A framework for planning a listening skills lesson

Submitted by Anonymous on 10 February, 2010 - 11:34

Listening is one of the most challenging skills for our students to develop and yet also one of the most
important. By developing their ability to listen well we develop our students' ability to become more
independent learners, as by hearing accurately they are much more likely to be able to reproduce
accurately, refine their understanding of grammar and develop their own vocabulary.
In this article I intend to outline a framework that can be used to design a listening lesson that will develop
your students' listening skills and look at some of the issues involved.

The basic framework

Pre-listening

While listening

Post-listening

Applying the framework to a song

Some conclusions

The basic framework

The basic framework on which you can construct a listening lesson can be divided into three main stages.

Pre-listening, during which we help our students prepare to listen.

While listening, during which we help to focus their attention on the listening text and guide the
development of their understanding of it.

Post-listening, during which we help our students integrate what they have learnt from the text into
their existing knowledge.

Pre-listening
There are certain goals that should be achieved before students attempt to listen to any text. These are
motivation, contextualisation, and preparation.

Motivation
It is enormously important that before listening students are motivated to listen, so you should try to select
a text that they will find interesting and then design tasks that will arouse your students' interest and
curiosity.

Contextualisation
When we listen in our everyday lives we hear language within its natural environment, and that environment
gives us a huge amount of information about the linguistic content we are likely to hear. Listening to a tape
recording in a classroom is a very unnatural process. The text has been taken from its original environment
and we need to design tasks that will help students to contextualise the listening and access their existing
knowledge and expectations to help them understand the text.

Preparation
To do the task we set students while they listen there could be specific vocabulary or expressions that
students will need. It's vital that we cover this before they start to listen as we want the challenge within the
lesson to be an act of listening not of understanding what they have to do.

While listening
When we listen to something in our everyday lives we do so for a reason. Students too need a reason to
listen that will focus their attention. For our students to really develop their listening skills they will need to
listen a number of times - three or four usually works quite well - as I've found that the first time many
students listen to a text they are nervous and have to tune in to accents and the speed at which the people
are speaking.
Ideally the listening tasks we design for them should guide them through the text and should be graded so
that the first listening task they do is quite easy and helps them to get a general understanding of the text.
Sometimes a single question at this stage will be enough, not putting the students under too much pressure.
The second task for the second time students listen should demand a greater and more detailed
understanding of the text. Make sure though that the task doesn't demand too much of a response. Writing
long responses as they listen can be very demanding and is a separate skill in itself, so keep the tasks to
single words, ticking or some sort of graphical response.
The third listening task could just be a matter of checking their own answers from the second task or could
lead students towards some more subtle interpretations of the text.
Listening to a foreign language is a very intensive and demanding activity and for this reason I think it's
very important that students should have 'breathing' or 'thinking' space between listenings. I usually get my
students to compare their answers between listenings as this gives them the chance not only to have a
break from the listening, but also to check their understanding with a peer and so reconsider before listening
again.

Post-listening
There are two common forms that post-listening tasks can take. These are reactions to the content of the
text, and analysis of the linguistic features used to express the content.

Reaction to the text

Of these two I find that tasks that focus students reaction to the content are most important. Again this is
something that we naturally do in our everyday lives. Because we listen for a reason, there is generally a
following reaction. This could be discussion as a response to what we've heard - do they agree or disagree
or even believe what they have heard? - or it could be some kind of reuse of the information they have
heard.

Analysis of language
The second of these two post-listening task types involves focusing students on linguistic features of the
text. This is important in terms of developing their knowledge of language, but less so in terms of
developing students' listening skills. It could take the form of an analysis of verb forms from a script of the
listening text or vocabulary or collocation work. This is a good time to do form focused work as the students
have already developed an understanding of the text and so will find dealing with the forms that express
those meanings much easier.

Applying the framework to a song.

Here is an example of how you could use this framework to exploit a song:

Pre-listening

Students brainstorm kinds of songs

Students describe one of their favourite songs and what they like about it

Students predict some word or expressions that might be in a love song

While listening

Students listen and decide if the song is happy or sad

Students listen again and order the lines or verses of the song

Students listen again to check their answers or read a summary of the song with errors in
and correct them.
Post-listening
Focus on content

Discuss what they liked / didn't like about the song

Decide whether they would buy it / who they would buy it for

Write a review of the song for a newspaper or website

Write another verse for the song

Focus on form

Students look at the lyrics from the song and identify the verb forms

Students find new words in the song and find out what they mean

Students make notes of common collocations within the song

Conclusion
Within this article I have tried to describe a framework for listening development that could be applied to
any listening text. This isn't the only way to develop our students listening or to structure a listening lesson,
but it is a way that I have found to be effective and motivating for my students.

English Communication Through

Practical Experiences
Judith D. DeRolf
Kanto Gakuin University
Yokohama, Japan
Originally published in
Kanto Gakuin Daigaku Kogaku Bu Kyoyo Gakkai
No. 24, March 1995
Teaching English to a wide variety of students for more than thirty years has taught me
that generalizations and stereotypical ideas concerning the way learning takes place is
not nearly as important as it is for each teacher to discover the method of instruction or
combination there of, which most matches his or her style with a group of students at a
given time.1. Through the writing of this paper I will endeavor to share some teaching
methods both inside and outside the classroom and how they can be beneficial to the
practical task of communicating in English.
As a young person teaching English to underprivileged Mexican- Americans in rural
Indiana I discovered these children were more concerned with the food that would or
would not be on their table for lunch than with sitting quietly learning how to read a
book. Since their parents worked on farms in the area for a few weeks or months, and
then moved on to the next town or state these children knew the names of the places
they had been and had quite an interest in geography. Teaching the correct
pronunciation of a given town or state and learning how to spell difficult names became
a real challenge that was not only enjoyable to teach but fun to learn. Another practical
learning experience these students could build on was to learn the English names of the
various crops their parents were working in. Their parents spoke very little English and

had little time to learn besides what was absolutely necessary for their daily existence.
The children were often required to interpret or explain an idea to the American farmers,
so it was necessary for the children to be able to communicate at basic level
As is often true of immigrant families, the first generation only learns the most basic
vocabulary and grammar but the children, if given the chance, will learn to function
better in the new language than in their mother tongue. These children traveled from
place to place nine months out of a year, so received very little formal education in the
American public school system. Because of this they had very few skills in reading or
writing. But the program I taught in was trying to get them into the educational stream
and I was free to experiment with a variety of educational methods in order to teach the
fundamental skills of language. I found that "hands on" language worked best. For
example; one day we went to the zoo and as we looked at each animal I would give the
animal and the children would repeat the name over and over until they could say them
with precision. Another hands on tactic I used to teach food names and the use of
money was to have a store in the classroom allowing the students to play both clerk and
customer. Just to "play store" is never as good a learning experience as really going
shop-ping. Giving each child a small amount of money and letting them go into a store
freely to buy something can become a pivotal experience in the motivation for learning
language. These are just a very few simple ways to make language learning enjoyable
but ways to make the student feel he or she is communicating.
Teaching reading to second language learners should usually come after some
exposure to the spoken language. Hearing and speaking a language is usually learned
at a faster pace than reading is. I can remember when I was studying Japanese five
hours a day, five days a week and having a very difficult time learning to communicate,
My children were six and eight years old at the time and everyday they would spend
time playing with the neighbor children. They would come back at night with more new
vocabulary words than I had been able to learn in a week. Not only did they learn
vocabulary words but they learned how to live and speak in the language. Of course I
went to language school for two years plus made friends with the neighbors and began
to live the language little by little, but I will never be as skillful in Japanese as my
children are. Therefore, students learning a foreign language need practical language,
such as speaking and experiencing culture before they need theoretical language, such
as; reading and writing.2 But that is not to say that they don't need both. I feel that
sometimes we teachers are so excited to teach language skills that we forget to teach
students how to communicate.3 With the big class size that most schools have, it is
easier to teach reading or translation than it is to give students the time to develop a
discussion or a conversation in order to communicate. Therefore students who want to
learn how to communicate go to language schools and spend extra money on things
that should be taught in school. Without practical learning both in and out of the
classroom learning how to live and communicate in a given language will never take
place.4
One experience I vividly remember happened after having lived in Japan about four
years. By that time we had assimilated in both the spoken and the cultural areas of the

language. One day I went to the station to meet a couple who had just recently arrived
in Japan. I could see them waiting by the side an. motioned for them to come. With my
hand I put my fingers in a downward position and moved them back and forth. This
gesture means "come here" in Japanese but this same gesture in the U. S. is a
greeting. Therefore they waved to me as if to say "hi" and stood waiting until I could
drive to the point where they were waiting. I didn't realize the reason they had not come
when I had called to them with my hand gesture, but as we discussed the relationship
between language and culture it came out that they had mistaken the meaning of my
gesture for the American greeting. The mysterious part of this incidence is that I had not
even realized I had used that particular gesture in a Japanese or American manner. It
had just come naturally to me in that situation. If I were to have had that same
experience in the United States I would have naturally used a different gesture with the
same meaning because the setting would have been an American one. If a second
language learner only learns to read and write a language without the speaking and
cultural learning that is so important he or she will never become proficient in the
language. As this couple has often mentioned since that time, with just that one
experience they learned how to say "come here" and have never made that mistake
again. They could have read how to say it in a book and spent time memorizing the way,
but in just five or ten seconds that aspect of language was imprinted on their brain
forever. Not only is it important to use practical ways to learn spoken language but also
to learn to read. Before coming to Japan I spent several years teaching English to
native speakers who had learning difficulties. These students could speak English as
well as native speakers, but they had trouble with their reading and writing skills. They
also had difficulty with the input and output of language, such as; organizing their
thoughts into complete ideas and expressing their ideas completely. I found that many
of the techniques I used to teach these students language skills I have also used in
teaching second language learners.
As I have written in a previous paper the use of video in the classroom is a powerful tool
in helping break down language learning barriers that are often built up in Japanese
students after years of studying grammar and translation. Most students that reach the
university level in Japan have what we foreign teachers call "foreign language phobia"
from all the detailed studying of grammar points or from all the long hours of detailed
word for word translation of some very difficult passage that has nothing to do with
everyday life.5 Showing a video with a theme that is relevant to student's lives can
create a keen interest in language learning that will never be created from translating a
passage or teaching an important grammar point. Having students record a
conversation that they make with friends will often result in the use of current spoken
language with a display of a different attitude on the part of the students. Of course
there has to be preparation by learning the vocabulary for a given topic and by learning
the grammar to be used in the conversation. But, by the time most students enter the
university in Japan most major grammar points have already been taught without the
teaching of true communication. Everyone learns language by speaking and living it,
and without these two vital components it just becomes an exercise in gaining
knowledge without it becoming an active part of the person's life.6 Recently when
assigning students to small groups to prepare a conversation to take place at a

restaurant I noticed how eager they were to begin their preparations. The following
week the class was all a buzz with noise and laughter as if they were excitedly waiting
to perform. When each group took its turn it was obvious they were having fun trying to
communicate not only with words but with gestures and facial expressions. One group
even brought donuts to serve to the entire class after they had performed their
conversation in a make believe "Dunkin Donuts". We all laughed when certain students
would swagger like a typical American or someone would say some current slang that
was particularly appropriate to the situation. Real learning was taking place in a very
natural way. When I thought about why this kind of assignment is so much more
successful than simply reading a conversation about a restaurant in terms of teaching
language, I came to the conclusion that these students had seen English-speaking
restaurant scenes innumerable times on T. V. and on the movie screen and could feel
comfortable emulating what they had seen and making it their own language.
Going outside the classroom to learn a foreign language is also vital to the practical
learning component. In the past few years I have been experimenting with taking
students abroad for short periods of time to live the language. Even for short periods of
time (two weeks each) these times have been intensive in that they have included
immersing the students in English with home stays and spending the majority of the
time with people who do not speak any Japanese. The first trip was to the States where
English is the native language, but the second trip was to Thailand where English is a
second language as it is in Japan. The students who went on these trips were first
through fourth year students with varying degrees of English ability. Some were English
majors but there were students from most departments at both the Women's junior
college and the University. In preparation for each of the trips I taught an intensive ten
week course in basic English including the culture of the country. When students think
they will have a chance to speak and live the language the interest in learning increases
significantly. The students prepared reports on the culture and presented them in
Japanese, but with many English references in regards to names of people and places.
Because I am from the States it was much easier to prepare the students for the trip to
the States, but on the other hand I had to study about Thailand in order to be able to
teach about its culture which made the students and myself on an equal level. I feel this
added to the students' zest in their preparation because we were all learners.
Preparation for trips such as these is very important and the extent to which students
involve themselves in this determines whether they have a positive or negative learning
experience.
The trip to the States began with a two day stop in San Francisco and a side trip to
Yosemite National Park with a Japanese guide. This gave the students time to get over
the shock of being in a country where Japanese is not spoken and to adjust their ears to
hearing English spoken naturally. They then flew on to Chicago where they spent the
rest of their time. Each host family agreed to keep two students making the students
feel more comfortable. More learning will usually take place if only one student stays
with each host family, but on the other hand some students can become frightened that
no learning takes place and there is two weeks of silence. This is where it is important
for the teacher to know each student extremely well and make that judgment carefully.

One male student in my group requested staying alone with a host family and he was
able to use his English significantly more than the others who stayed in pairs. Besides
spending time with the host families I also set up a program at Judson College to have
the students take part in the orientation for new students that is held at the beginning of
a new school year. Although not all of it was appropriate I was able to choose what I felt
the students would benefit from, such as; a karaoke party, roller skating, a boat ride, etc.
The things that were most appropriate were those in a relaxed atmosphere where
students could have fun trying to communicate with one another. Although the lectures
on American college life, on how to study in the library, and on college financial aid were
irrelevant for our visiting students, so I did not have them take part in those meetings. I
also took the students to restaurants, the bank, shopping, sightseeing, etc. where they
had to use English in order to meet their daily needs. Of course they made many
mistakes, but they learned much more from this type of experience than they could ever
learn in a classroom in Japan.
The trip to Thailand was different but the same kind of learning was experienced from
being able to live the language in yet another setting. The students were exposed not
only to English but to Thai and Karen language, Even though there were two other
languages besides English the students never confused the two. They learned
greetings and partings in Thai and Karen but for the most part used English as the main
form of communication. They were very surprised that Thai people can speak English
quite flue Tribal people speak two other languages besides English generally. Before we
went to Thailand the students were worried about communication because Thailand is
an Asian country like Japan and they couldn't imagine English would be widely used,
When we arrived at the airport in Chiang Mai they were shocked to see Thai and
English words written in the advertisements. They were also worried whether they could
understand another second language learner's English pronunciation. I had been to
Thailand previously and had no trouble understanding their pronunciation for the most
part, but I am a native speaker and accustomed to hearing English spoken by second
language learners. Therefore I had no idea whether they would find it difficult to
understand the Thai's pronunciation of English or not. The students were greatly
relieved to discover they could understand their pronunciation quite well because they
speak more slowly than a native speaker. They relaxed and began to show a
confidence in their speaking ability I had never seen before.
On our first night in Thailand we were invited to a dormitory for students from the Karen
Hill Tribe. The students were approximately the same age as the Japanese students
and dressed in tribal dress as our students dressed in yukata. As we arrived at the
dormitory I could feel the tension building in our students but little by little as the Karen
students began to ask questions in English our students answered quite adequately.
The Karen students, using English, asked how to say simple phrases in Japanese
making the Japanese students relax and before the evening was over the two groups of
young people developed a lasting bond. As we left I could hear the tearful good byes
being said from relationships having been made in English, a second a second
language for both groups of students. This was truly an interesting phenomena and
proved to me that living the language is an important practical aspect towards the

mastery of a foreign language

From this point on these students took taxis and went shopping on their own using
English to talk to the taxi drivers and bargaining with the shop keepers in English very
successfully. After they returned from their daily expeditions they would talk over what
they had said and how much they had paid for things and how they had bartered in
English with great pride in their voices. One group of students went to a Buddhist
Temple and met some priests who spoke English very well. After talking with them for a
period of time a young priest came out who spoke Japanese. At first the students were
thrilled to meet a Thai who could speak Japanese, but later became disappointed
because there was no need to continue talking in English. As I listened to them talk I
thought how interesting this experience was for them and how they were becoming
citizens of the world.6 Whether these students were in a country where English is the
first language or in a country like Thailand where English is a second language they had
come to experience English as an important part of their lives.
We were able to spend valuable time with some English-speaking expatriates who gave
the students another unforgettable experience. In one group of expatriates the students
were able to experience an Australian, English, Swedish, American, Myanmarese
(formerly Burmese) and Japanese speak English with various accents. This could have
been very confusing to them, but they enjoyed hearing the different pronunciations and
experiencing the international atmosphere of this kind of group.
Probably the most meaningful experience of the trip to Thailand was a homestay that
took place in a remote village in northern Thailand. Accompanying the students were
two of us who could speak English and Japanese; one person who could speak English,
Japanese and Thai; and one person who could speak a little English, Thai and Karen.
We did not know if any of the village people would be able to speak English but we did
know that no one would be able to speak Japanese. When we first arrived we were all
nervous, even myself. We were introduced to the minister who could not speak any
English. His greeting was translated into Japanese for us and then we were taken to the
various homes to be introduced to the families we would be staying with. The home I
stayed in included a large family of three or four generations. The patriarch did not
speak English except for a few words which he was quick to use with us. He soon
introduced us to his grandson who began to use a few halting phrases of English. Since
I was the native English speaker and the teacher I somehow felt I had to translate for
the students. But they soon let me know that they now had confidence in their English
and began to ask questions and talk with the young man quite comfortably. They even
went outside with him and were introduced to some of his young relatives. He had
begun studying English four months previous to our arrival and already was able to
carry on a conversation remarkably well. He was able to explain how we were to take
our bath in the river and to tell us he would take us there but would return to his house
'to rest' while we bathed. He told us the names of most of the trees and plants in his
garden except for one. That was the mango tree which he said he could not remember.
The students were able to communicate with these people on a different level than I
was able to do as a native speaker. The family talked with the students using very basic

English, but communication took place and the students left the village with great
compassion and love for the people.
The purpose of our trip to Thailand was two fold; to use English and to do volunteer
work. The students prepared five children's Bible stories in English drawing pictures to
illustrate the stories (kami- shibai, in Japanese). They spent many hours looking for the
best words to use in the stories and then practicing the stories with voice intonation and
appropriate expressions. They were able to perform all the stories at least twice and
one time they even performed for English speaking children at an international church.
Of course they were most nervous performing for the international children, but as I
watched the children and listened to the students I was impressed with the improvement
in their language skills in the short time we had been in Thailand and how they had
begun to make the language a part of themselves. Our visit to the English language
Church was at the end of our stay and by then I was able to see a transformation in the
student's thinking and being. Their body movements had even changed and they
walked with their heads held high and a confidence I had never previously experienced.
The first trip of this kind we had taken to the States and ended with the students
returning to Japan while I stayed in the States for six months. Therefore, I was not able
to see how the experience affected the student's lives after they returned to Japan, I
wondered how the Thailand experience would effect their lives and language when they
returned to Japan. It has been very interesting to watch the difference in the students
who went and those who didn't go. Because only seventeen out of 60 members of "The
Fellowship" went to Thailand they could have gone unnoticed but those who went are
much freer to speak English when I meet them or talk to them by phone. 1 r also have
taken more of a leadership position in the club and are much freer to express
themselves, even in Japanese. Many of the students who did not go have noticed the
differences also and have made comments like, "He's changed since he went to
Thailand" or "What happened to him in Thailand".
In conclusion, it has become apparent to me that more than teaching methods or
curriculum, a language must be experienced. This does not mean that grammar,
reading, writing and speaking do not all need to be taught, but it means that along with
these skills the language must be experienced before it can become a part of a person's
being. In order for a person to be truly skilled in a language it must become a part of his
or her being or in other words, a person must live the language. It is a great challenge,
as a language teacher, to try to give students various kinds of opportunities to live the
language, but it is also very rewarding to be able to see a student make English become
a part of his or her being.

NOTES
1) E.V. Gatenby writes in an article, "Conditions for Success in Language Learning"
about a lecture delivered at Harvard University by George Ticknor (1791-l87l) entitled,
"The Best Methods of Teaching the Living Languages" (1832) and how for the first time
recognized the fact that there is no one method of teaching lan- guages, but that the

teacher must vary his method according to the age and attainments of his class, and
further, select and arrange his materials to suit the individual needs and capacities of his
pupils. In this paper I have gone even further in this idea of saying that
student must be given the opportunity to live the language he is studying in order to
make it a part of his being.
2) A.S. Hornby, in "The Situational Approach to Language Teaching" describes the
learning of all the names of the animals in Aesops Tales, Tales of Robin Hood,
Shakespeare Retold as having very little to do with language useful in practical affairs.
He goes on to state that language is needed for situations and should be taught with
situations as the starting point.
3) In "Conditions for Success in Language Learning", E.V. Gatenby says that often
times the language teachers, exasperated by the inability of student to learn, or of
himself to teach, a foreign language cuts out hearing, speaking and writing and
concentrates on reading only.
4) In "Kenesics and Cross-Cultural Understanding" Genelle G. Morain writes that being
able to read and speak another language does not guarantee that understanding will
take place. He continues writing that words in themselves are too limited a dimension
and the critical factor in understanding has to do with the cultural aspects that include
many dimensions of nonverbal communication.
5) In an article entitled, "Technemes and the Rhythm of Class Activity" by Earl W.
Stevick it is suggested that "exposure to the language" and morale is vitally important to
the learning of a language. That if a student is to continue to feel motivated in learning a
language he must feel a continuing sense of progress In the learning process. If a
student sees no chance or development in communication skills he or she soon loses
interest in studying.
6) Sylvia Ashton-Warner points out in her article entitled "Shaping the Curriculum" that
'learning to speak another's language means taking one's place in the human
community'. In other words it means reaching out to others across cultural and linguistic
boundaries. She also points out that language is far more than a system to be
explained. It is our most important link to the world around us. It is culture in motion. It is
people interacting with people. The most effective programs for learning should involve
the whole learner in the experience of language as a network of relations between
people, things, and events.
7) In an article by Anita L. Wenden entitled, "How to Be a Successful Language Learner:
Insights and Prescriptions from L2 Learners" living and studying in where the target
language is spoken helps the student to learn to live in the language. She writes further
that going to a country where English is spoken as second language has some
advantages in that it may be easier to become a part of that uses English as a second
language.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ashton Warner, S., (1983) "Shaping the Curriculum," Communlcative Competence;
Theory and Classroom Practice, 88-225.
Breen, M. and C. Candlin, (1979) "The Essentials of a Communicative Curriculum in
Language Teaching," 102-123.
Gatenby, E.V., (l950) "Conditions for Success in Language Learning," English
Language Teaching, 6, 143-150.
Locke, W.N., (1965) "Toward an Appropriate Technology Model of Communicative
Course Design: Issues and Definitions," English for Specific Purposes, 5, 2, 161-172.
Morain, G.G., (l977) "Kinesics and Cross-Cultural Understanding," Toward
Internationalization, 117 142..
Rubin, J., (l975) "What the 'Good Language' can Teach TESTL QUARTLEY, 9, 1, 41 51.
Stevick, E.W., (l959) "Technemes and the Rhythm of Class Activity," Language
Learning, 9, 3, 44 51.
Wenden, A.L., (1986) "How to Be a Successful Language Learner: Insights and
Prescriptions from L2 Learners," How to Be Successful Language Learner, 8, 1O3 -114.
The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. II, No. 2, February 1996
http://iteslj.org/
http://iteslj.org/Articles/DeRolf-PracExper.html

Passive Grammar: We've Got It, Let's

Use It!
Michaela Borova and Bryan Murphy
bm_fld [at] uacg.acad.bg
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria
Bryan Murphy became aware of passive grammar while working in Sofia and attempting
to learn "survival Bulgarian". In one of his rare successes as a learner of Bulgarian, he
sat down with his Bulgarian for foreigners textbook and discovered that a whole load of
the language that had been opaque before was suddenly starting to make some kind of
sense. This was true not only of words but also of grammar, and indeed of sociolinguistic features. While the concept of active and passive vocabulary is wellestablished, the parallel concept of passive grammar is less often considered. We
believe that it is valid and has significant implications.
What precisely is passive grammar? It is grammatical awareness that the learner has
but cannot - yet - put into productive use correctly and consistently. It does not
necessarily matter whether this awareness is conscious or unconscious. Conscious
awareness may take the form of explicit, learned information, for instance that Bulgarian
has three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Unconscious awareness may take
the form of unformulated expectations about the language you're learning, such as that
it will distinguish between present and past. As your contact with the language
increases, these expectations grow and develop, becoming more complex and more
refined. We are well used to "protecting" our students against negative transfer from
their mother tongue in the form of "false friends", etc. We are less accustomed to
exploiting the vast potential for positive transfer in a conscious and systematic manner.

Why does this matter? Well, if we've got passive grammar, let's use it. In fact, as
teachers, we already do so, though usually implicitly. Any spiral syllabus recognises it.
The Total Physical Response turns it into a method. All multiple choice questions
designed as grammar tests rely on it entirely. Attempts to develop reading and listening
as skills draw up on it. Michaela has developed a type of exercise for use at the
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy in Sofia which makes use of
it. She explains the role of auxiliary verbs in question formation, then asks her students
to form questions using tenses they have not been presented with. She finds that,
working in groups, they are usually able to form questions in the simple past from a
knowledge of the simple present, to form questions using "would" from a knowledge of
how to form questions using "can", etc. She finds that this kind of pre-communicative
exercise ties in well with the learning styles prevalent among engineering students. In
other words, they enjoy discovering that there is some logic in the mechanics of English.
Moreover, it boosts their confidence in their capacity to handle the greater complexities
that are to come.
If we make the concept of passive grammar explicit, we can follow up some of its
interesting implications. It is possible that grammar may have to be passive before it
becomes active, in which case it makes good sense to build up the foundations of
passive grammar. But, and this is a big but, there is no guarantee that passive grammar
will ever become active. Bulgarians, for instance, have an enormous reservoir of
passive Russian grammar, due to the similarities between their two languages, but not
that many of them have had occasion to acquire communicative competence in
Russian. Passive grammar, then, may be a necessary step toward active use, but it by
no means a sufficient one. We are talking about a potential tool, not a magic wand.
If you are still sceptical about the existence of passive grammar, let us see if we can tap
into and develop your passive grammar of Bulgarian with the following exercises:
Underline the verb in the following sentences:
Az iskam podarak.
Te iskaha kolata.
Nie iskahme tova.
Toi iskashe vsichko.
Vie iskahte mnogo.
Vie vzehte kolata.
Te nyamaha vreme.
Iskaha li te kolata?
2) Which one word in each of the following utterances make them questions?
A/ Te otvoriha li vratata?
B/ Toi mozhe li da popravi pechkata?
C/ Imame li vreme?
3) Re-write those questions as statements.
Answers:
1) a. iskam; b. iskaha; c. iskahme; d. iskashe;
e. iskahte; f. vzehte; g. nyamaha; h. iskaha?

2) li
A/ Te otvoriha vratata.
B/ Toi mozhe da popravi pechkata.
C/ Imame vreme.

Full marks? If so, we are not that surprised.

We need to add another rider here: you cannot build a course out of this stuff. It would
be far too boring. These exercises are a bit like warm-ups for the brain, most effective if
used sparingly.
The implications we wish now to highlight concern non-native teachers, the nature of
exercises, mistakes in exercises and slow learners.
This concept upgrades the value of non-native teachers at a stroke. If grammar
explanations have a role to play, which they do in building up passive grammar, then for
beginners and elementary learners they are best given in those learners' own language
Whilst we do not deny the benefits of "negotiating meaning" in a foreign language,
anyone who has done any real life negotiating will be aware that failed negotiations
often generate more frustration than benefits. Regarding the information about a
language that needs to be conveyed, we need to take seriously the questions What?
When? How much? and How? Teaching about language can again have a place in
language teaching, but it is a tool, not an end in itself. Nevertheless, it probably
deserves closer examination, as a tool, than it has had in recent times.
The concept of passive grammar suggests that it is not always necessary for grammar
that is being presented to be immediately used actively for learning to take place. Yet
most textbook exercises require this. Here is another exercise which, like the examples
given above, does not.
a. Underline the words in the text below that refer to the past.
Yesterday, I crashed my car. Two days ago, someone killed my cat. Last Sunday, my
spouse asked for a divorce. Never mind. A week ago, my lover and I robbed a bank.
Tomorrow, we're leaving, and soon we'll be starting a new life in Australia.
Underline the past tense verbs in the text above.
Underline the irregular past tense verbs in the following text:
A man walked into a pub. He went up to the bar and asked the barman for a glass of
water. The barman took out a gun and pointed it at him. "Thank you," said the man.

In terms of the basic psychology of memory, the above exercises require recognition not
recall as a first step in the memory process. In standard TEFL terms, they require
reception not production as a first step in the language learning process. The next
exercise demonstrates more clearly that passive grammar also operates at the level of
text grammar. It is a short, standard "jigsaw reading" exercise at intermediate or upper
intermediate level.
Put the sentences into the right order:

The New Jersey teen became a vegetarian 15 months ago.

Undeterred, Jacklyn ate buns filled with pickled slices instead.

Don't make the mistake of offering Jacklyn Stewart, 15, a pork chop.

At first her dad treated it like simple rebelliousness.

Or, for that matter, a hamburger.

He gave a barbecue and made a point of having only ground round for the grill not a soy patty in sight.

(from Newsweek)
Answer: c, e, a, d, f, b.
It follows from the ideas of passive grammar, recognition and reception that the
"meaning" of learners making mistakes might not be transparent. We are talking
specifically about mistakes in exercises. It is clearly no bad thing if a learner gets a
production exercise right. But this does not mean that the learner has mastered the
grammar point. They may have guessed the answer, they may have worked it out
without understanding the grammar point, or, having solved the problem, they may
immediately forget the problem-solving mechanism. Conversely, getting an exercise
wrong does not mean that nothing has been learnt: it is possible that passive grammar
has been imbibed, and, what's more, passive grammar going beyond the overt teaching
point. Learning and teaching, indeed, are by no means symmetrical, and this is what
enables people to learn languages, for linguists have not yet provided a full and
accurate grammar of any single language, so that learners necessarily learn more than
teachers can systematically teach.
Which brings us back to Bryan, shuffling his teach-yourself-Bulgarian books: miffed at
finding himself, despite all his experience of language learning and language teaching,
a decidedly slow language learner this time around, but nevertheless aware, or at least
confident, that with input, encouragement, motivation and, above all, time, he'd get
there. Passive grammar means, above all, that we as teachers and learners can relax a

bit about learning process: there's more going on than might appear on the surface. And
if we can learn to exploit passive grammar effectively, we might be able to speed up that
learning process.
The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. III, No. 8, August 1997
http://iteslj.org/
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Borova-PassiveGrammar.html

Extensive Reading: Why? and How?

Timothy Bell
timothy [at] hsc.kuniv.edu.kw
Kuwait University
Abstract
An extensive reading program was established for elementary level language learners at the
British Council Language Center in Sanaa, Yemen. Research evidence for the use of such
programs in EFL/ESL contexts is presented, emphasizing the benefits of this type of input for
students' English language learning and skills development. Practical advice is then offered to
teachers worldwide on ways to encourage learners to engage in a focused and motivating
reading program with the potential to lead students along a path to independence and
resourcefulness in their reading and language learning.

Introduction: The Reading Program

An extensive reading program was established at the British Council Language Center in
Sanaa, Yemen. An elementary level class of government employees (age range 17-42) was
exposed to a regime of graded readers, which was integrated into normal classroom teaching.
Students followed a class reader, had access to a class library of graded readers, and had
classes in the British Council library, which gave them access to a collection of 2000 titles.

Questionnaires were used to examine students' reading interests, habits and attitudes, both
prior to, and following the program. The class library contained 141 titles in the published
readers of some major publishers (see inventory of titles in Bell, 1994). Familiar titles (e.g.
popular Arab folk tales) were selected for both the class readers and the class library, so as to
motivate the students to read. These titles proved very popular, as did the practice of reading
aloud to the class.

Students' reading was carefully monitored; formal and informal records being kept both
by the researcher, and by the students themselves. Reading diaries and book reports
were used, together with a card file system to document the program and record both
the titles read and students' written comments on the books. A wall chart acted as a
focal point for in-class reading, discussion and exchange of titles. Reader interviews
were conducted throughout the program, which ran for a period of six months over the
course of two semesters. Students became actively involved in running the class library;
tables were arranged and titles displayed attractively during the periods set aside for the
reading program. Students were taken into the main British Council library for one
lesson a week, during which they participated in controlled twenty-minute sessions of
USSR 1 (cf. Davis, 1995).
With reference to research evidence, we now turn to the role of extensive reading
programs in fostering learners' progress in reading development and improvement.

The Role of Extensive Reading in Language Learning

1. It can provide 'comprehensible input'
In his 1982 book, Krashen argues that extensive reading will lead to language
acquisition, provided that certain preconditions are met. These include adequate
exposure to the language, interesting material, and a relaxed, tension-free learning
environment. Elley and Manghubai (1983:55) warn that exposure to the second
language is normally "planned, restricted, gradual and largely artificial." The reading
program provided in Yemen, and the choice of graded readers in particular, was
intended to offer conditions in keeping with Krashen's model.
2. It can enhance learners' general language competence
Grabe (1991:391) and Paran (1996:30) have emphasized the importance of extensive
reading in providing learners with practice in automaticity of word recognition and
decoding the symbols on the printed page (often called bottom-up processing). The book
flood project in Fiji (Elley & Manghubai: op cit.), in which Fijian school children were
provided with high-interest storybooks, revealed significant post treatment gains in word
recognition and reading comprehension after the first year, and wider gains in oral and
written skills after two years.
3. It increases the students' exposure to the language

The quality of exposure to language that learners receive is seen as important to their
potential to acquire new forms from the input. Elley views provision of large quantities of
reading material to children as fundamental to reducing the 'exposure gap' between L1
learners and L2 learners. He reviews a number of studies with children between six and
twelve years of age, in which subjects showed rapid growth in language development
compared with learners in regular language programs . There was a "spread of effect
from reading competence to other language skills - writing, speaking and control over
syntax," (Elley 1991:404).
4. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary
Nagy & Herman (1987) claimed that children between grades three and twelve (US
grade levels) learn up to 3000 words a year. It is thought that only a small percentage of
such learning is due to direct vocabulary instruction, the remainder being due to
acquisition of words from reading. This suggests that traditional approaches to the
teaching of vocabulary, in which the number of new words taught in each class was
carefully controlled (words often being presented in related sets), is much less effective
in promoting vocabulary growth than simply getting students to spend time on silent
reading of interesting books.
5. It can lead to improvement in writing
Stotsky (1983) and Krashen (1984) reviewed a number of L1 studies that appear to
show the positive effect of reading on subjects' writing skills, indicating that students who
are prolific readers in their pre-college years become better writers when they enter
college. L2 studies by Hafiz & Tudor (1989) in the UK and Pakistan, and Robb & Susser
(1989) in Japan, revealed more significant improvement in subjects' written work than in
other language skills. These results again support the case for an input-based,
acquisition-oriented reading program based on extensive reading as an effective means
of fostering improvements in students writing.
6. It can motivate learners to read
Reading material selected for extensive reading programs should address students'
needs, tastes and interests, so as to energize and motivate them to read the books. In
the Yemen, this was achieved through the use of familiar material and popular titles
reflecting the local culture (e.g.. Aladdin and His Lamp). Bell & Campbell (1996, 1997)
explore the issue in a South East Asian context, presenting various ways to motivate
learners to read and explaining the role of extensive reading and regular use of libraries
in advancing the reading habit .
7. It can consolidate previously learned language
Extensive reading of high-interest material for both children and adults offers the
potential for reinforcing and recombining language learned in the classroom. Graded
readers have a controlled grammatical and lexical load, and provide regular and
sufficient repetition of new language forms (Wodinsky & Nation 1988).Therefore,

students automatically receive the necessary reinforcement and recycling of language

required to ensure that new input is retained and made available for spoken and written
production.
8. It helps to build confidence with extended texts
Much classroom reading work has traditionally focused on the exploitation of shorts
texts, either for presenting lexical and grammatical points or for providing students with
limited practice in various reading skills and strategies. However, a large number of
students in the EFL/ESL world require reading for academic purposes, and therefore
need training in study skills and strategies for reading longer texts and books. Kembo
(1993) points to the value of extensive reading in developing students confidence and
ability in facing these longer texts.
9. It encourages the exploitation of textual redundancy
Insights from cognitive psychology have informed our understanding of the way the brain
functions in reading. It is now generally understood that slow, word-by-word reading,
which is common in classrooms, impedes comprehension by transferring an excess of
visual signals to the brain. This leads to overload because only a fraction of these
signals need to be processed for the reader to successfully interpret the message. Kalb
(1986) refers to redundancy as an important means of processing, and to extensive
reading as the means of recognizing and dealing with redundant elements in texts.
10. It facilitates the development of prediction skills
One of the currently accepted perspectives on the reading process is that it involves the
exploitation of background knowledge. Such knowledge is seen as providing a platform
for readers to predict the content of a text on the basis of a pre-existing schema. When
students read, these schema are activated and help the reader to decode and interpret
the message beyond the printed words. These processes presuppose that readers
predict, sample, hypothesize and reorganize their understanding of the message as it
unfolds while reading (Nunan 1991: 65-66).

Practical Advice on Running Extensive Reading Programs

1. Maximize Learner Involvement
A number of logistical hurdles have to be overcome in order to make an extensive
reading program effective. Books need to be transported, displayed and collected at the
end of each reading session. Considerable paperwork is required to document the card
file system, reading records, inventories, book reports and in maintaining and updating
lists of titles. Students should therefore be encouraged to take an active role in the
management and administration of the reading program. In the Yemen program,
students gained a strong sense of ownership through running the reading resources in
an efficient, coordinated and organized manner.
2. The Reader Interview

Regular conferencing between teacher and student played a key role in motivating
students in the Yemen to read the books. This enabled effective monitoring of individual
progress and provided opportunities for the teacher to encourage students to read
widely, show interest in the books being read, and to guide students in their choice of
titles. By demonstrating commitment in their own reading, teachers can foster positive
attitudes to reading, in which it is no longer viewed as tedious, demanding, hard work,
but as a pleasurable part of their learning.
3. Read Aloud to the Class
In the Yemen study, reader interviews conducted with students revealed the popularity of
occasions when the teacher read aloud to the class. The model of pronunciation
provided acted as a great motivator, encouraging many students to participate in
classroom reading. Students gained confidence in silent reading because they were able
to verbalize sounds they previously could could not recognize. This resulted in wider
reading by some of the weaker readers in the class. Often thought of as bad practice,
reading aloud should play a full part in motivating the emerging reader to overcome the
fear of decoding words in an unfamiliar script.
4. Student Presentations
Short presentations on books read played an absolutely crucial role in the program and
students frequently commented on the value of oral work in class for exchanging
information about the books. The reader interviews revealed that most of the book
choices made by students resulted from recommendations made by friends and not by
the teacher. This demonstrates that given the right preparation, encouragement, sense
of ownership and belonging, an extensive reading program will achieve a direction and
momentum governed by the learners themselves; a large step in the promotion of
student independence and autonomy.
5. Written Work Based on the Reading
Effective reading will lead to the shaping of the reader's thoughts, which naturally leads
many learners to respond in writing with varying degrees of fluency. Elementary level
students can be asked simply to write short phrases expressing what they most enjoyed
about a book they read, or to record questions they wish to ask the teacher or other
students in class. With intermediate students, book reports may be used, with sections
for questions, new vocabulary, and for recording the main characters and events. At this
level, summary writing is also a valuable practice because it allows learners to assert full
control, both of the main factual or fictional content of a book, and of the grammar and
vocabulary used to express it. Advanced students can be asked to write compositions,
which, by definition, are linguistically more demanding written responses to the reading
material.
6. Use Audio Material in the Reading Program

The use of audio recordings of books read aloud and of graded readers on cassette
proved very popular with the students in Yemen, and is advocated for wide application.
Listening material provided the learners with a model of correct pronunciation which
aided word recognition, and exposed students to different accents, speech rhythms and
cadences. Student confidence in their ability to produce natural speech patterns and to
read along with the voice of a recorded speaker is central to maintaining their motivation
to master the language as a medium for talking about their reading.
7. Avoid the Use of Tests
Extensive reading programs should be "without the pressures of testing or marks" (Davis
1995:329). The use of tests runs contrary to the objective of creating stress-free
conditions for pleasure reading because it invokes images of rote learning, vocabulary
lists, memorization and homework. Extensive reading done at home should be under the
learner's control and not an obligation imposed by the teacher. By their very nature, tests
impose a rigor on the learning process, which the average student will never equate with
pleasure.
8. Discourage the Over-Use of Dictionaries
While dictionaries certainly have a place in the teaching of reading, it is probably best
located in intensive reading lessons, where detailed study of the lexical content of texts
is appropriate. If learners turn to the dictionary every time they come across an
unfamiliar word, they will focus only on the language itself, and not on the message
conveyed. This habit will result in slow, inefficient reading and destroy the pleasure that
reading novels and other literature are intended to provide. Summarizing comments on
the extensive reading done by his subjects, Pickard (1996:155) notes that "Use of the
dictionary was sparing, with the main focus on meaning".
9. Monitor the Students' Reading
In order to run an extensive reading program successfully, effective monitoring is
required, both to administer the resources efficiently, and to trace students' developing
reading habits and interests. In the Yemen program, a card file system was used to
record titles and the dates the books were borrowed and returned. Input from the
monitoring process helps us to record students' progress, maintain and update an
inventory of titles, and locate and select new titles for the class library. It therefore serves
both the individual needs of the reader and the logistical task of managing the reading
resources.
10. Maintain the Entertainment
This is perhaps the most important aspect of the program to emphasize. Teachers need
to invest time and energy in entertaining the participants by making use of multimedia
sources to promote the books (e.g. video, audio, CD ROM, film, etc.). They should also
exploit the power of anecdote by telling the students about interesting titles, taking them
out to see plays based on books, exploiting posters, leaflets, library resources, and even

inviting visiting speakers to give a talk in class on a book they have read recently. In
these ways, teachers can maintain student motivation to read and secure their full
engagement in the enjoyment the program provides.

Conclusion
Tsang's (1996) study, carried out in Hong Kong secondary schools, provided further persuasive
evidence of the effectiveness of extensive reading in fostering learners' language development.
He found that "the reading program was significantly more effective than the writing program"
(1996:225) . Extensive reading programs can provide very effective platforms for promoting
reading improvement and development from elementary levels upwards. Although they do
require a significant investment in time, energy and resources on the part of those charged with
managing the materials, the benefits in terms of language and skills development for the
participating learners far outweigh the modest sacrifices required. If such programs receive
institutional support and can be integrated into the curriculum so that they become agreed
school policy, as suggested in Davis (1995), they will likely be more readily and widely adopted,
particularly in countries where material and financial resources are adequate.

Notes
1. USSR is uninterrupted sustained silent reading.

References

Bell, T. (1994). '"Intensive" versus "Extensive" Reading: A Study of the Use of Graded
Readers as Supplementary Input Material to Traditional "Intensive" Reading Techniques.'
Unpublished MA TEFL Dissertation. University of Reading.

Bell, T., & Campbell, J. (1996). 'Promoting Good Reading Habits: The Debate.' Network
2/3 (pp 22-30).

Bell, T., & Campbell, J. (1997). 'Promoting Good Reading Habits Part 2: The Role of
Libraries.' Network 2/4 (pp 26-35).

Davis, C. (1995). 'Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance?' English Language

Teaching Journal 49/4 (pp 329-336).

Elley, W. B. (1991). 'Acquiring literacy in a second language: The effect of book-based

programs.' Language Learning 41/3: 375-411.

Elley, W. B., & Manghubai, F. (1983). 'The effect of reading on second language
learning.' Reading Research Quarterly, 19/1, (pp 53-67).

Grabe, W. (1991). 'Current developments in second language reading research.' TESOL

Quarterly 25/3: 375-406.

Hafiz, F. M., & Tudor, I. (1989). 'Extensive reading and the development of language
skills.' English Language Teaching Journal, 43, (pp 4-13).

Kalb, G. (1986). 'Teaching of extensive reading in English instruction at the senior

gymnasium level.' Die Neueren Sprachen, 85, (pp 420-430).

Kembo, J. (1993). 'Reading:Encouraging and Maintaining Individual Extensive Reading.'

English Teaching Forum, 31/2, (pp 36-38).

Krashen, S. D. (1982). 'Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.' New

York: Prentice Hall.

Krashen, S. D. (1984). 'Writing: Research, Theory and Applications.' New York: Prentice
Hall.

Nagy, W., & Herman, P. (1987). 'Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge:
Implications for acquisition and instruction.' In Mckeown, M., & Curtis, M. (eds), The
nature of vocabulary acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (pp 19-35).

Nunan, D. (1991). 'Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook For Teachers.' London:

Prentice Hall.

Paran, A. (1996). 'Reading in EFL: facts and fictions.' English Language Teaching
Journal, 50/1, (pp 25-34).

Pickard, N. (1996). 'Out-of-class language learning strategies.' English Language

Teaching Journal, 50/2, (pp 151-159).

Robb, T. N., & Susser, B. (1989). 'Extensive Reading vs Skills Building in an EFL
context.' Reading in a Foreign Language, 5/2, (pp 239-249).

Stotsky, S. (1983). 'Research on reading/writing relationships: A synthesis and

suggested directions.' Language Arts, 60, (pp 627-642).

Tsang, Wai-King. (1996). 'Comparing the Effects of Reading and Writing on Writing
Performance.' Applied Linguistics 17/2, (pp 210-223).

Wodinsky, M., & Nation, P. (1988). 'Learning from graded readers.' Reading in a Foreign
Language 5: (pp 155-161).
The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IV, No. 12, December 1998
http://iteslj.org/
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Bell-Reading.html
A Training Lesson Plan on Virtual Communities for EFL
Maria Teresa Ciaffaroni
ciaffaroni [at] hotmail.com
L. Lombardo Radice (Rome, Italy)

This paper tackles a challenging issue: the use of Virtual Communities in EFL learning/teaching.
It features an in-service training lesson plan meant to encourage EFL teachers to explore Virtual
Communities in view of using them with students, thus helping them to engage in highly
motivating activities.

Introduction
The in-service training lesson plan is designed for EFL teachers who are interested in
technology as a privileged tool for enhancing language learning. It aims at enabling
teachers to explore, build and use different types of Internet based communities in their
teaching practice. The idea of the training course was spurred by some drawbacks
commonly met in EFL learning situations:

most EFL students do not live in an English-speaking environment, so they don't get
much exposure to the language

students are often placed in large groups and have only a few classes per week, thus
they do not get enough practice in the target language

learners as often as not have access to a limited range of resources

When learners become active members of a virtual community they may:

gain access to a larger amount of language resources

get plenty of exposure to the target language

learn how to interact, co-operate and share things with real people

be able to cope better with problems

engage in more individualized interactions with the teacher

become more involved and independent learners

The use of Virtual Communities may also provide some side benefits in terms of
classroom management:

using the computer will simplify management procedures, both for teachers and pupils

all the interactions and materials produced will be recorded, making it easier to retrieve,
analyze and share them

marking and assessment procedures will be simplified

When dealing with technology issues, there is always a double focus: on tools and
resources on one side and on teaching principles and practices on the other.

Section One : General Framework

The training course is made up of three sessions of about three hours each, covering
different features of the target topic.
1. What are Virtual Communities?
The first session aims to introduce Virtual Communities to trainees and make them aware of
their educational potential for language learning. This aim will be achieved through first-hand
exploration of a few Virtual Communities. Though relatively new, Virtual Communities rely on
some well established pedagogical principles. Recalling these may help trainees to feel Virtual
Communities are less alien than they may believe. Finally, trainees are required to think about
ways of using Virtual Communities with their students, so that they may feel encouraged to try a
few activities out with students.
2. How can Virtual Communities be Exploited?

The second session focuses on tools relied upon by Virtual Communities. First of all,
trainees will be asked to identify and classify them, according to suitable criteria. Then
they will experiment with a few tools themselves. Finally, trainees will draft the outline of
lesson plans for virtual activities with their students, using the tools they have just tried
out. This is a highly practical session, mainly based on the assumption that learning by
doing is one of the most effective ways of learning, provided you are able to reflect
critically on what you do.
3. Creating and Exploiting Virtual Environments

The third session is intended to let trainees explore and exploit Online Platforms,
powerful learning environments. combining most of the tools presented and exploited in
session two in a single package, and providing many more functions as well. The last
part of session three will be devoted to devising possible teaching activities for the use
of Online Platforms with students. At the end of session three trainees ought to be able
to cope with at least some form of online interaction and have the knowledge to explore
this field further.

Section Two: Implementation

WARM UP (Not included)
PRINCIPLES

Goals

Elicit trainees previous knowledge

Introduce session topics

Outline basic principles Virtual Communities rely upon

Raise trainees awareness of collaborative learning

Tasks
1. Prior knowledge of target topic. Trainer presents trainees the following quotation: "
The question we need to ask is 'What do we want to accomplish in our courses, and can
technology advance our teaching goals?' rather than, 'What can we do with
technology?'" (Creed 1996). She asks trainees to comment on it. Then trainees are
asked to write down their own definition of Virtual Communities. Trainees
compare/discuss definitions in groups. Trainees report to whole group. Finally trainer
shows the following definition of Virtual Communities: "A group of people who may or
may not meet one another face-to-face, and who exchange words and ideas through the
mediation of computer bulletin boards and networks." H. Rheingold. Trainees comment
on it.
2. Power Point presentation based lecturette: Constructivism; Situational learning;
Collaborative learning. Q/A, clarification.
3. Exploration of collaborative issues. Trainees discuss pros/cons of collaborative
learning, providing examples from their teaching experience. Trainees report to whole
group. Trainer sums up outcomes.

Rationale
During this stage trainees will learn about the underlying principles of Virtual
Communities. It is really important for trainer to know exactly what information trainees
already have about the topic, so that trainer will be able to adapt, if not her materials at
least her presentation. Many trainees may already be familiar with collaborative learning
and may even have practiced it in one form or another. This may be useful to link the
new topic to trainees experience and offer them the opportunity to reflect on the fact
that even the newest approaches rely on a background of widely shared and codified
principles. At this stage, it is also important to link principles and practice, so that

trainees get the feeling that they are doing something really relevant. Trainer should pay
special attention to keeping the right balance between her working time and that of
trainees. Trainer may ask trainees to think about possible virtual applications of what
they already do with students at a collaborative level.
SAMPLES VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES

Goals

Present real examples of Virtual Communities

Let Ts explore real Virtual Communities on their own

Highlight main features/tools of Virtual Communities

Think of possible uses for Virtual Communities

Tasks
1. Samples of Virtual Communities. Trainer presents selected list of Virtual Communities.
Trainer explores one or two pointing out main features. Trainees choose one or two
Virtual Communities and explore them. Trainees note down main features, materials,
tools etc. provided in Virtual Communities. Trainees report to whole group on findings.
Trainer sums up main points.
2. Teaching/learning exploitation of existing EFL Virtual Communities. Trainees
choose sample Virtual Communities and think about possible teaching/learning
exploitation. Trainees share ideas in the group, choose one or more activities and outline
lesson plan Trainees report to whole group. Trainer sums up.

Rationale
In this stage trainees are actually given the opportunity to get hands-on experience.
Trainees ought to leave with the feeling of having learned something usable. Trainer
should choose simple sample Virtual Communities that can be easily and successfully
explored, even by inexperienced people; they ought to offer all the typical features and
tools usually provided by Virtual Communities. They also ought to be visually appealing
and intellectually stimulating. The actual Virtual Communities exploration may be carried
out either individually or in pairs. Technologically poorer trainees may initially be guided
by trainer or by quite expert trainees. Trainer has to encourage all trainees to try things
out on their own. If trainees do not try things out immediately, the chances are they will
never be able to do so. It may be difficult to pull trainees away from their exploration,
once they start, so trainer ought to keep an eye on time and gently lead trainees to the
next task, teaching exploitation of Virtual Communities. For this second task Trainer has
to take extra care with group formation, if she wants groups to produce useful

outcomes. Groups may lack ideas, or they may resort to very trivial or over-trodden
ones. It is trainer responsibility to supervise group work in order to stimulate, suggest, or
encourage.
Session 2
TOOLS USED IN VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES

Goals

Gather feedback

Refresh/revise previous session outcomes

Analyze Virtual Communities in detail

Identify tools

Try classification of tools

Highlight main tools

Provide classification criteria

Decide how to choose tools

Set up an e-mail account

Tasks
1. Warm up. trainees exchange feedback on previous session focusing on any teaching
exploitation they may have tried. Trainees report to whole group.
2. Different types of Virtual Communities. Trainees to go over samples of Virtual
Communities in groups and list tools for interaction, material storage, other functions.
Trainees present and discuss findings. Trainer sums up findings on white board.
Trainees classify communication tools according to suitable criteria. Trainees present
and discuss classification. Trainer sums up outcomes on white board.
3. Power Point presentation based lecturette. Different solutions to build up Virtual
Communities. Classification of tools When, why, how to use them. Q/A, clarification.
4. Setting up an e-mail account. Trainees brainstorm different ways of getting e-mail
accounts. Trainees report to whole group. Trainer leads trainees through different steps
of setting up a free e-mail account. Trainees set up an e-mail account for themselves.

Rationale
The first stage is meant for the identification/classification of tools, the second stage is
devoted to working with them. It is advisable to recall the core features of the previous
session, both to gather feedback on acquisition/feelings, and to see whether trainees
have tried out some activities with their students. Then trainees are asked to have a
closer look at a few Virtual Communities. The task aims at enabling trainees to identify
the main tools used for online interaction. Trainees ought to be able to find out the two
main types of online interaction synchronous and asynchronous the second being
by far the most widespread. They ought also to realize that e-mail and mailing lists are
asynchronous interaction tools, while text or voice chat is the most used synchronous
interaction tool. The last task is a highly practical one. Trainees are required to set up a
free e-mail account for themselves.. There's a double aim: first to show trainees how to
do it, so that they can to do the same with their students; secondly, to have trainees use
the newly created accounts for the setting up of a mailing list.
PRACTICE WITH VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES TOOLS

Goals

Set up a mailing list

Learn how to participate in a forum

Learn how to participate in chat

Think about possible teaching applications

Tasks
1. Setting up a mailing list/newsgroup. Trainer sets up a group on Yahoo or similar using
trainees newly created e-mail addresses. Trainees observe procedure. Trainees explore
functions offered by newsgroup. Trainees exchange messages and try out functions
explored.
2. Participating in a forum. Trainer elicits trainees previous knowledge of topic. Trainer
shows previously chosen EFL related forum. Trainer explains different functions (sending
messages, threading, using emoticons, attaching files etc.). Trainees explore/practise
functions in pairs. Trainees send messages to forum and use functions explored.
3. Participating in a chat. Trainer elicits trainees previous knowledge of topic. Trainer
shows previously chosen EFL related chat. Trainer explains different functions. Trainees
explore functions in pairs. Trainees engage in chat session with each other.

4. Planning of teaching/learning activities. Trainees explore activities provided by

trainer. Trainees share ideas in small groups. Trainees adapt outline lesson plan for their
students needs. Trainees present their findings to whole group.

Rationale
In stage two trainees are going to explore and use a few tools commonly found in virtual
interaction, both in synchronous and asynchronous modes. Trainees are not expected
to become confident users of Virtual Communities tools. The task is intended to raise
trainees awareness and curiosity.. The newly created mailing list may be used to let
trainees keep in touch and exchange ideas, suggestions and materials during and after
the course. The procedure is the usual one: elicitation of trainees previous knowledge,
demonstration of how to use different tools, actual practice with tools, devising and
planning of teaching activities for students, featuring the newly presented tools. If there
isn't enough time to get a usable outline of a lesson plan during the session, trainees
may be required to complete it for homework. Trainer ought to devote extra care to
pairing/grouping trainees, considering not only trainees level of technological
competence, but also their interest or the type of school they come from, so that they
may derive maximum benefit from their co-operation. Trainer will have to discreetly but
carefully supervise group work, so that she may prompt trainees if/when they lack ideas
and support them or lead them in a practicable direction.
Session 3
ONLINE PLATFORMS

Goals

Gather feedback

Refresh/revise previous session outcomes

Explore Online Platforms in detail

Identify main tools/functions

Highlight main types of Online Platforms and the tools they provide

Learn how to choose Online Platforms

Analyze, further explore samples Online Platforms

Task
1. Warm up. Trainees exchange feedback on previous session.

2. Different types of Virtual Communities. Trainer elicits trainees previous knowledge on

topic through quick brainstorm activity. Trainer provides a list of sample Online
Platforms. Trainees explore one or more Online Platforms in pairs and note down main
features, functions, tools provided. Trainees report to whole group. Trainer sums up
findings on white board.
3. Power Point presentation based lecturette. Main features of Online Platforms
Different types of Online Platforms (free, commercial ones). Tools Online Platforms
provide (interaction tools, storage, testing, announcement, administration etc.).
Pros/cons of Online Platforms. Open source, commercial platforms. Q/A, clarification.
4. Comparing/contrasting Online Platforms. Trainer assigns different Online Platforms
to small groups of trainees. Trainees explore them in detail to compare/contrast them,
deciding on suitability for teaching purposes. Trainees report to whole group on findings.
Trainer sums up findings on white board.

Rationale
Session three is completely devoted to Online Platforms. The first task is meant to
gather feedback. Trainer may start commenting on any interaction that has occurred on
the group mailing list and then let trainees report on any attempts they may have made
on their own or with students. The second task is focused on Online Platforms. Trainees
may already be familiar with Online Platforms. Trainer has to elicit trainees previous
knowledge to be able to adapt what she is going to say in her presentation in task three.
The main aim of task two is to let trainees identify the tools they have experimented with
in session two and realize they are grouped all together in Online Platforms. Trainees
may also identify a few more tools/functions. In any case, Trainer may point out some
more tools in her summing up. The Power Point presentation based lecturette is meant
to further clarify what Online Platforms are, but also to offer hints on how they may be
used for teaching/learning purposes. The main differences between free/open source
platforms and commercial ones ought also to be pointed out. Task four is meant for
further exploration of Online Platforms, offering trainees the opportunity to look for new
features/functions, but also to let them think of possible teaching exploitation. At the end
of stage one trainees should have gathered a few ideas on what kind of support for
teaching Online Platforms may offer and what use can actually be made of them.
EXPERIMENTING WITH ONLINE PLATFORMS

Goals

Exploit teaching potential of Online Platforms

Apply what trainees have learned

Share ideas, products, materials

Gather feedback

Tasks
1. Devise a project/learning session for an Online Platforms. Trainees think about
project/learning session and share ideas in groups. Trainees decide on common
project/learning session. Trainees choose most suitable Online Platforms to implement
chosen project/learning session. Trainees plan, draft and implement outline of a
complete project or learning session using as many virtual tools as possible from the
ones provided by chosen Online Platforms.
2. Report to whole group. Trainees report on implemented project. Trainees point out
pros and cons of using Online Platforms. Trainees comment on other groups projects.
Trainer sums up findings.
3. Conclusion. Trainer provides final meaningful quotation. Trainees are asked to briefly
brainstorm course outcomes and/or ideas on further applications to gather feedback.
Trainees fill in final evaluation questionnaire.

Rationale
Stage two of session three is devoted to teaching exploitation of Online Platforms.
Trainees think about a teaching project or learning session they would like to implement
for their students, then chose suitable Online Platforms There are two main aims in task
one: to let Trainees think about practical exploitation of Online Platforms and to let them
use as many virtual tools as possible. It is trainer's responsibility to support groups with
a few hints/suggestion. Grouping is very important for this task. Trainees ought to group
according to common interests, so that trainees may find it easier to get focused. Task
two is a report on group outcomes. Trainees may gather lots of ideas for further
exploitation of Virtual Communities/Online Platforms in their teaching. Trainer may ask
trainees to share their products uploading them on the group mailing list. Task three is
meant as a course rounding up and leave taking, but also as a way of gathering further
feedback on how trainees feel about the course and its outcomes. Trainees are not
expected to have become expert in virtual interaction, but they may feel confident
enough to explore the field further on their own and try out a few things with their
students.

Conclusions
There are two basic assumptions behind the course presented in the in-service training
lesson plan: on the one hand technology may offer the opportunity to create virtual
communities where people can meet and share ideas, knowledge, opinions or just for
fun; on the other hand virtual communities may prove extremely beneficial for language
learning. It may be safely stated, as a final remark, that if learners become active

members of a virtual community, they will get plenty of language exposure, they will
learn how to interact, co-operate and share things with real people, thus increasing their
interpersonal skills and their intercultural awareness.

References

Boetcher S. et al. What is a Virtual Community and Why Would You Ever Need One?
Retrieved from http://www.fullcirc.com/community/communitywhatwhy.htm, January
2004.

Creed, T. (1996). Extending the classroom walls electronically. In New Paradigms for
College Teaching, Campbell W. & C. Smith, (Eds.) Edina, MN; Interaction Book Co.
Retrieved from http://www.ntlf.com/html/sf/Virtual Communities_extend.htm, January
2004.

Graeme D., Online Communities for Professional Development,

Retrieved from http://magazines.fasfind.com/wwwtools/, January 2004.

Robbins, J. Contributions of a Virtual Community to Self-Regulated Learning in a

Constructivist EFL Writing Course, San Francisco State University March 25, 2000.
Retrieved from http://jillrobbins.com/techno/outline.html, January 2004.

Rheingold H., The Virtual Community,

Retrieved from http://www.rheingold.com/vc/book/, January 2004.

The paper is based on an assignment carried out at NILE /Leeds Metropolitan

University as part of a teacher trainer co-funded bursary scheme by British
Council/Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. X, No. 7, July 2004

http://iteslj.org/

http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Ciaffaroni-Virtual.html
Deductive & Inductive Lessons for Saudi EFL Freshmen Students
Mohammed Y. Al-Kharrat
ykharrat [at] yahoo.com
King Khalid University, Institute of English & Translation (Abha, Saudi Arabia)

Abstract
The importance of students' active involvement in the learning process is increasingly growing in
this era of information explosion. Educators continue to unravel ways to assist learners in
developing their cognitive potential. Deductive learning and inductive learning which help
students articulate their mental processes seem to incorporate many of the research studies
propounded by ESL practitioners. These approaches have proved to give students the ability to
rationalize what information is needed and, thereby, to make them conscious of the intent and
content of the lessons presented to them.

Although these kinds of learning appear to be widely used across age groups, reported
evidence of their use in college classes has rarely been found. This article describes the
implementation of deductive and inductive methods for two lessons I actually observed
of 30 Saudi freshmen students who participated in this study. This paper discusses the
identification of the instructional goals along with the cognitive tasks by which students
internalize the concepts taught. The study concludes with some pedagogical
recommendations for ESL teachers to consider.

Introduction
Research into language learning has considerably enriched our understanding of the processes
that take place in the classroom and the factors that influence them. Most researchers agree
that, for optimal learning to occur, students need to exert a conscious effort to learn. Their
teachers should activate the students' minds spontaneously and involve them in problem
solving and critical thinking (Stoller, 1997). According to Anderson's (1990) cognitive theory,
learners are better able to understand details when they are subsumed under a general
concept. Anderson further states that the quality of learning depends on how well the basic
concept is anchored. In short, greater stability of the basic concepts results in greater learning.

A number of research studies have reported that learners need ample opportunities for
communication use so that they can integrate separate structures into given concepts
for expressing meanings. Spada & Lightbown (1993) hold that thinking skills operate
effectively when students voice their analysis and take part in the learning process
occurring in the classroom. Methodologists also argue that learners in the classroom
should experience creative reflections through which the teacher probes their
understanding to elicit answers for the questions he or she poses. In this way, students
can lay the foundations for their internal representation of the target language, which
can allow effective learning to function properly (Pica, 1994). Many researchers such as
Chaudron (1988) further document the benefits of involving students in the learning
process. These investigators found that students taught by teachers who actively
involved them in lessons achieved at higher rates than those in traditional classes.
The effectiveness of deductive and inductive approaches, aiming at maximizing the
students' opportunity to practice thinking skills, has been investigated in empirical

studies.Deductive learning is an approach to language teaching in which learners are

taught rules and given specific information about a language. Then, they apply these
rules when they use the language. This may be contrasted with inductive learning in
which learners are not taught rules directly, but are left to discover - or induce - rules
from their experience of using the language (Richards et al, 1985). Harmer (1989)
ascertains that these two techniques encourage learners to compensate for the gap in
their second language knowledge by using a variety of communication strategies. A
number of research studies, likewise, has reported that successful learners often adopt
certain learning strategies such as seeking out practice opportunities or mouthing the
questions put to other learners (Peck, 1988). Inductive and deductive models offer this
chance to learners because these two models foster a cooperative atmosphere among
students. According to Celce-Murcia et al (1997), the communicative classroom
provides a better environment for second language learning than classrooms dominated
by formal instruction.
Thus, it is not at all surprisingly that deductive and inductive approaches have met with
such enthusiasm; they are intuitively very appealing. Students can learn best once they
have achieved basic comprehension and can accept feedback in the form of their
production in meaningful discourse. There must be opportunities when students in the
classroom use language to communicate ideas and not just listen to their teachers.
Learning deductively and inductively is among the communicative approaches that
encourage students to communicate fluently.
In Section 1 and 2 that follow, I report briefly on the process of two lessons; one an
inductive grammar lesson, the other, a deductive grammar lesson. This is then followed
in Section 3 with a pedagogical overview of issues that arose from my observation of
these two lessons.

1. The Features of the Inductive Technique Used in a Grammar Lesson

The lesson begins by confronting the students with a stimulating problem, and they are then told
to find out how it can be resolved. The confrontation is initiated first verbally, then the teacher
writes a group of words on the board linked to the oral discussion he conducts. As the students
react, the teacher draws their attention to the significant points he wants to present through his
questioning. When the students become interested in, and committed to the lesson, and begin
to offer reasoned interaction amongst themselves and with the teacher, the latter is able to lead
them towards formulating and structuring the problem for themselves. Finally, the students
analyze the required concept and report their results. <3>
1.1. The Lesson Plan
a. Concept to be developed:

How adding "-ing" to an English word consisting of one syllable can change its spelling.
b. Instructional Goals

(i) Students will construct the rule that when adding "-ing" to words, the final consonant
is doubled if preceded by a short vowel sound, but not if preceded by a long vowel
sound.

(ii) Students will provide the teacher with examples that show their understanding of the
rule.

1.2. Report on the Cognitive Underpinnings of the Lesson

a. Concept Formation
Introduction
Step 1: The teacher started his lesson with a warm-up exercise making students recognize the
difference between a short vowel sound and a long vowel sound. He gave examples of short
vowels like: /e/ as in get, /i/ as in bin, /A/ as in but, and long vowels /ee/ as in meet, /oo/ as in
moon, /ai/ as in my.
Data presentation
Step 2: The teacher continued the lesson by writing relevant words on the board that contain
short vowels and long vowels such as:

cut, wed, map

yawn, fight, tour

He prompted the students to respond to what he had written by asking several questions, such
as:

Phonetically speaking, can you tell me something about these words?

Which words belong together? Why? How would you group these words?

What did you notice?

These open-ended questions got all the students to participate; thus, students' attention was
constantly maintained.
b. Interpretation
Step 3: Identifying Critical Relationship: The teacher posed questions that were
focused on the notion that all the verbs concerned had one syllable, some of which

contain short vowels whilst others contain long vowels. After eliciting good answers for
the questions posed, he then added additional letters to the written words that, again, led
the students to reconsider their decisions. The list on the board appeared as follows:

cutting, wedding, mapping

yawning, fighting, touring

Again, the teacher generated new observations and discussion that made the students see the
difference and identify the critical relationship between words containing short vowels and their
spelling in their present participle form. Some of the probing questions he asked were as
follows:

What happened to the words after adding "-ing"?

What does this tell us? What can we conclude about similar verbs?

As the lesson proceeded, the process of observing and describing evolved naturally into making
comparisons and inferences. Thus, the students reached the desirable conclusion their teacher
wanted them to comprehend and apply.
c. Applications of Principles
Step 4: Having made students understand the rule, the teacher instructed them to relate
what they found out in the lesson and to give him examples of their own. Then, he
divided the class into several groups and had them ask each other to verify the rule and
give reasons for their verification. Finally, an assignment was given to be turned in and
discussed for the next day. This assignment consisted of a short story containing
numerous examples of the structure concerned, and students were asked to identify the
relevant verbs, explain their meanings, and present them in various forms (first person
present continuous, gerund, third person past continuous, see figure 1 and cf. Azar,
1993).
Common Uses of the Structure

Figure 1

2. The Features of the Deductive Technique Used in a Vocabulary Lesson

This model is the inductive model's counterpart. The lesson begins by a presentation in which
the teacher introduces the concept to be taught directly. The students should not have difficulty
digesting the concept due to the teacher's clarification of it. To reinforce students' understanding
and make sure that the students are following, the teacher writes examples and non-examples
of the concepts on the board. An explanation is offered as to what the rule entails, and students
are given the task of identifying the correct examples. Finally, the teacher asks students to
generate their own examples, and report back their findings to the class.
2.1. The Lesson Plan #2
a. Concepts to be Developed:
The definition of antonyms and synonyms, and the difference between them.
b. Instructional Goals:

(i) Students will compare word pairs, namely antonyms and synonyms, and the
distinction between them.

(ii) Students will provide the teacher with examples that show their understanding of the
concepts.

2.2. Report on the Cognitive Underpinnings of the Lesson

a. Presentation of the abstraction
Step 1: In this phase, the teacher stated the objective of the lesson clearly by defining
the concepts and applying them to adjectives with which the students were familiar. The
definition were like this:

Synonym is a word pair that means the same. (wealthy, rich)

Antonym is a word pair that means the opposite. (strong, weak)

Next, he displayed the following structural outline on the overhead projector to capture the
students' attention, (see figure 2).

Figure 2
b. Interpretation

Step 2: The abstraction was further illustrated with a number of examples. The teacher
first wrote words on the board in two columns, using adjectives like famous, cause,
confused, alive, upset, wonderful, reason, well-known, dead, calm,
lost, and terrible.These words represented a variety of adjectives which could be sorted
out into synonym or antonym word-pairs. He then proceeded to ask students whether
the words belonged - or did not belong - to the concepts of antonym and synonym as
had been explained at the beginning of the lesson. He asked students to use their
knowledge to match the adjectives, asking questions like:

Do these two words "reason", "alive" belong together?

What matches the word lost?

What can we say about words like famous and well-known?

Using our new understanding of word-pairs, what can we deduce about a word-pair
like dead and alive?

c. Applications of the Abstraction:

Step 3: This phase is identical to the application phase of Step 4 in the inductive
previous lesson. Students were asked to provide additional examples of the concepts on
their own. The teacher asked the students saying:

Who can give me more examples of synonyms?

Who can give me more examples of antonyms?

Step 4: The lesson ended with the teacher asking the students to sum up what they
learned throughout the lesson saying:

Today, we have learned about word pairs which are divided into ... and ... . Synonyms
mean ... and antonyms mean .... Examples of synonyms are ... ,... and examples of
antonyms are ...,... .
Finally, an assignment was given to them to be turned in next day. This consisted of a
story written by the teacher, rich in similar and contrasting adjectives. The students were
asked to find the synonyms and antonyms contained in the story, and to match them.

3. Pedagogical Considerations
It was obvious that the development of thinking and linguistic skills was the major pedagogical
goal of both techniques, inductive and deductive. As the teacher embarked on the lesson and
classified examples, students were encouraged to hypothesize, compare, construct, and
generate. Students' participation in both models indicated their comprehension of the

information being presented. Hence, it is possible to proclaim, in the light of the above study,
that these two strategies can spur students to have confidence in their target language and
exploit it for communicative ends. Both techniques relied on clear examples and both depended
on the active involvement of the teachers in guiding their students' learning. If used properly,
both strategies would play an efficient role in helping learners develop both fluency of behavior
and understanding of the foreign linguistic system.

However, it is safe to say that an inductive method involves students more in

an analyticalstudy of the language than the deductive method does. In addition, from my
observation of the lesson in question, this method seems to be highly motivating and
extremely beneficial for the students' understanding of the materials presented to them.
The thinking skills that students employed in the inductive model were far more
demanding than those used with the deductive model. This observation brings with it
the issue of whether or not it requires more experienced and advanced students. Its
effectiveness also counts on the teacher as an active leader in guiding students when
they process the information.
The deductive model, on the other hand, is less open-ended than the inductive model,
and, consequently, it sacrifices some of the motivational characteristics inherent in an
inductive technique. It seemed to me, from my comparison of the process and the
product of the two lessons that the attraction to a sense of the unknown - which is
intrinsic within the inductive method - is lost in the deductive model. Hence, it was
difficult, sometimes, for the teacher to recapture the attention of the student who had
momentarily wandered.
But the above conclusions do not negate the fact that both techniques, inductive and
deductive, are worth consideration by all language teachers. Effective use of these
strategies would enable teachers to experiment with their teaching methods in order to
seek improved performance by their students.

References

Anderson, J. (1990) Cognitive Psychology and its Implications. New York: W. H.

Freeman.

Azar, B.S. (1993) Chartbook: A Reference Grammar \ Understanding and Using English
Grammar (2nd Edition). Prentice Hall Regents.

Celce-Murcia, M., Dornyei, Z., & Thurrell, S. (1997) Direct Approaches in L2 Instruction:
A Turning Point in Communicative Language Teaching? TESOL Quarterly, 31: 141-152

Chaudron, C. (1988) Second Language Classroom, Cambridge Applied Linguistics.

Harmer, J. (1989) Teaching and Learning Grammar. Longman.

Peck, A. (1988) Language Teachers at Work, Prentice Hall: International English

Language Teaching.

Pica, T. (1994) Questions From the Language Classroom: Research Perspective.

TESOL Quarterly, 28(1): 49-79.

Richards, J., Platt, J., & Weber, H. (1985) Longman Dictionary of Applied
Linguistics.Longman.

Spada, N., & Lightbown, P. (1993) Instruction and Development of Questions in the L2
classroom. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15:205-224.

Stoller, F. L., (1997) Project Work: A Means to Promote Language Content. English
Teaching Forum. Vol. 35/4.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 10, October 2000
http://iteslj.org/

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Al-Kharrat-Deductive/
Using Cooperative Learning to Integrate Thinking and Information Technology in a ContentBased Writing Lesson
Gabriel Tan (Xinmin Secondary School, Singapore)
gmjacobs [at] pacific.net.sg
Patrick B Gallo (SEAMEO Regional Language Centre)
George M Jacobs (SEAMEO Regional Language Centre)
Christine Kim-Eng Lee (Nanyang Technological University)

Abstract
Cooperative learning can be defined as a range of concepts and techniques for enhancing the
value of student-student interaction. The article begins with separate discussions of how
cooperative learning promotes effective instruction of thinking skills and creativity, and of
information technology. Thinking skills and creativity are promoted when students interact with
their peers to brainstorm, explain, question, disagree, persuade, and problem-solve.
Cooperative learning offers many tools for structuring this type of thinking interaction.
Educational applications of information technology are enhanced by peer interaction in
cooperative learning groups, as students can engage in peer tutoring, model effective
behaviours, communicate electronically, and take on a range of roles while working at the
computer.

Next, the authors describe a content-based writing lesson for secondary school
students in Singapore in which cooperative learning is integrated with thinking and
creativity, and with information technology. Explanations are provided of how key
cooperative learning concepts are embodied in the lesson. Materials used in the lesson
are made available.

Introduction
In this article, we present a blending of three important trends in education: cooperative learning
(CL), thinking and creativity (TC), and information technology (IT). Elsewhere, authors of this
paper have considered the integration of cooperative learning with TC (Lee, Ng, & Jacobs,
1998) and with IT (Jacobs, Ward, & Gallo, 1997). Below, we briefly review key elements of
cooperative learning and then describe some of its links with thinking and creativity and
information technology. The main part of the article consists of a description of a Singapore
secondary school Geography/English lesson taught by the first author in which cooperative
learning, thinking and creativity, and information technology were woven together.

Singapore has a bilingual education policy in which from primary school the medium of
instruction is English, with students studying their mother tongue (usually Malay,
Mandarin, or Tamil) as a subject. The secondary school at which the lesson was used is
what in Singapore is called a neighbourhood school. This is the type that most students
attend, rather than autonomous or independent schools that are more selective as to
whom they admit. Students attend secondary school from approximately 13-16 years of
age. Class size is normally about 40 students. The normal period lasts 35 minutes.

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning can be defined as a variety of concepts and techniques for enhancing the
value of student-student interaction. In one well-known operationalization of cooperative
learning (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1993), key concepts include:
1. Positive interdependence - the feeling among a group of students that they sink or swim
together, i.e., that what helps one helps all, and that what hurts one hurts all.
2. Individual accountability - the feeling among a group that each member is responsible for
their own learning as well as that of their groupmates.
3. Collaborative skills - these skills, that students need to cooperate successfully, often
must be explicitly taught.
4. Processing group interaction - time spent for groups to think about how well they have
collaborated and how to enhance their future collaboration.
5. Heterogeneous grouping - students working with groupmates who are different from
them on such variables as sex, past achievement, ethnicity, and diligence.

Research on cooperative learning (Bossert, 1988-1989; Cohen, 1994; Johnson & Johnson,
1989; Sharan, 1980; Slavin, 1995) across a wide range of academic subject areas and age
groups suggests that the use of cooperative learning may be associated with gains on the
following variables:
1. Achievement
2. Liking for school
3. Inter-ethnic relations
4. Thinking skills
5. Self-esteem.
6. Enjoyment

Cooperative Learning and Thinking and Creativity

Cooperative learning is believed to promote thinking and creativity in many ways (Hythecker,
Dansereau, & Rocklin, 1988; Qin, Johnson, & Johnson, 1995; Webb, 1989), including:
1. Compared to a whole class format, in cooperative learning, students have more
opportunities to talk and to share ideas. This interaction with groupmates encourages
students to restructure their ideas. For instance, they may need to summarize,
elaborate, exemplify, defend, and explain their ideas.
2. Disagreement, if carried out constructively, pushes students to clarify and rethink their
ideas, potentially leading to cognitive restructuring.
3. By working in groups, students enjoy more opportunity to see how their peers think and
create new ideas. Witnessing this process can provide useful models.
4. Discussing, creating, and thinking in a group, rather than in a whole class context, can
provide a less anxiety-producing context. If groupmates feel positively interdependent
with one another, a supportive atmosphere can develop. In such an atmosphere,
students may feel more free to try out new ideas.
5. The multiple perspectives of others in their heterogeneous groups may spark new ideas
in students' minds.
6. The greater achievement that cooperative learning can foster provides students with a
stronger knowledge base from which to explore concepts.

Cooperative Learning and Information Technology

The use of groups (most of the cooperative learning literature recommends groups of 2-4
students) is advocated for information technology-based learning by several educators

(Beauvois, 1998; Braine, 1998; Chang & Smith, 1991; Johnson & Johnson, 1985; Warschauer,
1996, 1997). Potential advantages of student collaboration during IT lessons include:
1. Computers can isolate students -- think of the stereotype of the computer nerd, locked
alone in a room all day staring at a computer screen, whereas cooperative learning
brings a social element to information technology-based learning.
2. Because computers offer a variety of engaging, multi-media ways for obtaining large
amounts of information, e.g., CD-ROMs and web sites, students are now less dependent
on teachers for information, and instead can work together to find and share knowledge.
All the same benefits of cooperative learning presented above in the normal classroom
apply equally in information technology -based lessons.
3. Cooperative learning helps students learn with computers, and, at the same time,
computers furnish students new ways to collaborate with others, such as email,
networked computers, and sharing of diskettes.
Student-student collaboration can take place at four points during Iinformation technology
-based lessons.
1. Prior to working with computers, students can discuss concepts in the lesson and
plan what they will do.
2. While using computers, students can discuss - either orally or via computer - what they
are working on and can take different roles, e.g., keyboard captain and navigator, if they
are at the same computer. Also, while one or more group members is at a computer,
others can be engaged in aspects of their group's work that do not involve IT.
3. During a pause in computer use, students can analyze what they have learned and
done, share information with others, and plan their next steps.
4. After using computers, students can again analyze and share what they have learned
and done, as well as what they need to do next.

Lesson Plan - Using the Internet for Pre-Writing

Subject / Focus : Geography/ English Language / Narrative Writing
Level : Secondary 3 Express
Topic : Endangered Species (Various Issues)
Duration : 8 periods (four of which are computer-based)
Grouping : Groups of 4 mixed in terms of past achievement and sex
Prerequisites:
1. Pupils should be familiar with word processing software (MS Word), web browsers, and
WWW search engines.

2. Pupils have studied the first person narrative genre - including setting, characterisation,
and plot development - and the teacher and class have looked at model texts and jointly
constructed a text in that genre.
What is K-W-L

K-W-L (Ogle, 1986) is a three-step reading technique that fosters active reading, used
mainly for expository texts.
1. K - what I Know - the teacher leads students in brainstorming what they already know
about a topic and how they have acquired this information. The teacher then helps
students to put these ideas into more general categories.
2. W - what I Want to know - As the students think about the topic and the general
categories of information, they generate questions about aspects of the topic about
which they would like to know more.
3. L - what I've Learned - The students read a text (print or electronic) to find answers to
their questions. During reading, students record the new knowledge that they have
learned in the respective categories. They can continue to find answers to unanswered
questions after the lesson via further reading or other forms of research.
Learning Environment
1. Room with about 20 computers for individual research
2. Multimedia computers and one projector
Lesson Procedure
Pre-Writing
Starter

The teacher explains to the class that in this unit they will write a first person narrative
essay from the point of view of an endangered animal. Students will each write using
one of the following frameworks:
(a) A day in the life on an endangered animal
(b) My most memorable experience as a (name of endangered animal, e.g., juvenile
panda, etc)
(c) My most frightening experience as a (name of endangered animal, e.g., Bengal
tiger)

(d) Any other suitable first person narrative framework suggested by students
The teacher then explains that in pairs the students will make use of the WWW to do
research on an endangered species of their choice (Each pair will work on an animal
they agree upon.) During their research, they are to search for relevant information
pertinent to the setting, characters, and plot of their stories)
Class Discussion
In the initial class discussion, the teacher seeks to familiarise students with the 'K'; part
of K-W-L, particularly how they can generate categories for use later in their Internet
research. To do this, the teacher selects one endangered animal - the tiger - and asks
students to contribute whatever knowledge they already have on tigers. The teacher
then puts these contributions on a MS Word document which is projected on a screen
for all students to see. The advantage of carrying out this procedure on a word
processor lies in the mobility of the texts - the teacher can 'cut and paste' students'
contributions and move them around. Once students have contributed their prior
knowledge about the tiger, the teacher helps the students to rearrange their ideas into
categories. They should be able to generate at least the following categories:

(a) Physical Characteristics

(b) Natural Habitats

(c) Diet

(d) Social Habits (Mating, Hierarchy, etc)

(e) Reasons why they are endangered

(f) Ways and efforts to save them

(This part constitutes the K of K-W-L)

The teacher explains that these categories can be used as 'handles' in their Internet
research, whatever endangered species they choose. Armed with these categories,
students can later return to do the 'K'; step for the animal chosen by their pair.
Groupwork (On the Computer)
The teacher provides a list of four endangered animal species. Each student chooses
one to learn more about, and the teacher assigns students to pairs so as to create

groups that are heterogeneous as to English proficiency, and, if possible, sex. Students
then visit the World Wildlife Foundation site, which has a list of endangered species, to
survey the range of animals that are currently on the 'threatened' list:
http://www.panda.org/resources/publications/species/threatened/index.htm
See Lesson Handout, Appendix A)
Pairwork (Cooperative Learning Write-Pair-Share)
Using one K-W-L Strategy Sheet per person and the categories generated in the K part
of the K-W-L procedure, each member of the pair uses the K column to record their own
prior knowledge on the endangered animal their group has chosen. Group members
then compare information and generate questions in the W column on whatever else
they want to know about the endangered animal. Each member then decides which
questions they are most interested in having answered. This develops a personal
commitment that will guide the reading. The teacher asks some students to share with
the class what some of these questions are.
Groupwork (Research on the computer)
Using these questions, students surf the WWW using the teacher-reviewed WWW
URLs to search for relevant information and record this on their K-W-L strategy sheet.
(The teacher captured the files using software called Net Attache
Light. This can be downloaded from the web at:
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/tools/ibmpc/attache.) Each member of the pair will search sites
different from their partner's to enlarge the coverage of the research (see Lesson
Handout - Appendix A). Students record findings under the L column of their K-W-L
sheets.
Groupwork (Cooperative Learning Write-Pair-Square-Share):
Students share their findings and answers to the self-generated questions with their
partners. Partners find another pair who are studying the same animal and the four
students compare their discoveries. Teacher selects a few students to very briefly
present some of their findings to the class. Also, students share what questions are still
unanswered after their research and encourage whoever might have answers to these
questions to share their what they've found with the class.
Individual (Research on the computer)

Using a search engine (e.g., Yahoo, Infoseek), each student does a 'category' search to
look for more WWW sites that might provide answers to unanswered questions.
Writing
Homework

Using a sample narrative composition (See Appendix B), the teacher points out how
information gathered during research can be integrated into elements of the narrative.
Students work on the first draft of their essays using ideas gathered during their
research. (Teacher may need to offer additional help to students who still have difficulty
relating their research to their essays' setting, characters, and plot.) Students type out
their essays. Graphics may be added.
Groupwork (Peer Feedback)
The essays are peer-reviewed by groupmates according to a suggested peer review
checklist (See Appendix A). Peer reviewers make use of the 'Tools - Track Changes'
and 'Insert Comments' functions in MS Word97 to colour-code whatever comments or
revisions they make to their partners' essays. Essays are returned to the authors for
revising. When revisions have been made, the same groupmate proofreads.
Students, next, are to find one person not in the class to read their story. The goal here
is to provide feedback on the clarity and affective impact of the text, as well as to
educate others about endangered species. Readers' reactions are reported to
groupmates. Afterwards, further revisions can be made. Together with the K-W-L
strategy sheets, the essays are submitted for marking. Reviewers' names are listed on
the essays as editors.

Positive Interdependence and Individual Accountability

In this lesson, positive interdependence is encouraged in several ways: in the pair step
of Write-Pair-Share, students exchange information which they might later be called
upon to share with the entire class; the two members of each pair share roles as they
use their one computer to search for information; again, in Write-Pair-Square-Share
students are asked to pass on information provided by their partner; and students serve
as and are listed as editors of their groupmates' essays. Individual accountability is
fostered when students work alone in the Write steps of Write-Pair-Share and WritePair-Square-Share, in the Square and the Share steps when they are asked to
demonstrate that they understood what their partners have told them, and in the essay

writing in which each student must produce their own drafts and give feedback on
others' drafts.
Collaborative Skills
The collaborative skill of giving praise is taught in this lesson. The rationale for praising
is presented, phrases or gambits to use in praising are reviewed (Appendix A), and the
need for praise to be specific is emphasized. It is suggested that during the peer-review
of essays, when each reviewer gives feedback according to the peer-review checklist,
would be a particular apt time for giving praise on aspects of good writing or good ideas
in the essays they review. Their remarks of praise are colour-coded when they make
use of the 'Tools - Track Changes' function of MS Word97.This skill is selected because
these students often look only for the negative in providing peer feedback.
Processing Group Interaction
The students are given time to discuss how well their group is working together. This
processing of group interaction helps groups learn how to collaborate more effectively.
In this lesson, students will be asked to process how well they and their partners have
given praise to each other. When the writing task has been completed, they do this by
looking again at both the praises they made in their partners' writing and the praises
given to them by their peer reviewer. They count the number of incidents where praise
was given and assess whether they have been specific in their praising. Their task here
is made easier by the fact that they have earlier colour-coded their feedback when peerreviewing their partners work on MS Word.
Assessment
Each student's K-W-L strategy sheet is marked for evidence of the student's ability to
classify knowledge and questions in suitable categories. Essays are marked for
evidence of having applied researched information in the development of setting,
character, and plot. In addition, essays are evaluated for language use, particularly for
one or two grammatical items on which the teacher wanted students to. The checklist
below shows assessment criteria used.
Language Items
Descriptive adjectives to
show details

Linking words of time to

show sequence
Appropriate past tenses
Realistic setting
Believable characters
Problem-resolution
sequence
Use of information
gathered during Internet
search

Students' grades are not affected by the grades of their groupmates' essays, and peer
assessment does not enter into grading, but both these are options worthy of
consideration.
Extension / Sponge Activity / Next Lesson
Beyond the narrative writing lesson, students may wish to become electronic activists
and write petition or letters on behalf of the animal the persona of which they had taken
on to governmental bodies, corporations, etc. urging them, for example, to step up
action to stop illegal trading in endangered animal parts. Students' narrative texts can
be sent along with the letters. If replies are obtained to the letters, these should be
reported to the class.
Places to send such letters or petitions include:
To the Norweigan government Sign a petition to protect lynx at:
http://www.lynx.uio.no/jon/lynx/lynxform.htm
To the Feedback Unit, Ministry of Environment (Singapore) Email to Feedback_UNIT@MCD.GOV.SG
Students later report whether they have received a response.

Apart from writing these petition letters, students may also search for other ways they
can help protect endangered species, especially ways that involve writing. A range of
possibilities await at environmental groups' websites, such as the World Wildlife Fund's
Homepage.
Make endangered species a vivid presence in the lives of people. Make it clear that
every endangered species has a name, has a million-year history, has a place in the
world. Bring us face-to-face with each one of those species. Make us know that they
are our companions in the biosphere. They are not just something out there you look at
once in a while, but they're a part of our existence ... they are a part of us. ~Edward O.
Wilson (biologist and environmentalist)

References

Beauvois, M. H. (1998). Conversations in slow motion: Computer-mediated

communication in the foreign language classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review,
54, 198-217.

Bossert, S.T. 1988-1989. Cooperative activities in the classroom. Review of Research in

Education, 15, 225-252.

Braine, G. (1998). Teaching writing on Local Area Networks. In C. S. Ward & W. A.

Renandya (Eds.), Computers and language learning (pp. 63-76). Singapore: SEAMEO
Regional Language Centre.

Chang, K.-Y. R., & Smith, W. F. (1991). Cooperative learning and CAAL/IVD in beginning
Spanish: An experiment. Modern Language Journal, 75, 205-211.

Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small

groups. Review of Educational Research, 64, 1-35.

Hythecker, V. I., Dansereau, D. F., & Rocklin, T. R. (1988). An analysis of the processes
influencing the structured dyadic learning environment. Educational Psychologist, 23,2337.

Jacobs, G. M., Ward, C. S., & Gallo, P. B. (1997). The dynamics of digital groups:
Cooperative learning in IT-based language instruction. Teaching of English Language
and Literature, 13(2), 5-8.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1985, October). Cooperative learning: one key to
computer assisted learning. The Computing Teacher, 11-15.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1993). Circles of learning (4th ed.).
Edina, MI: Interaction Book Company.

Johnson, D. W., and Johnson, R. T. 1989. Cooperation and competition: theory and
research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Lee, C., Ng, M., & Jacobs, G. M. (1998). Cooperative learning in the thinking classroom.
In M. L. Quah & W. K. Ho (eds.), Thinking processes: Going beyond the
surface curriculum (pp. 223-237). Singapore: Simon & Schuster.

Ogle, D. (1986, February). The Reading Teacher, 564-570.

Qin, Z., Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T. (1995) Cooperative versus competitive efforts
and problem solving, Review of Educational Research, 65(2), 129-143.

Sharan, S. 1980. Cooperative learning in small groups: Recent methods and effects on
achievement, attitudes and ethnic relations. Review of Educational Research 50: 241271.

Slavin, R. E., 1995. Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and

practice (2nded.).Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice

(Research Note No. 17). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, Second Language Teaching
and Curriculum Center.

Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and

practice. Modern Language Journal, 81, 470-481.

Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups. International Journal
of Educational Research, 13, 21-39.

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Singapore
Educational Research Association, November, 1998, Singapore
The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. V, No. 8, August 1999
http://iteslj.org/

LESSON PLAN DESIGN

H. Jurgen Combs

PLEASE NOTE
This section of my web page is currently being updated so it may look a less coherent
- thank you for your understanding.

NOTE - as you go through the material on lesson plans development, it will generally work
best if you hit the BACK arrow at the top of your browser window - that way you are able to
go back to the spot from which you linked to the new page. If course, you can also use the
links at the bottom of each page.

PLANNING*
Planning involves several stages; the major two with which we are concerned at this
point is UNIT PLANNING and LESSON PLANNING. Unit planning will be covered at a

later point; at this stage, we will deal with individual lesson plan design.
At the Pre-Planning stage, before you actually plan your lesson, be sure you have sufficient information
about the students' past and present knowledge and achievement levels. Much of the research indicates that
students who are not successful in learning a lesson fail to learn because they lack the pre-requisite skills.

Try to visualize your lesson from beginning to end:

what materials will be needed

how much time does the lesson take

is the lesson appropriate for the students' level of comprehension

are you addressing a variety of learning styles and teaching at more than the basic level of recall

are you comfortable with the content - do you know the content well enough to teach it

At the Active Planning Stage, you are at the point where content - WHAT you will teach, becomes very
important.
We will be using the HUNTER Model for the planning of our lessons; Madeline Hunter
taught at the lab school at UCLA and was very involved in researching the methods that
good teachers use in presenting their lessons. Dr. Hunter developed a planning model
which will become clear later; the model of the lesson plan that you will use is based on
her work.
Your lesson plan is intended to serve as YOUR guide when you teach the lesson; consequently, vague statements
in your plans similar to the following are not going to assist you, "I will review the steps to develop a database."
If the purpose of the lesson plan is to help insure proper planning and appropriate delivery of the lesson, you
must think about the steps that students need to follow and then include those steps in your plan. The latter is
especially important in light of our limited working memory; when we are teaching, we are expected to be aware
of everything that is occurring in the room (Kounin's with-it-ness or situational awareness) as well keep a focus
on the lesson. That requires that the lesson serve as a guide in case our working memory gets overwhelmed and it will! Consequently, you must list the steps that are involved in the process.
Similarly, when you "review" at the beginning of the lesson, writing a vague statement such as "I will review the
basic facts in American history" there will be little guidance. Obviously, if you write a sentence like that, you
have some idea of what you want to cover; however, you must list those points that you want to cover to insure
that they come in proper sequence, that you have not omitted any that are crucial to the lesson, and that serve as
a guide when your working memory is taxed to its limits.
Also note that that the focus in review and closure of your lesson is on the student - it is much more appropriate
to write it as follows, "I will ask students to explain the major reasons for the break away from England,
including: no representation in decision making, the Quartering Act, and the lack of perceived religious
freedom." Note that there may be other reasons for the break, however these would have been the ones that were

stressed in class and which are key in understanding today's lesson.

Before we look at individual lesson planning, let's consider some of the important aspect
of the process in which you will be involved before you start filling out the daily lesson
plan.
As you begin to plan, consider the following:

1. CONTENT - is the content to be learned appropriate for this group of learners?

2. LEARNER BEHAVIOR
o input - how can this content best be delivered to these students?
o output - how can the learning that has taken place be validated?
3. TEACHER BEHAVIOR - what can the teacher do to increase the likelihood that
these students will learn?

o motivation theory

levels of concern

feeling/tone

success/level of difficulty

interest

knowledge of results

extrinsic/intrinsic rewards

o retention theory

meaning

degree of original learning

feeling tone

positive transfer

practice

meaning

modeling

monitoring

how much?

how long?

how often?

how well?

o reinforcement theory

positive

negative

extinction

schedule

o transfer theory

similarity

association

degree of original learning

critical attributes

4. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE - is the content to be learned stated specifically and

in terms of observable student behavior?
The importance of good planning cannot be overemphasized. There are many signs
which provide signals that are likely to reveal a network of related problems that will be
evident in the classroom throughout the year.
PLANNING involves several components. During the course of your lesson you will be

involved in the following:

Content analysis

Diagnosis

Prescription

Instruction

Evaluation
This is a cycle which will continue every day during the year.

LESSON PLAN DESIGN

While there are some variations in lesson plan designs as well as frequency of review of
plans, all lesson plans contain some common characteristics which are outlined below. As
you begin your teaching career, you will spend a considerable amount of time
on planning; you will be able to decrease the time needed as you become more familiar
with the content, the pedagogy as well as the terms used in lesson plan design. Good
planning can prevent many problems.

LESSON PLANNING PROCESS

Planning involves the teacher deciding what and how the students should learn; involved
in the planning process are the following components:

DISTRICT/STATE/NATIONAL GOALS

KNOWLEDGE OF THE LEARNER

KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER

KNOWLEDGE OF TEACHING METHODS

At the end of each lesson, it is important for the teacher to EVALUATE the lesson; this is
also referred to as reflective teaching.

What to look for in the problem solving lesson *

describe for the student the terminal performance which will constitute the
solution to the problem.

assess the student's entering behavior for mastery of concepts and principles
needed to solve the problem.

invoke the recall of all relevant concepts and principles

provide verbal direction of the student's thinking, short of giving the solution to
the problem.

verify the student's learning by requiring a full demonstration of the problem

solution.

* DeCecco, J. P. The Psychology of Learning and Instruction. Prentice Hall, 1974 (second edition).

The format for a sample lesson plan can be reached by pointing your cursor at the
highlighted words and clicking. Each section of the lesson plan may be further explored
by clicking on the highlighted word. To get back to the lesson plan, simply click on the
BACK button at the top of the screen or click on the hypertext at the bottom of the page.

Putting it all Together

Several sample lesson plans can be found on this link; please note that these plans are
not perfect - they do, however, show several key ingredients of a well written lesson
plan. As you look at these plans, keep in mind the following minimal
expectations/requirements:

Objectives are clear - the result is observable and you know specifically what the
student is expected to do to be competent. The SOL is shown for objective. Are
there are a variety of cognitive levels represented in the objectives?

Look at the end of the plan - is closure specifically related to the objectives?
When the teacher asks the questions in the closure, will s/he have a more
accurate assessment of student competence with the objective?

Are the review questions specific to assist teacher in knowing clearly what
students remember from previous lessons, particularly those items that must be
known for today's lesson?

Does the lesson show specifically what the teacher will teach? Is the input and
modeling clear enough that you could take the lesson plan and teach the class?
Are sufficient examples provided for the student? Is there evidence of monitoring
student progress?

Does the guided practice offer the student the opportunity to truly practice what
has just been taught? Is there evidence of teacher monitoring? Is there evidence
of a "report" back to the class or some way that the teacher can check to see

how well the class is understanding the competence?

Is the independent practice truly practice or is it busy work? Will it help

students better understand the objectives?

Is there an indication in the assessment that the teacher is using a variety of

assessments - projects, written, oral, hands-on, etc?

Does the teacher appear to have thought through the material needed for the
successful teaching of the lesson and considered the need for necessary
instructional material and equipment?

jcombs@removethisphrasesu.edu
last updated on 27 May, 2008
H. Jurgen Combs