Can Post-Lecture CAD Screencasts Reduce Cognitive Load and

Foster Self-directed Learning in First Year Interior Design?

Tracey Dalton
Dublin School of Creative Arts, Dublin Institute of Technology

Abstract
This paper discusses a case study which explores the provision of post-lecture
Computer Aided Design (CAD) screencasts, for supporting classroom teaching, for
first year students on the BA Honours in Interior Design & Furniture at the Dublin
Institute of Technology.
When students choose to study interior design they have a perception that the
course will be primarily creative and artistic in nature. Art and design students tend to
lean towards divergent thinking tasks and have a propensity of not being aware of
new learning challenges such as technical drawing, model making, construction
studies and AutoCAD, which all require convergent thinking skills. The high workload
in first year and the requirement for students to be self-directed in their learning,
adds to their challenges. The screencast tutorials aimed to help students to
overcome these challenges when learning AutoCAD and facilitate convergent
thinking skills.
Seventeen students took part in the applied research project, nine first years and
eight second years completed a questionnaire, with four of the first years and two
second years, from the cohorts, also participated in focus group interviews. The
focus of the data collection was on the student learning experience in first year,
design thinking styles, and multimedia learning with specific attention given to the
AutoCAD screencasts, aligned with Mayers cognitive learning theory of multimedia
learning.
Findings suggest that the screencast tutorials do help to reduce cognitive load and
aid self-directed learning with these students, mainly because they can be used as a
revision tool when required by students, ahead of module assignments. Findings
showed that students do find technical tasks more challenging in first year, including
AutoCAD. Managing workload and becoming a self-directed learner were also
difficult for first year students. The two cohorts were compared and findings showed
that second year students had developed a more convergent thinking style, with a
realization of the need for designers to be both divergent and convergent thinkers in
equal measures. While there are limitations to the findings, due to the small scale
nature of the study, they recommend that the screencasts are a benefit to students
as a revision aid, and to teachers as an alternative or complement to classroom
teaching, at third level.
Keywords: Screencasts, CAD1, Interior Design, Cognitive load, Convergent
thinking, Divergent thinking, Self-directed learning.

CAD is a generic term for computer aided design software such as AutoCAD, Adobe Photoshop, Google
Sketchup and 3D StudioMax.

1. Introduction
Interior Design is studied at third level worldwide and would be considered to be
closely linked to Architecture. There is now more emphasis on valid qualifications
and research in the discipline than in the past. The current focus in interior design
education is on the importance of valuing design and nurturing creativity in society,
not just in the design workplace. (Design Education, 2014)
Internationally, eLearning has become a more predominant issue in art and design
disciplines, with the Designs on eLearning conference being an annual event since
2005, with key issues and current themes in design education discussed each year,
all with an emphasis on encouraging digital scholarship. In Ireland, eLearning would
not be predominantly used in teaching of interior design, as it is a visual and practical
discipline, although correspondence courses do exist, such as a final year top-up
degree in University of Wolverhampton. Design disciplines tend to necessitate faceto-face teaching in a studio setting, with the teacher and student relationship being
vital to nurture creativity and technical skills. In Ireland, interior design/architecture
courses are taught in a handful of institutions, offering QQI level 5,6,7 and 8
qualifications. The course at the centre of this research is a level 8 BA Honours
degree at DIT.
This case study assesses the provision of AutoCAD screencasts i.e. video of a
computer screen with real-time audio commentary (Green, Pinder-Grover & Mirecki
Millunchick, 2012, p.717) as a supplement to classroom teaching in first year Interior
Design & Furniture in Dublin Institute of Technology. AutoCAD is a commonly used
technical drawing and modelling software in Architecture and Engineering
disciplines. The majority of students come to the course with little or no experience of
AutoCAD and tend to be unaware of its importance for module assignments in the
course. There is a high workload on students in first year, with up to ten modules, all
with individual assignments and deadlines. Learning new technical skills, like CAD,
can be time consuming, adding to the workload. CAD screencasts can aid students
learning, by allowing them to revisit them when required, thus reducing cognitive
load (Seery & Donnelly, 2012, p. 668) and encouraging self-directed learning (Green
et al., 2012, p.717).
1.1 Background
AutoCAD, which is a 10 ECTS module in first year, has been taught on the BA
Honours in Interior Design & Furniture in DIT in a computer lab, for several decades.
It extends over the whole of the first year of the course and classroom contact is
three hours per week. The module is delivered in a constructivist manner, with a lab
based lecture followed by hand-outs with activities for students, accompanied by
written notes in digital format. Through building on what is already known (Carlile &
Jordan, 2005, p.21) from weekly faceto-face lectures and provision of screencasts,
the teacher accepts the autonomy of the student and instead acts as a facilitator or
mediator (Carlile et al. 2005, p.19) while the students complete the AutoCAD
activity. Over the last three years, over sixty CAD screencasts were produced to
support classroom teaching. CAD is used by students for two dimensional
orthographic drawing and three dimensional modelling and perspective views in their
design projects. It has been proven to be beneficial to learning to be given an
opportunity to revisit topics to strengthen retention by presenting material in more
2

than one form to facilitate transfer to long term memory (Carlile & Jordan, 2004,
p.18); hence the introduction of CAD tutorials in an audio-visual medium,
accompanied by written hand-outs, thus having the potential as Sweller (1988)
argues, to reduce cognitive load.
1.2 Context and Rationale
Learners in art/design tend to prefer conceptual, integrative and expressive modes
of thinking, but overlook or avoid analytical, critical and logical modes (Meneely,
2010, p.21). In first year, most interior design students possess inherent skills. They
tend be confident in producing workbooks, research, conceptual visual imagery and
sketching. They have usually learned these skills previously, in second level
education, or on post-leaving certificate courses. However, students tend not to be
confident with new learning challenges i.e. technical drawing, model making,
construction studies and CAD. Lawson, (as cited in Meneely, 2010, p.21) noted the
importance of convergent and divergent thinking in designers, stating it is probably
the designer who needs these two skills in the most equal proportions. Technical
skills, in this case AutoCAD, are important to overcome because they are essential
for industry; designers need to be both creatively and technically competent, and
hand drawing alone will not suffice for progression in interior design at third level.
An eLearning solution, in the form of screencasts, was introduced to ease the
workload for students when learning AutoCAD in first year. It was also introduced as
an additional teaching aid to the lecturer, to reassure that students understood the
lessons. This case study commenced in September 2014. Screencasts had proven
to be a very useful addition to face-to-face teaching for the previous academic year,
so it seemed an obvious path was to rigorously explore the benefits of the
introduction of an eLearning technology, when teaching AutoCAD.
1.3 Study Participants
Two cohorts of students were involved in this case study. They were the current first
year students, who were receiving the screencasts in the 2014/15 academic year;
and the current second year students, who received the same screencasts in their
first year of the course, which was the 2013/14 academic year. New screencasts
continue to be made, but the majority were the same for both cohorts. The student
cohort ranges from 18 to 26 years. Most of the students come from secondary
school, with some coming from post leaving certificate level 5 or 6 courses. There
were no male students in either cohort in this case study. There were 9 first year
respondents and 8 second year respondents out of a possible 12 respondents in
each cohort - therefore 17 students took part in total, with 16 students being under
23 years. Students enter the course with varying knowledge of CAD software, mainly
with Adobe Photoshop or SolidWorks, but very few have any knowledge of
AutoCAD. The same applies for other skills such as model making and technical
drawing.
1.4 Screencast Development
If people arent getting it, maybe its time to start telling stories they cant
forget or misunderstand (Udell, 2005b, p.34)

The provision of screencasts for this study stemmed from a history of use, beginning
with the teaching of perspective drawing to first year students. Perspective is difficult
to demonstrate manually on a drawing board when facilitating the learning of a group
of students. The students were predominantly part-time, so the use of screencasts
allowed them to work at home, as well as in studio. This combination of face-to- face
learning and use of screencasts produces a wraparound (Littlejohn & Pegler, 2007,
p.30) effect for students learning of skills, supporting their learning both inside and
outside of class. The one point perspective screencasts were made in five step-bystep parts, accompanied by printed handouts with notes, and this was very beneficial
to students as it can be difficult to remember all of the steps involved in the drawing.
Ruffini (2012) argues that seeing, for instance a step-by-step sequence in great
detail, or viewing a screencast video directly related to lesson content allows
students to learn by example. Having screencasts available enabled the teacher to
show them in class, then re-cap with the students and provide them with the
screencasts to view after class. This initial use lead on to the development of further
screencasts for the teaching of AutoCAD.
The screencasts for this study were produced using free downloadable software
called Hypercam, from Hyperionics.com. It has a simple dialogue box with a series
of tabs, (see Figure 1), which can be opened from a shortcut on the computer
desktop. It is a process of trial and error to synchronize the audio recording with the
image recording. The file produced is in an AVI (audio video interleave) format and
opened with Windows Media Player or similar software. The recording cannot be
edited, apart from the option to pause mid-capture, so has to be produced in one
take. The recording varied from two minutes to ten minutes, depending on the depth
of topic, and was not scripted, resulting in an informal presentation style. There is the
option to use a microphone when recording, however in this case, it worked
effectively without one for its purpose. The screencasts, with an example shown in
Figure 2, which shows the AutoCAD interface and a typical 3D CAD tutorial, were emailed weekly to the student cohort and were also accessible in the computer lab
through the college server. New screencasts continue to be made as new topics of
interest arise with teachers and students. AutoCAD screencasts are available online,
but it was thought that tutorials that related directly to classroom teaching would be
more beneficial for learning in first year.

Figure 1: The Hypercam Dialogue Box

Figure 2: Screenshot of an AutoCAD screencast

2. Aims and Objectives

This research study aimed to explore if provision of screencasts in a AutoCAD
module could help to reduce the cognitive load on first year students, due to the
heavy workload and introduction to new learning challenges in the discipline.
The following objectives of the study were set:

Explore students reflections on the first year learning experience in Interior

Design and ascertain what students consider to be the most challenging
aspects, which they had to overcome.
Investigate students design thinking styles.
Evaluate the screencasts as a resource in terms of benefits for students
learning of AutoCAD, the user experience and their fit for purpose nature,
whether they can help to reduce workload and foster self-directed learning in
first year and whether students would welcome more use of multimedia in
their learning.

As a result there are three key themes to be researched in this case study:

Student learning experience in first year, with exploration of design thinking

styles
Cognitive load
Multimedia learning

These themes are explored in the subsequent sections of the paper in looking for
answers to address them and support the context and rationale of the study, which
argues that the themes can have clear connections to each other.
3. Literature Review
The literature for this study, to investigate the provision of screencasts in an arts
based discipline reviewed the areas discussed below, which were triangulated in
order to achieve the aims and objectives completed.

3.1 First Year Learning Experience

The higher education first year learning experience has been explored in many
disciplines. A common theme in the literature, which is important in this research, is
that students may come to realise that their expectations are not met by reality
(Anderson, Peters, Halloran, Every, Shuttleworth, Liarokapis, Lane & Richards,
2012, p.1852). This may mean different things in different disciplines, such as
believing a games art degree will be practical and skills based, without looking at the
critical thinking and scholarship behind the technology (Tinwell, 2013, p.124). There
may be assumptions that net generation (Prensky, 2001) students are proficient in
the necessary ICT skills at third level, which has been proven to not always be the
case (Yang, Catterall, & Davis, 2013, p.640). Studies in higher education in Australia
(Krause, Hartley, James & McInnis, 2005) conducted over decades, have shown that
these issues are recurrent, although it has prepared third level institutions and
increased their awareness of students expectations. This current study looks into
the first year learning experience in this case and whether unrealistic expectations
effect learning challenges, through exploration of the themes discussed below.
3.2 Design Thinking
The term convergent thinking was coined by Guilford (1967) as the opposite of
divergent thinking. It is defined as the ability to give the correct answer to questions
which do not require much creativity, such as typical school tests and standardized
multiple choice intelligence tests. Divergent thinking is defined as coming up with
multiple solutions and ideas. An example of this would be the use of mind-mapping
to explore many solutions and see a bigger picture to a problem.
Research into design thinking has shown that divergent thinkers tend to be drawn to
the arts, (Hudson, 1966, as cited by Lawson, 2006) whereas convergent thinkers
prefer the sciences. Meneely (2010), tested thinking preferences of interior design
students, and Carmel-Gilfilen (2012), tested thinking and learning styles with interior
design and architecture students, with similar findings. Carmel-Gilfilen (2012, pg.47)
showed that learners were diverging and accommodating and Meneely (2010,
pg.21) argued they prefer conceptual, integrative and expressive modes of thinking,
but may overlook or avoid analytical, critical, and logical modes.
Lawson (2006), looked at thinking style research by Guilford (1967) which showed
that most tasks require both convergent and divergent thinking, but that the
distinctions can be valid and useful. Lawson acknowledged that, for the most part,
design is a divergent thinking task, but that there are aspects in the design process
which involve convergent thinking. Lawson (2006, p.143) believed that good
designers are able to develop and maintain several lines of thought in parallel.
Runco (2008) also believed that scientific testing equating divergent thinking with
creativity was questionable, with the divergent part of the design process naturally
producing many ideas, but they may not all be creative, original and workable ideas.
Therefore, there is the requirement for both types of thinking.
AutoCAD is a predominantly convergent thinking skill, which design students tend to
find challenging. This may be due to their thinking styles, which was investigated
through the questionnaire and focus group interview for this study. This may also
have a bearing on a learners ability to juggle several modules at once in first year, in
order to prepare the learner for the challenges of todays design industry.
6

3.3 Screencasting
The term screencast was coined by Jon Udell (2004, 2005, 2006), an analyst at
Microsoft, and is defined as a digitally recorded playback of a computer screen
output which often contains audio narration, to visually present procedural
information (Sugar, Brown & Luterbach, 2010, p.2). Jon Udell has written many
papers and articles on screencasting and is generally considered a leading expert in
their design and use. Common strands in the literature on screencasting in education
focus on a number of key areas: the technology itself (Sugar et al., 2010;
Winterbottom, 2007; Kopel, 2010); research with large lectures groups (Green,
Pinder-Grover & Mirecki Millunchick, 2011); assessing student creation of
screencasts (Farkas, 2013); student access and perception of screencasts (Rose,
2009); optional usage and subsequent effect (Green et al. 2012; Grabe &
Christopherson, 2008); talking with students through screencasting (Lee &
Thompson, 2012); and implementation to scaffold learning and reduce cognitive load
(Dalgarno, Pradhan & Lee, 2008).
A literature search found that disciplines researching the use of screencasts in
education tend to be science, technology, engineering and instructional design
focussed. There was also a prevalence of the use of quantitative, rather than
qualitative methods, which may correlate with the disciplines. In the design field,
Hardaker & Rushin (2012) have researched the use of screencasts as a supplement
to CAD teaching in fashion and textiles, with use of similar software and research
methods. Their focus is mainly on the curriculum, the software creation, and the
methods used are primarily quantitative.
This present study has a different lens on the use of screencasts. It is carried out
with a small number of students which allows for thicker qualitative descriptions, and
focusses more on the user experience of the screencasts and their benefits in
reducing cognitive load and fostering self-directed learning in first year interior
design.
3.4 Cognitive Load Theory
Key researchers on cognitive load theory and problem solving skills, include Sweller
(1988), Paas & Van Merrienboer (1994), Paas, Touvinen, Tabbers & Van Gerven
(2003a), and Paas, Renkl & Sweller (2003b and 2004). Sweller refers to three types
of cognitive load in his research, which are: intrinsic, extraneous and germane load.

Intrinsic load: this is affected by the learners unfamiliarity or the complexity of

learning material.
Extraneous load: this is affected by the organisation and design of the
learning material. Unnecessary or inconsequential additions to the material
will increase the extraneous load of the learner.
Germane load: this is affected by a combination of the two above. If a learner
can draw on previous knowledge of a subject and can release enough
working memory to process new knowledge, there is an ability to learn more.

Mayer (2009) took this research further and applied it to multimedia learning design.
He tested 12 principles under the three headings, renaming them essential
processing, extraneous processing and generative processing. Under the heading
of essential processing were the segmenting, pre-training and modality
7

principles; Under the heading of extraneous processing were the coherence,

signalling, redundancy, spatial contiguity and temporal contiguity principles; and
under the heading of generative processing were multimedia, personalization,
voice and image principles. These will be discussed further in the findings
sections of the research paper.
Summary
The aim of triangulating these four topics is to research the knock on effect each
area has on each other to answer the research question. The first year experience
has challenges which are affected by the thinking style of the learner, the cognitive
load placed on the learner due to heavy workload and new learning challenges.
Investigating literature on screencasting looks at whether some of these issues were
alleviated by screencast use in education.
4. Methodology
A case study approach was taken for this research, more specifically, what Stake (as
cited in Cousin, 2005, p.422) refers to as an intrinsic case study, which focussed on
the use of the screencasts for education over the first year of an interior design
course. An intrinsic case study was chosen as it was important to understand the
case in hand and generalise within it, thus learning from its interpretations through
student feedback. The research question and sub questions are what Stake (as cited
in Cousin, 2005, p.423) refers to as load bearing issue questions, aimed at
obtaining what Geerz, (as cited in Cousin, 2005, p.424) refers to as a thick
description through the triangulated data collection methods used.
A constructivist viewpoint (Creswell, 2014, pp.5-9) was taken as the question
proposed to solve a problem for students. There is no one reality (Badevi, 2013) to
the benefit of the screencasts as the learners perception has many variables. Grix
(2002, p.177) states that all research necessarily starts from a persons view of the
world, which itself is shaped by the experience one brings to the research process.
The epistemological position was therefore, leaning towards interpretivism. Bryman
(as cited in Grix, 2002, pp.177-8), states that interpretivism is predicated upon the
view that a strategy is required that respects the differences between people and the
objects of the natural sciences. Through the methods used, the research
endeavoured to get an in-depth description of the first year Interior Design student
experience, which did respect the differences between people in this specific case.
4.1 Research Methods
The implementation of screencasts in an arts based discipline could be thought of as
what Bassey (as cited in Cousin, 2005, p.425) called the fusion of artist and
scientist. This intrinsic case study used qualitative and quantitative methods to
correlate with this fusion (Cousin, 2005, p.425). Therefore, a mixed methods
approach (though mainly qualitative) was taken. Fruitful results were achieved
through triangulation of two methods, adding validity to the research (Creswell, 2014,
p.201).
The first method was a questionnaire, carried out at the end of the first semester.
There were 9 first year responses and 8 second year responses, of a possible 12 in
each cohort. The survey consisted of 5 themes - course choice, first year learning
8

experience, design thinking, traits of a good designer and multimedia learning.

Each part had specific questions, with a total of 16 questions, 6 of which were in the
multimedia learning section. There was a mix of open ended, closed and Likert
scale type tick box questions, to give a variety of data for analysis.
The second method was audio recorded focus group interviews, which were carried
out with a purposeful sample (Punch, 2006, pp.54-6) from the two groups, at the
end of the first semester. One focus group had four first year participants, and the
other had two second years. This resulted in more in-depth descriptions of learners
experiences. The questions uncovered learning preferences and challenges. It
explored key areas for deepening understanding of the themes of this study: the
learners background; the first year learning experience; learners thinking styles;
whether the screencasts were fit for purpose and beneficial to learning, with
questions aligned to Mayers Cognitive Learning Theory of Multimedia Learning
(2009); and whether the screencasts do help to reduce cognitive load, and hence,
workload in first year in understanding a more technical element of the curriculum.
4.2 Ethical Considerations
Before participating in the questionnaire and focus group interviews, students were
furnished with a participant information sheet which outlined in clear terms what the
study was about; why participation was required from students; what the
questionnaire / focus group interview involved and how much time was involved in
participation; an indication that the focus group would be recorded; where the data
would be stored; how the researcher would ensure that data was secure; and what
the data would be used for. A consent form was provided which stated that
participation was voluntary and that the student could withdraw consent at any stage.
Consent was also requested in writing, from the Head of School.
4.3 Data Analysis
Data gathered from the questionnaire was analysed using a spreadsheet which
quantitatively and qualitatively assessed responses from the two learner groups
under the headings of observation, comparison, explanation, relation to
literature, implications for theory, and implications for practice. The first three
headings were formed as they seemed to be the best method of comparison and
contrast between the two cohorts. The last three headings were formed in order to
look to existing literature on the topics raised and then assess if any new findings
emerged which had implications for existing theory or practice, or not, as the case
may be. Responses were also analysed using visual representations i.e. bar charts,
pie charts and tables. Visual representations with a small group of respondents were
considered carefully as they can be misleading (Battersby, 2010) and can make
results look more dramatic than is the case. However, they give us an
understanding that is difficult if not impossible to get from other ways of presenting
the information (Battersby, 2010, p.89). Some of the data became irrelevant to the
research over time and was excluded, with the main research objectives only being
addressed.
Data gathered from the two focus group interviews were audio recorded and
transcribed. Field notes were marked up on the transcriptions, and then a
spreadsheet was created under the same headings as the survey spreadsheet. The
9

focus groups delved deeper into the research objectives, resulting in much richer
descriptions of the student learning experience. The transcriptions were open coded,
with field notes initially, using a line-by-line technique (Noerager Stern & Porr,
2011, p.65) and key themes emerged, which were gathered together on the
spreadsheet for analysis. Memoing (Noerager Stern & Porr, 2011, p.66) was used
to analyse the focus group results. Key themes were grouped together and
significant findings, relating to the research question, were highlighted.
4.4 Findings and Discussions
Four main themes emerged from the analysis of the questionnaire and focus group
interviews, which are discussed below:
Learning challenges Interior Design students have to overcome in first year
The main issues around new learning challenges in first year, in this study, are
heavy work load, with so many modules and projects running concurrently, and
having to be a self-directed learner. The questionnaire results showed that 6 of 9
first years listed self-directed study as their biggest challenge. The first years
focussed on the learning challenges of coming to college and getting used to a new
way of learning, whereas the second years highlighted the learning challenges of key
modules they had completed the previous year. When asked to reflect on the first
year learning experience, all 8 of the second year students mentioned CAD, whether
for positive or negative reasons. Findings may suggest that first years were presently
dealing with these challenges, whereas second years, taking a retrospective view,
had become accustomed to this way of learning, so it was the difficult modules they
remembered. Focus group interview findings show that students in both years found
the workload and self-directed study challenging with comments such as:
The amount of work that we received, we werent expecting such a
load. It was really overwhelming. Even the modules we are studying.
I didnt expect to get so many, or have so many projects at the
same time. First year student G
Being in charge of your own work. Being on top of everything
yourself. Organising what youre going to do. Not being told what
to do and when to do it. First year Student B
It was just that we were learning so many new things. Just being
introduced to so many different modules. Second year student M
Well, to be honest, I prefer that (semester long projects), because in
first year we had little small ones.. and we tried to finish them..
and we tried to just get them done Second year students M and P
The findings from the focus groups suggested that modules which were found to be
challenging for students were AutoCAD, Proportion and Structure, while
questionnaire results (see Figure 3 below) suggested that AutoCAD was the most
difficult learning challenge/skill at 47%. Freehand drawing was the least challenging
at 53%. Findings also show that none of the students found freehand drawing the
most difficult learning challenge and none found AutoCAD the least challenging
learning experience.
10

From the questionnaire results, the main reason students give for AutoCAD being
the most challenging is because it is new to them. Other responses show that
learning CAD presents various new challenges relating to the time it takes to learn
the software.

Figure 3: Pie Charts showing the most and the least challenging learning
experiences in first year interior design for Question 4 on the questionnaire.

The main reason students give for freehand drawing being the least challenging is
because they have done it previously at 2nd level or at PLC level and because they
enjoy it. Similarly, the main reason students give for Sample / Moodboards being the
least challenging is because they enjoy it and it's easy to do. From focus group
results, this quote below from a first year student shows how she feels about new
technical challenges as opposed to freehand drawing:
I like the drawing and making the tower and making the bridge. It involved
a lot of different ideas. Whereas with CAD I found that hard, and Form
and Space I didnt do as well in that either. It was kind of more strict.
First year student A
In the focus group, when asked about first impressions of the course and whether
anything had turned out differently than they had expected, findings suggest that
students were surprised at the amount of self-directed learning and technical
research involved, but because of this considered the course as much more
interesting. Second years thought that the course would be more interior design
project based from an early stage, rather than having projects on various 'objects',
such as constructing towers, bridges and cardboard chairs. A first year student
comments on making a load bearing stick tower:
We werent shown how to make them. That was the big challenge. You

had to figure it out yourself from all the research that you did, and what to
use, and how to do it. Usually we were used to being told this is what
you do and this is how you do it. - Student G

11

The similarities are that both years had a perception that the course would focus
more on art and design elements which were all creative, rather than technical. This
relates to Anderson et al.s (2012) findings on the first year learning experience,
showing that expectations are not met by reality. The students have a perception
from the media as to what interior design is, but there were more technical elements
to the learning than they had thought. This is evident in the following quote:
I didnt expect so much architecture in the course. I thought it was
more basically just based on interior design. I thought it was going to be
a bit more fine arty as well, if that makes sense I understand why
theyre in the course, cos theyre both really important, architecture and
engineering. Well have a better understanding of what is going on. It
makes perfect sense why its in thereI just never assumed it would
be. First year student G
In the Multimedia Learning section of the questionnaire, students were asked if their
opinion had changed towards learning CAD software packages, in general, not just
AutoCAD. Findings show that half of the students surveyed in each year say their
opinion has changed towards learning CAD software. The first years also say that it
was frustrating / scary at the beginning, but there are various responses which
show that most students find it easier in time and see the benefits. These findings
comply with Yang et al.s (2013) findings on the presumption that school leavers in
this digital age possess a high level of ICT skills.
In relation to this current case study, findings suggest that CAD is a difficult learning
challenge in first year due in part to the heavy workload of many modules, and that
methods to alleviate this load would probably be embraced. Findings show a dislike
of technical, practical tasks and students did not think they would be doing practical
projects on the course. Finding correlate with Meneelys research on thinking styles
(2010), showing that students thought the course content would be more creative
than technical and implies that there are challenges for lecturers of technical
modules which involve practical skills and convergent thinking.
Thinking styles of first year Interior Design students
As discussed in the literature review, thinking styles of interior design students may
have a bearing on which modules they find challenging in first year. This topic was
incorporated into the questionnaire and focus group interviews to triangulate and
explain the reasons for the results from the theme above. In the questionnaire,
students were given a definition of, and asked to state whether they were a
convergent or divergent thinker, or a mixture of both.
Questionnaire results (see Table 1 below), state that 10 of 17 students said they
were divergent thinkers, 5 claim to be convergent thinkers, whereas 2 claim to be a
bit of both. The results for each year were very different, with the majority of first
years claiming to be divergent, whereas the majority of second years claim to be
convergent. The first year results may prove that when students begin the course
they are mainly divergent thinkers, whereas when they move to second year they
become more convergent, realising the importance of technical skills in the design
process. However, this may not be reliable, with such a small group surveyed. The
first year results correlate to the literature on design thinking, whereas the second
12

year results may contradict the literature, or prove they are in transition to becoming
a mixture of both styles.

Table 1: Survey Q5. (ii) Would you describe yourself as a convergent or divergent thinker?

Focus group results show that four of the six students involved in the two focus
group interviews claim to be a bit of both, whereas two students claim to be
divergent thinkers. One second year student stated that she had said she was a
convergent thinker in the questionnaire, but believed she was a bit of both. Students
may not have been aware that they could state that they were both types of thinker.
No student in the two focus groups claimed to be a convergent thinker.
One first year explained why she feels she is a bit of both:
Im able to handle practical tasks, the likes of CAD like black and
white, but I can go creative with stuff as well. So I think I fit in to both.
Student B
One first year explained why she feels she is a divergent thinker:
Divergent, because Im more creative. I dont really think there is one

answer to all of those things. Student A

Second years showed awareness that CAD is a convergent thinking module and
stated Its mathematical. Its all precise. They used the 'Furniture and Storage'
module in second year as an example of a module that requires both types of
thinking, stating that:
I think probably with furniture and storage. It needs to work. It needs
to function. Also you have to be creative as well, but you dont want to
be too creative or the thing doesnt work. So you need to have the
proper dimensions. It needs to make sense. Student M
In the questionnaire, when asked to choose eight words from a list of convergent or
divergent thinking words (see Figure 4 below), typically used in design briefs, the
most commonly chosen 'divergent' words/phrases, across both years, to describe
the thinking processes used in an assignment are visualize, explore and imagine.
The most commonly chosen 'convergent' words/phrases, across both years, are
decisions and make sense of. Even though five of the eight 2nd years surveyed had
stated that they were convergent thinkers they circled 1.7 times more typically
divergent words than convergent words. This may comply with Lawsons(2006) and
Runcos (2008) arguments that there is a requirement for a designer to be a mixture
of both types of thinking. Second years may be in a transition period where they are
being presented with learning challenges which continue to help them to grow as a
designer, preparing them for future years in the course, and for the design industry.

13

Figure 4: Results for Q. 5 (i) of questionnaire showing the eight words most commonly
chosen by students describing thinking processes they would use when doing an
assignment on the course.

In the questionnaire, students were asked to place attributes of a good interior

designer in order of importance from 1 to 10 (see Figure 5). The reason for this
exercise was to investigate whether interior design students consider technical ability
as being as important as creative ability. Findings suggest a perception that creativity
- a divergent thinking process - is the most important, whereas 'technical skills' and
'problem solving' - convergent thinking processes - are important, but not quite as
much. The 'less important' traits may be chosen through lack of understanding and
experience of the design industry and what is involved in a real life project. This is
understandable, as students are in the early stage of the course and will develop
these skills as they approach third and fourth year.

14

Table 2: Results for Q.6 of questionnaire showing which traits of a good interior designer
which students consider most important, with 1 being the most important and 10 being
the least.

In terms of this case study, findings mainly correlate with existing literature on design
thinking by Lawson (2006), Meneely (2010) and Carmel-Gilfilen (2012), of interior
design and architecture students. The results show that there are challenges for a
lecturer in teaching the more practical, convergent thinking modules in first year, as
most design students claim to be divergent thinkers. It is an ongoing learning
process for students to become both types of thinker. The focus group results
suggest that students are aware of this, as they changed their response from what
they had written on the survey. The lecturer on an interior design and furniture
course needs to hone the skills of students to help them become both types of
thinker. It cannot be proven in this study, that screencasts can help to change the
thinking styles of interior design students, to become both types of thinker, but CAD
screencasts can help the student to make the transition an easier one, by being a
memory aid when tackling convergent thinking tasks.
Students perceptions of Multimedia Learning
In the Multimedia learning section of the questionnaire, findings suggest that the
most common reasons to use the post-lecture CAD screencasts are 'to solve a
problem' and to 'remember or refer back on' them if revision is required. Results are
similar from both years, with some individual responses which tie in to the main
themes mentioned above, such as revise, practise commands, complete activities
and watch after class or missed a class. Only one student stated that they had not
used them. These results reflect the main purposes of the screencasts which are to
help reduce cognitive load when the students are learning so many new topics and
skills in first year, and to encourage self-directed learning. When asked how often
the students refer to the screencasts the majority use them sometimes, with only one
using them often, one never using them, and two have not used them yet in second
year (See Table 3 below). The results are positive and support the use and the
benefits of the screencasts for students' learning of CAD, promoting self-efficacy
(Green et al. 2012) and reduction of cognitive load (Mayer, 2009).
15

Table 3: Results for Q.7 (ii) on how often students refer to the screencasts (often being weekly).

In the questionnaire, students were asked whether screencasts in other modules

would have helped to overcome new learning challenges. Findings show that most
students disagree, for various reasons. They perceive certain modules to be more
self-directed and that lecture notes are sufficient, which could be argued to be a
contradiction to what screencasts aim to support in learning. Second years feel that
multimedia tutorials are best suited to computer programs, such as 'Google
Sketchup', which is 3D modelling software; this is not taught on the course, but
students learn it themselves in second year. Also, some first years indicated that
they would like tutorials on model making. Findings suggest that students do believe
that screencasts are useful for demonstration in practical modules, but unnecessary
for theoretical modules.
Students were asked how useful they would find the use of screencasting to present
their own work. More than half of all students felt screencasts would be a useful
presentation format. However, one third perceived that they would not. Reasons in
favour were because it would explain projects better and some students find making
presentations overwhelming. Results against their use argue that it would not allow
for public speaking practise. This is an important new learning challenge in first year
in itself. Second years were more in favour due to the fact that they had to produce a
video for their 'nightclub' project in second year. The benefits of using technology to
sell a concept are more of a necessity in their learning, whereas it may be too much
to take on for first years. However, this is something worth considering, as part of the
project brief, in presentation methods for future student projects. Farkas (2013, p.21)
advocated the use of personalized screencasting by students for skills training. The
same could be said for design presentations, as the student would learn the
screencasting skills and would have to think deeply about how to communicate to an
audience in an audio visual medium.
CAD Screencast Evaluation
The focus group interviews aimed to delve further into the students perceptions of
the use of screencasts for their learning. The findings reiterate that they are fit for the
purpose of revision of CAD tools. In second year they are not used as much because
students know the basics. In both focus groups, students state that they do not
need to be improved,with comments such as, I think they work fine, theyre useful
and they were to the point. Subsequent questions in the focus group aligned the
evaluation of the screencasts to Mayers (2009) Principles of Multimedia Learning
focussing on eight of twelve principles, which were most applicable in the context of
teaching AutoCAD through screencasts (see Figure 5 below). Some of the twelve
principles are more related to printed graphics and text in hard copy, which is not
relevant to the screencasts. Table 4 below shows students responses to the eight
relevant principles. It should be noted that students were made aware of Mayers

16

Principles in advance, but questions were phrased in simpler terms to be more easily
understood.
Expanding on the Modality Principle, students were asked if they require written
notes in addition to the screencasts. Findings suggest that students are divided on
this issue. These net generation (Prensky, 2001) students do prefer to use
technology to learn and also prefer digital notes rather than printed versions. This
response encourages a lecturer to use screencasts as part of teaching, but also
provide written notes, preferably in a digital format, which is the way they are
delivered presently.
Expanding on the Personalization Principle and Image Principle, students were
asked if they needed to know and be familiar with the teacher on a screencast. The
students response is that they don't need to know the narrator personally in order to
better learn the content of the screencast. Some reasons given are if the teacher is
good at teaching that's all that counts, if they are engaging, and if they can
understand them. Findings suggest that the narrator in the screencast does not
necessarily need to be the lecturer in face-to-face teaching, so tutorials from other
sources could be used by lecturers if appropriate.

Figure 5 Diagram (showing a screencast screenshot for reference) relating 8 of

Mayers Principles relevant to the context of the study (Refer to Table 4 for definitions)
17

18

People learn better from a multimedia lesson which is

presented in user-paced segments, rather than as a
continuous unit.

(Principle for Managing Essential

Processing)

Fostering Generative Processing)

Image Principle (Principle for

Fostering Generative Processing)

Voice Principle (Principle for

(Principle for Fostering Generative

Processing)

Personalization Principle

for Managing Essential Processing)

Modality Principle (Principle

Segmenting Principle

Pre- Training Principle

Complies with Mayer's 'Personalization Principle'. This

response indicates that the informal, unscripted
narration on CAD screencasts is fit for purpose.

Complies with Mayer's 'Voice Principle'

Complies with Mayer's 'Image Principle'. There would

be no advantage to adding the lecturer's image on a
CAD screencast.

The students feel that they do learn better from an

informal conversational narrator. Reasons given are: it
feels like the teacher is on their level, teacher is not
patronizing and the teacher can give personal experience
and advice.

Students were not directly asked this question, but the

answers above show that it could be said to comply.

Students responses show that students feel they would

not learn better if they could see the narrator on the
screen, as it could be distracting. With CAD screencasts
only a cursor and a voice is required. The exception is for
hearing impaired students.

People learn better from multimedia lessons when

words are in conversational style rather than formal
style.

People learn better when the narration in multimedia

lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice rather than
a machine voice.

People do not necessarily learn better from a

multimedia lesson when the speakers image is added
to the screen.

Table 4: Adaptation of Mayers Principles of Multimedia Learning (2009, pp. 265-28

Does not relate directly to Mayer's Modality principle, but

does show that multimedia learning is preferable. This
response encourages a lecturer to use multimedia
learning as part of their teaching.

Students prefer to learn from videos / screencasts than

from written notes with pictures. This would suggest that
people learn better from watching the 'doing' of a task than
reading about it in notes with images.

People learn better from graphics and narrations than

from animation and on-screen text.

Findings suggest that students find the length of the

screencasts adequate. They feel it is dependent on the
task in hand. 5 to 10 minutes is ideal. Some said they
Complies with Mayer's 'Segmenting Principle'. It is best
would watch something longer if they really wanted to
to make sure that screencasts are 5 to 10 minutes long
learn something. Others said they could be segmented if unless it is necessary to make them longer.
too long, and that if they were too long you wouldn't watch
them all.

Complies with Mayer's 'Pre-training Principle' by

introducing the students to key terms and characteristics
of the tools in class, before viewing the screencasts.

This was provided by 'in class' lectures. The post

lecture screencasts allowed the students to revise the
tools learned. Students commented they used them to
'refer back on' class lectures.

People learn better from a multimedia lesson when they

know the names and characteristics of the main
concepts.

(Principle for Managing Essential

Processing)

(Principle for Reducing Extraneous

Processing)

People learn better from graphics and narration than

from graphics, narration and on-screen text.

Complies with Mayer's 'Coherence Principle' for the

purpose they serve. The sound and image quality is not
perfect in the screencasts, but may not be an issue for
this case.

Coherence Principle

(Principle for Reducing Extraneous

Processing)

Redundancy Principle

The students did not comment negatively aout the

picture or sound quality, stating that the screencasts
were 'to the point' and 'work fine'.

Implications for Practice

People learn better when extraneous words, pictures

and sounds are excluded rather than included.

Focus Group Findings

Complies with Mayer's Redundancy Principle.

The students response implies that the screencasts are
fit for purpose as they are.

Definition
The students feel that they don't need any pop-up text.
The cursor moving on screen and the narration is
enough to learn CAD with, unless the student is hearing
impaired.

Mayer's Principles of
Multimedia Learning

5. Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore the benefits of provision of post-lecture
screencasts on a CAD module for first year Interior Design and Furniture students at
Dublin School of Creative Arts. The screencasts were provided to reduce cognitive
load for students in a course with a heavy workload in first year. Two cohorts, who
had used the screencasts, were involved in the study 9 first years and 8 second
year students. The context and rationale of the case study argued that design
students tend to find the more technical, convergent aspects of the course, including
CAD, more challenging in first year, due to the fact that research has shown that
designers tend to be more divergent thinkers. However, a good designer needs to be
a divergent and convergent thinker in equal measures (Lawson, 1997).
Four themes emerged in the study: learning challenges in first year; thinking styles
of design students; uses of multimedia learning; and evaluation of the fit for purpose
nature of the screencasts, using Mayers (2009) Cognitive Load Theory of
Multimedia learning. Findings suggested that theories put forward on learning
challenges and thinking styles were correct in the context of this study, although
most second years claimed to be convergent thinkers, which may imply they are in a
period of transition, but cannot be substantiated in a case study with small numbers.
The majority of students would embrace more use of multimedia learning, mainly in
learning skills based modules and computer software. Second year students were
more interested in using screencasts to present their own project work, while most
first years agreed, but some felt that they would lose out on public speaking practise,
at this early stage of their degree. Evaluation of CAD screencasts by students
showed that they were fit for purpose, as they were used to refer back on and were
to the point. Eight of Mayers 12 principles of Multimedia learning for reduction of
cognitive load, which applied to screencasts, were advocated by students
responses.
Findings suggest that a blended learning approach, introducing multimedia formats
of teaching, in tandem with face-to-face teaching, are welcome in a design course in
first year to reduce cognitive load and allow students to refer back on classroom
teaching. Findings suggest that students become more self-directed learners,
teaching themselves new skills, such as Google Sketchup through screencasts.
This relates to research by Paas, Renkl & Sweller (2003, p.4), that as levels of
expertise increase, it is appropriate to decrease instructor controls and increase
learner control.
Anomalies in findings show that (first year) students see provision of screencasts in
theoretical modules unnecessary as they consider those modules more selfdirected. This seems to be a contradiction in terms. Possibly, they are not given as
much guidance in these modules e.g. critical theory in art & design because they
have learned these skills at second level, such as essay writing and freehand
drawing, and only consider the learning of technical skills and computer software as
requiring guidance. Winterbottom (2007, p.8) proposed the screencasting of
theoretical material, which would free up staff time to introduce more small group
teaching, discussion sessions and practical based teaching.

19

Third level Interior Design students may perceive themselves to have full knowledge
of skills they have previously learned in second level, but there is potential for
building on their inherent knowledge, even if the screencast is not created personally
by the classroom teacher.
Future development on issues explored in this research could include:

Further research on how the design thinking styles of first year students affect
their learning experience.
Similarities/differences in design thinking styles within various art and design
disciplines could be explored further.
Exploration on how eLearning technologies support the current drive to
promote design thinking and creativity in education and industry, for a better
society.

The following recommendations are offered as pedagogical and practical guidance

for lecturers embarking on the use of screencasts:

It has been shown in this research that it would be beneficial to align

screencast production with Mayers theory of Multimedia Learning.
Pedagogical, practical and technical aspects of screencast design are
advocated by many third level institutions, with excellent advice available, for
example, from University of Colorados website at:
http://assett.colorado.edu/learn/pedagogical-topic-resources/effective-screencasting-faq/

Screencasts can be made at little or no cost, and the time spent on creating
them is relatively minimal, which is financially beneficial for third level
institutions.
The provision of screencasts, in this case, has been proven to promote selfefficacy (Green et al., 2012) over time, which is an important attribute on a
design course at third level, where many modules are project based and
continually assessed. This is also an important attribute to prepare students
for employment in the design industry.

5. References
Anderson, E. F., Peters, C. E., Halloran, J., Every, P., Shuttleworth, J., Liarokapis,
F., Lane, R. & Richards, M. (2012). In at the Deep End: An ActivityLed
Introduction to First Year Creative Computing. In Computer Graphics
Forum, 31(6),1852-1866. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Badevi, A. (2013). Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology - How it could be reflected
in your research report? Accessed 8th June 2014. Available from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kf8wGvunyG8
Battersby, M. (2010). Is that a fact?, Toronto: Broadview Press.

20

Carlile, O., & Jordan, A. (2005). It works in practice but will it work in theory? The
theoretical underpinnings of pedagogy. In G. ONeill, S.Moore & B. McMullan
(Eds.) Emerging Issues in the Practice of University Teaching. (pp. 12-27)
Dublin: AISHE
Cousin, G., (2005). Case Study Research, Journal of Geography in Higher
Education, 29(3), 421-427.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design (4th ed.) Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
Dalgarno, B., Pradhan, S., & Lee, M.J.W. (2008). The Effectiveness of Screencasts
and Cognitive Tools as Scaffolding for Novice Object-Oriented Programmers.
Journal of Information Technology Education, 7, 61-80.
Design Education. (2014). In Design Institute of Australia. Accessed 8th June, 2015.
Available from http://www.dia.org.au/index.cfm?id=455
Effective Screencasting. (n.d.). In Asset.Colorado.Edu. Accessed 6th May, 2015.
Available from http://assett.colorado.edu/learn/pedagogical-topic
resources/effective-screencasting/
Farkas, M. (2013). Just-for-me Training Screencasting for personalized long-term
learning. Accessed 6th May 2014. Available from
http://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2013/03/05/just-for-me-training/
Green, K., Pinder-Grover, T., & Millunchick, J. (2011). The efficacy of screencasts to
address the diverse academic needs of students in a large lecture course.
Advances in Engineering Education, Winter, 2 (3), 1-28.
Green, K., Pinder-Grover, T., & Millunchick, J. (2012). Impact of Screencast
Technology: Connecting the Perception of Usefulness and the Reality of
Performance. Journal of Engineering Education, October, 101(4),
717-737.
Grabe, M., & Christopherson, K. (2008). Optional student use of online lecture
resources: resource preferences, performance and lecture attendance.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(1) -10.

21

Grix, J. (2002). Introducing Students to the Generic Terminology of Social Research.

Politics, 22 (3), 175-186.
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York:McGraw Hill.
Hardaker,C., & Rushin, G. (2012). Development and Evaluation of the use of
Screencasts as a Supplement to Computer Aided Design Teaching in Fashion
and Textiles. Accessed 8th June, 2014. Available from www.brighton.ac.uk
BrightONLINE student literary journal.
Kopel, M. (2010). The Paradigm of Screencasting in E-Learning. In Advances in
Multimedia and Network Information System Technologies. (pp.297-305).
Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Hartley, R., James, R., & McInnis, C. (2005). The first year experience in Australian
universities: Findings from a decade of national studies. Melbourne: Centre
for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne.
Lawson, B. (1997). How designers think: The design process demystified (3rd ed.).
Oxford: Architectural Press.
Lawson, B. (2006). How designers think: The design process demystified (4th ed.).
Oxford: Architectural Press.
Lee, M., & Thompson, R. (2012). Talking with Students through Screencasting:
Experimentations with Video Feedback to Improve Student Learning.
Accessed 8th June, 2014 from www.commons.gc.cuny.edu
Littlejohn, A., & Pegler, C. (2007). Preparing for blended e-learning. Oxon: Routledge
-Falmer.
Mayer, R.E. (2009). Multimedia learning. (2nd Ed.). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Meneely, J. (2010). Educating Adaptable Minds: How diversified are the thinking
preferences of interior design students? Interior Design Educators Council,
Journal of Interior Design 35(3), 21-32.
Noerager Stern, P., & Porr, C.J. (2011). Essentials of accessible grounded theory.
California: Left Coast Press.
22

Paas, F., & Van Merriboer, J.J.G. (1994). Variability of workload examples and
transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A Cognitive Load Approach,
Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(1), 122-133.
Paas, F., Touvinen, J.E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P.W.M. (2003). Cognitive
Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory.
Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 63-71.
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional
Design: Recent Developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional
Implications of Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive
Architecture. Instructional Science, 32,1-8.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 1, On the Horizon, 9(5),
1-6.
Punch, K. (2006). Developing Effective Research Proposals. London: Sage.
Rose, K.K. (2009). Student perceptions of the use of instructor-made videos in online
and face-to-face classes. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching,
5(3), 487-495.
Ruffini, M. F. (2012). Screencasting to Engage Learning (EDUCAUSE Review)
EDUCAUSE.edu. Educause Review Online. Accessed 1st May 2015.
Available from www.educause.edu/ero/article/screencasting-engage-learning
Runco, M.A. (2008). Commentary: Divergent Thinking is not synonymous with
creativity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts. 2(2), 93-96.
Seery, M. K. & Donnelly, R. (2012). The implementation of pre-lecture resources
to reduce in-class cognitive load: A case study for higher education chemistry.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 43 (4), 667-677.
Sugar, W., Brown, A., & Luterbach, K. (2010). Examining the Anatomy of a
Screencast: Uncovering Common Elements and Instructional Strategies.
International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 11(3)1-20.

23

Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning.

Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257-285.
Tinwell, A. (2013). Game over? Assisting transition from FE to HE level studies for
Games Art students. Art, Design & Communication in Higher Education,12(1),
123-135.
Udell, J. (2004). Name that genre: Screencast. Accessed 6th May, 2014. Available
from www.jonudell.net
Udell, J. (2005a). What is Screencasting? Accessed 24th May, 2014. Available from
www.OReillyMedia.com
Udell, J. (2005b). Secrets of Screencasting: Breathe new life into your IT training
efforts with the online equivalent of show-and-tell. Accessed 6th May, 2014.
Available from www.Infoworld.com, May Issue, p.34.
Udell, J. (2006). A Casting Call: Getting involved with screencasting could have
benefits for InfoWorld readers like yourself. Accessed 6th May, 2014.
Available from www.Infoworld.com, May Issue, p.61.
Winterbottom, S. (2007). Virtual lecturing: Delivering lectures using screencasting
and podcasting technology. Planet, 18(6-8). Accessed 21st April, 2014.
Available from http://journals.heacademy.ac.uk/doi/abs/10.11120/
plan.2007.00180006k
Yang, D. F., Catterall, J., & Davis, J. (2013). Supporting new students from
vocational education and training: Finding a reusable solution to address
recurring learning difficulties in e-learning. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology, 29(5), 5.

24