vis-
VISCOSITY
43]
OR INTERNAL FRICTION
55
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Fig.
44.
and measurement
of the
as
"viscosity" of a suspension.
VISCOSITY
56
OR INTERNAL FRICTION
[Ch. 5
SELECTED REFERENCES
Fluidity and Plasticity by E. C. Bingham, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1922.
52. Castor oil at 59" Fahrenheit fills the space between two parallel horizontal
If the upper plate moves with a velocity of 5 feet
plates which are | inch apart.
per second, and the lower one is stationary, what is the shear stress in the oil?
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PROBLEMS
53. A liquid has a dynamic viscosity of 1.85 centi poises and a specific gravity
What are the dynamic and kinematic viscosities in American units, and
of 1.046.
the kinematic viscosity in stokes ?
54.
The kinematic viscosity of an oil is 0.020 foot squared per second, and the
Determine
the dynamic
viscosity.
a fixed
CHAPTER
Dimensional
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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
44. Dimensions
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method useful in : (a) checking
equations; (b) changing units; (c) determining the general form of a
The
physical equation; and (d) planning systematic experiments.
following discussion deals mainly with the problem of determining the
general form of a physical equation.
Dimensional analysis results in a sound, orderly arrangement of the
Reference to
variable physical quantities involved in a problem.
experimental data must be made in order to obtain the necessary con
Although the
stants or coefficients for a complete numerical expression.
following examples deal with fluid flow, it is to be emphasized that
the same method of approach can be used for problems in rigid-body
electricity, and other fields
mechanics, heat transfer, thermodynamics,
of pure and applied physics.
The first step in treating a problem is to list all the variables involved.
This listing may be the result of experience or judgment.
The form of
the equation which results from a dimensional analysis is no more accurate
or complete than the original listing of variables.
The next step, the
dimensional analysis, can be made by following a formal procedure.
It should be noted that the same word, dimension, is used to signify
both the numerical magnitude of a measurement and its dimensional class
1
58
ich. 6
phenomena
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If length
If
In
Table
M, L, and T system.
heat transfer the fundamental dimensions are usually taken as length, time,
DIMENSIONAL
451
ANALYSIS;
Table
DYNAMIC
SIMILARITY
59
Quantity
Length
Mass
Dimensions
f.
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S^tfmj:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
*'\
Area
Volume
Linear velocity
Linear acceleration
Angular measure
Angular velocity
Torque or Moment (FL)
Density
Specific weight (FL"3)
Dynamic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity
Pressure or Stress (FL"2)
Work, Energy, or Heat
it-2
J"
MIM
J?^e
Jf%*
\u- Vt--.
tvp-i
m i
MLT lT
ML2T~2
under
consideration.
It is sound and most convenient to have a physical equation arranged
with the variables in dimensionless groups or combinations.
Variables
can be organized in the smallest number of significant
of Buckingham's
(Greek letter pi) theorem.
groups by means
60
[Ch. 6
Let A\, Ai, A3, ' An be n physical quantities which are involved
in some physical phenomenon.
Examples of these physical quantities
are velocity, viscosity, and density.
Let m be the number of all the
primary or fundamental units (such as length, mass, and time) involved
in this group of physical quantities.
The physical equation, or the
functional relation between these quantities, can be written as
The
t theorem
An) = 0.
ir_m)
= 0
w is an independent
dimensionless product of some of the
Note that the number of terms in the physical equation has been
reduced from n to n m.
A formal proof of the t theorem is somewhat
The purpose of the present dis
abstract, and will not be given here.3
cussion is to provide information useful in gaining a working knowledge
for engineering applications.
If there are three primary dimensions, as for ordinary problems in
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where each
A's.
xi
= A1x'A2yiA3z*Ai
7T2
= A1X2A2v'A3ZtAi
ir_m =
Ai^-'Ai^Aa'
An
ber of variables
DIMENSIONAL
46]
61
be explained
by several
examples.
46. Illustrations
oF
dimensional analysis
Symbol
Dimensions of
variable
MLT-2
MLT-2
Since there are five variables (n = 5) and three fundamental units (m = 3)>
the physical equation has two dimensionless ratios.
Let m and 7r2 represent
Dimensional equations are written combining the three variables
these ratios.
P, N, and D [selected as suggested in (a) of Article 45] with each of the remaining
variables in turn. Thus
5Ti =
7f2 =
P*JV"l7>lfl,
P'2N"2D'2fl.
ML
J*2
Substituting the
LMoTa,
where LoMoTa represents the fact that the iri ratio is dimensionless
Solving for each dimension separately gives
dimensions.
M
L
x, +
-2xi
1 = 0
-3/i-2
7Tl
or has zero
-1
1 = 0
+ zi +
xx
Therefore,
= 0
X! =
Zi = 0
= 0
2/i
p-
-2x2
l=
z2
-2/2-1=0
x2=-l
z2
2/2
+
+
LW=
X2
x2
r0
(r)
T L
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Variable
62
[Ch. 6
Thus
NuD'
The physical equation has the form
= fpiwi)
T)
('
xi
or
it
is
is
2.
Example
The problem
to develop an expression for the thrust of a
screw propeller completely immersed in
fluid. It
judged that the following
variables are involved
Dimensions of
variable
Variable
MLT-*
Propeller diameter
Velocity of advance
Revolutions per unit time .
Gravitational acceleration . .
Density of fluid
Kinematic viscosity of fluid
LT'1
y-i
LT-2
ML~3
V,
Since there are seven variables and three fundamental units, there are four
Dimensional relations are written combining D,
and
dimensionless ratios.
with each of the remaining variables in turn:
7Ti =
D*lVip*lP,
ir2 = DxiVy!p**N,
x3 = Dx'V"ipzsg,
Ti
are determined
DW2p
7T2
DN
Dg.
ITl =
V2
DV
Chapter
15.
is
= D*iVvip*iV.
is
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is
is
4>
is,
where
means "some function of"; that
the friction coefficient/is some func
tion of the dimensionless ratio N)iD2/P.
The foregoing form
used in lubrica
tion studies.4 Experimental data are necessary in order to determine the exact
nature of the functional relation; such data are available in current lubrication
literature. Dimensional analysis provides
systematic and efficient approach.
Practical engineering work has shown that the result
of aid in the design and
prediction of performance of lubricated bearings.
were selected to give one solution. Another set of three vari
R, N, and
ables could have been selected to give another solution. For example, the dimen
sionless ratio P/R, from
dimensional point of view,
just as satisfactory and
sound as its reciprocal.
Custom, however, has arbitrarily established the ratio
R/P as friction coefficient.
47, 48]
63
meaning that
xi
P
D2V2p
(DN
,DNt
V\V
Dg
Dg,
F2
DV)
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DNy
(Vg\h
M)'(fQ(w)
where the coefficient
mental data.
K and
the exponents a,
b,
jt4 =
DYNAMIC SIMILARITY
48. Mechanically similar flows
In
or model
theoretical
of the prototype.
calculations
alone.
64
[Ch.
under what conditions is the flow around one body mechanically similar
to the flow around the other?
Mechanical similarity implies not only
geometric similarity, but also similarity with respect to the forces acting,
or dynamic similarity.
The
flow around two bodies can be
similar only if the body shapes
are geometrically similar; this
geometric similarity is a nec
essary condition, but it is not a
sufficient condition.
The streamline
pattern for
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to the streamline
the
motions
A and
for
A'
a proto
corre
are
other
body.
pattern for
For corre
pletely by the ratio of the forces acting on a fluid particle at the point.
Therefore, mechanical similarity is realized when the ratio of the forces
acting on a fluid particle in one flow is the same as the ratio of the forces
acting at a corresponding
It
is customary
to consider separately
two
cases,
or combinations,
In each
Elastic
Chap. 12.
49]
65
forces can be taken as viscous and inertia, whereas in case (b) the sig
nificant pair of forces can be taken as inertia and gravity. Each com
number
density X r=
time
is
proportional to
i
i_py_
p\
i/v
lpVy2
J2
is
volume
proportional to
'
is
force
dimensionless ratio
viscous force
^tt- =
proportional to ]iVl.
rproportional
Since
-y->
the
Then the
to
= Reynolds' number.
M
V-Vl
is
is
is
rl2, where
tional to
is
some characteristic
and
l
is
If
viscous and inertia forces determine the flow for a prototype, then
realized when the
mechanical similarity between model and prototype
is
number.
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if,
For completely enclosed flow (pipes, many flow meters, fans, pumps,
turbines), or for flow in which bodies are fully immersed in a fluid (vehicles,
submarines, aircraft, structures) in such fashion that free surfaces do not
enter into the consideration and gravity forces are balanced by buoyant
forces, the inertia and viscous forces are the only ones which need to be
at points similarly
Mechanical similarity exists
taken into account.
ratios
of
the inertia forces to the
located with respect to the bodies, the
are
very
66
[Ch.6
Example.
Standard air flows through a pipe 32 inches in diameter with an
A model of this pipe 3 inches in diameter is
average velocity of 6 feet per second.
What average velocity of water is necessary for the
constructed for water flow.
model flow to be dynamically similar to that of the prototype?
Taking the
diameter D of the pipe as a characteristic length,
(model)
3,
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(prototype).
Chapter
(D2\
Vi
velocity V\ becomes
5, the
/32\
v,
^1.233
X 10-'\
is involved.
The gravity force for a fluid particle equals the particle mass
prototype..
times the gravitational acceleration g. The gravity force is proportional
to pPg, where l is some characteristic length, like the length of the ship.
Then the dimensionless ratio
rr
gravity force
11bY1
pPg
"=
is proportional to
Yl.
lg
The shapes of the water waves produced by the ship model and the
prototype will be similar if the value of V2/lg is the same for both. This
dimensionless ratio, or usually its square root, is called Froude's number:
Froude's number
T7
VTg
Example.
An ocean vessel 600 feet long is to travel 15 miles per hour.
What would be the corresponding speed for a geometrically similar model 6 feet
long, towed in water for studies of wave resistance?
\Zhg
Vi
(model)
= 15 vV<hr
j= (prototype).
\/lig
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50]
67
von Karman
Anniversary
May
Pasadena,
Model Experiments
PROBLEMS
66. Determine the form of an expression for the velocity of sound c in a gas.
Assume that c depends upon the density p, pressure p, and dynamic viscosity /*.
57. Observations indicate that the resistance R which the air offers to an air
plane wing depends mainly on some characteristic length I, the speed V of the
wing, and the density and viscosity of the air. Find the form of the expression
for the resistance.
68. Consider that the resistance R of a flat plate immersed in a fluid is depend
ent on the fluid density and viscosity, the velocity, and the width b and the height
h of the plate.
Develop an expression for the resistance of the plate in terms of
these quantities.
69. It is judged that the performance of a lubricating oil ring depends upon
the following variables: Q, quantity of oil delivered per unit time; D, inside
diameter of the ring; N, shaft speed in revolutions per unit time; n, oil viscosity;
68
[Ch. 6
oil density; w, specific weight of the oil; and S, the surface tension in air (force
per unit length). Develop an expression for Q in terms of the other variables.
p,
60. For a certain type of installation, observations show that the gases in the
wake of a smokestack flow downward a certain distance, called the downwash.
Assume that the pertinent variables involved in this phenomenon are: depth of
downwash l, diameter of stack D, wind velocity V\, gas velocity Vt, and gas
Find a form of the expression for the downwash.
temperature 0.
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61. An airship is tested in standard air at a speed of 100 feet per second.
Calculate the towing speed of the same model when tested submerged in water
under similar dynamic conditions.
62. An airplane model has linear dimensions that are one-twentieth those of
It is desired to test the model in a wind tunnel with an air
the full-sized plane.
What must be the pressure
speed equal to the flying speed of full-size plane.
in the wind tunnel? Assume the same air temperature in each case.
1000
A model is one
64. A submerged submarine is to move at 6 miles per hour.
tenth as long as the prototype. What would be the model speed if the water
were the same in both cases?
65. A propeller-type mixer, 9 feet in diameter, is to be used submerged in
soybean oil at 30 centigrade (specific weight 56.5 pounds per cubic foot, vis
Tests on a model, 6 inches in diameter, in
cosity 0.085 slugs per foot-second).
water at 59 Fahrenheit show that the best operating speed for the model is
18 revolutions per minute.
Estimate the best angular speed for the prototype.
66.
would
An ocean vessel 500 feet long is to travel at 10 miles per hour. What
for a model 20 feet long, towed in water for studies of surface
be the speed
wave resistance?
CHAPTER
Flow of Incompressible
Fluids in Pipes
is
is,
51.
Fig.
46.
pipe flow.
is
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69
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
70
FLUIDS IN PIPES
[Ch. 7
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(e)
Fig.
47.
Transition
the mouth of the glass tube moves along with the water, to indicate the
nature of the flow.
At low velocities the colored filament is straight and
stable.
At velocities above a critical value, the dye shows irregular
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
53]
FLUIDS IN PIPES
71
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numbers
V.
= 2000 (
(38)
J^
0&)
If the
actual average velocity V is below Vc, the stable flow will be laminar.
For usual conditions the pipe flow is turbulent for values of Nr above
about 3000.
= 2000 to
Nr
siderably above 3000; such flow, however, is not inherently stable, for
any disturbance, once started, tends to break up the laminar pattern.
Laminar flow at values of Nr considerably above 3000 is a phenomenon
Nor
which is somewhat similar to supersaturation or to undercooling.
mally, laminar flow does not occur for values of Nr above about 3000.
It is to be noted that the foregoing critical values of Reynolds' number
apply only to pipe flow. Critical values of Reynolds' numbers for other
cases, as for flow around various bodies immersed in a stream, are different
Further, it is difficult to
from those given in the preceding discussion.
specify exactly one universal critical Reynolds' number, or one specific
value which will provide a very sharp and general distinction for all pipe
installations. Turbulent flow depends upon the pipe roughness, initial
Hence, the several
disturbances, entrance conditions, and other factors.
critical values given in the foregoing discussion have been qualified.
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
72
(3
+ i
WS)778 =
(2LZ*i)
FLUIDS IN PIPES
(^^)
Oi
---
sms wE
2g
LOST
[Ch. 7
- O.
(39)
is degraded
loss due to
HEAD = h
lv22
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,2g
Pi
Pi
w
^^^^
u
1
Zi
ARBITRARY
\///////////
////// /^ / / / / / /
DATUM
>
Fig.
48.
ffff
or
(^)
<*
- ,>.
Then the
()
(z +
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
54|
(v
+
V2\
+ -5- I at each point gives the
73
series of manometers
z
FLUIDS IN PIPES
energy grade
The energy grade line slopes down from the horizontal in the
direction of flow. The vertical distance between the energy grade and
a horizontal line through 0 represents the lost head.
If the area at
section 1 equals the area at section 2, the equation of continuity specifies
that Vi = V2. In this case the pressure grade line is parallel to the
line.
(?
<>
22
*)
(5
horizontal, then
in
the pipe
is
If
equals
circular pipes
is
*-'G) V
D
(42)
Figure
is
49 shows a
plot of
as a
is
is
is
is
In some
specification,
and estimation
of pipe rough
ness
is
is
.not
the determination of
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MOH JO
saAHno
veurQ
UB8J3 '(aa^s
^qSnorAV uo.ii
St-tI
e-s
'T-I
fl
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paZIUBv|B8
96-8^
%t-oz
.heBiP
a3Brvey
pauirof
pa^veU
a^aiouoa
96 .!P
"B!P
-!P
HK,-fr8
96-^
oi-s
Z-ft
^sbo
'uoai -iinor
,,ZLSf
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,/8I-9I
/,8-9
u\Z>
f^-OI
8-9
s-e
e-t
0S
!P
ZI-9
f-
Saimd Nl S3dld
3iaiSS3dd\MODNI
H-OI
fl
II
33
o
o
>
o
5
9T0-0
S 168Z9
0001
OOO'OI
I68Z9S
mSCnONA3H M38WnN
-i -Qf
uoiioirj
I68Z9Sfr
OOO'OOI
OOO'OOO'I
I68Z9Sfr
OOO'OOO'Ol
-^=aN
,. b^bq
rof veino -o^ 1 .iayB uoiua^g nda '[[buubj
e,sadur^iN pan i^up rof sveino -on g
6 r8'jfb hoSij
pa^si]
nda fo bii\% 'er^paho aSap .8
55]
Fig.
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
49, selected
FLUIDS IN PIPES
75
Solution.
N ~
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32.2(12)1.6(10-)
From Fig.
(2 9) 2
"tW
(600\
0.90(62.4)2(2.9)
2(32 2)
= 5-2?
97
/ = 0.021.
49,
= 9-87 feet
v1fl4
10
X
9.87
0.90(62.4)
Subsequent chapters, such as those dealing with flow meters and with
the resistance of moving immersed bodies, will bring out the fact that
other flow coefficients are correlated with Reynolds' number, and that
the method of calculation in many of these other problems is somewhat
p1
_ ps
irD2
=
^
64
(l \
V2
w-\^J-
V.
Then
= Ap = wh =
Ap =
J-
= 32nl\
(43)
(44)
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
76
FLUIDS IN PIPES
~\
[Ch. 7
\lj2
(45)
= n(du/dy).
With the coordinate system employed
at
the
Then
center, du is a decrement.
velocity
highest
pipe
and the
Ap
da
y-
-S[?-4
(46)
Pi
Fig.
50.
y = 0.
P2
circular
distribution.
Thus
t*ma
ApD2
(47)
16nl
Jo
'
2iryayu = , Ap
lil
~D/2
I
(48)
128'
is
is
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FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
56]
FLUIDS IN PIPS3
77
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56.
Velocity distributions
in circular pipes
51 the
r
Fig.
51.
FlG 52
Comparison of velocity pr0_
files in a smooth pipe for the same aver-
The ratio
a8e
F/lW
is sometimes
velocity
V and different
Reynolds'
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
78
FLUIDS IN PIPES
[Ch. 7
0.8
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0.7
V
U MAX.
0.6
0.5
.2
l\
5 6
7891
t!
u MAX.
Fig.
53.
AI
5 6
10,000
1000
789: 1
100 ,000
Dp
wmai. is
be represented
by
the relation
(49)
The value of n is
for turbulent flow in smooth tubes up to values of
of
about
If the pipe factor (Fig. 53) is taken as 0.82, then
NB
100,000.
=
1.22V.
For this case,
Mmai.
u = 1.22V
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
57]
FLUIDS IN PIPES
79
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+ -)
(51)
where
e
= 0.
as
in the main stream and dynamic viscosity for the flow through some cir
cular pipes. His results show that the eddy viscosity increases with
For example, for NR = 3000 the eddy viscosity
Reynolds' number.
is 7.2 times the dynamic viscosity, whereas for Nr = 500,000 the eddy
The shear stress in turbu
viscosity is 470 times the dynamic viscosity.
lent flow may be considerably higher than that for laminar flow.
Relation between Heat Transfer and Fluid Friction by E. V. Murphree,
and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 24, July, 1932, page 726.
4
Industrial
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
80
58.
FLUIDS IN PIPES
[Ch. 7
There are various practical pipe flow problems which cannot be solved
directly by Fig. 49 alone. For example, there are the following cases:
Given p, n, D, and the pressure drop Ap in a
length I, what is the velocity V or the discharge Q?
(b) Given p, n, Q, Ap, and I, what is D?
(a)
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8
where p' is the pressure gradient Ap/l.
S does not include V, and T
D.
set
of
consistent
units could be used for each
Any
does not include
ratio.
For example, the following set could be employed: Ap in pounds
per square foot, I in feet, n in slugs per foot-second, p in slugs per cubic
foot, Q in cubic feet per second, D in feet, and V in feet per second.
pute the
ing.
Thus
/ or Nr is determined,
be calculated.
This
6A
Survey of Flow Calculation Methods by S. P. Johnson, Preprinted Papers and
Program, A.S.M.E. Summer Meeting, June, 1934, page 98.
/aou jo
saAano -on i
8vJIIQ
.ON
uBalQ 'laa^s
^hSnorw uori
am
z hxoows
paziuBvlBS
oe !P
,/96-8^ .Bip
^aahs
!P
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8-9
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!i-i
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8
6
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\z
z-fi
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E fr I68Z9S
OOO'OI
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8
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8
ooo'ooo'i
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'uori -hSnor
pauuof
I //i
s^onp
//8^-OZ
,,9-f
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Zl^
NMvaa saanx
UB8I0
is
;68t9qve
fr I68Z9S
OOO'OOI
muni
Li.
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g tr I68Z99
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if Jl arf
T68Z9S
OOO'OO,0OI
1
1 I
>/
g
OOO'l
-gij
-fq
\j
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
82
FLUIDS IN PIPES
[Ch. 7
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Pv2
sVpQV
losses
Table
Di
Ki
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.45
0.39
0.33
0.22
0.06
60]
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLUIDS IN PIPES
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gives values of
Pi P2-V2
Pig.
55.
83
Fig.
Values
56.
h0=K^
,= 0.5
V2
h0==1.0
Fig.
size of the fitting.
listed in Table 6.
56.
V2
V2
h0=
and Pipe,
Technical
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
84
FLUIDS IN PIPES
[Ch. 7
Table 6
MINOR LOSS COEFFICIENTS FOR VALVES AND FITTINGS
K2
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Valve or Fitting
Globe valve, wide open
Angle valve, wide open
Gate valve, wide open
Gate valve, \ closed
Gate valve, \ closed
Gate valve, f closed
Return bend
Standard tee
Standard elbow
Medium sweep elbow
Long sweep elbow
45-degree elbow
10
5
0. 19
1.15
5.6
24 . 0
2.2
1.8
0.9
0 . 75
0 . 60
0 . 42
-profile radius,
,.
profile radius =
It
cross-sectional
-
-.
area
wetted perimeter
For a circular pipe flowing full, the profile radius R equals D/4.
is substituted
If
4i
^,
(52)
*-{(b)
(53)
Use of Equations (52) and (53) in connection with Fig. 49 for ordinary
shapes gives results which are in fair agreement with experimental data
if the flow is turbulent. Use of the profile radius for laminar flow may
Lamb7 presents some theoretical results
give very inaccurate values.
for laminar flow in sections other than circular.
61
in a pipe,
there may be a secondary flow superimposed upon the primary or main
flow.
The additional energy dissipation resulting from the secondary
as
a bend
flow may be undesirable, or the secondary flow may affect the operation
of a machine or meter.
This secondary flow, on the other hand, may be
useful in separating particles, like silt, carried by the fluid.
Before dis
cussing this phenomenon, it will be helpful to bring out some general
features regarding the flow in a curved path.
7
page 586.
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
61]
FLUIDS IN PIPES
85
Fig.
57.
Flow in
a curved path.
infinitesimals of higher order than the first are neglected, a force balance
in the radial direction gives
dpdA = pdrdA
dp = pdr
V2
(54)
is
it,
is
is
is
it,
is
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pdAdr(V2/r).
The pressure varies from p to p + dp as the radius varies
from r to r + dr. The centrifugal force on the fluid element is just bal
anced by the resultant force due to the pressures over the surfaces.
If
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86
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
Fig.
59.
FLUIDS IN PIPES
[Ch. 7
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
61]
FLUIDS IN PIPES
87
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side of the bend, and to deepen the bend at the outer side.
Secondary
flow thus tends to make the bend more pronounced or more meandering.
Figure 59 illustrates diagrammatically the secondary flow observed in
some pipe bends.
The side AD is at the inner radius, whereas the side
BC is at the outer radius. Viewing one side only, for example, the
velocity in the layers close to the wall AB is less than that in the central
plane EE. The pressure gradient, however, is transmitted from one
layer to the next. Thus there is a tendency for the secondary flow to
proceed from B to A. The rest of the fluid, by continuity, is forced to
stream, slowly, to complete the circuit. Superimposed upon the primary
flow is the secondary flow consisting of two spirals.
The secondary flow in a bend may be reduced or eliminated by suit
Also, since the walls AB and CD play such a prominent
able guide vanes.
r61e in developing the secondary flow, the secondary flow may be reduced
by making the sides AB and DC small in comparison with BC and AD.
Two-dimensional flow in a curved channel may be realized with such a
deep, narrow channel.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Similarity of Motion in Relation to the Surface Friction of Fluids by T. E. Stanton
and J. R. Pannell, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 214,
1914, page 199.
Gesetzmassigkeiten der turbulenten Stromung in glatten Rohren by J. Nikuradse,
Forschungsheft 357, Beilage zu Forschung auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens,
Engineering,
page 497.
the Data on the Flow of Fluids in Pipes by E. Kemler, A.S.M.E.
Transactions, August 31, 1933, vol. 55, no. 10, page 7.
The Physics of Solids and Fluids by P. P. Ewald, T. Poschl, and L. Prandtl,
Blackie and Son, London, 1932.
Some Aspects of the Turbulence Problem by T. v. Karman, Mechanical Engineering,
August,
A Study of
1933,
PROBLEMS
(specific gravity = 0.75) per minute flow through
Kinematic
a horizontal clean steel pipe 8 inches in diameter and 8 miles long.
viscosity is 0.01 centimeter squared per second. What is the pressure drop?
67.
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE
88
FLUIDS IN PIPES
[Ch. 7
be pumped
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71. Water at 59 Fahrenheit flows through a 6-inch diameter average castiron pipe with an average velocity of 4.0 feet per second. What is the pressure
drop in a length of 120 feet?
72. Calculate the power which must be added to the fluid to pump 22 cubic
feet per minute of ethylene bromide at 20 centigrade through a horizontal
smooth-drawn tube 900 feet long and 2 inches in diameter.
The dynamic
viscosity is 3.60 X 10~6 slugs per foot-second; the specific gravity is 2.17.
73. Walker, Lewis, and McAdams, in their book, Principles of Chemical
Engineering, use a Reynolds' number involving the following terms : diameter in
inches, velocity in feet per second, specific gravity, and viscosity in centipoises.
Determine the factor by which this number must be multiplied in order to give
the Reynolds' number in any consistent units.
74. 117.9 cubic feet of water per minute flows through a smooth horizontal
drawn tube.
The pressure drop in 1000 feet is 18.2 pounds per square inch.
What is the pipe diameter?
75. Air flows through a clean galvanized horizontal pipe 12 inches in diameter.
For standard
The pressure drop in 100 feet is 0.040 pound per square inch.
conditions, what is the rate of discharge?
CHAPTER
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Fluid-measuring
Instruments
Experiments upon the Flow of Water in Pipes and Pipe Fittings, A.S.M.E., 1941.
89
FLUID-MEASURING
90
INSTRUMENTS
[Ch. 8
total or stagnation pressure p.. Applying the energy equation for incom
pressible frictionless flow between point 0 and the nose gives
Pa
Va
2g
'=V:
2(p.
p.
w'
p0),
(55)
(56)
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w in
connected
to
manometer
60.
either
On
pressure ps accurately.
the other hand, it is some
times difficult to obtain an
accurate measurement of the
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
62]
91
Equation
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_*o
by
PITOT TUBE
'
STATIC
PRESSURE
CONNECTION
STATICPRESSURE
OPENINGS
TOTAL
PRESSURE-
CONNECTION
MANOMETER-*!
Fig.
62.
=
The pressure difference decreases for suc
ipVo2difference p
po
At points B and C, p po = 0; if
cessive points from A to B (or C).
there were an opening in the surface of the cylinder at the critical angle,
Experiments
the pressure transmitted to a gage would be truly static.
show that this critical angle is 39i for an average range of turbulent
flow.
One possible construction of the direction-finding pitot is shown in
Fig. 64; the pitot consists of a cylindrical tube, with two holes and com
In the position
partments, whose axis is perpendicular to the stream.
shown in Fig. 64a, a pressure reading from either compartment
s
will give
ugal Pumps by
1936, page 649.
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
92
[Ch. 8
If the
tube is rotated about its axis so that one opening is in line with
The velocity can then be calculated by
Vo, this opening will give pa.
po.
Equation (56).
CRITICAL-/
ANGLE
\
+
Lp-Po
Fig.
63.
\c
flow around a
(ft)
is
is,
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Fig.
64.
MANOMETER
bisector of the angle between the holes gives the flow direction.
Thus
this pitot provides means for measuring the velocity vector in both
magnitude and direction.
FLUID-MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
93
If
is not possible
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developed,
Fig.
65.
Venturi meter.
nary velocities.
If the total loss across the venturi tube is not important,
then the diverging cone is superfluous.
Using the notation shown in Fig. 65, assume incompressible flow and
no friction losses.
Then the energy equation becomes
pi
w
+ Zi?
2g
= P?
II
2g
'
(57)
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
94
Q =
AlVi
[Ch.
gives
Pi
w
P2
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ideal Q = .42F2
-m>-m
M2^}
(58)
Note that the specific weight w in Equations (57) and (58) is the
The venturi may
specific weight of the fluid flowing through the meter.
a
fluid
which
is different from
be connected to a manometer containing
that of the flowing stream. A measurement of the pressure difference
1.00
ui
"y
0.98
0.96
5to0-94
0.92
o
0 90
1
000
100,000
10,000
REYNOLDS'
Fig.
pi
66.
1,000,000
10,000,000
NUMBER=-^-
Ratio of inlet
to throat
Differences
deter
The actual
discharge
Figure
D2 is the internal
Meters,
Their
Part I,
64]
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
95
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Nozzles are employed to form jets and streams for a variety of pur
Usually the term flow nozzle refers
poses, as well as for fluid metering.
to a nozzle placed in or at the end of a pipe for purposes of metering.
As
in
Fig.
the
flow
nozzle
be
considered
as
a
may
venturi
tube
67,
illustrated
that has been simplified and shortened by omitting the diffuser on the
"7
XSSSS3 SSSSSS3
=35
Fig.
outlet side.
67.
gage.
be applied to
CA2
(59)
difference.
Several organizations have been sponsoring extensive programs to
establish standards on flow nozzles and other fluid meters. These
standards
are helpful
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
96
[Ch. 8
great
1
D2
Di
1.04
= 0.6C
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J
- 1.02
D2
Di
1.00
Di
=0.40
0.98
0.96
10
20
30
40
50
60
-e^-xio-4
Fig.
=0.5( )
68.
Flow
70
80
90
100
flow nozzles as a
of-approach factor.
(60)
is commonly
KA2
be
written
as
(61)
4 Flow Measurement
by Means of Standardized Nozzles and Orifice Plates, in Power
Test Codes, PTC 19.5.4-1940, A.S.M.E., 1940.
Standards for Discharge Measurement
with Standardized Nozzles and Orifices,
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Technical Memorandum No. 952,
1940.
6 Power Test Codes, PTC 19.5.4-1940,
A.S.M.E., 1940.
FLUID-MEASURING
65]
INSTRUMENTS
97
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Some features of jet flow will be reviewed before discussing the prac
tically important case of orifice meters.
Figure 69 shows an orifice with a free
Applying the energy equa
discharge.
tion between sections 1 and 2 for
incompressible
2l +
w
If
frictionless
2g
tion
flow
gives
TV '
2g
(62)
phere,
If
Ai
Fig.
'
ideal V2 = s/tyh.
(63)
A \/2gh.
Friction and contraction being taken into account, the actual discharge
is found to be
actual Q = CrCcA
V2gh = CA V^gh,
(64)
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
98
[Ch. 8
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Fig.
70.
Flow is from
Fig.
71.
r
P
!Pl
!P2
manom
eter.
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
66]
connections, or
99
gages or a differ
ential pressure gage, are made at holes in the pipe walls on both sides of
0.67
A
t
1
Z
U
UJ
"
pip
0.66
*
0.65
0.64
U.
ll. 0.63
UJ
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.60
55_
O
O
o
Li.
0L62
0.61
a-
0.60
40
0.59
80,000
40,000
120,000
160,000
200,000
240,000
REYNOLDS' NUMBER =
0.66
10" PIPE
0.65
"
z
UJ
0.63
0.62
0.61
L_J
^ 0.64
50
*=0.5 5
n
v
=0.4 0
J
- =0.2
0.60
^Di
0.59
80,000
40,000
120,000
160,000
200,000
240,000
REYNOLDS' NUMBER =
Fig.
72.
Flow coefficient
A.S.M.E.,
1937.
FLUID-MEASURING
100
INSTRUMENTS
[Ch. 8
actual Q =
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cient.
The
term
Ai
X2
\ w
v2\
(65)
V2ff
is commonly
^ ^
L (pi
A2C
T~-^~
replaced
by
actual Q =
a differential
K,
to yield
KA2 Vfyh.
(66)
Note that the specific weight w in Equation (65) is the specific weight of
the fluid flowing through the orifice.
The A.S.M.E. Reports on Fluid Meters give experimentally deter
mined values of C and K as functions of Reynolds' number for various
orifices and orifice installations.
Some sample values are shown in
Fig. 72. In Fig. 72 V2 is the average velocity in the orifice opening.
The term vena contractu taps signifies that the center of the downstream
pressure tap is placed at the minimum pressure position, which is assumed
to be at the vena contracta.
The center of the inlet pressure tap is
located between
i and
side of the
Figures
found in the behavior of various flow
It
page 196.
FLUID-MEASURING
67]
INSTRUMENTS
101
necessary.
D2
/2gh
200.00C )
100,000
()
0.68
Zj
n.
0.6O
/ /
/ /
1"
1
-r #=0.30
|
D,
/
50,000
0
73.
are
t>
Do
100,000
200,000
150,000
REYNOLDS' NUMBER=
Fig.
y
*c.
i-
p
p
/
/
FLOW
COEFFICIENT,
0.66
400,000
300,000
0-67
Example
PV^2
250,000
300,000
*-
of flow coefficients.
Data
will be taken
The
as an illustration.
the
p(D272//i), where V2
Equation (66) states that
actual average velocity in the orifice opening.
= KA2 \/2gh.
Since K
Thus, F2 can be written as V2 = K \/2gh.
K can be expressed as a
function of Vi, and F2
function of
function of
Reynolds' number can be written as
was plotted against
Nr
h.
is
a
is
h,
The
flow coefficient
is Q
Nr
pDtVt
pD2K
M
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T=-
or
Nr
pD2
(67)
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
102
[Ch. 8
It is to be
The dimensionless ratio NR/K will be called a T number.
noted that D2, h, p, and n in the T number are quantities which are
directly measured or established before making a discharge calculation.
If
suitable
K against
Nr, then
K can
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be determined
68. Weir
Weirs are used for the measurement and control of the flow of water
in open channels. Using the notation shown in Fig. 74, the height H of
CREST
s////////
/////// / 7-7~7-r77~7VT7T77~?
Fig.
74.
//
Weir.
the undisturbed water level above the crest of the weir is correlated with
the volumetric discharge per unit time.
It is necessary to ventilate the
Since H in general is
weir, to allow air to pass freely under the jet.
A common
small, its measurement has to be carried out accurately.
method is to have a micrometer screw with a sharp conical point, or
hook, entirely submerged in the water.
This point is screwed up until
it touches the surface, and the height H observed.
Using the notation shown in Fig. 75, the ideal velocity of a stream
filament or layer issuing from a weir notch at a distance z below the
undisturbed
surface is
ideal
dz and its
ideal dQ =
\/2gz.
(68)
LVdz = L \/2gzdz.
(69)
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
69]
Integrating Equation
ideal Q =
less
y/2g
limits
103
z = 0 and z =
gives
so
(70)
that
(71)
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*1
WATER
SURFACE
"T
dz
Fig.
Fig.
76.
75.
a rectangular weir.
is a pro
The best plan is to calibrate the weir in place, under the same con
ditions for which it is to be used. - If this procedure is not possible, weir
coefficients might be estimated after consulting reports of original
experimental investigations.
69. Anemometers
There are some mechanical devices which consist primarily of a
rotating element whose angular speed of rotation is correlated with the
linear velocity of flow.
These devices require calibration.
When used
for air flow, such devices are commonly termed anemometers, whereas
when used for water flow they are called current meters.
The rotating
104
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
[Ch. 8
Fig.
77.
Anemometer
for
P. Friez
measuring
tfc
Courtesy of Julien
Sons.
wind
speed.
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vertical shaft.
FLUID-MEASURING
69]
INSTRUMENTS
105
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HOT WIRE
Fig.
78.
AA/WSA-
(a) a constant-voltage
circuit, and
circuit is
so adjusted
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
106
[Ch. 8
be
found in the
HOT WIRE
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hVOLTMETER
C<GALVAN0
.METER
/wywJ
a
|
Fig.
79.
70.
designated
instrument
as
the
less completely
is one example.
The two lobes, impellers, or rotors are mounted on parallel shafts, and
rotate in opposite directions.
A pair of timing gears, located at one end
of the shafts, maintains the proper relation between the lobes throughout
Fluid enters the space between a lobe and the case, and moves
from inlet to discharge.
An indication of the volumetric displacement
as
cubic
can
be obtained by means of a revolution counter
(such
feet)
rotation.
it can
be
70]
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
107
employed to calibrate such other flow meters as orifices and flow nozzles.
In general, it is not difficult to calibrate a flow meter handling a liquid;
an accurate calibration can be made by weighing the discharge during a
time interval. The calibration of flow meters handling air or gas, how
Rotary meters of the
ever, presents a much more difficult problem.
type shown in Fig. 80 can be adjusted for calibrations within an accuracy
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DISCHARGE
INLET
Fig.
of 0.5 per cent.
rotary meter.
80.
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
108
[Ch. 8
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The shaft A generates a cone with the apex down. The top of shaft A
actuates a revolution counter (not shown in Fig. 81) through a crank and
Fig.
81.
Diagrammatic
a set of gears.
The dial indication is correlated by calibration with the
volume (as gallons or cubic feet) that has passed through the meter.
71. Salt-velocity
as a
flow meter
FLUID-MEASURING
73]
rate of discharge.
INSTRUMENTS
109
be cali
features of
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an elbow meter are low initial cost, small cost of upkeep, and no additional
resistance to flow due to the elbow being converted into a meter.
Fig.
82.
Diagrammatic
73. Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter which derives its name from the fact that
As shown in Fig. 83, a
a rotating free float is the indicating element.
transparent tapered tube is set in a vertical position with the large end at
the top.
The fluid flows vertically upward through the tube.
Inside the
When no
tapered tube is a freely suspended float of plumb-bob shape.
fluid is passing, the float rests on a stop at the bottom end. As flow com
mences, the float rises toward the larger end of the tube, to make a pas
sage for the fluid.
The float rises only a short distance if the rate of flow
is small; the float rise is greater for a higher rate of flow.
There is a
float position for each flow.
Sometimes this type of
corresponding
instrument is classified as an area type flow meter, because of the varying
annular space between the float and tube. Slantwise slots are cut in the
110
FLUID-MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
[Ch. 8
head of the float, to cause the float to rotate and to maintain a position
viscometer
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CAPACITY SOALE
OR REFERENCE
SCALE
METERHG
FLOAT
PRECISION-BORE
INTERCHANGABLE
TAPERED PYREX
METERING TUBE
REMOVABLE
FLOAT
STOP
LOWER
Fig.
83.
Co.
Rotameter.
FLUID-MEASURING
75]
INSTRUMENTS
111
ment is made of the time required for a certain amount of fluid to flow
through a capillary (or small-bore) tube of known length and diameter
pressure difference.
The Hagen-Poiseuille
the flow is laminar, to calculate the viscosity.
*-ApD4
128QZ
If
(72)
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for changes in velocity distribution and inlet loss must be made. The
corrections depend upon the particular apparatus used.
Since viscosity
upon
it
is
to
and
depends
temperature,
necessary
control
specify the
temperature in all viscosity measurements.
75. Other types of viscometers
Figure 84 shows the essential features of the Couette or rotational
type of viscometer.
The fluid to be tested is placed in the annular space
between two concentric circular cylinders.
One cylinder is rotated with
respect to the other.
Measurements
of torque
and velocity gradient can be correlated with
as by a calibration with liquids of
viscosity,
known viscosity. Effects of the ends of the
cylinder must be considered or reduced if the
readings of this device are to be used for accurate
determinations of viscosity.
A particular instru
ment of this type may be useful for relative meas
urements, such as in comparing the action of
different
fluids.
is allowed
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
112
[Ch. 8
the
range
of
BATH
LIQUID
OF
FOR
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TEMPERATURE
CONTROL
design, but of
dimensions.
One is
general
different
Fig.
85.
Saybolt
Universal, and
the other is the Saybolt Furol
for "fuel and
(contraction
the
CORK
;9
are of the
motor oils").
S.A.E.
viscosity
number
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
At
130 Fahrenheit
Minimum
Maximum
90
120
185
255
At
210 Fahrenheit
Minimum
80
105
125
Maximum
less
less
less
less
than 80
than 105
than 125
than 150
9 Standard
A.S.T.M.
page 485.
FLUID-MEASURING
75]
INSTRUMENTS
113
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0.02
Fig.
86.
30
40 50 60 7080 100
SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL READING,
200
300
SECONDS *
400
Reading
results,11
11
A.S.T.M.
III,
page 215.
FLUID-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
114
SELECTED
[Ch. 8
REFERENCES
Fluid
Fluid
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Investigations
PROBLEMS
A differential manometer
of standard density flows through a pipe.
a
tube
shows
head
difference
of 0.180 inch of
pitot
to
a
combined
connected
What is the velocity?
water.
76.
Air
77. How can the discharge coefficient for a venturi meter be greater than
unity even if there are frictional losses?
78. Benzene flows through a venturi meter having an inlet of 8-inch diameter
The differential pressure is measured with a
and a throat of 3.5-inch diameter.
The mercury level in the throat
manometer having benzene on top of mercury.
leg is 4.0 inches above the mercury level in the inlet leg. If C = 0.99, what is
the rate of discharge?
A liquid
83. The Saybolt Universal reading for an oil at 100 Fahrenheit, having a
What is the dynamic viscosity of this oil?
specific gravity 0.92, is 106 seconds.
CHAPTER
present chapter includes examples like the jet, in which the fluid stream
acting on a body has a finite, relatively small boundary, whereas Chapters
10 and 11
treat
cases
submerged in a
76. Momentum
F-imV).
(73)
m is constant, then
Fdt = mdV,
or
(74)
is
dV
,
,
where Fdt
is
^j-
If
FlG- 87-
change.
particle at point
Change in velocity
of a particle,
The Nature
of
the Physical
World.
Macmillan,
115
is
a
is,
is 2
time
After
has the velocity V\.
In Fig. 87
interval At, the particle reaches point with the velocity F2. The force
in the direction of AV. Force,
causing the velocity change AV
quantity
each
velocity, and momentum are vector quantities, that
1
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116
[Ch.
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V+dV
FORCE OF FLUID
ON SURFACE
STREAM 7~
SURFACE
FORCE OF SURFACE
ON FLUID
Fig.
88.
distance alone (the velocity at any particular point does not change with
For steady motion, the acceleration dV/dt may be written
time).
dV
dt
dV
ds
ds
dt
ydV
ds
(75)
Fn
dV
m-rr
dt
-AVdV
9
- Ads
w
g
. ,
T7.
dV
-=->
ds
- QdV
g
= pQdV,
(76)
77]
117
The funda
force equals the mass rate of flow times the velocity change.
mental relation in Equation (76) is a vector relation (F is a vector, and
In some cases it is convenient to deal with components.
dV is a vector).
Fy = pQ(dV)y
(77)
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where (dV)x is the velocity change in the x direction, and (dV)y is the
velocity change in the y direction. Since action is equal and opposite to
reaction, the total force of the surface on the fluid is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the force of the fluid on the surface, as illus
trated in Fig. 88.
The following articles will cover some applications in order to illus
trate the physical meaning of the foregoing fundamental concepts.
Further applications will be given in the remainder of this book.
77. Force of open jet on fixed surface
Figure
89 shows an open
The
case
/l
<
{>
1)
Vy
/Vx
Fy
Fig.
89.
\i
^>
^^^ f'
cos 0),
Fv = QpV sin
0.
(78)
118
The magnitude
force
[Ch.
can be deter
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Example.
As shown in Fig. 90, a jet of water of 2-inch diameter strikes a
fixed vane and is deflected 90 from its original direction. Determine the magni-
Fig.
90.
tude and direction of the resultant force on the vane or blade if the jet velocity
is 50 feet per second.
-
f*
total force
- f" =
\(3 Kit)50-
y/Fx* + F*
150 pounds
Fig.
91.
oi5-? punds-
V2(105.7)2 =
149.5,
Jet division by
an oblique plate.
91 shows a
78,79]
QpV sin
119
(79)
moving vane
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A single moving surface or vane in the path of a jet deflects only that
portion of the total discharge which overtakes the vane. If Q is the
ABSOLUTE
VELOCITY.
-*-V-v
Fig.
92.
discharge from the fixed nozzle in Fig. 92, the discharge overtaking the
vane Q' is
'"(zf-">
where
If
v.
blade at entrance is
relative
(80)
The absolute exit velocity of the fluid is the vector sum of (V v) and v.
Taking the jet axis as the x-axis, the magnitudes of the force components
for a single vane are
F.
Fv
pQ'[V
pQ'(V
{v
(7
v)
sin
d.
v) cos e\],
(81)
Since power is defined as the rate of doing work, the power E = Fxv.
Note that the force Fx is in the direction of v. No work is done in a
direction perpendicular
79. Power developed
to
v.
by
series of vanes
20
{v
= Qp[Viv
Fx = QP[Vl
The power
becomes
Fjo
[Ch. 9
+ (Vi
{v2
v) cos 0}].
(82)
(83)
+ (V
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For a given Q and jet size, the ideal power developed by the wheel, as
expressed by Equation (83), will depend only on v. The power variation
with v, as indicated in Fig. 93b, shows a maximum value of power for a
LU
I^MAX.
OC
LU
5
o
93.
certain value of
tiating
E with
v.
respect to
d
Solving for
v,
\
\
Fig.
\\
v=V,
Em^. can be
found by differen
^[QpiVr
- v)v(l -
cos 0)] = 0.
Vi/2 for
maximum power.
81 J
Rx p2A2 cos
Sy p2-42 sin
=
Rx
PiAi P2A2 cos
Rv = p2A2 sin
P1A1
0 =
Qp[V2 cos
6 =
QpV2 sin
Qp(^2 cos
+ QpF2 sin
V J,
0.
6
V\).
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94.
(84)
6.
Fig.
121
(85)
RV'K
rotating channel
The centrifugal pump and the reaction turbine are examples in which
The
there is a flow in a channel as the channel rotates about an axis.
previous momentum relations can be extended for an analysis of such
flows.
Moments of momenta can be formed in the same manner that
moments of forces are formed.
a body of mass m moving at a radius r about an axis of
Let Vt be the tangential component of the resultant velocity
V of the body. The relation given by Equation (73) can be extended,
by the multiplication of each side of the equation by r, to give
Consider
rotation.
T
where
(mrVt),
(86)
the momentum
momentum or
moment
mjt{rVt).
(87)
22
rotating channel.
[Ch. 9
Let the
Then Vh
is the tangential
T
Equation
QP[Vhri
v,
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fl
Fig.
PVJ.
(88)
95.
QpiViTi
cos
ai
(89)
If a2 is varied
there is the question of the most favorable exit conditions.
from 0 to 90, Equation (89) shows that cos a2 will be zero when a2 is
90; the torque and power reach a maximum for this variation when
a2
is 90.
In Fig. 96 the tube extends from the wall of the container into the
body of the fluid; such a re-entrant tube is commonly called a Borda
A discussion of the Borda mouthpiece is useful in showing
mouthpiece.
how foregoing relations can be applied in attacking some problems.
Let
83]
The problem
is to determine
the value
as
123
it leaves the
of the contraction
coefficient Cc = Ac/A.
Two equations are available: an energy equation and a momentum
As shown in Article 65, Equation (63), if the fluid is regarded
relation.
and frictionless, the energy equation indicates that
as incompressible
y/2gh.
Thus
Q = Ac V2gh.
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towards
(90)
which acts
r1
<
M
Fig.
=p^
Borda mouthpiece.
96.
towards the right on the fluid, to increase the velocity from zero to V.
Since force equals the time rate of change of linear momentum,
whA = w
(91)
= 0.5 = Cc.
0.5.
MOMENTUM
124
[Ch. 9
a streamline.
Equation
V2
relation dp = pdr > provides means
in a direction
normal
to the streamlines.
If
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Fig.
stream.
97.
V with radius.
bution for this type of flow is given in Article 22, Chapter 2. The rela
tions presented in Article 22 can be derived by starting with Equation
A forced vortex might be found in a rotating container fitted with
(54).
radial vanes or partitions, in the rotating impeller of a centrifugal pump,
or in the rotating runner of a turbine.
125
as rotational.
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Fig.
98.
Vt =
V)
If
the torque
iw
rV
T is zero, Equation
(87)
= -
K,
or
K is some constant.
motion.
K can be determined
(92)
26
MOMENTUM
[Ch. 9
h
Noting that Viri
= Ytf2 =
dv =
K, Equation
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pi + ipVi2
i +
Ph
= p? +
Tdr>
(93) can be
written
as
p2+ \PV2\
= constant
(94)
Equation (94) shows that the total energy in each stream-tube is the
same as that in each of the other stream-tubes.
No energy is added to
the vortex by a torque, and no energy is disspated by friction.
Fig.
99.
A free vortex might be found in the casing (volute) outside the rotating
impeller of a centrifugal pump, or in the two-dimensional
flow in the
main body of a stream flowing around a bend, as shown in Fig. 99.
Experimental results obtained from pitot traverses in pump volutes and
in bends show fair agreement with the foregoing relations.
Equation (92) indicates that the velocity becomes infinitely large
as the radius is decreased to zero.
Infinite velocities are not reached in
real fluids.
In actual flows, viscous effects, which were neglected in
deriving Equation (92), cause a portion of the fluid in the region near
r = 0 to rotate like a solid body.
Outside of this central core is a transi
tion region ; outside of the transition region is a free vortex.
The velocity
distribution and the pressure distribution for this combination flow are
indicated in Fig. 100.
The tornado and the waterspout (a tornado that
forms at sea) are examples of such a circular whirl in the atmosphere.
83]
127
^^00"^l
A
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pAT
r= =
oo
\'
V=rw
TRANSITION
Fig.
100.
in a vortex flow.
SELECTED REFERENCES
The Physics of Solids and Fluids by P. P. Ewald, T. Poschl, L. Prandtl.
Blackie
and Son, London, 1932.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1915.
Centrifugal Pumps by R. L. Daugherty.
PROBLEMS
84. A jet of oil (specific gravity = 0.80) moving at 60 feet per second strikes
a fixed flat plate normal to the stream.
The dimensions of the jet are small in
The rate of discharge is 0.20 cubic feet per
comparison with those of the plate.
second.
What is the force on the plate?
A jet
absolute
86.
80
128
[Ch. 9
at 10 feet per second away from the nozzle in the direction of the entering jet.
Determine the total force acting on the vane.
87. At the end of a water pipe of 4-inch diameter is a nozzle which discharges
a jet having a diameter of 1 J inches into the open atmosphere.
The pressure in
the pipe is 60 pounds per square inch gage, and the rate of discharge is 0.88 cubic
What is the magnitude and direction of the force necessary to
feet per second.
hold the nozzle stationary?
90
rocket
weighing
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90.
CHAPTER
10
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1i
LIU-
*"
//-{-RESULTANT
1
>
Fig.
101.
Lift
LDRAG
FORCE
130
OF IMMERSED
RESISTANCE
at very
BODIES
[Ch. 10
The flow, and consequently the drag, for a completely immersed body
is determined by the viscous and inertia forces acting.
It was pointed
out in Article 49 that Reynolds' number pVl/n is proportional to the
ratio of inertia forces and viscous forces. I is some characteristic length
or dimension of the body.
Reynolds' number can become very small
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at high
Reynolds'
numbers
7
B
Fig.
102.
Flow along
SURFACE-*
a flat plate.
that the effect of viscosity on drag can be neglected. A fluid may have
a very low viscosity; this small viscosity can have an appreciable effect,
directly and indirectly, on the flow. The total resistance of a body
at high Reynolds' numbers may be divided into separate components, one
the skin-friction drag, and the other the pressure drag.
Figure 102 indicates a very thin, smooth plate
parallel to the
flow; the velocity distribution is uniform ahead of the lead
If the fluid were nonviscous, the fluid would
ing edge of the plate.
simply slip over the surface with the velocity V; at all points along the
approaching
RESISTANCE
85]
OF IMMERSED
BODIES
131
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Fig.
104b,
103.
Two-dimensional
symmetrical
circular cylinder.
flow around
This difference
from the body.
The
indicates a variation in the pressure distribution around the body.
resultant of the pressure forces, over the body, in the line of undisturbed
motion is the pressure drag force. The total drag of the body equals the
The point of separa
sum of the skin friction drag and the pressure drag.
tion, and, therefore, the drag, may be different for different Reynolds'
numbers.
Figure 104b, for the flow around a flat plate, shows an appreciable
Figure 104c
wake behind the body ; the pressure drag is relatively large.
shows the flow around a cylinder and around a streamlined strut in the
same stream.
The streamlined section has practically no wake; the
pressure drag is very small (as compared, for example, with that of a
flat plate).
The examples in Fig. 104 show that the phenomena giving
rise to resistance are markedly affected by the rear of the body, as well
as by the front of the body.
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132
RESISTANCE
Fig.
104.
OF IMMERSED
BODIES
[Ch. 10
Flow
OF IMMERSED
RESISTANCE
87]
BODIES
133
It
= CDp
as
y (area).
(95)
105 shows a
plot of
CD against
for a sphere is Cd
= 24/iVje.
= CD
-2-
(area) =
-^ -^
\-^
D = 3nVird
(96)
is
is
some
Stokes' law
commonly known as Stokes' law.
Equation (96)
times applied to problems dealing with the rise or fall of solid particles,
The transportation of flue dust in the
drops, or bubbles through fluid.
atmosphere, the transportation of silt in streams, the action in some oredressing processes, the measurement of dynamic viscosity by the "fallingsolid
ball " method, and the operation of air-lift pumps are examples.
is
particle in
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In
projected area normal to the stream (as for spheres and cylinders).
other cases the area is taken as the largest projected area of the object;
this area may be parallel or nearly parallel to V (as for airfoils and flat
50
20
s
for
"Das
and
50
00
'y
disk.
REYNOLDS'
circular
20
Widerstandsproblem,"
sphere
F.
50
N^-P,relation
drag
T,dd.
pnt.
00
P1oc.
in the
Eisner,
Area
NUER-
20
000
App
projected
Tpng.
is
from
coefficients
adapted
Drag
,
0.5
>
(Data
0.2
105.
0.00
s^
SPHERE
AT.,
Mrch.,
DISK,
Stockholm,
normal
00,00
|id
area
to
stream.
0930.)
the
0,00,00
TO
m
lh
i/i
,0i
OJ
-n
CD
1/1
,0,0
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.0
.^v
0.5
\\
Fig.
00
LAW
r
CD=
JOKE'S
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00
>
RESISTANCE OF IMMERSED
88]
BODIES
135
i;
In Fig.
ratio is 1.8.
JL
0.60
~^
0.50
0.40
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0.30
0.20
0.10
-fj
_S
~-
0
105
2X105
3X105
4X105
REYNOLDS' NUMBER
Fig.
106.
5X105
6xl05
^j-
as the square
only if the drag coefficient is constant in the range of speeds under con
Inspection of Figures 105, 106, and 107 shows that in some
ranges the drag coefficient is practically constant, particularly at high
In other ranges, however, the drag may vary
Reynolds' numbers.
approximately with the first power of the velocity. Stokes' law is an
sideration.
example.
1 Data adapted from Ergebnisse der aerodynamischen
by L. Prandtl, vol. II, R. Oldenbourg, 1923.
Versuchanstalt zu Gottingen
00
50
00
Stockholm,
Mac,.,
to
the
for
stream.
coefficients
area
20
(Data
00
from
flow
REYNOLDS'
50
adapted
two-dimensional
around
D.
50
000
Vd
and
cylinder
Wi,
TOandTOrbdc.
NUMBER-NR=*y
20
plate.
tr d
flat
0,00
Area
Eisner,
_v
1931.)
0.5
Drag
normal
0.2
App
pro
1,0,000
relation
drag
pnt.
T,p,
pppng.
in the
P1p.
FLAT
PLATE
00,00
107.
0.1
*Q<
[i
Fig.
0.05
JDER
,0i
r,
m
TO
CO
jected
>d
0.1
JYLir
>
0.0
v(
en
0.5
s/-
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CJo
mCO
is
[88
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-gi^ .801
Smg
s^uapiyaoo
rof
b 'Vbjj
8fr0
0*0
30
o
WO
O
O
CD
>
910
i*
7-800
8-
-gitf
-60T
91
VZ
^iraiogjaoo
peloJp
isureSis
alguB
fo
raqranu =
'699
'6861
mojj
RESISTANCE OF IMMERSED
138
BODIES
[Ch. 10
drag.
There
are
applications,
however,
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k
H
TRANSITION,
LAMINAR
-i-
>1
V,
f#i
-
"
TURBULENT \
'
Fig.
H"
H<
H*
110. Boundary
)
>-l
I
Hi
is expressed as
D =
Cf^S,
(97)
RESISTANCE
90]
OF IMMERSED BODIES
139
Ill
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DECREASING
EXTERNAL
TURBULENCE!
10'
REYNOLDS' NUMBER= N*=
Fig.
111.
108
109
VL
layers at low Reynolds' numbers have been obtained with relatively blunt
Information about the particular application involved may be
noses.
in
deciding whether the boundary layer is completely laminar or
helpful
For example, in calculations of skin friction for marine
turbulent.
as com
2 Turbulence
and Skin Friction by
Sciences, vol. 1, No. 1, January, 1934.
T. von Karman.
Journal of
the
Aeronautical
RESISTANCE OF IMMERSED
140
BODIES
[Ch.
10
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leave a residuary
the full-size ship.
91
is subtracted
resistance.
f>
G>
Fig.
112.
>
turbed velocity.
ratio
If
fD/V
the frequency
of the vortex
peeling approaches
or equals the
natural frequency of the elastic system consisting of the cylinder and its
supports, the cylinder may have a small alternating
The vibration of
displacement normal
some smokestacks,
the vibration
RESISTANCE
91]
OF IMMERSED
BODIES
141
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SELECTED REFERENCES
Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics by L. Prandtl and O. G. Tietjens.
McGrawHill, New York, 1934.
The Physics of Solids and Fluids by P. P. Ewald, T. Poschl, and L. Prandtl.
Blackie and Son, London, 1936.
Principles of Naval Architecture, vols. I and II, edited by H. E. Rossell and
L. B. Chapman. Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New
York, N. Y.,
1939.
PROBLEMS
91. A truck having a projected area of 68 square feet, traveling at 50 miles
Of this amount, 25 per cent is
per hour, has a total resistance of 410 pounds.
What is the
due to rolling friction, and the remainder is due to wind resistance.
drag coefficient?
A steel ball
94. A spherical drop of water 0.002 inch in diameter exists in standard air.
Assume steady laminar motion. Which way would the water drop move if it
were in a vertically rising air current having a speed of: (a) 1.0 foot per second,
(b) 0.6 foot per second, and (c) 0.2 foot per second?
95. A wire f inch in diameter is exposed to a stream of carbon dioxide at a
velocity of 100 feet per second. Undisturbed gas pressure is 14.7 pounds per
What is the resistance per
square inch absolute, temperature is 90 Fahrenheit.
foot length of wire?
96. What is the total wind force on a rectangular sign board 1 foot by 4 feet,
the velocity is 20 miles per hour, the air is standard, and the flow is normal
to the sign?
if
97. Find the resistance of a flat plate, 3 feet square, moving normal to
itself at 20 feet per second, at 59 Fahrenheit and atmospheric pressure, (a)
through air and (b) through water.
RESISTANCE
142
OF IMMERSED
BODIES
[Ch.io
99. What is the wind force on a building, 120 feet high and 60 feet wide,
the air is standard and the velocity is 60 miles per hour? Assume that the
drag coefficient is the same as that for a rectangular plate.
if
streamlined
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standard air.
CHAPTER
11
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fluid.
The Story of
the
Rotor by A. Flettner.
1926.
144
[Ch. 1 1
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Fig.
113.
Two-dimensional
unsymmetrical
whereas the streamlines are spread apart (velocity is relatively low) over
the lower surface.
93.
flow
93]
145
Figure
is
V +
v,
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flow.
flow.
* V+v
t
Pb
Fig.
v.
114.
Two-dimensional
*-V-V^-
and circulatory
flow.
DYNAMIC
146
AND PROPULSION
LIFT
v + ipV2 = pT +
p + ipV2 = pb +
[Ch.
11
- v)\
iP(V + vy,
MV
on the area is
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L
The product
Thus
2vc
= T
= (pB
(Greek
pt = 2pVv.
- pT)c
letter
= pV(2vc).
gamma)
(98)
pVT.
(99)
The lift per unit length equals the product of density, undisturbed
Equation (99) is frequently called the Kuttavelocity, and circulation.
Joukowsky relation, and might be regarded as an ideal or a theoretical
maximum lift relation.
94. Circulation
Circulation is formally defined
of the velocity
along a closed contour fine in
the fluid.
This line integral is
16\*
the
contour
element
ds.
the
115.
Contour
Jc
q cos
ds.
(100)
In the foregoing example of the flat plate, one contour length is 2c,
and the corresponding tangential velocity is v. Thus T = 2vc. A rotat
Let a
ing cylinder in a mass of viscous fluid provides another example.
Fig.
the
radius
of
in
and
be
the cylinder
116,
VP the peripheral velocity
of the surface of the cylinder.
95]
147
surface of the cylinder; this layer of fluid has the velocity VP. A free
vortex is generated in the fluid. Let V be the tangential velocity at any
radius r in the mass of moving fluid ; thus Vpa = Vr = the constant K.
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T = 2raVP = 2wK.
(101)
vortex
the center
is constant,
of the
independent
and
is
contour
selected.
A loose analogy
might be drawn between work
done on a body and circula
tion.
Force corresponds to
Fig.
116.
Circulation
around
cylinder.
rotating
148
trailing
edge
[Ch. 1 1
verging channel.
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direction.
Fig.
117.
symmetrical section.
Fig.
118.
Two-dimensional
an angle of attack with the stream, if the section were curved, or non
symmetrical, then the two different streams at the trailing edge might
meet with different velocities.
In Fig. 1 19 the fluid from the lower side
has a higher velocity at the trailing edge then the fluid from the upper
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DYNAMIC
Fig.
120.
LIFT
AND PROPULSION
DYNAMIC
150
Bide.
If
AND PROPULSION
LIFT
[Ch. 11
the fluid were nonviscous, each stream would not influence the other.
a real fluid, however, a vortex forms at the trailing edge.
There
Figure 120a shows a foil at rest in a stationary body of fluid.
For
A starting
is no circulation along any closed contour around the foil.
This formation is illus
vortex begins to form as the section is moved.
trated in Fig. 120b for movement of the foil towards the left. After
some motion the vortex develops, breaks away from the body, and then
The total circulation TT around the contour is zero
moves downstream.
at all stages.
magnitude,
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shed.
In symbols,
TT = T
-T
= 0.
The lift is vertical for the conditions shown in Fig. 120c. A starting
vortex can be easily demonstrated by moving a foil through water having
aluminum or some other powder on its surface, or simply by moving a
spoon in a cup of coffee.
96. Lift coefficient
It
L
where
Cl
lift = CL
is a dimensionless
(area)>
(102)
lift coefficient.
CHORD
Fig.
attack.
121.
Notation for
lifting vane.
chord area.
Numerous lifting-vane sections, particularly symmetrical sections,
show a behavior which in many respects approaches that of a flat plate.
The lift coefficient for a flat plate might be regarded as a theoretical
maximum or ideal.
Karman2 gives the following theoretical value for
the lift coefficient of a thin flat plate in two-dimensional flow:
CL =
2tv
sin a.
(103)
1935.
DYNAMIC
97]
LIFT
AND PROPULSION
151
Cl for
different
as those of the
122.
The lift coefficient increases,
and then drops as the angle of attack increases.
The stall is the condition of a lifting vane (such as a pump vane, propeller
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reaches a maximum,
0.48
0.40
0.32
|
Ll.
0.24
0.16
0.08
-8
16
24
32
97. Separation
The flow associated with the stall of a lifting vane occurs in many
in which a fluid moves in a diverging channel. The flow
applications
DYNAMIC
152
LIFT
AND PROPULSION
[Ch. 11
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eddy formation.
The flow in a diverging chan
nel, on the other hand, may be
unstable if the angle of divergence
This flow in
appreciable.
volves a conversion from velocity
Fig.
Converging channel.
head
to
Fig.
124.
tlie channel, and separation may take place, just as in the stall of a lifting
vane. Flow in a diverging channel, then, is a relatively unstable, ineffi
cient process, and may be accompanied by large energy losses and eddy
formation.
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98]
153
Figure 124 shows the boundary layers at successive points along the
wall in a diverging channel or diffuser.
The ordinate y perpendicular
for
wall
has
been
the
sake
of illustration.
At section
exaggerated
to the
B there is a certain velocity distribution in the boundary layer. A
boundary layer with flow toward the right could be maintained if all the
kinetic energy were available for conversion.
Some kinetic energy is
dissipated into unavailable thermal energy, however, with the result
that the velocity in the boundary layer is less than what it would be
without friction. At C the flow velocity is reduced. At D the velocity
distribution curve is normal to the wall; D is the point of separation.
At E there is a reversed flow in the boundary layer; an eddy is formed.
The formation of eddies represents further dissipation of available energy
into unavailable energy.
Let p be the static pressure, and x the distance taken positive to the
right along the channel in Fig. 124. The ratio dp/dx is the pressure
In a straight channel dp/dx would be zero if no friction were
gradient.
In a con
present; dp/dx would be negative (< 0) if friction existed.
In the diffuser section dp/dx
verging channel dp/dx would be negative.
is positive (> 0).
The danger of separation can be reduced by reducing
dp/dx, as by making the angle of divergence small.
98. General features of blade screws
Among the numerous applications involving lifting vanes are those
which might be classified as blade screws. A blade screw may be defined
as any device with radial blades which rotates about its axis during its
Four principal types are: (1) Propeller.
motion relative to the fluid.
Air and water craft, for example, are usually driven by one or more
The
propellers whose axial thrust overcomes the drag of the craft.
propeller is rotated by a torque from some suitable power unit.
(2)
This blade screw is moved by a current of fluid, in the direc
Windmill.
tion of its axis, which causes the blade screw to rotate.
The blade
rotation develops a torque which may be used for the generation of power.
This familiar blade screw is used for producing a current of
(3) Fan.
This device is sometimes used as a meter, to
fluid.
(4) Anemometer.
velocity by a measurement of the rate of
axial
determine the relative
rotation.
There are certain general features of each type which are similar.
It is convenient to discuss these features by specific reference to propeller
action.
Let n be the rotational speed of the blade screw, in revolutions
The peripheral velocity (in the plane of rotation) of the
per unit time.
element at A in Fig. 125 is Vp = irnd. Let F0 be the velocity of the
propeller along its axis, or the forward velocity of the craft to which the
Figure 126 shows the velocity and force com
propeller is attached.
This blade element follows a helical path
ponents at a blade element.
DYNAMIC
154
in
The resultant
AND PROPULSION
LIFT
velocity
[Ch. 11
VR is the vector
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Fig.
125.
Blade of a propeller.
Fig.
126.
theory.
99]
155
sions in such works as those of Wieck and Glauert (see references at end
of chapter).
SLIPSTREAM
BOUNDARY
PROPELLER
DISK
ft>
PRESSURE
-V,-
Fig.
127.
Propeller slipstream.
propeller, as on air or marine craft, moves with the craft velocity F0.
The same relative motion between fluid and propeller exists
the blade
screw rotates in
fixed plane and the fluid approaches some distance
ahead with the velocity V0, as shown in Fig. 127.
The stream of fluid
passing through the propeller disk
called the slipstream or the propeller
race.
The fluid velocity increases as
approaches and leaves the pro
At the propeller the velocity
peller.
Vi; at some distance behind the
propeller the velocity
As indicated diap0.
V2 and the pressure
grammatically in the lower portion of Fig. 127, the pressure decreases
from the value p0, rises at the blade, and then drops to the value p0.
Momentum has been added to the fluid by the axial thrust
of the
is
is
is
it
is
if
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in giving some general idea of the main phenomena, and in giving values
It will be assumed that all fluid
of maximum or ideal performance.
elements passing through the screw disk have their pressures raised by
The rotational motion actually imparted to
exactly the same amount.
the fluid will be neglected.
propeller.
DYNAMIC
156
LIFT
AND PROPULSION
[Ch. 1 1
The mass of fluid passing through any section per unit time is
(ir/i)D2pVi.
Since force equals the time rate of change of linear
momentum,
~ pV,(F, -
Vo).
(104)
Then
2?
w
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where the
TV
2g
+ work = o
w
(105)
2g
is
TVi
\T
TV
A comparison of Equations
irD2
that
Vi is the
arithmetic
V,
= Vo
Fg-
(107)
The useful power output, in driving the craft, is TVo. The ideal effi
ciency ij (Greek letter eta) is defined as the ratio of power output to
power input, or
ideal efficiency = ij =
=
V
(108)
~2f
(109)
Equation (109) shows that the ideal efficiency increases with: (a) increase
in propeller diameter, (b) increase in density, (c) increase in forward
One practical conclusion shows
velocity, and (d) decrease in thrust.
that the propeller diameter should be as large as possible.
100]
157
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100. Momentum
The general features of the action of a finite lifting vane can be brought
It is assumed that the lifting
analysis.
Fig.
128.
rie-
AV
with the velocity V. The velocity after leaving the vane is V. The
vane changes the velocity of the fluid by the amount AV.
The reaction,
in the opposite direction of AV, is the total force R of the fluid acting on
the vane.
The angle e (Greek letter epsilon) is commonly called the
downwash angle.
If V = V in magnitude, than AV = Ve. R is resolved
into two components, a lift L and a drag Df. D< is commonly called an
induced drag because it is a drag induced by the lift.
Since R = MAV,
where M is the mass of fluid deflected per unit time,
R^pVH.
L
(110)
DYNAMIC
158
LIFT
AND PROPULSION
V2
irb2
Di can
be
written
[Ch. 1 1
(111)
as
or
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(112)
SELECTED
REFERENCES
Technology
Centrifugal Pumps, Turbines, and Propellers by W. Spannhake.
Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1934.
Technical Aerodynamics by K. D. Wood. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1935.
John Wiley & Sons, New York,
Aerodynamics of the Airplane by C. B. Millikan.
1941.
PROBLEMS
104. An infinitely long cylinder, 2 feet in diameter, is in an air stream,
The cylinder is rotated at
standard conditions, moving at 5 miles per hour.
300 revolutions per minute.
The actual lift is 2.9 pounds per foot of length.
What is the ratio between the actual and ideal lifts?
105. An airfoil having a span of 40 feet moves through standard air at 180
miles per hour.
At the middle of the airfoil the circulation has a maximum value
of 200 feet squared per second.
Assume two-dimensional flow.
Because of the
shape of the foil, the circulation decreases symmetrically from the maximum at
the center to zero at each tip. The circulation can be represented by the ordiWhat is the total lift?
nates of a semiellipse, with one axis equal to the span.
100]
159
108.
of
lift?
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Some
112. A propeller-type fan of 12-inch diameter operates in standard air.
distance ahead of the fan, on the discharge side, the velocity is 50 feet per second.
The ideal propeller efficiency is 80 per cent. What power is delivered by the
driving motor?
113. A propeller-type wind mill, 9 feet in diameter, operates in a wind of
30 miles per hour.
Theoretical propeller efficiency is 80 per cent. Calculate the
power absorbed by the propeller.
114.
Starting with Equations (104), (107), and (108), derive Equation (109).
CHAPTER
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Dynamics
12
of Compressible Flow
bulk modulus =
- J--
(114)
160
DYNAMICS
102]
OF COMPRESSIBLE
dv/v
= constant,
equals
the
FLOW
161
dp/p
pressure.
'
and
dv/v
dp/kp
'
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The bulk modulus equals the product of the pressure and the ratio of the
Some values of k are listed in Table 2, page 5. Most
specific heats.
liquids have a relatively high bulk modulus, whereas the bulk modulus
for a gas is usually relatively low.
102.
Velocity of
pressure propagation
"I
Ww j aagzazazaazaagj zgaagEaaBzagZBazapzgzga
udt
Fig.
129.
cdt
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
162
It
velocity.
will
FLOW
[Ch.
12
be assumed
c =
or
u-dp
(117)
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Also, the force (Adp) exerted on the mass (Acdtp) equals the time rate
For a velocity change u,
of change in linear momentum.
,
.
Adp =
Acdtpu
tt >
dt
Since
r,
dp
dp
-3-7- = -3-^-'
dv/v
(118) shows
dp
-r- =
dp/p dp
that
dp
.
(118)
pu
c2
= dp /dp.
,
> and
(120)
Equation
1120
pv =
RT
(120) shows
gives
c
VkgRT.
(121)
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
104]
FLOW
163
A significant dimensionless
dimensionless parameter in correlating data.
ratio for compressible flow is Mach's number.
Consider the flow of a compressible fluid around two geometrically
similar bodies (or through two geometrically similar channels) in which
the predominating forces are inertia, pressure, and elastic.
If only
three forces are involved, specifying two of the forces automatically
specifies the third force because the three forces are in equilibrium
ratio is the ratio
(recalling d'Alembert's principle). A significant
-j
length or dimension.
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Then
-;
pl2V2,
is proportional
to
pl2V2
El2
If inertia
p7*
mechanical
ww^^/wm
GAS
WW>>M
to evaluate
u2
u\.
Fig.
130.
Movable piston
cylinder.
in a
convenient.
[Ch.12
f*
rfr
= u2 Mi
FLOW
that
is,
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
164
pdv,
is
is
and
refer to initial and final states respectively,
where the subscripts
written for unit weight. The work done
zero
and the relation
constant-volume
0)
for
(dv
Mi =
c(rs
- Ti),
(122)
gas,
- Ti) + tH
= cv(T2
f*
is
pdv.
(123)
- TO
TO +
vl)-
p(v27~
= c,
778
(124)
\k
(125)
1/
cp
= cv(T2
RT, and
cP(T2
Since pv =
a constant-pressure
is
For
zi
0.
z2
Ml
sufficiently
the
case
Vj2
Vi2
2^(778)
is
z2
- zi
778
in which
0,
is
cases
Consider
in Chapter
0,
adiabatic.
778
778
it
778
work
pjVi p_f2
+
,
as presented
4,
Then
778
"
778
ul ~
Wl
2g(778)
(126)
is
is
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= U2
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
106]
relation
pv =
FLOW
165
"
^(778T
"
778
778
Cv{Tl
Tt)'
(127)
TV
IV
2g
k
k
(piVi PiV2).
(128)
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= constant.
Since
Vt =
(v\k
pi
\s/
\*
_ /p*Y
>
\pj
tV
-V
TV-
or
106. Pressure at
stagnation
point
= p0
gas,
ipTV.
Equation
(132)
(131) gives the
relation
166
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Fig.
16 1
Fig.
132.
200
[Ch. 12
131.
400
VELOCITY
V0)
600
800
1000
FEET PER SECOND
1200
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
107]
where
c0
167
Let F0/c0
If the
FLOW
term
zHi+(^)H^-
'
(i34)
of this expansion
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the form
Ps = p0
p0V02
N*
(2
- k\
(135)
pVA
If the fluid is
incompressible,
= constant.
(136)
VA
= constant.
(137)
Equation (137) is the relation for a hyperbola; there are no critical values
in the area-velocity relation for incompressible flow. Differentiation of
Equation (137) gives
T-
"
T"
(138)
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
168
FLOW
[Ch.
12
A
The energy Equation
_dV _dp
V
(139)
G^n)
-P
- constant-
(14)
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VdV + ^B
P
Combining Equations
for compressible flow:
dA
(139)
\/kp/p.
= o.
(142)
V] _
dV\
T~~TL
"^J
dVu
T[1~
Nm]>
form
(143)
co2
(^-^)
V2-
(144)
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
108]
FLOW
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C0'
in Equation
integrating.
108. Action
M
fk
area A as a
V2
and
(143)
169
then
at subsonic and
supersonic velocities
Under the conditions of Fig.
an infinitesimal
134, imagine
particle or a point disturbance
moving through a fluid with a
constant velocity V less than the
velocity of sound c. A pressure
VELOCITY V
wave is produced when the par
Fig. 133. Plot of cross-sectional area
ticle is at A. This pressure
for an incom
as a function of velocity
wave has a spherical front with pressible fluid and a compressible fluid.
a center at A. After a time
interval t this wave front has traveled a distance ct. During this time
interval the particle has moved a
distance Vt, from A to B. The
pressure wave reaches B before
the particle; the pressure wave
^^^
B
Vt
*"
^v
Fig.
"telegraphed" ahead.
The upstream fluid particles have
some opportunity for adjustment
to the motion before the body
(or particle initially at ^4) reaches
their positions.
The intermediate
has been
be
pressure
contained
sphere of radius
waves
will
within the
ct.
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
170
FLOW
[Ch. 12
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particle reaches point B before the pressure wave; the pressure wave is
Inter
not moving fast enough to be telegraphed ahead of the particle.
mediate points between A and B are sources of other spherical waves.
The entire system of spherical pressure waves results in a conical front
Fig.
135.
moving
at
ct
Vt
sin-
(145)
When a body moves with a supersonic velocity, the pressure waves are
A considerable shock is produced as the body comes
behind the body.
in contact with fluid particles initially ahead of it. The conical wave
front, a form of discontinuity, is called a shock wave.
109. Photographic study of compressibility
effects
arrangements
2A
discussion of the optical features of the schlieren method can be found in
Physical Optics by R. W. Wood.
Macmillan, New York, 1934.
DYNAMICS
109]
OF COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
171
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Light from a suitable source is passed through the region of gas in motion.
Small differences in density are made visible by means of differences in
intensity of the light which has passed through the gas. The deflection
or refraction of a light beam passing through a body of gas depends upon
the density of the gas.
Sudden changes in density result in definite
bands of shadow or intense illumination.
The sparkling or twinkling of
stars is an example.
The apparent direction and intensity of a star are
Fig.
136.
subject
illuminating spark occurred while the bullet was between the spark and
the photographic
The bullet leaves an ordinary shadow; the
plate.
shock waves and turbulent wave also give a shadow because of refraction
effects. The bullet in each figure was probably moving at a speed of
about 2700 feet per second.
Each figure shows the head shock wave,
3
Figures 136 and 137 were reproduced, with permission, from Spark Photography
and Its Applications to Some Problems in Ballistics by P. P. Quayle, Scientific Paper
No. 508 of the National Bureau of Standards, 1925, page 250.
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
172
FLOW
[Ch. 12
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Fig.
137.
are known.
fundamental
features of practical
importance
can be con
Equation
p2
Then
(129) becomes
Let W represent the weight of gas passing through the tube per unit time,
and A 2 the area at the throat. Then W = A2V2/v2, where v is specific
3
For footnote
see page
171.
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110]
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
Fig.
139.
and pressure
Relation
FLOW
173
DYNAMICS
174
OF COMPRESSIBLE
2*,
volume.
W can
FLOW
[Ch. 12
be expressed as
139
is
is
(148)
about 0.53.
in the
is
If
the pressure pi
decreased from the value pi to pc,
converging tube.
maximum, as indi
the weight rate of discharge increases from zero to
cated by the solid curve in Fig. 139.
Consider the conditions when
pc.
=
29
urri) (piVi
p),
is
pcvck,
and
pe =
(149)
k
ptl,
V-1
,
piVik =
the specific
pcvc).
as
Inasmuch
(piVi
=VK
is
Equation
(149)
becomes
where
pc
the density
VGi)'"
v?
<ia
"
is
Equation
(150)
shows
sound at
the
is
is
of
critical
that the fluid
unity.
pressure. Mach's number at the throat
If the pressure in the receiver
reduced below pc, the pressure in the
receiver cannot be telegraphed back into the throat of the nozzle because
moving with the velocity of pressure propagation.
the fluid in the throat
always
For receiver pressures less than pc, the pressure in the throat
velocity at the throat equals the velocity
is
is
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is
pc,
value.
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
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111]
FLOW
175
On the other hand, if the pressure in the receiver is above pc, then the
fluid velocity at the throat is less than the velocity of sound ; the receiver
pressure can be telegraphed into the throat.
The above phenomena are illustrated by the flow in the exhaust port
of an internal-combustion engine. If the cylinder pressure at the time
of opening of the exhaust valve is so high that the critical pressure is
above the pressure in the exhaust pipe, then the fluid velocity in the
For this condition a further
valve port equals the velocity of sound.
in
manifold
the exhaust
pressure would not influence the flow
reduction
As exhaust proceeds, the cylinder pressure drops and the port
rate.
velocity decreases below the velocity of sound.
A nozzle or orifice in which the critical pressure is reached in the
minimum cross section is sometimes called a critical-flow nozzle or orifice,
The critical-flow prover is used both as a flow
or a critical-flow prover.
Accuracies
regulator and as a meter for measuring rate of discharge.
within one per cent are claimed for critical-flow meters.
111. Flow through
converging-diverging
nozzle
(151)
Since W =
AV/v, and
W
A
Figure
shape.
V
v
140c shows a
Fig.
140b
= piVik,
pvk
(151) gives
U[/pV (A
V*-l/i|_W
W
\(
plot of
Equation
ft+i
2gk
W/A
against
gives a certain
(152)
value of
W/A for
each value of x;
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
176
FLOW
[Ch. 12
Fig.
140c
value
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
x
Fig.
140.
Flow through
T"
a converging-diverging
nozzle.
If
DYNAMICS
111]
OF COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
177
pressure pE (for the given nozzle shape) which will make this expansion
Figure 133 shows that during this expansion process the fluid
possible.
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VENTURI
Fig.
141.
exit are the same as those in the section of the same area in the converging
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
178
FLOW
[Ch. 1 2
There remains the question regarding flow when the exit pressure lies
pi and pF. If the exit pressure equals pi, the pressure dis
tribution in the nozzle is simply constant, and is represented by the
horizontal line BG in Fig. 140; the weight rate of discharge is zero. For
exit pressures between pF and p\, the pressure distribution curve lies
For such exit pressures, applica
between the line BG and the line BDF.
in
Figures
of
140b and 140c show that the
diagrams
tion of the type
weight rate of discharge is less than the maximum W used in the foregoing
discussion.
The actual throat pressure does not drop to the critical
pressure, and the fluid velocity does not equal the velocity of sound.
Such flow is typical of that found in venturi tubes used for metering
A general comparison of the pressure distribution for a
purposes.
venturi tube and a de Laval nozzle is indicated in Fig. 141.
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between
ZZZ2
'ink
Fig.
142.
Venturi meter.
notation given in Fig. 142 (same as Fig. 65), the following relation was
given for the flow of an incompressible fluid through a venturi meter:
actual Q =
CA-iYi
CA,
V*^)
V-(0
(153)
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
112]
FLOW
179
Thus
Q =
KA
(154)
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Since
(155)
It
For incompressible
fluids
= 1.
If
be found
fluid meters.
in
It
with the
same pressure
drop.
Consider the determination of Y for a gas flowing through a venturi
An adiabatic process is assumed ; this assumption
meter or a flow nozzle.
Then Equation (129)
is reasonable for many practical applications.
applies, and can be written as
(157)
(158)
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Fig. 143. Expansion ratios plotted against pressure ratio for k = 1.4.
Orifice values are for flange, radius, and vena contracta taps.
(Data from
Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Application. A.S.M.E., 1937.)
DYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE
113]
Vi
can be eliminated
from Equation
FLOW
181
(158).
Thus
M^)si'-(ri
F2 =
'-ed'GT
w-cam /v^-iy^L
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(159)
j.
(160)
(vx">(
\y
(161)
provides
that
Closer inspection,
however,
P2/p1, the area ratio A2/A\, and the ratio of the specific heats k. If
values of Y are once determined, they will be convenient for further
Some values of the expansion factor are plotted in
The curves marked " venturi" are also applied to flow nozzles.
is the throat or orifice diameter, and D\ is the inlet or pipe diameter.
calculations.
Fig.
D2
143.
above the velocity of sound) the nose shape has a large influence on the
resistance; a desirable shape for low drag is a pointed nose. The pointed
Figure
nose serves to reduce the effect of the compression shock waves.
144 shows the effect of nose shape on the drag coefficients of various
projectiles.
182
DYNAMICS
OF COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
[Ch. 1 2
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For lifting- vane sections (such as wings and propeller blade elements),
compressibility effects may be appreciable in cases where the undisturbed
Mach's number is less than unity. The local velocity in some region
over a surface may be above the local acoustic velocity ; the local Mach's
SELECTED REFERENCES
at a Rate Exceeding the Acoustic Velocity by O. G. Tietjens, A.S.M.E.
Transactions, APM-53-4, vol. 53, 1931, page 49.
The Physics of Solids and Fluids by P. P. Ewald, T. Poschl, and L. Prandtl.
Blackie and Son, London, 1936.
Steam and Gas Turbines by A. Stodola, vol. I. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1927.
Flow of Gases
PROBLEMS
115. How long does it take a pressure wave to travel
ordinary conditions?
113]
DYNAMICS
OF COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
183
Estimate the
Air flows through a converging tube having a throat area of 0.50 square
The entrance pressure is 140 pounds per square inch absolute, the entrance
temperature is 120 Fahrenheit, and the nozzle discharges into the atmosphere
If the entrance velocity is negligible,
at 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute.
what is the weight discharge per unit time?
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119.
inch.
120.
121.
122. When the receiver pressure is equal to or less than the critical pressure,
the following relation is sometimes given for the flow of air through an orifice or a
short converging tube :
= 0.53
Api
Vfi
W represents the weight rate of flow per unit time, A the throat area, pi the
This relation
entrance pressure, and Ti the absolute temperature at entrance.
Derive this special relation, starting
is commonly called Fliegner's equation.
with Equation (146).
CHAPTER
13
in
Pipes
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184
COMPRESSIBLE
114]
185
(F2)
+ dR =
0.
(162)
where dR is the energy (in FL/F units, like foot-pounds per pound of
Following
fluid) or lost head used to overcome the frictional resistance.
the procedure employed in Chapter 7, dR will be expressed as
dR=f~dl.
(163)
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VdV
+'
fV2
I*
2gD
dl = 0
(164)
or
f^ 2f+
+
grating.
= 0.
(165)
For engineering
is a function of Reynolds' number NR = pVD/n.
purposes it is common to regard the dynamic viscosity as a function of
temperature only; for an isothermal process the dynamic viscosity is
Let W represent the weight rate of flow. Then W = AV/v,
where A is the constant pipe area; V and v each vary along the pipe.
Reynolds' number becomes
constant.
PVD = DW
ngA
For
hence
can
~l = = AVt
Vi
pi
pivi
v2
= pv = p2v2 =
v
vip
RT.
Thus
be integrated
Pr
(168)
gDpiVi
?iJ
flVS
Pi
flVi2
Ptl
7>\-
(169)
DgpiVi
ni1
--
J1
$]
(170)
is
if
is
power series
Expansion of the right side of Equation (170) in terms of
very small in comparison with
the term flVi2/gDpiVi
unity, then the pressure drop
shows that
pi
(b)
P2
flVV
(171)
2gDvi
is
which
is
fVMl +. dl
T
dp==2gWv
and substituting limits yields,
(172)
as
Integrating Equation
(172)
final
Downward Flow
a
pi2
P22
2gD
(173)
2gD
Thus
dl
v
fV2dl
dp =
2gDv
(c)
= P&l loge
result,
is
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[Ch.13
is
If
COMPRESSIBLE
186
(174)
COMPRESSIBLE
115]
Integrating Equation
and substituting
(174)
limits yields,
187
as
a final
result,
PiV,
^-log.
115. Comparison
of
(175)
incompressible
flow
and
compressible
iso
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The relations for the flow of a compressible fluid in a pipe are more
complicated than the simple relation for the flow of an incompressible
fluid.
The question is frequently raised as to the limits of application
of the incompressible-flow
It
relation.
is advisable
application.
(compressible flow)
(incompressible
=1
pi
flow)
pi
p2
pi
^/1
^r
_ flVi
2gDpiVi
Pl
flow)
flow)
P-
y/\
- 2B,
(176)
B.
(177)
for values of
less
than
0.1.
The difference
COMPRESSIBLE
188
[Ch.13
ratio greater
p>
= 0.30,
0.70
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0.60
0.50
a 0.40
CO
Q.
2
0.30
O
O
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.20
INCOMPRESSIBLE
Fig.
0.30
Pl~Pz
0.40
0.50
>-
145.
the corresponding
compressible
value of
compressible
pi
- Vi
Pi
is nearly 0.37.
The
by
COMPRESSIBLE
116]
189
p,vx
pv
-I
1-
Fig.
146.
Equation (128) gives the energy equation for the adiabatic flow of a
in a horizontal pipe. Using the notation shown in Fig. 146, the
energy equation states that
gas
V,2
(k- \\
(k-l\
VS
^[1
or
^r-2]
= constant-
(178)
is
Equation (178) gives the actual equation of state for a gas flowing in a
the
The term kgpv equals kp/p = c2, where
pipe with friction.
velocity of pressure propagation corresponding to the pressure p. Equa
tion (178) can then be expressed in an alternate form using Mach's
(^^) Nit2
v\
number Nm.
= constant.
(179)
is
is
If Mach's number very small in comparison with unity, then the rela
tion between pressure and specific volume
approximately isothermal;
=
that
not
constant.
In many applications, however, NM
pv
negligible, and the pressure-volume relation
correctly expressed by
either Equation (178) or (179).
W
the constant rate of flow, and
is
If
is
is
is,
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The present article and the next two will be devoted to the steady
flow of a gas in a horizontal pipe so insulated that no heat passes through
If the flow were frictionless, then the process would
the pipe walls.
follow the simple reversible adiabatic relation pvk = constant.
If there
is friction, however, the process is irreversible, and does not follow this
The relation for the actual process will be derived by
simple relation.
combining the energy equation and the equation of continuity.
COMPRESSIBLE
190
[Ch.13
AV/v, and
= constant.
is a constant
for
(180)
particular problem
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of steady flow.
SPECIFIC VOLUME v
Fig.
Figure
147.
*-
comparison of the different pressurevolume processes. The isothermal process follows the simple relation
adiabatic follows the relation pvk
pv = constant, and the frictionless
= constant.
The actual curve, the adiabatic process with friction, was
drawn according to Equation (180) for a certain value of the ratio W/A.
147 provides
a graphical
Each curve was drawn for the same initial pressure and specific volume.
Actual flow is not realized below a certain limiting or critical pressure
The dotted portion of the actual curve in Fig. 147 has
po (at point A).
1161
COMPRESSIBLE
no physical significance
191
Limiting pipe
impossible condition of finite volume at zero pressure.
flow is similar in some respects to limiting nozzle flow.
The dotted
curve in Fig. 147 is not realized for reasons similar to those which show
that the dotted portion of the curve for nozzle flow in Fig. 139 is not
realized.
Stodola, Schule, and other investigators2 have established the follow
a gas in an insulated pipe of constant diameter
It
(a)
--*2dv
(181)'
COMPRESSIBLE
192
fCh.n
[l
= plv,
k-^]
[l
(^i) Nu*]-
(183)
K
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Yi
Vi
Yi.
(184)
vo
1.2
24
1.0
20
0.8
16
V0_vb
Po
Pi
12
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.9
^_^o
0
1.0
148.
Limiting values of velocity, pressure, and specific volume ratios for flow
in an insulated pipe for gases with k = 1.4.
plvi
Vi
\\k
l)l
-1)JJ
(185)
(A
II*
1)Nm,2\)
(186)
1181
COMPRESSIBLE
193
'-^'{(m)[1
(F^)iwF-
(I87)
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Equations (186) and (187) provide means for calculating the limiting
These equations show that each ratio
pressure and specific volume.
is dependent only on k, the ratio of specific heats, and the initial Mach's
number Nmv The limiting velocity c0, which equals V0, can be deter
Figure 148 shows values of the foregoing
mined by Equation (185).
ratios plotted against NM, for a value of k = 1.40.
Table 2, page 5,
shows that k = 1.40 for air, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and oxygen.
118. Conditions along the length of an insulated pipe
The variation in pressure, specific volume, and velocity along the
pipe will be investigated by putting the fundamental relations in differ
ential form, expressing the frictional resistance as a function of differential
length, and then integrating. The functional relation between the
Various methods
variables velocity and length will be obtained first.
this
relation;
following
for
the
discussion
getting
could be employed
details one method.
VdV
Z2L
= 0.
(188)
as
-pdv +
where G is a constant.
fV2
+J*dl
Zgu
VdV
fV*
^=
+
|^ dl 0.
(189)
as
of continuity, W
<->
=
AV/v
= constant,
gives
Wdv = Adv,
dv =
(192)
COMPRESSIBLE
194
pdv =
[Ch.13
dV
dVfk
l\
n...
(194)
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-<T>-T\-2r}
ratio
fl
A+l\,
d=- y-Jr)10*'^
,l\
(195)
(196)
The ratio v/vi can be substituted for its equivalent V/Vi in Equation
Equation (186) gives the limiting value of the ratio v0/vi as a
(196).
function of k and the initial Mach's number Nm^. The maximum
length of pipe for given initial conditions (given pu v\, and Nm,) can be
determined by substituting the limiting ratio v0/vi in Equation (196).
At the end of this maximum length the fluid velocity equals the velocity
of sound at pa and v0.
The use of a pipe longer than this maximum
For
length would result in failure to realize the given initial conditions.
a certain pipe, an initial Vi (or rate of flow W/A) is only possible for
pipe lengths up to a definite limiting value of l. A reduction of the
back pressure at the end of this maximum length below p0 would not
affect the flow
in the pipe.
COMPRESSIBLE
118]
195
Vi
V
- 1)N
(k
^-m
(197)
ys
LIMITING
CONDITIONS-^
vj5
In
II
/[o
s
1"-
lzs
/ /
>
Vi
o
d
in
CM
i-H
10
20
30
40
50
60
i#
NM_0.05
70
80
90
100
fl/D
149.
Variation of velocity and specific volume ratios with Mach's number and
fl/D
Fig.
= 1.4.
one in
method for using and interpreting these equations
which the various dimensionless ratios are represented graphically for
different initial conditions.
Figure 149 shows
plot of velocity and specific volume ratios versus
fl/D for different initial Mach's numbers. The dotted curve in Fig. 149
For example, for an initial Nul = 0.20,
represents limiting conditions.
the point of intersection
gives the maximum value of the fl/D ratio,
and the limiting values V0/Vi = 0/f i.
is
convenient
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10
COMPRESSIBLE
196
[Ch. 13
Figure 150 shows a plot of the pressure ratio against fl/D for different
initial Mach's numbers.
The dotted curve represents limiting condi
tions.
For example, for an initial NMl = 0.20, the point of intersection A
gives the maximum value of the fl/D ratio and the corresponding limiting
Values of pressure between px and p0 at corre
pressure ratio p0/piFor example, for
sponding lengths can be found from Fig. 150.
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1.0
Fig.
150.
a certain corresponding
of
119. Comparison
gas flow
p/pi for
fl/D.
incompressible
compressible
and
adiabatic
relations
The pressure drop for the flow of an incompressible
zontal pipe can be written as
Pl
/ZVV
2gDv,
p
p,
fluid in a hori
flVi*
2gDplVl'
COMPRESSIBLE
119]
Since ci =
197
form
Equation
Fig. 150.
incompressible
flow.
the incompressible
evidence is available
of an incompressible
SELECTED REFERENCES
Technical Thermodynamics by W. Schule.
Pitman, London, 1933.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1937, vols.
Steam and Gas Turbines by A. Stodola.
and II.
Principles of Thermodynamics by G. A. Goodenough.
Holt, New York, 1927.
PROBLEMS
123.
124.
clean galvanized
inch absolute,
68
length is 700
compressible isothermal
flow.
through a smooth
128. Methane flows through a clean steel insulated pipe of 4-inch diameter at
a rate of 7.1 pounds per second.
At inlet the temperature is 90 Fahrenheit, and
the pressure is 100 pounds per square inch absolute.
What is the lowest pressure
COMPRESSIBLE
198
iCh. 1 3
that can be obtained in the pipe if the dynamic viscosity is 2.36 X 10-7 slug per
What is the maximum length of pipe?
foot-second?
It
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6 inches
CHAPTER
Flow of Liquids
in
14
Open Channels
completely
subjected
as one
slope of the
liquid surface.
Natural streams, rivers, artificial canals, sewers, tunnels,
and pipes not completely filled with liquids are examples of open channels.
Accurate solution of problems of open-channel flow is much more difficult
than solution of those of pipe flow.
One distinguishing feature of the
flow of liquids in open channels, as contrasted with pipe flow, is that the
cross-sectional area is free to change instead of being fixed.
The pres
ence of a free surface introduces complexities of a primary magnitude.
It is difficult to obtain reliable experimental data on the flow in open
A relatively smaller range of conditions is found in pipe
channels.
flow.
Most pipes are round, but open-channel sections vary from
circular to the irregular forms of natural rivers; channel surface con
ditions range from the smoothness of timber to the roughness and irregu
larity in the beds of some rivers.
Deciding on friction factors for open
channels is more troublesome than the same task for pipe flow.
The treatment of open-channel flow is therefore somewhat more
empirical than that of pipe flow. The empirical treatment, however, is
the best available at present, and can yield results of practical value
if cautiously applied. Water is the usual liquid involved in the flow
with a free surface.
The empirical relations and coefficients presented
in this chapter are based upon experiments with that liquid. These
relations apply only to turbulent flow, which is the more common type
of flow.
121. Definitions
Either
Sometimes the word stage is used in place of the word depth.
Steady flow
word refers to the vertical height of liquid in a channel.
refers to a condition in which the flow characteristics at any point, such
The flow of a liquid
in an open channel is said to be uniform when the depth, velocity, liquid
as
cross-sectional
200
[Ch. 1
from
section to section.
flow.
S=sina
Fig.
Fig.
152.
151.
Nonuniform
153.
defined as
area in Fig.
cross-sectional
area
wetted perimeter
ABCD.
The wetted
perimeter is the length of solid boundary in contact with the liquid,
that
the distance ABCD.
The wetted perimeter does not include
is,
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V777777777Z
122]
201
Strictly speaking, the slope S should be taken as the sine of the angle of
inclination. The following relations apply only to small slopes for which
the sine and the tangent are very nearly equal.
The diagrams in this
chapter exaggerate the slope for the sake of illustration.
1
V,2
LIQUID
SURFACE
STREAM
TUBE
ARBITRARY
154.
and
2,
Fig.
/HORIZONTAL DATUM
Profile of channel.
becomes
(199)
where
is
w
h
Thus pi
= p2, and
Z\
Vi
= F2.
Then
Z2.
is
obtained at
The energy required to maintain the flow in the channel
In
uniform
flow
the
entire
change in
energy.
the expense of potential
of the
The slope
charged to the maintenance of the flow.
elevation
of
line
The
the
slope
energy
grade
equals
line
energy grade
h/l.
the slope of the water surface equals the slope of the bottom only for the
special case of steady, uniform flow.
is
is
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case
depths.
202
123.
[Ch.
14
V2
<*)
h=fl>W
The hydraulic mean depth R for a circular pipe is
substituting S = h/l, and solving for V, gives
Z>/4.
Replacing D,
in the form
V
where C is a dimensional
VRS,
(202)
Equa
/,
it
is
is
is
is
is,
is
is
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(201)
R,
n
(203)
124]
203
Table
Table 8
FOR USE IN MANNING'S EQUATION
n
0.012
0.013
0.012
0.014'
0.016
0.025
Brick
Rubble
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0 . 025
0 . 035
weeds
Gravel
Vitrified sewer pipe
Cast iron
Riveted steel
0.028
0 . 013
0.014
0.015
Example.
A rectangular channel lined with finished concrete is 10 feet wide.
The bottom slope is 0.002, and the depth is 7 feet. Compute the rate of discharge
by the Manning equation for steady, uniform flow.
hydraulic mean depth = R
cVrs
Q =
AV
24.
n
70(1.49)
0.012
/70\H
\24/
-J-J feet
1 49
=
RV>S*
n
(0.002)^.
Velocity distribution
in open channels
204
[Ch .14
mum velocity.
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Fig.
155.
bed (as in a natural stream) may give very irregular and distorted velocity
contour lines.
Fig.
156.
current.
125]
205
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2g
specific energy =
Since a
V2
V
= d +
+ -^w
Zg
(204)
= y,
= y
(205)
The specific energy in open-channel flow is simply the sum of the depth
and the velocity head in the channel.
In uniform open-channel flow
the total head is decreased as flow takes place, but the specific energy
In nonuniform or varied flow the total head is con
remains constant.
tinually decreased, but the specific energy may be increased or decreased.
It is most convenient and instructive to illustrate principles by dealing
with the two-dimensional flow in a channel of rectangular cross section.
In such a channel, with vertical side walls, the flow in parallel vertical
The study of flow in a rectangular channel gives
planes is identical.
206
tCh. 14
Vby.
q
The
rate
of
dis
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(206)
The foregoing
Fig.
essentially
157.
Rectangular cross
an open channel.
section
of
equation involves
three variables.
The
E andy vary;
and
q and y vary.
Figure 158 shows a plot of depth against specific energy for a constant
The curve is asymptotic to the horizontal axis and the 45 line marked
q.
"potential energy."
The 45 line is simply a plot of the first term of
>|
Vc
jj
SPECIFIC ENERGY E-
2g
Fig.
158.
q.
Equation (206), whereas that part of the abscissa between the potentialenergy line and the specific-energy curve represents the kinetic energy
term V2/2g of Equation (206). The specific-energy curve has a point
of minimum specific energy at a depth which is called the critical depth
Considering values of depth other than yc, for every specific energy
yc.
125]
207
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there are two alternate depths at which the flow may take place one
The flow is said to be tranquil
below and one above the critical depth.
if the actual depth y is greater than yc. The flow is said to be rapid if the
loss
increase
of depth
-^2!i!^
*
Ql
uj
1
RATE OF DISCHARGE q
in 'rapid
flow.
depth
9$y'
of
\CRITICAL
>>
j-j
\//
i
specific
is
energy
accompanied by an
Critical
qc-
Fig.
relations
159.
Plot of depth against rate of dis
charge for a constant specific energy E.
by differ
entiating Equation (206) with respect to y and setting the result equal
to zero. E has a minimum value when dE/dy = 0. The subscript c
will be used for critical depth values.
For example, Ec represents the
Then
specific energy at the critical depth yc.
can be established
dE
dy
Setting Equation
(207)
q2
Eliminating
(\y
dy
Jt\
2gy*J
gy*
(207)
or
3r~2
yc =
(208)
Figure
yc
9Vc
yc.
Zgyc
(209)
159 shows a
specific energy E, as
can be rearranged as follows
g2
= 2g(Ey*
y3).
(210)
208
[Ch. 14
The term dq/dy equals zero at the maximum value of q for a given E.
Differentiating Equation (210) and setting dq/dy = 0 gives
A comparison of Equations
of discharge
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critical flow.
The critical velocity Vc at the critical depth can be found from
Equation (208) (noting that q = yV) to be
vc = VgyZ.
(212)
An inspection of Equation (206) and Fig. 158 shows that at depths less
than the critical the velocity V > y^gy, whereas at depths greater than
the critical the velocity V < \/gy.
1
26.
Nonuniform
1 26]
209
= z
+ y +
^,
(213)
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Fig.
160.
The term dH/dx represents the rate of change of total head. This
quantity is always negative in the direction of flow. Using the Chezy
notation gives
dH
dx
V2
cm
The quantity dz/dx represents the slope of the bottom of the channel.
Following the usual, arbitrary custom regarding signs (downward slope
as positive), dz/dx will be taken as equal to So-
210
[Ch. 14
(Yl\
dx\2gj
A.
- Alg
Q^dA
dx
ZdL=
g
dx
Q*bdy
Alg dx
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A*g
Equation (215) is the basic differential equation for the steady, non
uniform flow in a prismatic channel.
Equation (215) can represent a large
number of surface profile forms.
A
complete discussion of the various
solutions of Equation (215) is beyond
the scope of this book.
An excellent
treatment of methods for solving such
equations is given by von Karman
Fig.
161.
Cross section
channel.
of
open
and Biot.1
Rouse2 presents a discussjon 0f various cases, and Bakhmeteff 2
s =
i$m
or
a* =
Sr-
(216)
than the slope for uniform flow at a given depth, the numerator
Equation (215) is positive in sign, and vice versa. If the numerator
Equation (215) is not zero, then the slope dy/dx approaches infinity
the denominator of Equation (215) approaches zero. The limit
1
Mathematical
Methods in Engineering
1940.
in
in
as
is
127]
yc
211
when
ML2 = 1.
For a rectangular
(217)
of Equation
Vgy-
(218)
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127.
Hydraulic jump
Fig.
162.
may suddenly change to a flow at a certain depth greater than the critical.
With this increase in depth there is a corresponding reduction in velocity.
energy.
212
[Ch. 14
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/LOSS OF ENERGY
(
IN JUMP
- H
PPP7P777777777777777777777P
Fig.
163.
Physical interpretation
SPECIFIC ENERGY
of the hydraulic
energy diagram.
E%
Ei
is the loss of
some circumstances.
In many
an
energy
analysis.
Picture the body of liquid in the jump, Fig. 164, as a free or isolated
body, with no tangential forces acting on the horizontal channel bottom
and the side walls.
It seems reasonable to neglect the tangential wall
127]
213
forces, because the length of the channel is short and the shock losses
are relatively large.
Then the net force in the direction of flow acting
on the body of liquid is Fi F2.
Since force equals the time rate of
(219)
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Fig.
164.
of continuity,
Viyi
= V2y2 = q.
Substituting the
2/i2
y*2
9
If
gyi
\V2
2
2/1/
gy2
(220)
the rate of discharge and one depth are known, the other depth can
by Equation (220). Equation (220) can be solved explic
be calculated
y2,
to give
(221)
214
[Ch. 14
%l\
by the energy
^V
(y,
lost energy =
^2
+
(222)
fall
is
Fig.
165.
Flow over
a fall.
of
is
if
compressible
fluids
a
wave through
cw
12,
it
paragraphs.
can be shown
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165
shallow open
1529]
215
Vgy.
(223)
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Vc = y/gy~c-
For critical flow, the liquid velocity equals the velocity of propagation
of a small surface wave. If a wave were started, it could not progress
upstream but would remain stationary because the two velocities are
In tranquil flow the liquid velocity is less than -y/gy. In tranquil
equal.
flow small surface waves would travel upstream.
In rapid flow the
In rapid flow small surface waves
liquid velocity is greater than s/gy.
would be swept downstream.
The phenomenon of the shock wave in a compressible fluid is some
what analogous to the hydraulic jump occurring in open-channel flow.
The following treatment of this analogy is similar to that given by
von Karman.4
The flow of a compressible fluid is supersonic if the fluid velocity V
is greater than the velocity of pressure propagation c.
The compressible
flow is subsonic if V is less than c.
The hydraulic jump is an abrupt
transition between what might be called supercritical and subcritical flow.
The flow of liquid in an open channel is supercritical if the liquid velocity
V is higher than the velocity of surface waves cw or -\/gy~c. The flow
of liquid is subcritical if the velocity V is less than this critical value.
The continuity equation for steady flow in an open channel has the
form
Vy = constant.
(224)
This relation is analogous to the continuity equation for the steady flow
of a compressible fluid through a pipe of constant cross section,
Vp = constant,
(225)
216
flow equals y +
gdy
+ VdV
[Ch.
(Vi/2g).
14
Differentiating
= 0.
(226)
Equation
(see
164):
gvdp
+ VdV
= c2,
= 0
+ VdV
= 0.
P *.
^*E
dp p
C2
+ VdV
(227)
as
= 0,
+ VdV =
0.
(228)
if
is
c2
If
replaced by y, then dp/p corresponds to
corresponds to gy.
dy/y. Thus c2(dp/p), or (dp/dp)(dp/p), corresponds to gefr/, and Equa
tions (226) and (228) are analogous.
Thus both the continuity equation and the energy equation for
compressible flow are analogous to those for open-channel flow
and
quantities.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Fluid
of
PROBLEMS
1
if
130.
circular, brick-lined conduit, feet in diameter, has slope of in 1000.
the conduit flows half
Compute the rate of discharge for steady, uniform flow
full.
is
is
is
is
131.
feet deep
lined with unplaned
rectangular channel 25 feet wide and
400 cubic feet per second.
wood.
The rate of discharge
What
the slope
the flow
steady and uniform?
if
is
is
is
132.
of trapezoidal section with
canal, lined with unfinished concrete,
bottom width of 10 feet and sides making an angle of 60 with the horizontal.
0.0015 and the depth of flow
feet.
The bottom slope
Calculate the rate of
discharge for steady uniform flow.
is
d,
respect to d.)
it
a is
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or
129]
217
134. A trapezoidal canal has a bottom width of 20 feet and side slopes of
to 1. The rate of discharge is 364 cubic feet per second at a depth of 3.60 feet.
What is the specific energy?
1
135. If 600 cubic feet per second at a depth of 4.1 feet flows in a rectangular
channel 20 feet wide, is the flow rapid or tranquil?
136.
channel
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yc
!(-)'
2\yJ
a rectangular
16 feet wide
derive
-'
yc
Plot a dimensionless
specific energy
as abscissae.
Starting with Equation (210), for a constant specific energy derive the
relation
\yJ
yj
Qc
\yJ
\y<-
Plot a dimen
3 feet deep
Can
Water flows at a rate of 360 cubic feet per second in a rectangular channel
at a depth of 1.0 foot.
What is the total energy loss in a hydraulic
jump which has occurred from this flow?
141.
18 feet wide
142. With a discharge of 400 cubic feet per second in a rectangular channel
20 feet wide, determine the depth y\ which will sustain a jump resulting in
What portion of the initial energy is lost in the jump?
j/2 = 4.0 feet.
CHAPTER
15
Lubrication
A very important problem that confronts many engineers is that of
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process is of the laminar or viscous type; the speeds may be high but
the channel dimensions, in current practice, are so small that the Rey
nolds' numbers are low.
LUBRICANT
*V-"g
>
>
MOVING
Fig.
166.
completely by a fluid
very thin layer of fluid adheres
separated
to the fixed surface, and has zero velocity. A very thin layer of fluid
adheres to the surface of the moving slipper and has the velocity V. For
small distances between the surfaces, the velocity gradient is linear and
the flow is laminar. This velocity gradient is the same at all points
LUBRICATION
130]
219
o
z
>
FILM
PRESSURE
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VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION
Fig.
167.
Pig.
168.
FILM
-PRESSURE
VELOCITY
ISTRIBUTION
MOVING
Fig.. 169. Resultant
sure and viscous drag.
a load.
LUBRICATION
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220
[Ch. 1 5
or journal bearing
LUBRICANT
(a) AT REST
Fig.
(6)
170.
STARTING
tration. The space between journal and bearing is filled with an ample
supply of lubricant. There is metal-to-metal contact at the lowest
point, and the journal is loaded.
As the journal begins to rotate (see Fig. 170b), it crawls up the bearing
to the right for the clockwise rotation indicated.
Fluid adheres to the
surface of the journal, and the journal rolls on a lubricated surface.
If
sufficient speed is developed, the lubricant will be drawn between the
surfaces, to separate the surfaces and float the journal, as shown in
Fig. 170c. The shaft center moves to the left side of the bearing center.
In Fig. 170c there is a converging film from B to A in the direction of
LUBRICATION
1321
221
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BEARING
BEARING
FLUID
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
WITHOUT
OIL GROOVE
LOAD
Fig.
172.
PRESSURE
WITH
OIL GROOVE
Figure 172
how a groove in the positive-pressure region causes a large
reduction in the carrying capacity of a bearing, as compared with a
bearing that has no groove.
In many lubrication systems an external pump is employed to force
lubricant to the bearing.
The function of this feed pump is to overcome
friction in the feed pipe and fittings, to provide an adequate supply of
lubricant. After lubricant is supplied to the bearing, the viscosity pump
action itself develops fluid pressure to support the journal.
indicates
132. Journal-bearing
friction
LUBRICATION
222
[Ch. 1 5
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/=
Figure
173 shows
some function of
-DRY FRICTION
NO LUBRICATION
THIN FUM LUBRICATION
a|B| TRANSITION REGION
Turr>
r
0.03
'Tfc
K FILM L IIRRIPAT
on
Jr
1
0.02
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1,2
1.0
1.4
^XIO6
Fig.
173.
L/D
= 1.00 and
C/D
1,
Article 46.
LUBRICATION
132]
223
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Fig.
174.
motor is warm.
The region BC in
unstable lubrication.
different for different
in the region CD. As
to reduce the
LUBRICATION
224
[Ch. 15
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Fig. 173 are: (a) roughness of the surfaces; (b) materials composing the
surfaces; (c) constitution and properties of the lubricant; and (d) amount
Uj
o
o
o
LARD
OIL
/tN
P
Fig.
175.
of oil supply. In the thin-film region different oils may give different
friction coefficients for the same value of nN/p. This possibility is
illustrated in Fig. 175. Two oils may have the same dynamic viscosity
at a certain temperature and pressure, but they may differ in chemical
The term oiliness is sometimes employed in discussing the
properties.
frictional characteristics (as distinguished from wear and seizure charac
teristics) of a lubricant or a lubricant-metal combination.
According to Hersey,2 "Oiliness is that which may cause a difference
in friction between two tests, under identical conditions, in which the
lubricants have the same viscosity at the test temperature and atmos
The nature of this somewhat elusive property of
pheric pressure."
"oiliness" has not been fully established at the present time.
2 Logic
page 561.
LUBRICATION
135]
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225
An interesting and practically important application of the fluidwedge lubricating action is found in the thrust bearing developed by
A. Kingsbury.
As indicated in Fig. 176, the Kingsbury bearing makes
possible the automatic formation of wedge-shaped oil films under a thrust
load (along the axis of rotation), accomplishing in thrust bearings what
a well-designed journal bearing does for radial loads.
One of the bearing
elements is divided into segments, usually three or six in number.
These
segments are pivoted and supported so that they are free to tilt slightly.
The oil films assume automatically whatever taper is required by the
speed, load, and lubricant viscosity.
The friction coefficient for a Kingsbury thrust bearing varies approxi
mately from 0.001 to 0.005, depending on the load, speed, and viscosity.
ROTATING ELEMENT
STATIONARY^
ELEMENTS^
Fig.
^
\
OIL
/
FILM
lu^r~
>rrMFNT
SEGMENT
176.
Such a bearing will easily sustain loads of 300 pounds per square inch
of segment area.
Kingsbury thrust bearings are employed in a wide
variety of applications,
35.
Viscosity index
From one point of view, the ideal oil is one which has the same
In
No such oil has been found.
dynamic viscosity at all temperatures.
general, the dynamic viscosity of a liquid decreases as the temperature
The rate of change of viscosity with temperature is different
increases.
for different liquids, and may be an important physical factor, particu
larly for lubricants.
Lubricating oils are subjected to a wide range of temperatures in
service, which inevitably means a wide fluctuation in dynamic viscosity.
The viscosity of an oil may drop to a value where the lubricating film is
On the
broken, resulting in metal-to-metal contact and excessive wear.
'other extreme, the viscosity may rise to a value where the oil becomes
LUBRICATION
226
[Ch. 1 5
In an
too viscous for proper circulation, and the bearing may run dry.
freely
oil
to
flow
crankcase
be
may
required
the
automobile, for example,
at 0 Fahrenheit at starting, and also to have sufficient viscosity to
Therefore,
provide safe lubrication at 300 Fahrenheit when operating.
much attention has been paid, in recent years, to relationships between
One relationship that has been developed
viscosity and temperature.
Although empirical, this index has
is the so-called viscosity index.
certain advantages for some purposes, and is in common use..
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5000
4000
3000
o
o
2000
cf
750
500
400
300
200
=>
150
\_i
1500
1000
VX
ioo
35
90
VISCOS TY INDEX=100
Vv
80
70
iO
100
120
180
160
140
200
22 10
177.
Saybolt
reading plotted
against temperature
viscosity indexes.
(L-
V)
(L-H)
100,
Standard D567-4J.
LUBRICATION
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136]
227
A
B
C
E
F
G
H
I
Type of Oil
S.A.E. 10 motor oil
High-viscosity-index
S.A.E. 30 motor oil
High-viscosity-index
High-viscosity-index S.A.E. 50 motor oil
Low-viscosity-index S.A.E. 10 motor oil
Low-viscosity-index S.A.E. 30 motor oil
High-viscosity-index S.A.E. 60 aviation engine oil
Transformer oil
Gear oil, S.A.E. 90
Gear oil, S.A.E. 140
Steam-turbine oil, light
Steam-turbine oil, medium
LUBRICATION
228
[Ch. 1 5
description of
The legend for Figures 178 and 179, with a
per second.
a general picture of the
each oil, is listed in Table 9. These data give
characteristics of common lubricating oils.
as S.A.E. 10
The oils A and D in Fig. 178 are both designated
Oil A,
designation).
motor oils (Society of Automotive Engineers
100,000
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10,000
to
UJ
o
Ito
I-
1000
UJ
o
O
CO
>
100
40
Fig.
160
80
120
200
FAHRENHEIT
DEGREES
TEMPERATURE.
240
as a function
however, has a higher viscosity index than oil D; the Saybolt reading and
the kinematic viscosity of oil A change less with temperature than oil D.
A similar comparison applies to oils B and E. For practical problems
the specific gravity is taken as numerically equal (not dimensionally
The mass of one milliliter
equal) to the density in grams per milliliter.
LUBRICATION
136]
229
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increase in temperature.
0.960
0.800
120
160
200
TEMPERATURE, DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
40
80
240
LUBRICATION
230
A.P.I. degrees at
60
F.
141.5
sp. gr. at 60 F.
[Ch. 1 5
131.5.
The A.P.I, gravity varies inversely as the specific gravity. A low A.P.I.
gravity means a high specific gravity; whereas a high A.P.I, gravity
indicates a low specific gravity.
137. Theoretical
flow
in
journal
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bearing
The foregoing articles have emphasized the physical features of
lubrication. A great deal of mathematical work has been done in the
field of thick-film lubrication, and the reader interested in this aspect
can find abundant material in the
literature. Viscous or laminar flow,
in general, is more amenable to
mathematical
analysis than turbu
lent flow; purely mathematical
investigations have proved very
fruitful.
A comprehensive
treat
ment of such complicated work,
however, is difficult to summarize
Further,
adequately in one chapter.
theoretical results should be applied
Fig. 180. Notation for a cylindrical
with caution, because of limitations
bearing.
of the theory. Accordingly, only a
brief, simplified analytical treatment will be given in this article and the
next, in order to shed further light on the thick-film lubrication process,
and to give some idea of general methods of approach.
The problem of two-dimensional flow in a cylindrical or journal
bearing will be studied first.
Two-dimensional flow may be realized in
a bearing of very long length (length along the axis of rotation).
It will
be assumed that the shaft is lightly loaded and that the speed is so high
that the eccentricity of shaft center and bearing center is small. It will
be assumed that the radial clearance C/2 is so small in comparison with
the shaft diameter D that the curvature of the path of the lubricant can
be neglected.
As shown in Fig. 180, let u be the peripheral velocity of the
surface of the rotating shaft.
Dynamic viscosity is the ratio of shear stress to rate of shearing
strain (Chapter 5). Taking the rate of shearing strain at the shaft
surface as 2u/C, the shear stress R/A at the shaft is then
R
2u
A
where
velocity
u =
(229)
The
Thus
LUBRICATION
137]
231
R
The journal load
*g
pLD.
Therefore,
expressed as
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f=
Equation
(230)
(230)
27r;
commonly
is
2n(jDL)wDN
'
pLDC
(D\fiN
called
(230)
is independent
Equation
of the length
L.
SOMMERFELD
.PETROFF
0.00
Fig.
If
/ is
181.
plotted against
0.04
0.08
...\2
0.12
0.16
coefficient
a straight line
a slope equal to
classical work6 presents a more refined analysis of this
He expressed his theoretical results in the form
particular problem.
2x2.
Sommerfeld's
some
function of
(231)
LUBRICATION
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232
[Ch. 1 5
Petroff's equation is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 181, and Sommerfeld's results are represented by the full line in Fig. 181.
The
asymptotically the Petroff relation.
Sommerfeld
curve approaches
Recent experiments on thick-film lubrication by Morgan and Muskat7
show results which agree fairly well with these theoretical relations;
their values (plotted as in Fig. 181) fall on a straight line which, when
The curves in Fig. 181 apply
extended, passes through the origin.
for
thick-film
lubrication.
At
low
only
values of (D/C)2(nN/p) there
is a marked increase in f(D/C) for thin-film lubrication.
The life of a bearing is closely related to the minimum film thickness.
Let the minimum film thickness in a bearing be denoted by h, and the
radial clearance by c = C/2. The dimensionless eccentricity ratio h/c
can be expressed as a function of the Sommerfeld factor, as was done
1.0
0.8
h
06
0.4
Fig.
0.2
()
182.
0.04
0.08
Theoretical
variation
., 0.12
of
minimum
0.16
film
o.: >o
thickness.
The
theoretically by Sommerfeld.
Such a plot is shown in Fig. 182.
=
1.
The
rotating shaft runs concentric with the bearing when h/c
shaft touches the bearing when h/c = 0.
For a given clearance, the mini
mum film thickness increases with increasing
viscosity, increasing
journal speed, and decreasing load.
Considerable wear of the bearing
For normal, safe operation,
may occur during starting and stopping.
the journal should not operate below some limiting value of S, with a
value of h/c.
The shearing stresses and the fluid pressures in the film tend to
As n or N increases, a smaller wedging
increase as either u or N increases.
of the film will develop the resultant pressure to support the load on the
journal. Thus there is a decrease in the journal eccentricity as nN/p
increases.
On the other hand, as the journal load is decreased, keeping
corresponding
7
Experimental Friction Coefficients for Thick Film Lubrication of Complete Journal
Bearings by F. Morgan and M. Muskat, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 9, No. 8,
August, 1938, page 539.
LUBRICATION
138]
233
nN constant, a smaller fluid film pressure will support the load; this
situation again means a smaller journal eccentricity.
138. Theoretical
flow
in
slipper
bearing
The two-dimensional
of this problem
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be derived first.
Figure
u
is
at
a
notation;
velocity
the
the
distance
from
y
some
183 shows
r-dr
dy
p-dp
P-*
* XT*
77777777777777777777.
^x
I
Fig.
183.
Notation
for
two-dimensional
laminar
flow.
Con
boundary, and a; is a distance measured in the direction of flow.
sider the forces acting on a small element of height dy, of length dx, and
The only forces
of unit depth perpendicular to the plane of motion.
acting on this element are the pressure and viscous shear forces (no
inertia forces). For steady flow the pressure forces on this element
balance the viscous forces.
Therefore,
dpdy = drdx
or
dp
dx
dr
dy
Since
pdu/dy, the
LUBRICATION
234
[Ch. 1 5
gives
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1
(dp\
H\dxj 2
+ clV +
c.
(233)
FIXED
r
1
1
l'
< x->
01
""""""*---.
MOVING
PLATE
Fig.
184.
-(i)s&i-*>+x<*-*>
(234)
dp/dx.
From the condition of continuity, the volume of incompressible
passing any cross section of the channel per unit time is
Q
Vh
hz dp
fluid
(235)
LUBRICATION
1 38]
rewritten
be
2
If
235
as
<w
-8}
-*[
jo
ft3
Therefore,
Equation
llJ
a2
2aa:
=
~
x)2'
x2
253a2(a
l]
La
52
a52(a
x)
(237) becomes
v_Q(2a-x)\
&IXX
p = po +
where
x)2
= }_
-L_
J__ [
253 L(o
=
~
fxdx
Jo ft2
a82(a
aS(a
x)
x)
po is
(239)
6/uFx(Z
ft2(2a
x)
= po
(240)
x)
for
(a
ft
Substituting
y^_~
0.
is,
is
hm
(2a
a2(2a
as
x)
- Wa ~V
QnVxQ,
= 1/2 be represented
I).
= po
ft
Equation
(240)
of Equation
above po-
finite value,
if
has
is
If
If
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fxdx
(237)
tnAi\
(241)
by
hm.
(242)
LUBRICATION
236
Substituting
hn
pa
SnVx(l
Shm(a
[Ch. 15
X)
(243)
x)2
Equation (243) shows that even when the dynamic viscosity is relatively
small, very high film pressures can be developed if the mean thickness,
hm, of the oil film is very small.
Equation (244) can be expressed in the dimensionless form
p
po
"TIT
O/i
_
~
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(244)
x(l
8(a
x)
- xY
(244)
4000
^=0
3000
2000
1000
y
0.2
Fig.
186.
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
LUBRICATION
139]
237
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This chapter has discussed very briefly only a few of the many phases
of lubrication. Other phases of the subject are important. Further
and more specialized information can be found in the literature. For
example, there is the general problem of thermal equilibrium in a bearing.
Bearing performance relations involve the viscosity of the lubricant under
This viscosity can be determined if the
steady operating conditions.
operating temperature is known. Making a heat balance for a bearing
and determining this temperature for a bearing before it is built is
The solution to this problem depends
sometimes a difficult problem.
both on the rate of generating heat by friction and on the rate of heat
transfer from the bearing to its surroundings.
SELECTED REFERENCES
This book
Theory of Lubrication by M. D. Hersey. Wiley, New York, 1936.
contains an excellent bibliography.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1939.
Lubricants and Lubrication by J. I. Clower.
Fundamentals of Machine Design by C. A. Norman, E. S. Ault, and I. F. Zarobsky.
Macmillan, New York,
1938.
PROBLEMS
The ratio zN/p is frequently used in lubrication work, in which z is in
N is in revolutions per minute, and p is in pounds per square inch.
zN/p, although involving a hybrid system of units, is convenient in correlating
Determine the factor by which zN/p must be multiplied in order to get
data.
the ratio nN/p in any set of consistent units.
143.
centipoises,
144.
in Fig.
By
169 is nearer
145. An oil has a Saybolt reading of 1500 seconds at 100 Fahrenheit and
What is the viscosity index of the oil?
90 seconds at 210 Fahrenheit.
60
Fahrenheit of high-viscosity-index
LUBRICATION
238
ICh. 15
150. If the load in Problem 149 were increased to 9000 pounds, while keeping
everything else the same, what would be the theoretical minimum oil film
thickness?
151. A bearing test gave a friction coefficient of 0.0122, a projected bearing
pressure of 1.74 pounds per square inch, and a shaft speed of 93.4 revolutions per
minute.
The viscosity of the lubricant was 3.22 centipoises.
If the Petroff law
is assumed to apply, what was the ratio of diameter to clearance?
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200
153. A shaft 4 inches in diameter in a bearing 5 inches long has a total load
of 4000 pounds.
The lubricant is a high-viscosity-index S.A.E. 30 motor oil, at
an operating temperature of 130 Fahrenheit.
Tests show that this type of
bearing should not operate steadily below a nN/p value of 0.4 X 10-6. What
is the lowest steady speed of the shaft for these conditions?
154. Starting with Equation (243), determine
of p at which the oil film pressure is a maximum.
155.
In
Determine
a slipper
bearing l = 12 inches,
the dimensionless
value of
x/l
hm
= 0.0012 inches,
and
l/a
= 0.7.
value of
3/t
CHAPTER 16
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Pumps
The present chapter and the next two might be classified under the
The purpose of these three chapters
general heading of fluid machinery.
is to present briefly some general features and performance characteristics
Pumps are treated first. Turbines
of a few common fluid machines.
are then considered in Chapter 17. Following this section, in the same
chapter, is a discussion of fluid couplings and torque converters, each
of which is essentially a combination of a centrifugal pump and a turbine.
Chapter 18 reviews some basic fluid power and control systems.
140. Reciprocating pumps and motors
during discharge.
When the piston reaches the end of the stroke,
expansion of this air tends to keep the fluid in motion until the reverse
stroke starts.
They are built for practically every type of service, and with a
Generally speaking,
wide variety of materials to meet these services.
particularly
are
not
well
reciprocating pumps
suited for handling very
viscous or dirty liquids, because of the tendency toward clogging of suc
tion and discharge valves.
Reciprocating pumps are usually operated
239
PUMPS
240
[Ch. 16
The action of
a reciprocating
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A
cating fluid motor.
connecting piping or channels may be called a fluid power transmission.
A displacement-type fluid power transmission has one positive-dis
placement pump in which mechanical work is converted into liquid
DISCHARGE
DISCHARG
VALVE
VALVE
-RECIPROCATING
MOTION APPLIED
TO ROD
SUCTION
SUCTION
VALVE
-SUCTION
VALVE
LINE
7777m
Fig.
186.
Diagrammatic
in reverse,
differs
mechanical work. The displacement-type
power transmission
from the so-called hydrodynatnic transmission.
The fluid coupling is an
In the fluid coupling the
example of a hydrodynamic transmission.
kinetic energy of the liquid, rather than pressure alone, is used to transmit
power.
machines
PUMPS
141]
machine.
241
pump
is pulsating, whereas
Fig.
187.
is
is
Rotary pumps are suitable for certain classes of service under low
and medium head.
The absence of valves
an advantage in the han
dling of thick, viscous liquids. Rotary pumps are not well suited for the
handling of grit or abrasives because of the close clearances between gears
and case.
The action of the device shown in Fig. 187 can be reversed,
to result in
fluid "motor."
The vane pump, as illustrated in Fig. 188,
another type of positivedisplacement machine.
The rotating member, with its sliding vanes,
set off center in the casing.
The entering fluid
trapped between the
vanes (which ride on the inside of the case) and
carried to the outlet.
Different designs of lobe-type rotary pumps have been devised.
Figure 189 shows
two-lobe type.
The two lobes, mounted on parallel
shafts, rotate in opposite directions.
pair of timing gears, located at
one end of the shafts, maintains the proper relation between the lobes
is is
is
is
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is,
PUMPS
242
throughout rotation.
[Ch.16
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Fig.
188.
Vane pump.
PUMPS
142]
243
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DISCHARGE
INLET
Fig.
189.
The
closed, the pump would be stopped or something would burst.
discharge from a centrifugal pump is relatively smooth and steady.
Centrifugal pumps are available that can handle mashes, sewage, and
liquids containing sand, gravel, and rocks of moderate size.
Centrifugal pumps are sometimes designated as: (a) volute-type
Figure 190 shows a volute-type
pumps, or (b) diffuser-type pumps.
pump; the fluid is discharged directly from the impeller into the volute.
In the diffuser-type (Fig. 191) there is a diffuser, consisting of a series
The function of the
of fixed guide vanes, surrounding the impeller.
diffuser is to guide the fluid and reduce its velocity; there is a reduction
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244
PUMPS
Fig.
190.
[Ch. 16
VOLUTE
IMPELLER
DISCHARGE
PACKING IN
STUFFING BOX
INLET
ROTATING
sg~~
SHAFT
IMPELLER
VANE
PUMPS
142]
245
The
diffuser tends to make the static pressure distribution around the impeller
uniform.
Sometimes the diffuser-type pump is called a "turbine"
pump, probably because its construction is similar to that of turbines
having guide vanes. In commercial practice, however, the term "tur
bine" pump1 is also applied to a pump differing in construction from
the diffuser pump shown in Fig. 191.
Centrifugal pumps are built with many different arrangements of
impellers, and with many other variations in details of construction. In
V//A
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V///A
Si
Fig.
191.
Wi
ROTATING
-IMPELLER
STATIONARY
DIFFUSER
"TlfijA
Diffuser-type
centrifugal pump.
the so-called single-suction pump, fluid enters the impeller eye from only
one side of the impeller.
Figure 190 shows a single-suction pump.
In
the so-called double-suction pump, fluid enters from both sides of the
impeller. A pump may be staged with several impellers on one shaft,
being then essentially several pumps in series. In a two-stage pump,
for example, two impellers can be mounted on the same shaft in one
The discharge from the first impeller enters the inlet of the
casing.
second impeller.
The same weight of fluid per unit time flows through
each stage, but each stage increases the pressure.
Figure 192 shows a
section through a commercial double-suction single-stage pump, together
with a list of parts.
1 A discussion of
turbine pumps can be found in Pumps by Kristal and Annett.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940, page 116.
PUMPS
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246
[Ch. 16
33
36
34
Fig.
Courtesy of Worthington
A careful examination
in studying
is
with
various
The term head,
qualifications,
pump performance.
Head of the fluid flowing is expressed in length
used in pump practice.
units (such as feet) and equals energy per unit weight of fluid (such as
foot-pounds per pound of fluid). The vertical distance from the surface
of the supply source to the centerline of the pump shaft is called a static
In Fig. 193, the distance from the pump shaft center line A to
head.
the level in the suction tank is variously called negative static inlet head,
If the supply
negative static suction head, or simply static suction lift.
level is above the pump shaft center line, the static inlet head is positive.
The difference in total energy between the discharge and inlet openings
of the pump, which is the energy added to the stream, represents the
The term total head, or total dynamic head,
energy added by the pump.
of terms will eliminate confusion
PUMPS
143]
247
- 2LZJL'
+ Zs^Il' + fe - *).
w
2g
3^
STATIC
DISCHARGE
HEAD
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(245)
DISCHARGE
TANK
STATIC
SUCTION
LIFT
_t__
SUCTION
TANK
Fig.
I"
193.
Static heads.
ARBITRARY DATUM,
/////////////////////
T7
Fig.
194.
PUMPS
248
[Ch. 16
of centrifugal
pumps
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0123456789
CAPACITY,
10
As
efficiency rises to a peak value of 91.7 per cent and then drops.
illustrated in Fig. 196, a centrifugal pump may have a rising, flat, or
falling characteristic for the relation between total head and capacity,
depending upon the design. Figure 197 illustrates the general features
of the pump characteristics obtained with different constant-speed tests.
The normal capacity increases
PUMPS
145]
249
ful
in indicating relative
performance
trends.
Some of
in the following
paragraphs.
Fig.
196.
Types
of centrifugal-pump
char
TOTAL HEAD_>,r
Fig
CAPACITY
197.
Performance
characteristics
*~
of a centrifugal
speeds.
PUMPS
250
[Ch. 16
impeller.
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VrV^3-^
--""tt
Fig.
(a)
198.
(b)
t = 9e
{Vhri
_ Vtsj,
by a torque equals the product of torque and the angle (in radians)
Since 2wN equals the number of radians per
through which it works.
unit time, the work done by the vane passage per unit weight of fluid is
work per unit weight =
[Vtlri
Vt,r2].
(246)
Equation (246) shows that the work per unit weight is directly pro
portional to the product of two linear velocities: namely, a tangential
PUMPS
146]
component
of the absolute
the mechanical
251
For
is directly proportional to
(ND)2
(247)
The power added to the fluid by the pump is proportional to the product
of Q and
H.
Within
summarized
as N3.
sizes,
is a constant.
ttf^
ND3
(248)
as Db.
A dimensional
NQ
<gB)*'
PUMPS
252
[Ch. 16
w._*y^M,
(249)
where iV is the revolutions per minute of the pump shaft, G.P.M. is the
capacity in gallons per minute, and H is the total head per stage in feet.
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In practice, the total head and capacity values used are those at the
point of maximum efficiency for the pump shaft speed employed.
Specific speed is useful as an index of the type of pump; specific
speed provides a parameter which is useful in determining what com
binations of head, speed, and capacity are possible and desirable.
Impel
lers for high total heads usually have low specific speeds, whereas impellers
for low total heads usually have high specific speeds.
147. Propeller pumps
Pumps have been classified according to the general design of the
vanes or blades on the rotating member and the shape of the casing.
In the so-called radial-flow pump the fluid enters the impeller at the hub
and flows radially to the periphery.
Figure 190 is an example. The
by
is
principally
total head
the action of centrifugal force.
developed
A specific speed
double-suction
In the so-called mixed-flow pump the fluid enters the impeller axially,
and discharges in both an axial and radial direction, usually into a voluteThe total head is developed partly by centrifugal force
type casing.
and partly by the dynamic
Pumps of this
PUMPS
1471
253
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characteristics
Fig.
with a propeller
Characteristics
199.
pump.
100
a.
LU
Q.
>- 80
70
PROPELLER PUMPS
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
RADIAL FLOW
MIXED FLOW
60
1
2000
1
4000
i
6000
8000
10,000
12,000
1
14,000
16,000
N VG.P.M.
h3/
Figure
200
shows
a correlation between
PUMPS
254
[Ch. 16
a maximum,
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the factors
Minor
PUMPt
of these system flow losses and the static head y at various capacities
The point of intersection B
gives the service characteristic curve AC.
gives the head and capacity Qi at which the system will operate.
suction
There
PUMPS
148]
255
to pump a vapor with a pump designed for liquids may cause difficulties.
Practical limits of suction lifts for water at 60 Fahrenheit are frequently
15 feet
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PUMP CHARACTERISTIC
SERVICE
CHARACTERISTIC
CAPACITY Fig.
lift usually
202.
causes
serious reductions
point
of a
SELECTED REFERENCES
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1915.
Centrifugal Pumps by R. L. Daugherty.
Pumps by F. A. Kristal and F. A. Annett. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940.
Technology
Centrifugal Pumps, Turbines, and Propellers by W. Spannhake.
Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., 1934.
Standards of Hydraulic Institute.
Hydraulic Institute, New York, 1937.
The Design of Propeller Pumps and Fans by M. P. O'Brien and R. G. Folsom.
University of California Press, Berkeley, 1939.
Catalogs of pump manufacturers.
PROBLEMS
156.
minute.
A pump
PUMPS
256
[Ch. 16
of 8-inch diameter.
At inlet the vacuum is 6 inches of mercury.
The center
of the pressure gage connected to the pump discharge flange is 4 feet above the
This gage reads 20 pounds per square inch gage. For
discharge-flange center.
a pump efficiency of 82 per cent, what is the power output of the motor?
A water pump
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minute.
159. A test on a centrifugal pump operating at 1150 revolutions per minute
showed a total head of 40.0 feet at a capacity of 600 gallons per minute. The
impeller diameter is 10.5 inches. Estimate the total head and capacity of a
similar pump at 1150 revolutions per minute with an impeller
geometrically
diameter of 10.0 inches.
160. A centrifugal pump operating at 1800 revolutions per minute develops
a total head of 200 feet at a capacity of 2500 gallons per minute.
What is its
specific speed?
161. Prove that the specific speed for the same impeller does not change with
the impeller speed.
(Hint: Express the head and capacity at one speed in terms
of the head and capacity at another speed.)
2400 gallons
163. For a certain system it is required to select a pump that will deliver
2400 gallons per minute at a total head of 20 feet, and at a pump shaft speed
of 2600 revolutions per minute. What type of pump would you suggest?
164. It is desired to pump 1000 gallons of gasoline (specific gravity = 0.85)
The level in the
per hour from the bottom of one tank to the top of another.
inlet tank is 4 feet above the pump center line, and the level in the discharge
tank is 96 feet above the pump center line. The inlet-pipe diameter equals the
The dynamic viscosity of the gasoline is
discharge-pipe diameter of 2 inches.
0.80 centipoises.
The total length of clean steel pipe is 125 feet. If the pump
efficiency is 80 per cent, what power output of the motor is required?
165. In a pumping system handling water (at 59 Fahrenheit) the level in
the suction tank is 10 feet below the pump-shaft center line, and the level in the
The inlet piping is
discharge tank is 70 feet above the pump-shaft center line.
3 inches in diameter and together with its valves and fittings is equivalent to
84 feet of straight, clean steel pipe.
The discharge line, 2j inches in diameter,
with its valves and fittings is equivalent to 235 feet of straight, clean steel pipe.
If the motor delivers 9.5 horsepower to the pump shaft, what is the pump effi
ciency for a flow of 200 gallons per minute?
166. Consider that the following quantities are involved in the performance
of a centrifugal pump: capacity Q, shaft speed N, impeller diameter D, fluid
density p, dynamic viscosity fi, and the quantity E = gH, where H is total head.
E is energy per unit mass. By dimensional analysis, determine the form of the
physical equation involving these variables.
CHAPTER
17
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VZZi
NOZZLE
Y7//////7////7/// ////////////
Fig.
203.v
Impulse turbine.
pumps and one common class of turbines (reaction) have many features
in common.
The efficiency of each type of machine depends on the
In principle it
page 683.
257
258
[Ch.17
^)
-JET
types.
~^^m
is,
^^k
of the stream.
is
is
is
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operation.
1521
259
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^M
a,.^-,W,
51
JE3v<
u2
Fig.
206.
Reaction turbines
it completely
the periphery.
In the reaction turbine only a
moderate amount of the available fluid energy is transformed into kinetic
energy before entrance to the runner, so that the fluid enters the runner
around
with an excess pressure. The fluid completely fills the vane passages.
Although the path of the fluid through the runner is tortuous, the essen
tial features of the diagram in Fig. 206 apply. The relative velocity
of the fluid is increased as it flows in the narrowing passages between the
blades.
Under favorable circumstances the absolute velocity after
passing through the runner is nearly at right angles to the plane of rota
tion, and is very small.
Impulse turbines of modern design usually have horizontal shafts.
Reaction turbines can be of either the vertical- or horizontal-shaft type.
Probably because of economical reasons, the vertical unit seems to be
more common in recent installations.
1
In
propeller
(Pelton) ; (b) radial and mixed flow (Francis or American) ; and (c) axial
flow (Kaplan).
The Pelton wheel is called a tangential wheel because
260
[Ch. 17
buckets.
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ADJUSTABLE
GUIDE VANE
DRAFT TUBE
BEGINS HERE
Fig.
207.
Radial-flow
turbine (Francis).
ADJUSTABLE
GUIDE VANE
DRAFT TUBE
BEGINS HERE'
Fig.
208.
Combined radial-axial-flow
turbine.
times called the American type, although the name Francis is frequently
extended to designate all inward-flow types of turbines.The Francis
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152]
Fig.
/Z
Z>
209.
261
Works
ADJUSTABLE
GUIDE VANE
$
TURBINE
RUNNER
DRAFT TUBE
Fig.
210.
Axial-flow
turbine.
BLADE
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262
[Ch.17
Turbines of the type shown in Fig. 210 are variously called axial-flow
or propeller type. The arrangement of guide vanes is similar to that of
the Francis turbine. The guide vanes give a spiral inward motion to
the fluid.
The fluid then passes axially through the runner, which may
If there is not much variation in available
have four to six blades.
load
is
fairly constant, the fixed-blade propeller type of
head and if the
High efficiency can be maintained
turbine runner is most economical.
a
minimum
number
mechanical
In some installations,
parts.
with
of
The Kaplan
however, the available head or the load may be variable.
adjustable-blade
propeller type of runner has been employed for such
In this runner the pitch of each blade can be controlled to
services.
meet different conditions.
The variable-pitch Kaplan runner is anal
ogous, in some respects, to the variable-pitch propeller used on airplanes.
In many installations the amount of fluid entering the runner must
be regulated, in order to adapt the turbine to suit the load at any time.
This regulation is usually done automatically in such a way that the
rotational speed of the turbine is kept constant.
In the Pelton wheel,
speed regulation is sometimes obtained by means of a regulating needle
or spear in the jet.
rotated
so
154]
263
s =
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where
no*
turbine shaft, h is the total available head, and N is the runner speed, in
revolutions per minute, at which the maximum efficiency under a given
head is attained.
Specific speed is a characteristic index number; it
Considering average
serves to classify a turbine and to indicate its type.
for
from
0
to
for
reaction turbines
wheels
4.5,
values,
impulse
Ns ranges
Ns varies from 10 to 100, whereas for propeller turbines Ns varies from
80 to 200.
1
The turbine is but one part of a system. A turbine, with oil as the
working fluid, is part of a fluid coupling, and a fluid torque converter.
Steam and water turbines are used in power-generating
plants.
The
choice as to whether a thermal or a water-power plant should be used
Thermal and water
depends upon a careful evaluation of many factors.
plants are combined in some power systems. The present discussion
is not intended to cover all the economic and social aspects involved in
power generation, but only to illustrate very briefly some of the technical
features of water-power plants.
A hydroelectric power plant consists mainly of means for delivering
available water under pressure to a site, machinery and equipment to
produce the power, the necessary turbine setting or foundation, and a
building. A storage reservoir may be used in order to hold enough
water to operate the plant for some length of time.
In some plants
there is no such reservoir.
264
[Ch.17
The channel conducting the water away is called the tail race.
As indicated in Fig. 211, draft tubes are used in connection with
If a draft tube is employed, the entire available head
reaction turbines.
can be used, and the turbine can still be set high enough above the tailwater level to allow inspection and maintenance without draining the
tail bay. Practically, the draft head should not be greater than 12 to
15 feet, to prevent the water column from breaking.
Descriptions and
water.
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HEAD WATER
PENSTOCK
GENERATOR
I
//
-TAIL WATER
/////////////////
Fig.
211.
Diagrammatic
155. Cavitation
If
155]
265
of rocks
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These two effects, of efficiency drop and pitting, have been discovered
in the operation of water pumps, water turbines, marine propellers (on
Fig.
212.
Characteristics
or a void.
called cavitation.
If, at some point in the liquid flow, the existing fluid pressure
equals the vapor pressure at the particular temperature, then the liquid
will vaporize a cavity or void will form.
If the fluid pressure fluc
tuates slightly (which fluctuation is common) above and below the vapor
pressure, there will be an alternate formation and collapse of the vapor
bubbles.
It
is responsible
metal parts.
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Fig.
213.
Hydraulic
155]
267
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eating holes through metal vanes, and dangerously weakening the struc
ture.
Figure 213 shows the results of cavitation on some hydraulic
turbine runners; such evidence explains why some engineers are very
much concerned about cavitation.
It is to be noted that two phases of a substance, liquid and vapor, are
involved in the cavitation process. This double character makes the
Furthermore, in actual
phenomenon difficult to analyze completely.
applications water has a small percentage of absorbed and dissolved air,
These gases help the bubble formation.
Solid
oxygen, and nitrogen.
matters may act as catalyzers in the formation of bubbles.
There is
evidence to show that cavitation effects are purely mechanical.
Some
chemical action, however, may be present to supplement cavitation and
to accelerate pitting.
Much theoretical and experimental work has been done on cavitation.
The mechanism of cavitation has not been definitely or completely
Various
established yet on a quantitative basis for all fluid machines.
parameters, like specific speed and dimensionless ratios including the
vapor pressure or head, have been used to advantage in correlating
It is difficult to calculate exactly
experimental data on cavitation limits.
the pressure in some of the complicated flows involved, as at a certain
It is frequently neces
point on a pump impeller or a marine propeller.
sary to investigate experimentally the performance of a machine, or its
model, to determine upper limits below which cavitation effects do not
occur.
Sometimes special tests and laboratory arrangements are neces
sary, as for major water-pump and water-turbine installations.
In some cases, as for the diverging channel in a venturi tube, it may
A com
not be difficult to calculate the liquid pressure at various points.
parison between the liquid pressure and the vapor pressure at the par
ticular temperature should give some indication as to the possibility of
Values of vapor pressure for water at different
cavitation occurring.
The variation of specific weight
temperatures are given in Fig. 214.
for water with temperature is given in Fig. 2.
For centrifugal pumps, particular care should be taken to have a high
In general, as the pump inlet
enough inlet pressure to avoid cavitation.
pressure is reduced, the capacity at which cavitation occurs is reduced,
as indicated in Fig. 212.
It may be a greater calamity for a user to
268
[Ch. 17
These
effect found in air or gases.
The shock-wave effect involves only one
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20
40
120
80
140
160
60
100
180
TEMPERATURE, DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
200
220
Fig. 214. Vapor pressure plotted against temperature for water. (Data adapted
from Thermodynamic Properties of Steam by J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes.
Wiley,
New York, 1936.)
the fluid moves more slowly or faster
propagation.
156]
269
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current.
270
[Ch.17
Fig.
216.
Corporation
it,
is
different from
It to be emphasized that fluid torque converter
As indicated in Fig. 217, the fluid (usually oil) dis
fluid coupling.
series
charged from the pump flows through the turbine runner and
a
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157]
271
TURBINE
RUNNER
FIXED
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GUIDE
WHEEL
PUMP
IMPELLER
\\
Fig.
500
z
UJ
\s
400
cc
UJ
Q.
300
oor
o
a.
IO
217.
100
EFFICIE
80
UJ
O
60
\& V
/
/
/
/
100
:ncy
-""""
200
Torque converter.
ac
UJ
>-'
40
g
20
/
0
Fig.
200
218.
400
600
800
OUTPUT SPEED, RPM
Characteristics
1000
1200
of a torque converter.
The converter provides for smooth starting of the load, and absorbs
torsional vibrations and shocks.
In some converters the starting output torque is about five times the
In general, the efficiency of a torque converter is high at
input torque.
low speeds.
Converters have been built with peak efficiencies around
272
[Ch. 17
of heavy loads.
If the
output shaft of the converter is stalled during operation, owing to extreme
loads, the driver will not stall, but will continue running. In some units
the speed of the driver is practically constant regardless of the speed of
the driven unit.
is an advantage for the starting and acceleration
REFERENCES
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PROBLEMS
167. In an industrial process, water is available at 500 pounds per square inch.
is proposed to use this water to operate a turbine at 1750 revolutions per
What type of
minute against a back pressure of 30 pounds per square inch.
turbine would you suggest if it is estimated that a power output of 250 horsepower
could be obtained?
It
168. By what combination of g and specific weight w could the specific speed
of a turbine be multiplied in order to give a dimensionless ratio?
It is proposed to
169. A supply of water is available at a head of 48 feet.
build a turbine to operate at 75 revolutions per minute to develop 42,000 horse
What type of turbine would you suggest?
power.
A venturi
diameter
At
104
Fahrenheit?
marine
Fahrenheit?
CHAPTER
18
- PISTON -
circuits.
Fi
Fi
A,
F2
A2'
is,
force at piston 2
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transmission
273
274
FLUID POWER
[Ch. 18
or motor-driven pump
is necessary.
Hand pumps
are
ACTUATING
PISTON
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A,
iPUMP
FLUID
WING
FLAP
Fig.
220.
Systems,
159]
FLUID POWER
be a certain
275
volumetric rate of
This rate
of the liquid practically independent of the load.
of pump discharge determines the speed of piston B. The rate at which
the piston moves will never exceed the rate corresponding to the pump
discharge
discharge.
, PISTON
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-FLUID
RESERVOIR
Fig.
221.
For example,
depends upon the load or the resistance to be overcome.
the load in a grinding machine may be low, whereas the resistance in a
boring mill may be high. The speed of piston B can be changed by
varying the pump discharge.
The type of fluid transmission
Fig. 221 gives a sensitive and easy control of the driven unit.
CONSTANT
DELIVERY PUMP
/
a
VALVE
T
A
PISTON
shown in
CH
-FLUID
RESERVOIR
Fig.
222.
a by-pass.
FLUID POWER
276
[Ch. 18
If
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i~i
Fig.
Circuit with
223.
TRANSMITTING
I
^
Pi
MAIN
ACTUATING
PISTON >
I
PISTON^
FH
I
I
3 F,
PUMP
Fig.
224.
Multiple-piston
system.
161]
FLUID POWER
277
displacement
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placement pump.
h- WEIGHT
RAM
/, -CYLINDER
TO DRIVEN
UNIT*"
Fig.
225.
Liquid accumulator.
into which the pump, which is supplying fluid power to a unit, delivers
fluid while the unit is not Working at full capacity.
Such an air chamber
or cushion is commonly found on liquid reciprocating pumps.
Figure 225 illustrates a liquid accumulator.
Liquid is admitted to
the cylinder; the weight (or spring) is so adjusted that the ram rises when
FLUID POWER
278
[Ch. 18
SPHERE
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ELASTIC
DIAPHRAGM
LIQUID CONNECTION
TO SYSTEM
Fig.
226.
and unit, the rate at which the pump can supply energy must equal the
rate at which the unit is to work (together with the rate at which friction
energy is lost) ; the pump must be of such a capacity as to supply energy
at the greatest rate required by the driven unit. With an accumulator,
however, the pump can be kept working steadily during the time when
77ZZZL
ZZZZZZ2. Z7I
kl
////// /////A
A
zzzzz 7ZZZA
Fig.
227.
Intensifier.
the demand is less than the pump supply, and the excess energy stored
The accumulator also works as a pressure regulator ;
it serves to damp out pressure surges and shocks in the system.
in the accumulator.
Figure
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279
280
FLUID POWER
[Ch.18
When energy from the accumulator is required, the air pushes the
and the liquid moves into the system.
Frequently an intensifier, as indicated in Fig. 227, is included in a
system, to increase the fluid pressure above that available from a pump.
The inlet pressure pi acting over the area Ai develops a force which is
transmitted to the second piston.
If the area A2 is less than A\, the
pressure p2 is greater than p.
diaphragm,
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162. Characteristics
of fluid systems
CHAPTER
19
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of modern
streamlined
282
[Ch. 19
KINEMATICS
163. Methods of describing motion
Two methods of representing fluid motion have been devised. The
so-called Lagrangian method (after Lagrange) refers to a description of
A description of the paths
the behavior of individual fluid particles.
of individual fluid particles would be an example of the Lagrangian
Similar descriptions could be given for velocities, accelerations,
The so-called Eulerian method (after Euler)
and other characteristics.
refers to a description of the velocity, pressure, and other characteristics
at certain points or a section in the fluid.
The Eulerian method is the
Fig.
229.
w =
fi(x, y,
h(x, y,
Mx,
y,
z,
z, z,
u =
given.
(251)
z,
The first relation in Equation (251) can be stated in words as the velocity
and the
some function of the space coordinates x, y,
component u
is
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method.
164]
283
t.
Equation (251) is a general statement of the velocity relation.
the flow is steady, then the velocity at a point is not a function of
time, and the foregoing relations become
time
If
Mx, y, z),
= fa(x, y, z),
w = Mx, y, z).
=
be
(252)
pressure,
and
i
w
*-u
Fig.
230.
Coordinate system.
velocity V
V=f(s,
t).
that
t,
is,
is a function
(253)
ds
The velocity changes from point to point in space in one instant of time,
and the velocity also changes from moment to moment of time at any
Thus
one point in space.
dV
~dt.
(254)
dt
is
It
to be recalled that the partial differential quotient
taken with
For
respect to one variable only, keeping all other variables constant.
the derivative of
with respect to only, with time
example, dV /ds
constant.
the time rate of change of velocity.
Thus the total
Acceleration
acceleration dV -/dt
is
is
is
is
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284
[Ch. 19
The term dV/dt is frequently called the local acceleration, and the term
The local acceleration represents
V(dV/ds) the convective acceleration.
in
the local velocity with time at a fixed point. If the flow
the change
is steady, then dV/dt equals zero.
Velocity and acceleration are vector
magnitude
with components
du
du
dt
dx
dv
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Differentiation of Equation
components of the resultant or total
of the resultant
corresponding
dt
dw
Tt
and a direction.
dv
vector.
du
,
u +v
dx
dy
dw
du
Tt'
dz
dv ,
dv ,
+ w-- +
dx
du
dy
dy
dw
dv
It'
dz
dw
w +
dz
dw
dt'
(256)
^
dt
165. Continuity
= 0'
dw
dt
'
^u+fjidx
Fig.
231.
Infinitesimal
Figure
fluid in three dimensions will now be derived.
the
sides
fluid;
of
body
in
a
shows an infinitesimal parallelepiped
incompressible
231
Consider
166]
285
unit time in the x-direction. The volume of fluid entering the left face
The velocity at the right face is u + (du/dx) dx.
per unit time is u dy dz.
Thus the volume of fluid leaving the right face per unit time is
Then the excess volume of fluid flowing out
[u + (du/dx) dx] dy dz.
per unit time is
dx dy
dx
dz.
Similarly, expressions for the excess volume per unit time can be written
for the y- and z-directions, to give
dz dx dy.
dz
The flow of fluid across the closed boundary surface from without inward
must equal that from within outward.
If inflow is taken as positive
and outflow as negative, then the total volume rate of flow across the
closed boundary must be zero. Thus the equation of continuity in three
dy
dJL
p
+
dx
dimensions becomes
dz
= 0.
(257)
DYNAMICS
is,
is
geometry
zero).
is
body of fluid;
Figure 232 shows an infinitesimal parallelepiped in
Consider first the forces acting
the sides have the lengths dx, dy, and dz.
p;
on this element in the x-direction. The pressure on the left face
('
is
p
is
is
p
*) dy
dz.
The net pressure force acting on the element in the positive direction
of
x
is
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dy
ta dz dx,
dy
286
dx
[Ch. 19
dx dy dz.
Assume that some force other than pressure is acting on the fluid;
such a force might be a gravity force. The attraction of the earth is
A body force is proportional to
an example of a so-called body force.
the volume or mass, whereas a surface force, such as pressure, is pro
portional to the area. Let P, Q, and R represent the x-, y-, and z-com-
("-2)
dx dy dz =
the dynamical
dx dy dz
relation for
ij^>
("-2)
Equations
the ar-component of the total acceleration.
where du/dt
The
for the y- and z-directions can be obtained in a similar fashion.
thus
final set of dynamical equations for the three directions
is
is
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167]
dp
du
dp
dv
287
Pp~te=p-dt'
TWO-DIMENSIONAL
MOTION
It
fluid can be determined from the pressure distribution around the body.
Chapter 3 outlined briefly how the velocity distribution or streamline
pattern can be obtained graphically by combining or superimposing
simple types of flow.
The following articles will discuss a method for
The general method of
the velocity field analytically.
determining
approach employed in this fluid flow problem is also used in other branches
of applied physics, as in rigid-body mechanics, elasticity, electricity,
and magnetism.
<2
independent
of the order
(*+)
dy\dx
(*)
dx\dy
is,
is
is
is
<t>
_*!t
dxdy
i!l.
(26i)
dydx
S-B-
is
<t>.
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<262>
<t>
[Ch. 19
168.
It
is
288
(a)
Fig.
233.
(b)
a a
of the parallel sides. The dotted lines in Fig. 233b represent a condition
after linear deformation has taken place. Figure 234b indicates a
rotation of the element from the position initially shown in Fig. 234a.
The dotted diagonal lines in Fig. 234 have turned through an angle.
Fig. 235b indicates the position of an element after an angular or
shearing deformation has taken place; the element was initially in the
position shown in Fig. 235a.
During
time interval dt the infinitesimal
element line initially along the rc-axis has experienced an angular change
a
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each infinitesimal particle in the field of flow rotates about its own axis.
equal to
dv
169]
289
/ dv _ du\
\dx
by)
(6)
Angular or shearing deformation of a fluid element.
If
dv/dx = du/dy, then the rotation is zero. The sides of the element
may undergo an angular deformation, but the diagonals of the infini
tesimal element have not rotated, and the motion is classed as irrotational.
169.
Velocity potential
v=20
. <?>=10x+20y
u=10*
X
is
a
It
236.
<j>
Fig.
function of x and
is
few
y. The feet and second units will be employed in presenting
If the velocity potential for certain flow </>i = lOx, then
examples.
a
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290
[Ch.19
10
be superimposed
70.
tt
closed streamline,
by a solid
/ A
can be replaced
then,
flows.
= VR sin
6.
0,
u = VB cos
is
-&*-*'0
2x \x2
dx
0)-
Q(
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is
<t>
flows
dy
(263)
(264)
170]
Integration of Equations
*.
- 3J log
{x2
** =
291
that
y2),
(265)
Since ft2 =
x2
y2,
log fl-
(266)
is
log
The distance
ds
Thus
log (ft
*D =
ft
infinitesimal.
source and sink potential functions.
(same Q)
is
placed at B.
The potential function at any point
is
Notation
is
238.
Fig.
dR),
,fi=_|log[1+f].
(267)
fdR~\ ~
2*
*B ~
Qds cos
2rrft
If infinitesimals
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Figure 238 shows the notation which will be used in deriving the
so-called doublet.
source
potential function for
placed at A, and
(269)
292
[Ch. 19
Fx
cos 6
x2
y2
(270)
circular cylinder
Vq
-<
_ _
0I
Fig.
239.
Vox
Fx
x2
y2
<t>
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(271)
172]
293
'(x2 + y2)F
30
&
dx
xF{2x)~
yr
(272)
Let a represent the radius of the circular cylinder. The value of F can
be determined by using the condition that u = 0 at the point x = a,
y = 0. Making this substitution shows that
240.
= a2VQ.
F in Equation
Since u =
d<t>/dx
and
<t>
-V0x
d<j>/dy,
(272) gives
xV0a2
x2
y2
Fig.
(273)
of the resultant velocity at any point in the field of flow can be found by
employing Equation (273). The simple algebraic expression of Equation
cylinder
is
cylinder
it
V. = Vu.2 + v2,
6.
is a
is
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At the
of the
(274)
294
[Ch. 19
where us and v, are the x- and y-components of the velocity at the cylinder
surface; these components can be calculated by means of Equation (273).
The final result is simply
Vs = 2Fo sin
6.
(275)
'
/Y
a
Fig.
241.
.%
Po
of the cylinder.
Applying the energy equation between a point in the
undisturbed stream and the point A gives
p + -g = po +
V, = 2V0 sin
Equation
6,
p = po
^y'-
(276)
(276) becomes
[1
4 sin*
0].
Since
(277)
cylinder with
Thus the pressure at any point on the surface of the cylinder can
calculated by Equation (277).
be
free vortex
The flow around the cylinder discussed in the two foregoing articles
As illus
combination of
doublet and a uniform rectilinear flow.
is
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173]
295
trated in Fig. 240, such a flow is symmetrical with respect to the line of
undisturbed motion (the x-axis).
For one thing, there is no lift on a
A dynamic lift can be developed if the stream
cylinder in such a flow.
line pattern is nonsymmetrical with respect to the line of undisturbed
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velocity
An example of
a nonsymmetrical
Fig.
vortex alone.
the relation
242.
due to a counterclockwise
free
+ IpFo2
(278)
v + tpVT2
or
p = Po +
lpFo2-|[2FoSine + X].2
(279)
The static pressure p at any point on the surface of the cylinder can
calculated by Equation (279).
be
296
[Ch. 19
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The next step is to calculate the net lift force at right angles to the
This lift force can be determined by integrating
undisturbed motion.
the pressure forces over the cylinder in the y-direction. The static
pressure p acts normal to the surface of the cylinder.
Let dd be the
in
the angle 6; the notation is illustrated in Fig. 242.
differential change
Assume a distance equal to unity perpendicular to the plane of flow.
The pressure force on the element of area a dd is pa dd. The component
of this force at right angles to F0 is pa dd sin 0. The lift on the ele
mentary area is padd sin 0; the minus sign indicates the direction of
The total lift L on the cylinder is
the force.
- J0
pa sin
dd.
(280)
= pTV0.
(281)
The lift force per unit length of cylinder equals the product of density,
circulation, and the undisturbed velocity. Equation (281) is the KuttaJoukowsky relation which was discussed in Article 93.
REFERENCES
Cambridge University Press, Sixth Edition, 1932.
Hydrodynamics by H. Lamb.
Fundamentals of Hydro- and Aeromechanics by L. Prandtl and 0. G. Tietjens.
McGraw-Hill,
New York,
1934.
Fluid
D.
C,
No.
84, 1932.
Treatise on Hydromechanics
II,
PROBLEMS
172. Starting with Equation (274), derive Equation (275).
173.
For
ratio
T_
- against 0.
hpv<?
ANSWERS
1. w = 56.1 lb. per cu.
= 26.25 slugs per cu. ft.
ft.,
TO PROBLEMS
ft., w
ft.,
2. p = 0.7771 slugs per cu. ft., w = 24.97 lb. per cu. ft.
3. w = 0.825 lb. per cu. ft., p = 0.0256 slugs per cu. ft.
4. w = 0.321 lb. per cu. ft., v = 3.12 cu. ft. per lb., p = 0.00998 slugs per
ft.
5. 96.1
ft. per C.
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6.
8. 25.9 tons.
12.
13.
14.14 in.
9. 57.7
10.
11.
132.3
14.
15.
ft.
pressure.
18.
19.
20.
21.
4915 lb.
22. 40.7
lb.
lb., 0.346 ft. below center of disk in the plane of the disk.
23. 34,500
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
34.
35.
5820 lb.
716 lb.
0.449 cu. ft., 3.215.
11,7001b.
3.21 ft., 369 tons.
0.0833.
67.0 tons, 1,850,000 cu. ft.
6.41 tons.
1,027 feet.
(a) 8.34 lb. per sq. in., (b) 9.53 lb. per sq. in., and (c) 9.26 lb. per sq. in.
36.
Up.
37.
38.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
27.8 radians
297
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
298
49.
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56.
c =
constant
ft. per
lb^
v p/p.
61.
7.85
62.
20 atmospheres.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
sec.
0.956 hp.
1.39 lb. per sq. in.
71. 0.572 lb. per sq. in.
72. 30.4 hp.
69.
70.
73.
7740.
74.
6 in.
75.
76.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
18.61b.
25.2 lb., 327 ft.-lb. per sec.
86. 24.3 lb.
87. 650 lb.
84.
85.
88.
11,250
89.
820
91.
0.709.
0.015 ft. per sec.
37.6 X 10-4 slug per ft.-sec.
Up, up, down.
0.6421b.
92.
93.
94.
95.
1b.
ft. per
sec.
10~e
ft.2
per
eec.,
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
4.81 lb.
4.92 lb., 4010 lb.
13.08 hp., 1.63 hp.
76,3001b.
89 hp.
145.3 hp.
11601b.
24161b.
0.842.
39401b.
T = 2nr2o>.
108.
202
109.
0, 33.3 hp.
1b.
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110.
111.
115.
116.
1.12 sec.
17.97 lb. per sq. in. absolute, 17.78 lb. per sq. in. absolute.
Nm = 0.402; at B, Nm = 1.07.
117.
At A,
118.
119.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
6 = 2d.
134.
3.78 ft.
135.
Tranquil.
876 cu. ft. per sec.
No.
54,000 ft.-lb. per sec.
136.
140.
141.
150.
151.
1481.
142.
143.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
155.
156.
0.77, 3790.
37.1 hp.
P/a2
ANSWERS
300
157.
1.34 cents.
158.
159.
160.
162.
163.
164.
165.
169.
Impulse type.
w-Vg-X.
Propeller type.
170.
171.
167.
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168.
174.
TO PROBLEMS
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Ind ex
Absolute pressure, 2
Absolute temperature, 4
Absolute viscosity, 60
Acceleration, 116, 283
convective, 284
local, 284
. total, 283
Accumulator, 277
Acoustic velocity, 161
Adiabatic atmosphere, 23
Adiabatic flow through stream tubes, 167
Adiabatic process, 5
Advance-diameter ratio of propeller, 154
Aeolian harp, 141
Air, standard, 21
viscosity of, 54
Airfoil,
150
Ault, E.
Binder, R. C, 91
Bingham, E. C. 56
Blade-element theory of propellers,
Blade screws, 153
Bodies of revolution, drag of, 133
Body, equilibrium of immersed, 19
Body force, 286
Borda mouthpiece, 122
Boundary layer, 130, 138, 153
Bourdon gage, 13
Bridgman, P. W., 67
Buckingham, E., 60, 67
Buckingham's w theorem, 59
Bulk modulus, 160
Bullets, drag of, 181
photographs of, 171
Buoyancy, 18
154
center of, 18
S., 237
Avogadro's principle, 4
Bakhmeteff, B. A., 67, 79, 87, 216
Barograph, 12
Barometer, 12
aneroid, 12
mercurial, 12
Barometric height relation, 20
Barometric pressure, 10
Barr, G., 114
Bateman, H., 296
Bean, H. S., 184
Bearing, cylindrical, 220
<
Kingsbury, 225
slipper, 218, 233
Bearing clearance, effect of, 224
Bends, secondary flows in, 84
Bernoulli's equation, 44
Berry, C. H., 47
301
INDEX
302
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187
Compounding streamlines, 37
Compressibility of fluids, 160
Compressible flow, dynamics of, 160
Conditions along the length of an insu
lated pipe, 193
Continuity equation, 33
in three dimensions, 284
Continuous media, 1
Contraction, sudden, 82
Contraction coefficient, 97
for Borda mouthpiece, 122
Convective acceleration, 284
Convective stability of fluids, 23
Converging channel, flow in, 152
Converging tube, flow through, 172
Conversions, between units of American
and metric systems, 51
Couette viscometer, 111
Coupling, fluid, 268
Crane Co., 83
Critical depth, 206
Critical flow prover, 175
Critical pressure, 174
Critical Reynolds' number, 71
Critical velocity, 208
Current meter, 104, 204
Curved path, flow in, 84
Curve of baseball, 143
Cylinder, drag of, 135
flow around, 131, 292
flow around, with free vortex, 294
pressure distribution around, 293
Cylindrical bearing, 220
D'Alembert, 32
D'Alembert s principle, 25, 64
Daugherty, R. L., 56, 127, 255
Deformation, linear, 288
Deformation resistance, 130
DeLaval nozzle, 175
Density, 2
of lubrication oils, 229
Diederichs, H., 114
Dimensional analysis, 57
illustrations of, 61
Dimensional symbols, 58
Dimensions, 50, 57
of physical quantities, 59
primary, 58
secondary, 58
Direct computation of pipe flow, 80
determination
Direct
of flow meter
coefficients,
100
Discharge coefficient, 98
for venturi meters, 94
Discharge of pump, 248
Disk, drag of, 133
Diverging channel, flow in, 152
Doherty, R. E., 67
Dorsey, N. E., 52
Double-suction pump, 245
Doublet, 28
velocity potential for, 290
Downwash, 158
Draft tube of turbine, 264
Drag 129
at nigh velocities, 181
induced, 158
of airfoil, 135
of bodies of revolution, 133
of cylinder, 135
of disk, 133
of flat plate, 135, 138
of ships, 139
of sphere, 133
of streamlined sections, 135
pressure,
131
A. S., 115
205
thermal, 40, 42
Energy equation, for compressible flow,
164
40
INDEX
Equilibrium, stable,
18
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turbulent, 69
unsteady, 32, 283
Flow coefficient, 96
direct determination of, 100
for orifices, 99
Flow nozzles, 95
Flow of incompressible fluids in pipes, 69
Flow of compressible fluids in pipes, 184
adiabatic, 189
Flows, mechanically similar, 63
Flow-work, 41
Fluid, 1
Fluid, static, nature of,
Fluidity, 50
Fluid meters,
89
Fluid
press, 273
303
Froude's number, 66
Fundamental units, 58
Gage, Bourdon, pressure,
Gage pressure, 2
13
Gas, 1
Gas constant, 4
Gases, dynamic viscosity of, 53
equation of state for, 4
General energy equation, 42
Geometrical similarity, 64
Glauert, H., 158
Goodenough, G. A., 197
Gradient, pressure, 153
temperature, 23
velocity, 50
Gravity
forces,
66
Hagen, G., 75
Hagen-Poiseuille law, 75
Hatschek, E., 56
Hawkins, G. A., 53
Head, pressure, 9
pump, 246
static, pump, 246
total, pump, 247
Head loss, pipe flow, 72
Heat, 40, 41
Heath, T. L., 7
Height relation, adiabatic, 23
barometric, 20
isothermal. 20
Hersey, M. D., 224, 237
Hollander, A., 253
Homogeneous equations, 59
Humphreys, W. J., 27
Hunsaker, J. C., 67, 272
Hunt, F. R. W., 182
Hydraulic jump, 211
Hydraulic mean depth, 200
Hydraulic radius, 84, 200
INDEX
304
Limiting
Hydrodynamics, 281
Hydrometer, 20
pipes,
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shower,
pipes,
24
Jakob, M., 53
Jameson, A. H., 38
Jet flow, 97
Johnson, S. P., 80
210, 215
Lift,
Lift
144, 296
relation
111
11
Mass, unit( 2
Mathematical study of fluid motion, 281
Mead, D. W., 272
Mechanism of film lubrication, 218
Metacenter, 19
Meters, compressible flow through fluid,
178
current, 104
fluid, 89
nutating-disk, 107
orifice, 98
pipe-elbow, 108
rotary, 106
venturi, 93
volumetric, 106
wobble-plate, 107
Methods of describing motion, 282
Millibar, 22
Millikan, C. B., 158
Minor losses in pipe lines,
129
on cylinder, 296
Lift and circulation,
192
Intensifier, 277
Internal energy, 40, 41, 163
Internal friction, 49
Irrotational motion, 125, 288
Isothermal atmosphere, 20
Isothermal flow in pipes, 184
Isothermal layer, 20
Kaplan turbine,
Karman, T. v.,
Impact pressure, 45
Impeller of pump, 242
Imperfect lubrication, 223
Impulse, 115
Impulse turbine, 258
Incompressible flow in pipes, 69
Induced drag, 158
Inertia force, 25, 65
Instability
pressures
192
between,
82
Model, 63
Modulus of elasticity of fluid, 160
Moment of momentum, 121
Momentum, angular, defined, 121
linear, defined, 115
moment of, 121
Momentum relations, 115
Moody, L. F., 272
Morgan, F., 232, 237
Moss, S. A., 47
Motion, methods of describing, 282
INDEX
Motion, two-dimensional,
287
Newton, I., 49
Nikuradse, J., 87
Nonflow equation, 43
Nonflow process, 163
Nonuniform flow in open channels, 200,
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208
Pitot
tubes,
89
combined, 90
305
91
simple, 89
Plants, power, 263
Plastic substance, 54
Poise, 51
Poiseuille, L. J. M., 51, 75
Poly tropic atmosphere, 21
Potential functions, 37, 287
Potential, velocity, 287, 289
for doublet, 290
for flow around cylinder, 293
for rectilinear flow, 292
for sink, 290
for source, 290
Potter, A. A., 53
Pound, 2
Power, 40, 119
Power developed by a series of vanes, 119
Power plants, water, 263
Prandtl, L., 6, 27, 78, 87, 127, 135, 141,
182, 296
Press, fluid 273
Pressure, absolute, 2
atmospheric, 2, 10
critical, 174
definition of, 2
dynamic, 91
gage, 2
impact, 45
in static fluid, 7
stagnation, 45, 165
static, 89
total, 90
vapor, of water, 268
Pressure distribution, 45
around cylinder, 293
Pressure drag, 130
Pressure drop in pipes, 73
Pressure gage, Bourdon, 13
Pressure grade line, 72
Pressure gradient, 153
in curved flow, 85
Pressure head, 9
Pressure-height relations, 9
for compressible fluids, 20
for incompressible fluids, 9
Pressure propagation, velocity of, 161
Pressure units, millibar, 22
Primary units, 58
Process, adiabatic, 5
isothermal, 5
Profile radius, 84
Projectiles, drag of, 181
Propeller, 153
energy analysis of, 155
momentum analysis of, 155
Propeller pumps, 252
Propeller slipstream, 155
Propeller thrust, 154
Propulsion, 143
Prototype, 63
Pump efficiency, 247
Pumping system, operating point of, 254
Pump relations, 249
Pumps, 239
centrifugal, 242
INDEX
306
Pumps, diffuser-type, 243
double-suction, 245
mixed-flow, 252
propeller, 252
radial-flow, 252
reciprocating, 239
rotary, 240
single-suction, 245
specific
Quayle, P. P.,
Solberg,
171
112
112,
228
108
130
H. L.,
53
199
INDEX
Temperature gradient, 23
Thermodynamic relations for gases, 163
Thick-film lubrication, 222
Thin-film lubrication, 223
Throttling
process,
43
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Total acceleration,
Total head, 73
Tranquil flow, 207
283
Translation, 288
Tropopause, 22
Troposphere, 22
Tube, now through short, 43
Turbine relation, Euler's, 122
Turbine runners, 259
American, 259
Francis, 259
Kaplan, 259
Turbines, 257
efficiency of, 262
impulse, 258
mixed-flow, 259
performance of, 262
reaction, 258, 259
types of, 257
Turbulent flow, 69
in circular pipes, 69, 79
in noncircular pipes, 83
Two-dimensional flow, 35, 287
Uniform flow in open channels, 199
Units, of dynamic viscosity, 50
of force, 2
of kinematic viscosity, 51
of mass, 2
Vacuum, 2
Vane pump, 241
Vapor, 1
Velocity, 283
acoustic, 161
of pressure propagation, 161
Velocity coefficient, 97
Velocity distribution, 34, 45
for laminar flow in pipes, 76
in circular pipes, 77
307
100
140
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Generated for GUILLERMO JORGE COSTA (Pennsylvania State University) on 2015-05-29 17:15 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090522467
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Generated for GUILLERMO JORGE COSTA (Pennsylvania State University) on 2015-05-29 17:15 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090522467
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Generated for GUILLERMO JORGE COSTA (Pennsylvania State University) on 2015-05-29 17:15 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090522467
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Generated for GUILLERMO JORGE COSTA (Pennsylvania State University) on 2015-05-29 17:15 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89090522467
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ENGINEERING
LIBRARY
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