ARTICLE I THE NATIONAL TERRITORY

The national territory of the Philippines comprises:

1.
The Philippine archipelago
2.
With all the islands and waters embraced therein
3.
And all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction
4.
Consisting of its
1.
Terrestrial
2.
Fluvial; and
CODE: TFA
3.
Aerial domains
5.
Including its
1.
Territorial sea
2.
The seabed
3.
The subsoil
CODE: TSSIO
4.
The insular shelves; and
5.
The other submarine areas
6.
The waters
1.
Around
2.
Between and
3.
Connecting
4.
The islands of the archipelago
CODE: ABCI
Regardless of their breadth and dimensions
Form part of the INTERNAL WATERS of the Philippines
Definition of Archipelago
An archipelago is a body of water studded with islands. The Philippine archipelago is that body of water
studded with islands which is delineated in the Treaty of Paris (1898), as amended by the Treaty of
Washington (1900) and the Treaty of Great Britain (1930).
Definition of all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction
It includes any territory that presently belongs or might in the future belong to the Philippines through any
of the internationally accepted modes of acquiring territory.
Archipelagic principle
Two elements:
1.
The definition of internal waters (as provided above);
2.
The straight baseline method of delineating the territorial sea consists of drawing straight lines
connecting appropriate points on the coast without departing to any appreciable extent from the
general direction of the coast.
Important distances with respect to the waters around the Philippines
1. Territorial sea

12 nautical miles (n.m.)

2. Contiguous zone

12 n.m. from the edge of the territorial sea

3. Exclusive economic zone
200 n.m. from the baseline [includes (1) and (2)]

ARTICLE II DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES

Selected principles
Sec 1. The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. Sovereignty resides in the people and all
government authority emanates from them.
Elements of a State (for municipal law purposes)
CODE: PTSG
1.
2.
3.
4.

A community of persons, more or less numerous (PEOPLE)

Permanently occupying a definite portion of territory (TERRITORY)
Independent of external control (SOVEREIGNTY)
Possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience (GOVERNMENT)

Definition of People
1.
2.
3.

CODE: CNCH

A Community of persons;
Sufficient in Number;
Capable of maintaining the continued existence of the community; and

4.

Held together by a common bond of law.

Definition of Sovereignty
1.
1.
2.

LEGAL sovereignty
The supreme power to make law.
It is lodged in the people.

1.
1.
2.
3.
1.

POLITICAL sovereignty
The sum total of all the influences in a state,
Legal and non-legal,
Which determine the course of law.
According to the Principle of AUTO-LIMITATION:

Sovereignty is the property of the state-force due to which it has the exclusive capacity of legal selfdetermination and self-restriction.
Definition of Government
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

That institution or aggregate of institutions

by which an independent society
makes and carries out those rules of action
which are necessary to enable men to live in a social state
or which are imposed upon the people forming that society by those who possess the power or
authority of prescribing them.

Classification of governments
1. De jure
2. De facto

one established by the authority of the legitimate sovereign

one established in defiance of the legitimate sovereign

Classification of de facto governments

1.

1.

1.

De facto proper
1.
That government that gets possession and control of
2.
or usurps by force or by the voice of majority
3.
the rightful legal government
4.
and maintains itself against the will of the latter.
Government of paramount force
1.
That which is established and maintained by military forces
2.
who invade and occupy a territory of the enemy
3.
in the course of war.
That established as an independent government by the inhabitants of a country who rise
ininsurrection against the parent state.

Definition of Republican State

It is one wherein all government authority emanates from the people and is exercised by representatives
chosen by the people.
Definition of Democratic State
This merely emphasizes that the Philippines has some aspects of direct democracy such as initiative and
referendum.
Sec. 2. The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy, adopts the generally
accepted principles of international law as part of the law of the land and adheres to the policy of
peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with all nations.

Kind of war renounced by the Philippines

The Philippines only renounces AGGRESSIVE war as an instrument of national policy. It does not renounce
defensive war.
Some generally accepted principles of international law recognized by the Court:
1.
2.
3.

Right of an alien to be released on bail while awaiting deportation when his failure to leave the
country is due to the fact that no country will accept him (Mejoff v. Director of Prisons, 90 Phil. 70)
The right of a country to establish military commissions to try war criminals (Kuroda v. Jalondoni, 83
Phil. 171)
The Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals (Agustin v. Edu, 88 SCRA 195)

Amity with all nations

This does not mean automatic diplomatic recognition of all nations. Diplomatic recognition remains a
matter of executive discretion.
Sec 3. Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the military. The Armed Forces of the Philippines
is the protector of the people and the State. Its goal is to secure the sovereignty of the State and the
integrity of the national territory.
Civilian authority/supremacy clause (1st sentence)
1.
2.

Civilian authority simply means the supremacy of the law because authority, under our
constitutional system, can only come from law.
Under this clause, the soldier renounces political ambition.

Mark of sovereignty (2nd and 3rd sentences)

1.
2.

Positively, this clause singles out the military as the guardian of the people and of the integrity of
the national territory and therefore ultimately of the majesty of the law.
Negatively, it is an expression of disapproval of military abuses.

Sec 4. The prime duty of the Government is to serve and protect the people. The Government may call
upon the people to defend the State and, in the fulfillment thereof, all citizens may be required, under
conditions provided by law, to render personal, military, or civil service.
Sec. 5. The maintenance of peace and order, the protection of life, liberty and property, and the
promotion of the general welfare are essential for the enjoyment by all the people of the blessings of
democracy.
Sec. 6. The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.
Selected state policies
Sec. 7. The State shall pursue an independent foreign policy. In its relations with other states, the
paramount consideration shall be national sovereignty, territorial integrity, national interest, and the
right to self-determination.
Sec. 8. The Philippines, consistent with the national interest, adopts and pursues a policy of freedom
from nuclear weapons in its territory.
Policy of freedom from nuclear weapons
1.
The policy PROHIBITS:
1.
The possession, control and manufacture of nuclear weapons
2.
Nuclear arms tests.

1.

The policy does NOT prohibit the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

Sec. 12. The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a
basic autonomous social institution. It shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the
unborn from conception. etc.
Principle that the family is not a creature of the state.
Protection for the unborn
1.
It is not an assertion that the unborn is a legal person.
2.
It is not an assertion that the life of the unborn is placed exactly on the level of the life of the
mother. Hence, when it is necessary to save the life of the mother, the life of the unborn may be
sacrificed.
3.
Under this provision, the Roe v. Wade doctrine allowing abortion up to the 6 th month of pregnancy
cannot be adopted in the Philippines because the life of the unborn is protected from the time of
conception.
Sec. 16. The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology
in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
1.
2.

While the right to a balanced and healthful ecology is found under the declaration of Principle and
State Policies and not under the Bill of Rights, it does not follow that it is less important than any of
the civil and political rights enumerated in the latter. (Oposa v. Factoran)
The right to a balanced and healthful ecology carries with it the correlative duty to refrain from
impairing the environment. (Oposa v. Factoran)

Sec. 26. The State shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service, and prohibit
political dynasties as may be defined by law.
Sec. 27. The State shall maintain honesty and integrity in the public service and take positive and
effective measures against graft and corruption.
Sec. 28. Subject to reasonable conditions prescribed by law, the State adopts and implements a policy
of full public disclosure of all its transactions involving public interest.

ARTICLE III BILL OF RIGHTS

Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law, nor shall
any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
Definition of Police Power:
1)
Power vested in the legislature
2)
By the Constitution
3)
To make, ordain, and establish
4)
All manner of wholesome and reasonable laws, statutes, and ordinances
5)
Either with penalties or without
6)
Not repugnant to the constitution
7)
As they shall judge to be for the good and welfare of the commonwealth and of the subjects of the
same.
Aspects of Due Process:
1.
2.

Procedural due process refers to the mode of procedure which government agencies must follow in
the enforcement and application of laws.
Substantive due process prohibition against arbitrary laws.

Note: PROCEDURAL DUE PROCESS:

1.
2.
3.

A law which hears before it condemns.

Due process of law contemplates notice and opportunity to be heard before judgment is rendered
affecting ones person or property (Lopez v. Dir. of Lands)
Due process depends on circumstances; it varies with the subject matter and the necessities of the
situation.

Requisites of PROCEDURAL due process:

For JUDICIAL proceedings: CODE: C J N O H
1.
2.
3.
4.

A court or tribunal clothed with judicial power to hear and determine the matter before it.
Jurisdiction must be lawfully acquired over the person of the defendant or over the property which
is the subject of the proceedings.
The defendant must be given notice and an opportunity to be heard.
Judgment must be rendered upon a lawful hearing.

For ADMINISTRATIVE proceedings: CODE: H E D S H I P

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The right to a hearing, which includes the right to present ones case and submit evidence in
support thereof.
The tribunal must consider the evidence presented.
The decision must have something to support itself.
Evidence supporting the conclusion must be substantial.
The decision must be based on the evidence presented at the hearing or at least contained in the
record and disclosed to the parties affected.
The tribunal or body or any of its judges must act on its or his own independent consideration of the
law and facts of the controversy, and not simply accept the views of a subordinate in arriving at a
decision.
The board or body should, in all controversial questions, render its decision in such a manner that
the parties to the proceeding can know the various issues involved and the reasons for the decision
rendered.

Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.

What is required is not actual hearing, but a real opportunity to be heard.

The requirement of due process can be satisfied by subsequent due hearing.
Violation of due process: when same person reviews his own decision on appeal.
Notice and hearing are required in judicial and quasi-judicial proceedings, but not in the
promulgation of general rule.

For SCHOOL DISCIPLINARY proceedings: CODE: W A In A D P

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Note:

The student must be informed in writing of the nature and cause of any accusation against them.
The student shall have the right to answer the charges against him, with the assistance of counsel if
desired.
The student has the right to be informed of the evidence against him.
The student has the right to adduce evidence in his own behalf.
The evidence must be duly considered by the investigating committee or official designated by the
school authorities to hear and decide the case.
The penalty imposed must be proportionate to the offense.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The school has a contractual obligation to afford its students a fair opportunity to complete the
course a student has enrolled for.
Exceptions:
Serious breach of discipline; or
Failure to maintain the required academic standard.
Proceedings in student disciplinary cases may be summary; cross-examination is not essential

Instances when hearings are NOT necessary:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

When administrative agencies are exercising their quasi-legislative functions.

Abatement of nuisance per se.
Granting by courts of provisional remedies.
Cases of preventive suspension.
Removal of temporary employees in the government service.
Issuance of warrants of distraint and/or levy by the BIR Commissioner.
Cancellation of the passport of a person charged with a crime.
Issuance of sequestration orders (considered a provisional remedy).
Judicial order which prevents an accused from travelling abroad in order to maintain the effectivity
of the courts jurisdiction.
10. Suspension of a banks operations by the Monetary Board upon a prima facie finding of liquidity
problems in such bank.
Note:
1.
2.

The right to counsel is a very basic requirement of substantive due process and has to be observed
even in administrative and quasi-judicial bodies.
The right to appeal is a statutory privilege that may be exercised only in the manner in accordance
with law.

Requisites of SUBSTANTIVE due process: CODE: I M

1.
2.

The INTERESTS of the public generally, as distinguished from those of a particular class, requires the
interference by the government and
The MEANS employed are necessary for the accomplishment of the purpose and not unduly
oppressive upon individuals.

Requirements of a valid ordinance:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Must not contravene the Constitution or any statute

Must not be unfair or oppressive
Must not be partial or discriminatory
Must not prohibit, but may regulate trade
Must be general and consistent with public policy
Must not be unreasonable

When is a law VAGUE?

1.
2.
3.

When it lacks COMPREHENSIBLE STANDARDS

That men of ordinary intelligence must necessarily GUESS as to its meaning
And differ as to its application

Equal Protection of the law

The equality that it guarantees is legal equality or the equality of all persons before the law. It does not
demand absolute equality. It merely requires that all persons shall be treated alike, under like
circumstances and conditions both as to privileges conferred and liabilities enforced.

Requisites for valid classification for purposes of the equal protection clause
The classification must:
1.
2.
3.
4.

CODE: SGEE

Rest on SUBSTANTIAL DISTINCTIONS

Be GERMANE to the purposes of the law
Not limited to existing conditions only
APPLY EQUALLY to all members of the SAME CLASS.

Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable, and no
search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to be determined personally by
the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may
produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the person or things to be seized.
General Rule: Search and seizures are unreasonable unless authorized by a validly issued search warrant or
warrant of arrest
Requisites for a valid warrant:
CODE:
P J E D
1.
2.
3.
4.

It must be issued upon PROBABLE CAUSE.

The existence of probable cause is determined personally by the JUDGE.
The judge must EXAMINE UNDER OATH the complainant and the witnesses he may produce.
The warrant must PARTICULARLY DESCRIBE the place to be searched and person or things to be
seized.

Definition of PROBABLE CAUSE

For the issuance of a warrant of arrest:
Probable cause refers to such facts and circumstances which would lead a reasonably discreet and prudent
man to believe that an offense has been committed by the person sought to be arrested.
For the issuance of a search warrant:
Probable cause would mean such facts and circumstances which would lead a reasonably discreet and
prudent man to believe that an offense has been committed and that the objects sought in connection with
the offense are in the place to be searched.
Note: Probable cause for the issuance of a search warrant does NOT require that the probable guilt of a
specific offender be established, unlike in the case of a warrant of arrest.
Existence of probable cause DETERMINED PERSONALLY BY THE JUDGE
The judge is NOT required to personally examine the complainant and his witnesses. What the Constitution
underscores is the exclusive and personal responsibility of the issuing judge to satisfy himself of the
existence of probable cause (Soliven v. Makasiar, 167 SCRA 394).
To be sure, the Judge must go beyond the prosecutors certification and investigation report whenever
necessary (Lim v. Felix).
Procedure:
1.
2.

The judge personally evaluates the report and supporting documents submitted by the fiscal
regarding the existence of probable cause and, on the basis thereof, issue a warrant of arrest or
If on the basis thereof, the judge finds no probable cause, he may disregard the fiscals report and
require the submission of supporting affidavits of witnesses to aid him in arriving at the conclusion as
to the existence of probable cause.

Examination UNDER OATH OR AFFIRMATION OF THE COMPLAINANT AND WITNESSES

1.
2.

The oath required must refer to the truth of the facts within the personal knowledge of the
complainant or his witnesses because the purpose is to convince the judge of the existence of
probable cause (Alvarez v. CFI, 64 Phil. 33).
The true test of sufficiency of an affidavit to warrant the issuance of a search warrant is whether it
has been drawn in such a manner that perjury could be charged thereon and affiant be held liable for
the damages caused (Alvarez v. CFI).

PARTICULARITY OF DESCRIPTION (SEARCH WARRANT)

1.
2.
3.

A search warrant may be said to particularly describe the things to be seized when the description
therein is as specific as the circumstances will ordinarily allow or
When the description expresses a conclusion of fact not of law by which the warrant officer
may be guided in making the search and seizure or
When the things described are limited to those which bear a direct relation to the offensefor
which the warrant is being issued (Bache and Co. v. Ruiz, 37 SCRA 823).

JOHN DOE WARRANT

A John Doe warrant can satisfy the requirement of particularity of description if it contains a descriptio
personae such as will enable the officer to identify the accused (People v. Veloso, 48 Phil. 159)
GENERAL WARRANT
A general warrant is one that does not allege any specific acts or omissions constituting the offense charged
in the application for the issuance of the warrant. It contravenes the explicit demand of the Bill of Rights
that the things to be seized be particularly described.
VALID WARRANTLESS SEARCH
1.
1.

1.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
2.
3.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.

Search made as an incident to lawful arrest

An officer making an arrest may take from the person arrested:
1.
Any money or property found upon his person which was used in the commission of the
offense or
2.
Was the fruit thereof or
3.
Which might furnish the prisoner with the means of committing violence or escaping or
4.
Which may be used in evidence in the trial of the case
The search must be made simultaneously with the arrest and it may only be made in the area within
the reach of the person arrested
Search of moving vehicles
This exception is based on exigency. Thus, if there is time to obtain a warrant in order to search the
vehicle, a warrant must first be obtained.
The search of a moving vehicle must be based on probable cause.
Seizure of goods concealed to avoid customs duties/authorized under the Tariffs and Customs
Code
The Tariffs and Customs Code authorizes persons having police authority under the Code to effect
search and seizures without a search warrant to enforce customs laws.
Exception: A search warrant is required for the search of a dwelling house.
Searches under this exception include searches at borders and ports of entry. Searches in these
areas do not require the existence of probable cause.
Seizure of evidence in plain view
To be a valid warrantless search, the articles must be open to the eye and hand.
The peace officer comes upon them inadvertently.
Waiver of right
Requisites of a valid waiver:
The right exists.
The person had actual or constructive knowledge of the existence of such right.
There is an actual intention to relinquish such right.
The right against unreasonable searches and seizures is a personal right. Thus, only the person being
searched can waive the same.
Waiver requires a positive act from the person. Mere absence of opposition is not a waiver.

3.

The search made pursuant to the waiver must be made within the scope of the waiver.

Note:
1.
2.
3.

Checkpoints: as long as the vehicle is neither searched nor its occupants subjected to a body search
and the inspection of the vehicle is limited to a visual search = valid search (Valmonte V. De Villa)
Carroll rule: warrantless search of a vehicle that can be quickly moved out of the locality or
jurisdiction
The 1987 Constitution has returned to the 1935 rule that warrants may be issued only by judges, but
the Commissioner of Immigration may order the arrest of an alien in order to carry out a FINAL
deportation order.

VALID WARRANTLESS ARRESTS

1.
1.
1.
1.

When the person to be arrested has committed, is actually committing, or is about to commit an
offense in the presence of the arresting officer.
When an offense has in fact just been committed and the arresting officer has personal knowledge
of facts indicating that the person to be arrested has committed it.
When the person to be arrested is a prisoner who has escaped from a penal establishment or place
where he is serving final judgment or temporarily confined while his case is pending, or has escaped
while being transferred from one confinement to another.
Waiver of an invalid arrest:

When a person who is detained applies for bail, he is deemed to have waived any irregularity which may
have occurred in relation to his arrest.
1.

Hot pursuit

A. The pursuit of the offender by the arresting officer must be continuous from the time of the commission
of the offense to the time of the arrest.
B. There must be no supervening event which breaks the continuity of the chase.
1.

Stop and frisk

When a policeman observes suspicious activity which leads him to believe that a crime is about to be
committed, he can investigate the suspicious looking person and may frisk him for weapons as a measure of
self-protection. Should he find, however, a weapon on the suspect which is unlicensed, he can arrest such
person then and there for having committed an offense in the officers presence.
Section 3. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon
lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise as prescribed by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible for any
purpose in any proceedings.
R.A. 4200 (Anti-Wiretapping Act)
1.
1.

The law does not distinguish between a party to the private communication or a third person.
Hence, both a party and a third person could be held liable under R.A. 4200 if they commit any of the
prohibited acts under R.A. 4200 (Ramirez v. Ca)
The use of a telephone extension to overhear a private conversation is not a violation of R.A. 4200
because it is not similar to any of the prohibited devices under the law. Also, a telephone extension
is not purposely installed for the purpose of secretly intercepting or recording private
communication. (Gaanan v. IAC, 145 SCRA 112)

Types of communication protected:

Letters, messages, telephone calls, telegrams and the like.
Exclusionary rule:
Any evidence obtained shall be inadmissible for any purpose in any proceeding. However, in the absence of
governmental interference, the protection against unreasonable search and seizure cannot be extended to
acts committed by private individuals. (People v. Martin)
Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or of
the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances.
What are considered protected speech:
Protected speech includes every form of expression, whether oral, written, tape or disc recorded. It
includes motion pictures as well as what is known as symbolic speech such as the wearing of an armband as a
symbol of protest. Peaceful picketing has also been included within the meaning of speech.
Prohibitions under Section 4
1.
1.

Prohibition against PRIOR RESTRAINT

Prohibition against SUBSEQUENT PUNISHMENT

Prohibition against prior restraint

1.
2.

Prior restraint means official governmental restrictions on the press or other forms of expression in
advance of actual publication or dissemination.
Examples/forms of prior restraint
1.
movie censorship
2.
judicial prior restraint = injunction against publication
3.
license taxes based on gross receipts for the privilege of engaging in the business of
advertising in any newspaper
4.
flat license fees for the privilege of selling religious books

When prohibition does not apply

1.
2.

During a war. Ex. Government can prevent publication about the number/locations of its troops
(Near v. Minnesota, 238 US 697)
Obscene publications.

Standards for allowable subsequent punishment

TEST
CRITERION
1. Dangerous Tendency Test
There should be a RATIONAL CONNECTION between the speech
and the evil apprehended.
2. Clear and Present Danger Test
There should be a clear and present danger that the words
when used under such circumstances are of such a nature as to create a CLEAR AND PRESENT DANGER that
they will bring about the substantive evils that the State has a right to prevent.
3. Balancing of Interests Test
The courts should BALANCE the PUBLIC INTEREST served by
legislation on one hand and the FREEDOM OF SPEECH (or any other constitutional right) on the other. The
courts will then decide where the greater weight should be placed.
Freedom of Speech
The doctrine on freedom of speech was formulated primarily for the protection of core speech, i.e.
speech which communicates political, social or religious ideas. These enjoy the same degree of
protection. Commercial speech, however, does not.
Commercial Speech
1.
1.

A communication which no more than proposes a commercial transaction.

To enjoy protection:
1.
It must not be false or misleading; and
2.
It should not propose an illegal transaction.

1.

Even truthful and lawful commercial speech may be regulated if:

1.
Government has a substantial interest to protect;
2.
The regulation directly advances that interest; and
3.
It is not more extensive than is necessary to protect that interest. (Central Hudson Gas and
Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission of NY, 447 US 557)

Unprotected Speech
1.
1.

1.
1.
1.
1.
2.
3.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1.
LIBEL
FAIR COMMENT (U.S. Rule). These are statements of OPINION, not of fact, and are not considered
actionable, even if the words used are neither mild nor temperate. What is important is that the
opinion is the true and honest opinion of the person. The statements are not used to attack
personalities but to give ones opinion on decisions and actions.
OPINIONS. With respect to public personalities (politicians, actors, anyone with a connection to a
newsworthy event), opinions can be aired regarding their public actuations. Comment on their
private lives, if not germane to their public personae, are not protected.
2.
OBSCENITY
Test for obscenity (Miller v. California)
Whether the average person, applying contemporary community standards would find that the work,
taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest.
Whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct, specifically
defined by law.
Whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value.
Procedure for seizure of allegedly obscene publications
Authorities must apply for issuance of search warrant.
Court must be convinced that the materials are obscene. Apply clear and present danger test.
Judge will determine whether they are in fact obscene.
Judge will issue a search warrant.
Proper action should be filed under Art. 201 of the RPC.
Conviction is subject to appeal.

Right of Assembly and Petition

1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.

The standards for allowable impairment of speech and press also apply to the right of assembly and
petition.
Rules on assembly in public places:
Applicant should inform the licensing authority of the date, the public place where and the time
when the assembly will take place.
The application should be filed ahead of time to enable the public official concerned to appraise
whether there are valid objections to the grant of the permit or to its grant, but in another public
place. The grant or refusal should be based on the application of the Clear and Present Danger Test.
If the public authority is of the view that there is an imminent and grave danger of a substantive
evil, the applicants must be heard on the matter.
The decision of the public authority, whether favorable or adverse, must be transmitted to the
applicants at the earliest opportunity so that they may, if they so desire, have recourse to the proper
judicial authority.
Rules on assembly in private properties:

Only the consent of the owner of the property or person entitled to possession thereof is required.
Section 5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or
preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political
rights.
Clauses under Section 5

1.
2.

Non-establishment clause
Free exercise of Religion

Distinction between the clauses (School District v. Schempp, 374 US 203)

1.

1.

The non-establishment clause does not depend upon any showing of direct governmental
compulsion. It is violated by the enactment of laws which establish an official religion whether those
laws operate directly to coerce non-observing individuals or not. The test of compliance with the
non-establishment clause can be stated as follows: What are the purposes and primary effect of the
enactment? If either is the advancement or inhibition of religion, the law violates the nonestablishment clause. Thus, in order for a law to comply with the non-establishment clause, two
requisites must be met. First, it has a secular legislative purpose. Second, its primary effect neither
advances nor inhibits religion.
The free exercise of religion clause withdraws from legislative power the exertion of any restraint
on the free exercise of religion. In order to show a violation of this clause, the person affected must
show the coercive effect of the legislation as it operates against him in the practice of his religion.
While the freedom to believe (non-establishment) is absolute, the moment such belief flows over into
action, it becomes subject to government regulation.

Requisites for government aid to be allowable:

1.
2.
3.

It must have a secular legislative purpose;

It must have a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion;
It must not require excessive entanglement with recipient institutions.

Section 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall not be
impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be impaired except in the
interest of national security, public safety or public health, as may be provided by law.
Rights guaranteed under Section 6:
1.
2.

Freedom to choose and change ones place of abode.

Freedom to travel within the country and outside.

Curtailment of rights:
RIGHT
MANNER OF CURTAILMENT
1. Liberty of abode
Lawful order of the court and within the limits prescribed by law.
2. Right to travel
May be curtailed even by administrative officers (ex. passport
officers) in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may be provided by law.
Note: The right to travel and the liberty of abode are distinct from the right to return to ones country, as
shown by the fact that the Declaration of Human Rights and the Covenant on Human Rights have separate
guarantees for these. Hence, the right to return to ones country is not covered by the specific right to
travel and liberty of abode. (Marcos v. Manglapus)
Section 7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be recognized.
Rights guaranteed under Section 7
1.
2.

Right to information on matters of public concern

Right of access to official records and documents

Persons entitled to the above rights

Only Filipino citizens.

Discretion of government
The government has discretion with respect to the authority to determine what matters are of public
concern and the authority to determine the manner of access to them.
Recognized restrictions on the right of the people to information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

National security matters

Intelligence information
Trade secrets
Banking transactions
Diplomatic correspondence
Executive sessions
Closed door cabinet meetings
Supreme Court deliberations

Section 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private sectors, to form
unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law, shall not be abridged.
The right to form associations shall not be impaired without due process of law and is thus an aspect of the
right of liberty. It is also an aspect of the freedom of contract. In addition, insofar as the associations may
have for their object the advancement of beliefs and ideas, the freedom of association is an aspect of the
freedom of speech and expression, subject to the same limitation.
The right also covers the right not to join an association.
Government employees have the right to form unions. They also have the right to strike, unless there is a
statutory ban on them.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
Who can exercise the power of eminent domain:
1)
The national government
1.
2.

Congress
Executive, pursuant to legislation enacted by Congress

2)
Local government units, pursuant to an ordinance enacted by their respective legislative bodies
(under LGC)
3)
Public utilities, as may be delegated by law.
When is the exercise of the power of eminent domain necessary?
It is only necessary when the owner does not want or opposes the sale of his property. Thus, if a valid
contract exists between the government and the owner, the government cannot exercise the power of
eminent domain as a substitute to the enforcement of the contract.
Elements of the power of eminent domain
1)
There is a TAKING of private property
2)
Taking is for PUBLIC USE
3)
Payment of JUST COMPENSATION
TAKING
A. Elements: CODE: E P A P O
1.

The expropriator enters the property

2.
3.
4.
5.

The entrance must not be for a momentary period, i.e., it must be permanent
Entry is made under warrant or color of legal authority
Property is devoted to public use
Utilization of the property must be in such a way as to oust the owner and deprive him of the
beneficial enjoyment of his property.

B. Compensable taking does not need to involve all the property interests which form part of the right of
ownership. When one or more of the property rights are appropriated and applied to a public purpose, there
is already a compensable taking, even if bare title still remains with the owner.
PUBLIC USE
1.
1.

Public use, for purposes of expropriation, is synonymous with public welfare as the latter term is
used in the concept of police power.
Examples of public use include land reform and socialized housing.

JUST COMPENSATION
1.
2.

Compensation is just if the owner receives a sum equivalent to the market value of his property.
Market value is generally defined as the fair value of the property as between one who desires to
purchase and one who desires to sell.
The point of reference use in determining fair value is the value at the time the property was
taken. Thus, future potential use of the land is not considered in computing just compensation.

Judicial review of the exercise of the power of eminent domain

1.
2.
3.

To determine the adequacy of the compensation

To determine the necessity of the taking
To determine the public use character of the taking. However, if the expropriation is pursuant to
a specific law passed by Congress, the courts cannot question the public use character of the taking.

When municipal property is taken by the State:

Compensation is required if the property is a patrimonial property, that is, property acquired by the
municipality with its private funds in its corporate or private capacity. However, if it is any other property
such a public buildings or legua comunal held by the municipality for the State in trust for the inhabitants,
the State is free to dispose of it at will.
Point of reference for valuating a piece of property:
General rule: The value must be that as of the time of the filing of the complaint for expropriation.
Exception: When the filing of the case comes later than the time of taking and meanwhile the value of the
property has increased because of the use to which the expropriator has put it, the value is that of the time
of the earlier taking. BUT if the value increased independently of what the expropriator did, then the value
is that of the latter filing of the case.
Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
When does a law impair the obligation of contracts:
1)
If it changes the terms and conditions of a legal contract either as to the time or mode of performance
2)
If it imposes new conditions or dispenses with those expressed
3)
If it authorizes for its satisfaction something different from that provided in its terms.
A mere change in PROCEDURAL REMEDIES which does not change the substance of the contract, and which
still leaves an efficacious remedy for enforcement does NOT impair the obligation of contracts.
A valid exercise of police power is superior to obligation of contracts.
Section 12. Rights of person under investigation for the commission of an offense.
Rights of person under investigation for the Commission of an offense CODE: SCISI
1)
Right to remain silent
2)
Right to have competent and independent counsel, preferably of his own choice

3)
Right to provided with the services of counsel if he cannot afford the services of one.
4)
Right to be informed of these rights.
When rights are available:
1)
AFTER a person has been taken into custody or
2)
When a person is otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way.
3)
When the investigation is being conducted by the government (police, DOJ, NBI) with respect to a
criminal offense.
4)
Signing of arrest reports and booking sheets.
When rights are not available:
1)
During a police line-up. Exception: Once there is a move among the investigators to elicit admissions
or confessions from the suspect.
2)
During administrative investigations.
3)
Confessions made by an accused at the time he voluntarily surrendered to the police or outside the
context of a formal investigation.
4)
Statements made to a private person.
Exclusionary rule
1)
Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this section shall be inadmissible in evidence
against him (the accused).
2)
Therefore, any evidence obtained by virtue of an illegally obtained confession is also inadmissible,
being the fruit of a poisoned tree.
Requisites of valid waiver:
1)
Waiver should be made in WRITING
2)
Waiver should be made in the PRESENCE OF COUNSEL.
Section 13. Right to bail
Who are entitled to bail:
1)
All persons ACTUALLY DETAINED
2)
shall, BEFORE CONVICTION
3)
Be entitled to bail.
Who are not entitled to bail:
1)
Persons charged with offenses PUNISHABLE by RECLUSION PERPETUA or DEATH, when evidence of
guilt is strong
2)
Persons CONVICTED by the trial court. Bail is only discretionary pending appeal.
3)
Persons who are members of the AFP facing a court martial.
Other rights in relation to bail.
1)
The right to bail shall NOT be impaired even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is
suspended.
2)
Excessive bail shall not be required.
Factors considered in setting the amount of bail:
1)
Ability to post bail
2)
Nature of the offense
3)
Penalty imposed by law
4)
Character and reputation of the accused
5)
Health of the accused
6)
Strength of the evidence
7)
Probability of appearing at the trial
8)
Forfeiture of previous bail bonds
9)
Whether accused was a fugitive from justice when arrested
10) If accused is under bond in other cases
Implicit limitations on the right to bail:
1.
2.
Note:

The person claiming the right must be in actual detention or custody of the law.
The constitutional right is available only in criminal cases, not, e.g. in deportation proceedings.

1.
2.

Right to bail is not available in the military.

Apart from bail, a person may attain provisional liberty through recognizance.

Section 14. Rights of an accused

Rights of a person charged with a criminal offense
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Right to due process of law

Right to be presumed innocent
Right to be heard by himself and counsel
Right to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him
Right to have a speedy, impartial and public trial
Right to meet the witnesses face to face
Right to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses and the production of
evidence in his behalf

DUE PROCESS
This means that the accused can only be convicted by a tribunal which is required to comply with the
stringent requirements of the rules of criminal procedure.
PRESUMPTION OF INNOCENCE
The Constitution does not prohibit the legislature from providing that proof of certain facts leads to a prima
facie presumption of guilt, provided that the facts proved have a reasonable connection to the ultimate fact
presumed.
Presumption of guilt should not be conclusive.
RIGHT TO BE HEARD BY HIMSELF AND COUNSEL
The right to be heard includes the following rights:
1.
1.
1.

(i)
(ii)
1.

1.

Right to be present at the trial

The right to be present covers the period from ARRAIGNMENT to PROMULGATION of sentence.
After arraignment, trial may proceed notwithstanding absence of accused, provided 2 requisites are
met. Note, that trial in absentia is allowed only if the accused has been validly arraigned.
Accused has been duly notified; and
His failure to appear is unjustifiable.
The accused may waive the right to be present at the trial by not showing up. However, the court
can still compel the attendance of the accused if necessary for identification purposes. Exception: If
the accused, after arraignment, has stipulated that he is indeed the person charged with the offense
and named in the information, and that any time a witness refers to a name by which he is known,
the witness is to be understood as referring to him.
While the accused is entitled to be present during promulgation of judgement, the absence of his
counsel during such promulgation does not affect its validity.

2. Right to counsel
(a) Right to counsel means the right to EFFECTIVE REPRESENTATION.
(b) If the accused appears at arraignment without counsel, the judge must:
(i)
Inform the accused that he has a right to a counsel before arraignment
(ii) Ask the accused if he desires the aid of counsel
(iii) If the accused desires counsel, but cannot afford one, a counsel de oficio must be appointed
(iv) If the accused desires to obtain his own counsel, the court must give him a reasonable time to get one.
3. Right to an impartial judge
4. Right of confrontation and cross-examination
5. Right to compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses
RIGHT TO BE INFORMED OF THE NATURE AND CAUSE OF ACCUSATION AGAINST HIM

Purposes of the right:

1)
To furnish the accused with a description of the charge against him as will enable him to make his
defenses
2)
To avail himself of his conviction or acquittal against a further prosecution for the same cause
3)
To inform the court of the facts alleged.
If the information fails to allege the material elements of the offense, the accused cannot be convicted
thereof even if the prosecution is able to present evidence during the trial with respect to such elements.
The real nature of the crime charged is determined from the recital of facts in the information. It is not
determined based on the caption or preamble thereof nor from the specification of the provision of law
allegedly violated
RIGHT TO SPEEDY, IMPARTIAL AND PUBLIC TRIAL
Factors used in determining whether the right to a speedy trial has been violated.
1)
Time expired from the filing of the information
2)
Length of delay involved
3)
Reasons for the delay
4)
Assertion or non-assertion of the right by the accused
5)
Prejudice caused to the defendant.
Effect of dismissal based on the ground of violation of the accuseds right to speedy trial
If the dismissal is valid, it amounts to an acquittal and can be used as basis to claim double jeopardy. This
would be the effect even if the dismissal was made with the consent of the accused
Remedy of the accused if his right to speedy trial has been violated
He can move for the dismissal of the case.
If he is detained, he can file a petition for the issuance of writ of habeas corpus.
Definition of impartial trial
The accused is entitled to the cold neutrality of an impartial judge.
It is an element of due process.
Definition of public trial
The attendance at the trial is open to all irrespective of their relationship to the accused. However, if the
evidence to be adduced is offensive to decency or public morals, the public may be excluded.
The right of the accused to a public trial is not violated if the hearings are conducted on Saturdays, either
with the consent of the accused or if failed to object thereto.
RIGHT TO MEET WITNESS FACE TO FACE
Purposes of the right:
1.
2.

To afford the accused an opportunity to cross-examine the witness

To allow the judge the opportunity to observe the deportment of the witness

Failure of the accused to cross-examine a witness

If the failure of the accused to cross-examine a witness is due to his own fault or was not due to the fault of
the prosecution, the testimony of the witness should be excluded.
When the right to cross-examine is demandable
It is demandable only during trials. Thus, it cannot be availed of during preliminary investigations.
Principal exceptions to the right of confrontation
1.
2.
3.

The admissibility of dying declarations

Trial in absentia under Section 14(2)
With respect to child testimony

Section 16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of their cases before all judicial, quasijudicial, or administrative bodies.

Distinction between Section 14 and Section 16

While the rights of an accused only apply to the trial phase of criminal cases, the right to a speedy
disposition of cases covers ALL phases of JUDICIAL, QUASI-JUDICIAL or ADMINISTRATIVE proceedings.
Section 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
When is a question incriminating:
A question tends to incriminate when the answer of the accused or the witness would establish a fact which
would be a necessary link in a chain of evidence to prove the commission of a crime by the accused or the
witness.
Distinction between an accused and an ordinary witness
1.
2.

An accused can refuse to take the witness stand by invoking the right against self-incrimination.
An ordinary witness cannot refuse to take the stand. He can only refuse to answer specific
questions which would incriminate him in the commission of an offense.

Scope of right
1.
2.

3.

What is PROHIBITED is the use of physical or moral compulsion to extort communication from the
witness or to otherwise elicit evidence which would not exist were it not for the actions compelled
from the witness.
The right does NOT PROHIBIT
the examination of the body of the accused or the use of
findings with respect to his body as physical evidence. Hence, the fingerprinting of an accused would
not violate the right against self-incrimination. However, obtaining a sample of the handwriting of
the accused would violate this right if he is charged for falsification.
The accused cannot be compelled to produce a private document in his possession which might tend
to incriminate him. However, a third person in custody of the document may be compelled to
produce it.

When the right can be invoked:

1.
2.

In criminal cases
In administrative proceedings if the accused is liable to a penalty (Ex. Forfeiture of property)

Who can invoke the right:

Only natural persons. Judicial persons are subject to the visitorial powers of the state in order to determine
compliance with the conditions of the charter granted to them.
Section 18. Right against involuntary servitude
Definition of involuntary servitude
It is every condition of enforced or compulsory service of one to another no matter under what form such
servitude may be disguised.
Exceptions:
1.
2.
3.

Punishment for a crime for which the party has been duly convicted
Personal military or civil service in the interest of national defense
Return to work order issued by the DOLE Secretary or the President

Section 19. Prohibition against cruel, degrading and inhuman punishment

When is a penalty cruel, degrading and inhuman?
1.
2.

A penalty is cruel and inhuman if it involves torture or lingering suffering. Ex. Being drawn and
quartered.
A penalty is degrading if it exposes a person to public humiliation. Ex. Being tarred and feathered,
then paraded throughout town.

Standards used:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The punishment must not be so severe as to be degrading to the dignity of human beings.
It must not be applied arbitrarily.
It must not be unacceptable to contemporary society
It must not be excessive, i.e. it must serve a penal purpose more effectively than a less severe
punishment would.

Excessive fine
A fine is excessive, when under any circumstance, it is disproportionate to the offense.
Note: Fr. Bernas says that the accused cannot be convicted of the crime to which the punishment is
attached if the court finds that the punishment is cruel, degrading or inhuman.
Reason: Without a valid penalty, the law is not a penal law.
Section 20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
Definition of debt under Section 20
1)
Debt refers to a CONTRACTUAL obligation, whether express or implied, resulting in any liability to pay
money. Thus, all other types of obligations are not within the scope of this prohibition.
2)
Thus, if an accused fails to pay the fine imposed upon him, this may result in his subsidiary
imprisonment because his liability is ex delicto and not ex contractu.
3)
A FRAUDULENT debt may result in the imprisonment of the debtor if:
1.
2.

The fraudulent debt constitutes a crime such as estafa and

The accused has been duly convicted.

Section 21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense. If an act punished
by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either shall constitute a bar to another prosecution
for the same act.
Requisites for a valid defense of double jeopardy: CODE: ATS
1)
First jeopardy must have attached prior to the second.
2)
The first jeopardy must have terminated.
3)
The second jeopardy must be for the same offense as that in the first.
When does jeopardy ATTACH: (1st requisite) CODE: CICAV
1)
A person is charged
2)
Under a complaint or information sufficient in form and substance to sustain a conviction
3)
Before a court of competent jurisdiction
4)
After the person is arraigned
5)
Such person enters a valid plea.
When does jeopardy NOT attach:
1)
If information does not charge any offense
2)
If, upon pleading guilty, the accused presents evidence of complete self-defense, and the court
thereafter acquits him without entering a new plea of not guilty for accused.
3)
If the information for an offense cognizable by the RTC is filed with the MTC.
4)
If a complaint filed for preliminary investigation is dismissed.
When does first jeopardy TERMINATE: (2ND REQUISITE)
1)
Acquittal
2)
Conviction
3)
Dismissal W/O the EXPRESS consent of the accused
4)
Dismissal on the merits.
Examples of termination of jeopardy:
1)
Dismissal based on violation of the right to a speedy trial. This amounts to an acquittal.
2)
Dismissal based on a demurrer to evidence. This is a dismissal on the merits.
3)
Dismissal on motion of the prosecution, subsequent to a motion for reinvestigation filed by the
accused.

4)
Discharge of an accused to be a state witness. This amounts to an acquittal.
When can the PROSECUTION appeal from an order of dismissal:
1)
If dismissal is on motion of the accused. Exception: If motion is based on violation of the right to a
speedy trial or on a demurrer to evidence.
2)
If dismissal does NOT amount to an acquittal or dismissal on the merits
3)
If the question to be passed upon is purely legal.
4)
If the dismissal violates the right of due process of the prosecution.
5)
If the dismissal was made with grave abuse of discretion.
What are considered to be the SAME OFFENSE: (under the 1st sentence of Section 21)
1)
Exact identity between the offenses charged in the first and second cases.
2)
One offense is an attempt to commit or a frustration of the other offense.
3)
One offense is necessarily included or necessary includes the other.
Note: where a single act results in the violation of different laws or different provisions of the same law, the
prosecution for one will not bar the other so long as none of the exceptions apply.
Definition of double jeopardy (2nd sentence of Sec. 21)
Double jeopardy will result if the act punishable under the law and the ordinance are the same. For there to
be double jeopardy, it is not necessary that the offense be the same.
SUPERVENING FACTS
1)
Under the Rules of Court, a conviction for an offense will not bar a prosecution for an offense which
necessarily includes the offense charged in the former information where:
1.
2.
3.

The graver offense developed due to a supervening fact arising from the same act or omission
constituting the former charge.
The facts constituting the graver offense became known or were discovered only after the filing of
the former information.
The plea of guilty to the lesser offense was made without the consent of the fiscal and the offended
party.

2)
Under (1)(b), if the facts could have been discovered by the prosecution but were not discovered
because of the prosecutions incompetence, it would not be considered a supervening event.
Effect of appeal by the accused:
If the accused appeals his conviction, he WAIVES his right to plead double jeopardy. The whole case will be
open to review by the appellate court. Such court may even increase the penalties imposed on the accused
by the trial court.
Section 22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
Definition of ex-post facto law.
1)
One which makes an action done before the passing of the law, and which was innocent when done,
criminal, and punishes such action.
2)
One which aggravates the crime or makes it greater than when it was committed.
3)
One which changes the punishment and inflicts a greater punishment than that which the law annexed
to the crime when it was committed.
4)
One which alters the legal rules of evidence and receives less testimony than the law required at the
time of the commission of the offense in order to convict the accused.
5)
One which assumes to regulate civil rights and remedies only BUT, in effect, imposes a penalty or
deprivation of a right, which, when done, was lawful.
6)
One which deprives a person accused of a crime of some lawful protection to which he has become
entitled such as the protection of a former conviction or acquittal, or a proclamation of amnesty.
Note: The prohibition on ex post facto laws only applies to retrospective PENAL laws.
Definition of BILL OF ATTAINDER
1)
A bill of attainder is a LEGISLATIVE act which inflicts punishment W/O JUDICIAL trial.
2)
The bill of attainder does not need to be directed at a specifically named person. It may also refer to
easily ascertainable members of a group in such a way as to inflict punishment on them without judicial
trial.
3)
Elements of the bill of attainder

1.
2.
3.

There must be a LAW.

The law imposes a PENAL burden on a NAMED INVIDIDUAL/EASILY ASCERTAINABLE MEMBERS of a
GROUP.
The penal burden is imposed DIRECTLY by the LAW W/O JUDICIAL trial.
ARTICLE IV CITIZENSHIP

Who are citizens of the Philippines?

1)
Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of the 1987 Constitution
2)
Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines.
3)
Those born before January 17, 1973 of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching
the age of majority.
4)
Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.
Modes of acquiring citizenship:
1)
Jus Soli acquisition of citizenship on the basis of place of birth
2)
Jus Sanguinis acquisition of citizenship on the basis of blood relationship
3)
Naturalization the legal act of adopting an alien and clothing him with the privilege of a native-born
citizen.
Note: The Philippines follows (2) and (3)
Election of citizenship under the 1987 Constitution:
Prior to the 1973 Constitution, if a Filipina married an alien, she lost her Filipino citizenship. Hence, her
child would have to elect Filipino citizenship upon reaching the age of majority. Under the 1973
Constitution, however, children born of Filipino mothers were already considered Filipinos. Therefore, the
provision on election of citizenship under the 1987 Constitution only applies to those persons who were born
under the 1935 Constitution. In order for the children to elect Filipino citizenship, the mothers must have
been Filipinos at the time of their marriage. So, if your mother was a Filipina who married an alien under
the 1935 constitution and you were born before January 17, 1973, you can elect Filipino citizenship upon
reaching the age of majority.
When must the election be made:
The election must be made within a reasonable period after reaching the age of majority.
Effects of naturalization:
1)
The legitimate minor children of the naturalized father become Filipinos as well.
2)
The wife also becomes a Filipino citizen, provided that she does not have any disqualification which
would bar her from being naturalized.
Natural-born citizens:
1)
Citizens of the Philippines from birth who do not need to perform any act to acquire or perfect their
Philippine citizenship.
2)
Those who elect Philippine citizenship under Art. IV, Sec. 1(3) of 1987 Constitution.
Marriage of Filipino with an alien:
1)
General Rule: The Filipino RETAINS Philippine citizenship
2)
Exception: If, by their act or omission they are deemed, under the law, to have renounced it.
Examples of renunciation of Philippine citizenship:
1)
Voluntarily obtaining foreign passport
2)
Pledging allegiance to another country (ex. by becoming a naturalized citizen of another country)
Re-acquisition of citizenship
Natural-born Filipinos who are deemed to have lost their citizenship may re-acquire the same via
repatriation proceedings. This involves taking an oath of allegiance and filing the same with the civil
registry.
How may one lose citizenship:
1.
By naturalization in a foreign country
2.
By express renunciation of citizenship
3.
By subscribing oath or allegiance to a foreign Constitution
4.
By serving in the armed forces of an enemy country
5.
By being a deserter of the armed forces of ones country
How may one reacquire citizenship:
1.
By direct act of Congress
2.
By naturalization

3.

By repatriation

ARTICLE V SUFFRAGE
Qualifications:
CODE: CD18RR
1)
Citizen of the Philippines
2)
Not Disqualified by law
3)
At least 18 years old
4)
Resident of the Philippines for at least 1 year
5)
Resident of the place wherein he/she proposes to vote for at least 6 months immediately preceding
the election.
Note: NO literacy, property or other substantive requirement can be imposed on the exercise of suffrage.
Residency requirement
Residency, under Article V has 2 senses:
1. DOMICILE This is in reference to the 1 year residency requirement in the Philippines.
2. TEMPORARY RESIDENCE This is in reference to the 6 month residency requirement in the place where
one wants to vote. In this case, residence can either mean domicile or temporary residence.
Disqualifications:
1)
Any person sentenced by final judgment to imprisonment of not less than 1 year, which disability has
not been removed by plenary pardon.
2)
Any person adjudged by final judgment of having violated his allegiance to the Republic of the
Philippines.
3)
Insane or feeble-minded persons.
Note: Under the 2nd disqualification, the right to vote is automatically re-acquired upon the expiration of 5
years after the service of sentence.
Reference:
Political Law (Constitutional Law) Reviewer & Memory Aid
Ateneo Central Bar Operations 2001

ARTICLE VI THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT

Sec. 1. The legislative power shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines, which shall consist of a
Senate and a House of Representatives, except to the extent reserved to the people by the provision on
initiative and referendum.
Definition of Legislative Power:
The authority to make laws and to alter or repeal them.
Classification of legislative power: (O De CO)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Note:

Original Possessed by the people in their sovereign capacity

Delegated Possessed by Congress and other legislative bodies by virtue of the Constitution
Constituent The power to amend or revise the Constitution
Ordinary The power to pass ordinary laws

The original legislative power of the people is exercised via initiative and referendum. In this manner,
people can directly propose and enact laws, or approve or reject any act or law passed by Congress or a
local government unit.
Limits on the legislative power of Congress:
1.
1.

Substantive limitations on the content of laws. E.g. no law shall be passed establishing a state
religion.
Procedural limitations on the manner of passing laws. E.g. generally a bill must go through three
readings on three separate days.

Note:
Provided that these two limitations are not exceeded, Congress legislative power is plenary.
Corollaries of legislative power:
1.
1.

Congress cannot pass irrepealable laws. Since Congress powers are plenary, and limited only by the
Constitution, any attempt to limit the powers of future Congresses via an irrepealable law is not
allowed.
Congress, as a general rule, cannot delegate its legislative power. Since the people have already
delegated legislative power to Congress, the latter cannot delegate it any further.

EXCEPTIONS:
1.
2.

Delegation of legislative power to local government units;

Instances when the Constitution itself allows for such delegation [see Art. VI Sec. 23(2)]

What may Congress delegate:

Congress can only delegate, usually to administrative agencies, RULE-MAKING POWER or LAW EXECUTION.
This involves either of two tasks for the administrative agencies:
1.
2.

Filling up the details on an otherwise complete statute; or

Ascertaining the facts necessary to bring a contingent law or provision into actual operation.

Sections 2-4. SENATE

Composition
24 senators who shall be elected at large by the qualified voters of the Philippines, as may be provided by
law.
Qualifications
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Natural-born citizen;
At least 35 years old on the day of election;
Able to read and write;
A registered voter; and
Philippine resident for at least 2 years immediately preceding the day of the election.

Note: The qualifications of both Senators and Members of the House are limited to those provided by the
Constitution. Congress cannot, by law, add or subtract from these qualifications.
Term of Office:
6 years, commencing (unless otherwise provided by law) at noon, 30 June next following their election.

Term Limitations:
1.
2.

No Senator shall serve for more than 2 consecutive terms.

Voluntary renunciation of office for any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in
the continuity of his service for the full term for which he was elected.

Sections 5-7. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Composition:
1.
2.

Not more than 25 members, unless otherwise fixed by law; and

Party-list Representative

Election of 250 members

1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

They shall be elected from legislative districts apportioned among the provinces, cities and the
Metropolitan Manila area.
Legislative districts are apportioned in accordance with the number of inhabitants of each area and
on the basis of a uniform and progressive ratio.
Each district shall comprise, as far as practicable, contiguous, compact and adjacent territory;
Each city with at least 250,000 inhabitants will be entitled to at least one representative.
Each province will have at least one representative.
Legislative districts shall be re-apportioned by Congress within 3 years after the return of each
census. According to Jack, however, while the apportionment of districts is NOT a political question,
the judiciary CANNOT compel Congress to do this.
The standards used to determine the apportionment of legislative districts is meant to prevent
gerrymandering, which is the formation of a legislative district out of separate territories so as to
favor a particular candidate or party.

Qualifications
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Natural born citizen of the Philippines;

At least 25 years old on the day of the election;
Able to read and write;
Registered voter in the district he seeks to represent; and
A resident of such district for at least one year immediately preceding the day of the election.

Term of Office
1.
2.

Each member of the House shall be elected for a term of three (3) years which shall commence
(unless otherwise provided for by law) at noon on 30 June next following their election.
Voluntary renunciation of office for any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in
the continuity of his service for the full term for which he was elected.

Term Limitations
No member of the House of Representatives shall serve for more than three (3) consecutive terms.
Distinctions between Term and Tenure
1.
1.
2.
1.

Definition
Terms means the period during which the elected officer is legally authorized to assume his office
and exercise the powers thereof.
Tenure is the actual period during which such officer actually holds his position.
Limitation/Possible Reduction
1.
Term CANNOT be reduced.
2.
Tenure MAY, by law, be limited. Thus, a provision which considers an elective office
automatically vacated when the holder thereof files a certificate of candidacy for another

elective office (except President and Vice-President) is valid, as it only affects the officers
tenure and NOT his constitutional term.
Party-List Representatives
1.
1.
1.

1.
1.
2.
3.

Constitute 20% of the total number of representatives, including those under the party-list system
(thus a maximum of 50 party-list members of the House)
However, for 3 consecutive terms from 2 February 1987 (i.e., the 1987-92, 92-95 and 95-98 terms),
25 seats shall be allotted to sectoral representatives. Under Art. XVIII, Sec. 7, the sectoral
representatives are to be appointed by the President until legislation otherwise provides.
Mechanics of the party-list system:
1.
Registered organizations submit a list of candidates in order of priority.
2.
During the elections, these organizations are voted for at large.
3.
The number of seats that each organization gets out of the 20% allotted to the system
depends on the number of votes they get.
Qualifications
Natural born citizen of the Philippines
At least 25 years of age on the day of the election
Able to read and write

Sec. 9. In case of vacancy in the Senate or in the House of Representatives, a special election may be
called to fill such vacancy in the manner prescribed by law, but the Senator or Member of the House of
Representatives thus elected shall serve only for the unexpired term.
Sec. 10. Salaries of Senators and Members of the House
Determination of Salaries:
Salaries of Senators and Members of the House of Representatives shall be determined by law.
Rule on increase in salaries:
No increase in their salaries shall take effect until after the EXPIRATION OF THE FULL TERM (NOT TENURE) OF
ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE SENATE AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES APPROVING SUCH INCREASE.
Note: Since the Constitution provides for rules on salaries and not on emoluments, our distinguished
legislators can appropriate for themselves other sums of money such as travel allowances, as well as other
side benefits.
Sec. 11: CONGRESSIONAL IMMUNITIES
1.) Immunity from arrest:
1.
2.
3.
2.)
1.
1.

Legislators are privileged from arrest while Congress is in session with respect to offenses
punishable by up to 6 years of imprisonment. Thus, whether Congress is in regular or special session,
the immunity from arrest applies.
If Congress is in recess, members thereof may be arrested.
The immunity is only with respect to arrests and NOT to prosecution for criminal offenses.
Legislative privilege:
No member shall be questioned or held liable in any forum other than his/her respective
Congressional body for any debate or speech in the Congress or in any Committee thereof.
Limitation on the privilege:

(i)
Protection is only against forum other than Congress itself. Thus for inflammatory remarks
which are otherwise privileged, a member may be sanctioned by either the Senate or the House as the case
may be.
(ii)
The speech or debate must be made in performance of their duties as members of Congress.
This includes speeches delivered, statements made, votes cast, as well as bills introduced, and other
activities done in performance of their official duties.

(iii)
Congress need NOT be in session when the utterance is made, as long as it forms part of
legislative action, i.e. part of the deliberative and communicative process used to participate in legislative
proceedings in consideration of proposed legislation or with respect to other matters with Congress
jurisdiction.
Sec. 12. All Members of the Senate and the House of Representatives shall, upon assumption of office,
make a full disclosure of their financial and business interests. They shall notify the House concerned of
a potential conflict of interest that may arise from the filing of a proposed legislation of which they are
authors.
Sec. 13-14: CONGRESSIONAL DISQUALIFICATIONS:
Disqualifications:
DISQUALIFICATION

WHEN APPLICABLE

1. Senator/Member of the House cannot hold any

other office or employment in the
Government or
any subdivision, agency or Instrumentality thereof,
including GOCCS or their subsidiaries.

During his term. If he does so, he forfeits his seat.

2. Legislators cannot be appointed to any office.

IF the office was created or the emoluments

thereof increased during the term for which he was
elected.

3. Legislators cannot personally appear as counsel

before any court of justice, electoral tribunal,
quasi-judicial and administrative bodies.

During his term of office.

4. Legislators cannot be financially interested

directly or indirectly in any contract with or in any
franchise, or special privilege granted by the
Government, or any subdivision, agency or
instrumentality thereof, including any GOCC or its
subsidiary.
5. Legislators cannot intervene in any matter
before any office of the government.

During his term of office.

When it is for his pecuniary benefit or where he
may be called upon to act on account of his office.

Sec. 15: REGULAR AND SPECIAL SESSIONS

Regular Sessions:
1.) Congress convenes once every year on the 4 th Monday of July (unless otherwise provided for by law)
2.) Continues in session for as long as it sees fit, until 30 days before the opening of the next regular
session, excluding Saturdays, Sundays, and legal holidays.
Special Sessions:
Called by the President at any time when Congress is not in session.
Sec. 16. Officers:
1.) Senate President;
2.) Speaker of the House; and
3.) Each House may choose such other officers as it may deem necessary.

Election of Officers
By a majority vote of all respective members.
Quorum to do business:
1.
2.
3.

Majority of each House shall constitute a quorum.

A smaller number may adjourn from day to day and may compel the attendance of absent members.
In computing a quorum, members who are outside the country and thus outside of each Houses
coercive jurisdiction are not included.

Internal Rules:
1.
2.
3.

Each House shall determine its own procedural rules.

Since this is a power vested in Congress as part of its inherent powers, under the principle of
separation of powers, the courts cannot intervene in the implementation of these rules insofar as
they affect the members of Congress.
Also, since Congress has the power to make these rules, it also has the power to ignore them when
circumstances so require.

Discipline:
1.) Suspension
1.
2.
2.)

Concurrence of 2/3 of ALL its members and

Shall not exceed 60 days.
Expulsion

1.

Concurrence of 2/3 of ALL its members.

Congressional Journals and Records:

1.) The Journal is conclusive upon the courts.
2.) BUT an enrolled bill prevails over the contents of the Journal.
3.) An enrolled bill is the official copy of approved legislation and bears the certifications of the presiding
officers of each House. Thus where the certifications are valid and are not withdrawn, the contents of the
enrolled bill are conclusive upon the courts as regards the provision of that particular bill.
Adjournments:
1.) Neither House can adjourn for more than 3 days during the time Congress is in session without the
consent of the other House.
2.) Neither can they adjourn to any other place than that where the two houses are sitting, without the
consent of the other.
Section 17: THE ELECTORAL TRIBUNAL
The Senate and the House shall each have an Electoral Tribunal which shall be composed of:
1.
2.

3 Supreme Court Justices to be designated by the Chief Justice; &

6 Members of the Senate or House, as the case may be.

The senior Justice in the Electoral Tribunal shall be its Chairman.

Note: The congressional members of the ETs shall be chosen on the basis of proportional representation
from the political parties and party-list organizations.
Jurisdiction:
1.) Each ET shall be the sole judge of all CONTESTS relating to the election, returns, and qualifications of
their respective members. This includes determining the validity or invalidity of a proclamation declaring a
particular candidate as the winner.
2.) An election contest is one where a defeated candidate challenges the qualification and claims for
himself the seat of a proclaimed winner.

3.) In the absence of an election contest, the ET is without jurisdiction. However, the power of each
House to expel its own members or even to defer their oath-taking until their qualifications are determined
may still be exercised even without an election contest.
Issues regarding the Electoral Tribunals:
1.) Since the ETs are independent constitutional bodies, independent even of the House from which the
members are respectively taken, neither Congress nor the Courts may interfere with procedural matters
relating to the functions of the ETs, such as the setting of deadlines or filing their election contests with the
respective ETs.
2.) The ETs being independent bodies, its members may not be arbitrarily removed from their positions in
the tribunal by the parties which they represent. Neither may they be removed for not voting according to
party lines, since they are acting independently of Congress.
3.) The mere fact that the members of either the Senate or the House sitting on the ET are those which
are sought to be disqualified due to the filing of an election contest against them does not warrant all of
them from being disqualified from sitting in the ET. The Constitution is quite clear that the ET must act with
both members from the SC and from the Senate or the House. If all the legislator-members of the ET were
to be disqualified, the ET would not be able to fulfill its constitutional functions.
4.) Judicial review of decisions of the ETs may be had with the SC only insofar as the decision or resolution
was rendered without or in excess of jurisdiction or with grave abuse of discretion constituting denial of due
process.
Section 18: THE COMMISSION ON APPOINTMENTS
Composition:
1.) Senate President as ex-officio chairman;
2.) 12 Senators; and
3.) 12 Members of the House.
Note: The 12 Senators and 12 Representatives are elected on the basis of proportional representation from
the political parties and party-list organizations.
Voting/Action
1.) The chairman shall only vote in case of a tie.
2.) The CA shall act on all appointments within 30 session days from their submission to Congress.
3.) The Commission shall rule by a majority vote of all the Members.
Jurisdiction
1.) CA shall confirm the appointments by the President with respect to the following positions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Heads of the Executive Departments (except if it is the Vice-President who is appointed to the post).
Ambassadors, other public ministers or consuls.
Officers of the AFP from the rank of Colonel or Naval Captain: and
Other officers whose appointments are vested in him by the Constitution (e.g. COMELEC members).

2.) Congress CANNOT by law prescribe that the appointment of a person to an office created by such law
shall be subject to confirmation by the CA.
3.) Appointments extended by the President to the above-mentioned positions while Congress is not in
session shall only be effective until disapproval by the CA or until the next adjournment of Congress.
Meetings of the CA
1.) CA meets only while Congress is in session.
2.) Meetings are held either at the call of the Chairman or a majority of all its members.
3.) Since the CA is also an independent constitutional body, its rules of procedure are also outside the
scope of congressional powers as well as that of the judiciary.
Note: The ET and the CA shall be constituted within 30 days after the Senate and the House of
Representative shall have been organized with the election of the President and the Speaker.
Sections 21-22: LEGISLATIVE INQUIRIES
Scope:
1.

Either House or any of their committees may conduct inquires in aid of legislation.

2.
3.

In aid of legislation does not mean that there is pending legislation regarding the subject of the
inquiry. In fact, investigation may be needed for purposes of proposing future legislation.
If the stated purpose of the investigation is to determine the existence of violations of the law, the
investigation is no longer in aid of legislation but in aid of prosecution. This violates the principle
of separation of powers and is beyond the scope of congressional powers.

Enforcement:
1.
1.

1.
1.
1.

Since experience has shown that mere requests for information does not usually work, Congress has
the inherent power to punish recalcitrant witnesses for contempt, and may have them incarcerated
until such time that they agree to testify.
The continuance of such incarceration only subsists for the lifetime, or term, of such body. Once
the body ceases to exist after its final adjournment, the power to incarcerate ceases to exist as well.
Thus, each Congress of the House lasts for only 3 years. But if one is incarcerated by the Senate, it
is indefinite because the Senate, with its staggered terms, is a continuing body.
BUT, in order for a witness to be subject to this incarceration, the primary requirement is that the
inquiry is within the scope of Congress powers. i.e. it is in aid of legislation.
The materiality of a question is determined not by its connection to any actually pending legislation,
but by its connection to the general scope of the inquiry.
The power to punish for contempt is inherent in Congress and this power is sui generis. It cannot be
exercised by local government units unless they are expressly authorized to do so.

Limitations:
1.
1.

The inquiry must be conducted in accordance with the duly published rules of procedure of the
House conducting the inquiry; and
The rights of persons appearing in or affected by such inquiries shall be respected. Ex. The right
against self-incrimination.

Appearance by department heads before Congress:

1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.

Since members of the executive department are co-equals with those of the legislative department,
under the principle of separations of powers, department heads cannot be compelled to appear
before Congress. Neither may the department heads impose their appearance upon Congress.
Department heads may appear before Congress in the following instances.
Upon their own initiative, with the consent of the President (and that of the House concerned); or
Upon the request of either House (which cannot compel them to attend)
The appearance will be conducted in EXECUTIVE SESSION when:
Required by the security of state or required by public interest; and
When the President so states in writing

Sections 23-24. DECLARATION OF WAR/EMERGENCY POWERS

Vote requirement: (to declare the existence of a state of war)
1.
2.

2/3 of both Houses, in joint session

Voting separately

Emergency powers:
1.
1.
1.

During times of war or other national emergency, Congress may, BY LAW, authorize the President to
exercise powers necessary and proper to carry out a declared national policy.
Limitations:
1.
Powers will be exercised for a limited period only; and
2.
Powers will be subject to restrictions prescribed by Congress
Expiration of emergency powers

1.
2.

By resolution of Congress or
Upon the next adjournment of Congress

Sections 24-27, 30-31 LEGISLATION

Bills that must originate from the House of Representatives (Section 24)
CODE: A R T Pu Lo P
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Appropriation bills
Revenue bills
Tariff bills
Bills authorizing the increase of public debt
Bills of local application
Private bills

Note: The Senate may, however, propose or concur with amendments.

Appropriation bills
1.
1.
1.

The primary and specific aim of an appropriation bill is to appropriate a sum of money from the
public treasury.
Thus, a bill enacting the budget is an appropriations bill.
BUT: A bill creating a new office, and appropriating funds therefor is NOT an appropriation bill.

Revenue Bill
1.
1.

A revenue bill is one specifically designed to raise money or revenue through imposition or levy.
Thus, a bill introducing a new tax is a revenue bill, but a provision in, for instance, the Videogram
Regulatory Board law imposing a tax on video rentals does not make the law a revenue bill.

Bills of local application

A bill of local application, such as one asking for the conversion of a municipality into a city, is deemed to
have originated from the House provided that the bill of the House was filed prior to the filing of the bill in
the Senate even if, in the end, the Senate approved its own version.
Limitations:
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.

For appropriation bills:

Congress cannot increase the appropriations recommended by the President for the operation of the
Government as specified in the budget.
Each provision or enactment in the General Appropriations Bill must relate specifically to some
particular appropriation therein and any such provision or enactment must be limited in its operation
to the appropriation to which it relates.
The procedure in approving appropriations for Congress shall strictly follow the procedure for
approving appropriations for other departments and agencies.
A special appropriations bill must specify the purpose for which it is intended and must be supported
by funds actually available as certified by the National Treasurer or to be raised by a corresponding
revenue proposal therein.
Transfer of appropriations:
Rule: No law shall be passed authorizing any transfer of appropriations
BUT the following may, BY LAW, be authorized to AUGMENT any item in the general appropriations
law for their respective offices from savings in other items of their respective appropriations
President
President of the Senate
Speaker of the House of Representatives
Chief of Justice of the Supreme Court
Heads of the Constitutional Commissions

1.

1.

Discretionary funds appropriated for particular officials shall be:

1.
Disbursed only for public purposes;
2.
Should be supported by appropriate vouchers; and
3.
Subject to guidelines as may be prescribed by law.
If Congress fails to pass General Appropriations Bill (GAB) by the end of any fiscal year:

i. The GAB for the previous year is deemed reenacted

ii. It will remain in full force and effect until the GAB is passed by Congress.
1.

For law granting tax exemption

It should be passed with the concurrence of a MAJORITY of ALL the members of Congress.
1.
1.

For bills in general

Every bill shall embrace only one (1) subject, as expressed in the title thereof

i.
As a mandatory requirement
ii.
The title does not have to be a complete catalogue of everything stated in the bill. It is sufficient if
the title expresses the general subject of the bill and all the provisions of the statute are germane to that
general subject.
iii.
A bill which repeals legislation regarding the subject matter need not state in the title that it is
repealing the latter. Thus, a repealing clause in the bill is considered germane to the subject matter of the
bill.
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Readings
In order to become a law, each bill must pass three (3) readings in both Houses.
General rule: Each reading shall be held on separate days & printed copies thereof in its final form
shall be distributed to its Members three (3) days before its passage.
Exception: If a bill is certified as urgent by the President as to the necessity of its immediate
enactment to meet a public calamity or emergency, the 3 readings can be held on the same day.
First reading only the title is read; the bill is passed to the proper committee

Second reading Entire text is read and debates are held, and amendments introduced.
Third reading only the title is read, no amendments are allowed. Vote shall be taken immediately
thereafter and the yeas and nays entered in the journal.
Veto power of President:
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.

Every bill, in order to become a law, must be presented to and signed by the President.
If the President does not approve of the bill, he shall veto the same and return it with his objections
to the House from which it originated. The House shall enter the objections in the Journal and
proceed to reconsider it.
The President must communicate his decision to veto within 30 days from the date of receipt
thereof. If he fails to do so, the bill shall become a law as if he signed it.
This rule eliminates the pocket veto whereby the President would simply refuse to act on the bill.
To OVERRIDE the veto, at least 2/3 of ALL the members of each House must agree to pass the bill.
In such case, the veto is overriden and becomes a law without need of presidential approval.
Item veto
The President may veto particular items in an appropriation, revenue or tariff bill.
This veto will not affect items to which he does not object.
Definition of item

TYPE OF BILL
1. Revenue/tax bill
2. Appropriations bill

ITEM
Subject of the tax and the tax rate imposed thereon
Indivisible sum dedicated to a stated purpose

1.
1.
2.

Veto of RIDER
A rider is a provision which does not relate to a particular appropriation stated in the bill.
Since it is an invalid provision under Section 25(2), the President may veto it as an item.

Specific limitations on legislation

1.
1.

No law shall be enacted increasing the Supreme Courts appellate jurisdiction without the SCs
advice and concurrence.
No law shall be enacted granting titles of royalty or nobility.

Section 28. POWER TO TAX

Limitations:
1)
The rule of taxation should be UNIFORM
2)
It should be EQUITABLE
3)
Congress should evolve a PROGRESSIVE system of taxation.
4)
The power to tax must be exercised for a public purpose because the power exists for the general
welfare
5)
The due process and equal protection clauses of the Constitution should be observed.
Delegation of power to fix rates
1)
Congress may, BY LAW, authorize the President to fix the following:
a)
Tariff rates
b)
Import and Export Quotas
c)
Tonnage and wharfage dues
d)
Other duties and imposts
Within the framework of the national development program of the Government
2)
The exercise of such power by the President shall be within the specified limits fixed by Congress and
subject to such limitations and restrictions as it may impose.
Constitutional tax exemptions:
1)
The following properties are exempt from REAL PROPERTY taxes
(CODE: Cha Chu M- CA)
a)
Charitable institutions
b)
Churches, and parsonages or convents appurtenant thereto
c)
Mosques
d)
Non-profit cemeteries; and
e)
All lands, buildings and improvements actually, directly and exclusively used for religious, charitable,
or educational purposes.
2)
All revenues and assets of NON-STOCK NON-PROFIT EDUCATIONAL institutions are exempt from taxes
and duties PROVIDED that such revenues and assets are actually, directly and exclusively used for
educational purposes. (Art. XIV Sec 4 (3))
3)
Grants, endowments, donations or contributions used actually, directly and exclusively for educational
purposes shall be exempt from tax. This is subject to conditions prescribed by law. (Art. XIV. Sec 4 (4))
Section 29. Power of the Purse
1)
No money shall be paid out of the National Treasury EXCEPT in pursuance of an appropriation made by
law.
a)
This places the control of public funds in the hands of Congress.
b)
BUT: This rule does not prohibit continuing appropriations. e.g. for debt servicing. This is because the
rule does not require yearly, or annual appropriation.
2)
Limitations.
a)
Appropriations must be for a PUBLIC PURPOSE
b)
Cannot appropriate public funds or property, directly or indirectly, in favor of
(i)
Any sect, church, denomination, or sectarian institution or system of religion or
(ii)
Any priest, preacher, minister, or other religious teacher or dignitary as such.
EXCEPT if the priest, etc is assigned to:

the Armed Forces; or

any penal institution; or

government orphanage; or


leprosarium
c)
BUT the government is not prohibited from appropriating money for a valid secular purpose, even if it
incidentally benefits a religion, e.g. appropriations for a national police force is valid even if the police also
protects the safety of clergymen.
d) ALSO, the temporary use of public property for religious purposes is valid, as long as the property is
available for all religions
3)
Special Funds
a)
Money collected on a tax levied for a special purpose shall be treated as a special fund and paid out
for such purpose only.
b)
Once the special purpose is fulfilled or abandoned, any balance shall be transferred to the general
funds of the Government
Section 32. INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM
1)
Through the system of initiative and referendum, the people can directly propose and enact laws or
approve or reject any act or law or part thereof passed by the Congress or local legislative body.
2)
Required Petition
a)
Should be signed by at least 10% of the total number of registered voters
b)
Every legislative district should be represented by at least 3% of the registered voters
c)
Petition should be registered

ARTICLE VII. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT

Section 1. EXECUTIVE POWER
Scope:
1) Executive power is vested in the President of the Philippines.
2) The scope of this power is set forth in Art. VII of the Constitution. But this power is not limited to those
set forth therein. The SC, in Marcos v. Manglapus, referred to the RESIDUAL powers of the President as the
Chief Executive of the country, which powers include others not set forth in the Constitution. EXAMPLE:
The President is immune from suit and criminal prosecution while he is in office.
3) Privilege of immunity from suit is personal to the President and may be invoked by him alone. It may
also be waived by the President, as when he himself files suit.
4) BUT The President CANNOT dispose of state property unless authorized by law.
Section 2. QUALIFICATIONS
1) Natural-born citizen of the Philippines
2) Registered voter;
3) Able to read and write;
4) At least 40 years old on the day of election
5) Philippine resident for at least 10 years immediately preceding such election.
Note: The Vice-President has the same qualifications & term of office as the President. He is elected with &
in the same manner as the President. He may be removed from office in the same manner as the President.
Section 4. MANNER OF ELECTION/ TERM OF OFFICE
Manner of Election
1) The President and Vice-President shall be elected by direct vote of the people.
2) Election returns for President and Vice-President, as duly certified by the proper Board of Canvassers
shall be forwarded to Congress, directed to the Senate President.
3) Not later than 30 days after the day of the election, the certificates shall be opened in the presence of
both houses of Congress, assembled in joint public session.
4) The Congress, after determining the authenticity and due execution of the certificates, shall canvass
the votes.
5) The person receiving the highest number of votes shall be proclaimed elected.
6) In case of a tie between 2 or more candidates, one shall be chosen by a majority of ALL the members of
both Houses, voting separately. In case this results in a deadlock, the Senate President shall be the acting
President until the deadlock is broken.
7) The Supreme Court en banc shall act as the sole judge over all contests relating to the election, returns,
and qualifications of the President or Vice-President and may promulgate its rules for the purpose.
Term of Office
1) President

a) 6 years beginning at noon on 30 June immediately following the election and ending at noon on the
same day 6 years later.
b) Term limitation: Single term only; not eligible for any reelection.
c) Any person who has succeeded as President, and served as such for more than 4 years shall NOT be
qualified for election to the same office at any time.
2) Vice-President:
a) 6 years, starting and ending the same time as the President.
b) Term limitation: 2 successive terms.
c) Voluntary renunciation of the office for any length of time is NOT an interruption in the continuity of
service for the full term for which the Vice-President was elected.
Section 6. SALARIES AND EMOLUMENTS
1) Official salaries are determined by law.
2) Salaries cannot be decreased during the TENURE of the President and the Vice-President.
3) Increases take effect only after the expiration of the TERM of the incumbent during which the increase
was approved.
4) Prohibited from receiving any other emolument from the government or any other source during their
TENURE
Sections 7-12, PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION
1.
Vacancies at the beginning of the term
VACANCY

SUCCESSOR

President-elect fails to qualify or to be chosen

VP-elect will be Acting President until

someone is qualified/chosen as President.

President-elect dies or is permanently

disabled.

VP becomes President.
1.
2.

Both President and VP-elect are not chosen or

do not qualify or both die, or both become
permanently disabled.

Senate President or
In case of his inability, the Speaker of
the House shall act as President until a
President or a VP shall have been
chosen and qualified.
In case of death or disability of (1) and (2),
Congress shall determine, by law, who will be
the acting President.

2. Vacancies after the office is initially filled:

VACANCY
President dies, is permanently disabled, is
impeached, or resigns.

SUCCESSOR
Vice-President becomes President for the
unexpired term.
1.
2.

Both President and Vice-President die, become

permanently disabled, are impeached, or
resign.

Senate President or
In case of his inability, the Speaker of
the House shall act as President until
the President or VP shall have been
elected and qualif

3) Vacancy in office of Vice-President during the term for which he was elected:
a) President will nominate new VP from any member of either House of Congress.
b) Nominee shall assume office upon confirmation by majority vote of ALL members of both Houses, voting
separately. (Nominee forfeits seat in Congress)
4) Election of President and Vice-President after vacancy during tem
a)
Congress shall convene 3 days after the vacancy in the office of both the President and the VP, without
need of a call. The convening of Congress cannot be suspended.

b)
Within 7 days after convening, Congress shall enact a law calling for a special election to elect a
President and a VP. The special election cannot be postponed.
c) The special election shall be held not earlier than 45 days not later than 60 days from the time of the
enactment of the law.
d) The 3 readings for the special law need not be held on separate days.
e) The law shall be deemed enacted upon its approval on third reading.
BUT: No special election shall be called if the vacancy occurs within 18 months before the date of the next
presidential election.
5) Temporary disability of the President:
The temporary inability of the President to discharge his duties may be raised in either of two ways:
a) By the President himself, when he sends a written declaration to the Senate President and the Speaker
of the House. In this case, the Vice-President will be Acting President until the President transmits a written
declaration to the contrary.
b) When a majority of the Cabinet members transmit to the Senate President and the Speaker their
written declaration.
(i)
The VP will immediately be Acting President.
(ii)
BUT: If the President transmits a written declaration that he is not disabled, he reassumes his
position.
(iii)
If within 5 days after the President re-assumes his position, the majority of the Cabinet
retransmits their written declaration, Congress shall decide the issue. In this event, Congress shall
reconvene within 48 hours if it is not in session, without need of a call.
(iv)
Within 10 days after Congress is required to assemble, or 12 days if Congress is not in session, a 2/3
majority of both Houses, voting separately, is needed to find the President temporarily disabled, in which
case, the VP will be Acting President.
6) Presidential Illness:
a) If the President is seriously ill, the public must be informed thereof.
b) Even during such illness, the National Security Adviser, the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, and the Chief of
Staff of the AFP are entitled to access to the President
Section 13. DISQUALIFICATIONS
SUBJECT

SOURCE OF DISQUALIFICATION
Prohibited from:
1.
Holding any office or employment during their
tenure, UNLESS:
1.
2.

1.
1.
1.

President, Vice-President, Cabinet

Members, Deputies or Assistants of
Cabinet Members

otherwise provided in the Constitution (e.g. VP

can be appointed a Cabinet Member, Sec. of Justice
sits on Judicial and Bar Council); or
the positions are ex-officio and they do not receive
any salary or other emoluments therefor (e.g. Sec.
of Finance is head of Monetary Board).
Practicing, directly or indirectly, any other
profession during their tenure;
Participating in any business;
Being financially interested in any contract with,
or in any franchise, or special privilege granted by
the government or any subdivision, agency or
instrumentality thereof, including GOCCs or their
subsidiaries.

N.B. The rule on disqualifications for the President and his

Cabinet are stricter than the normal rules applicable to
appointive and elective officers under Art. IX-B, Sec. 7.

Cannot be appointed during Presidents tenure as:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
N.B.
1.

2.
Spouses and 4th degree relatives of
the President (consanguinity or
affinity)

Members of the Constitutional Commissions;

Office of the Ombudsman;
Department Secretaries;
Department under-secretaries;
Chairman or heads of bureaus or offices including
GOCCs and their subsidiaries.
If the spouse, etc., was already in any of the above
offices at the time before his/her spouse became
President, he/she may continue in office. What is
prohibited is appointment and reappointment, NOT
continuation in office.
Spouses, etc., can be appointed to the judiciary
and as ambassadors and consuls.

Sections 14-16. POWER TO APPOINT

Principles:
1)
Since the power to appoint is executive in nature, Congress cannot usurp this function.
2)
While Congress (and the Constitution in certain cases) may prescribe the qualifications for particular
offices, the determination of who among those who are qualified will be appointed is the Presidents
prerogative.
Scope:
The President shall appoint the following:
1) Heads of executive departments (CA confirmation needed):
2) Ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls (CA confirmation needed).
3) Officers of AFP from rank of colonel or naval captain (CA confirmation needed).
4) Other officers whose appointment is vested in him by the Constitution (CA confirmation needed), such
as:
a) Chairmen and members of the COMELEC, COA and CSC.
b) Regular members of the Judicial and Bar Council.
c) The Ombudsman and his deputies;
d) Sectoral representatives in Congress.

N.B. President also appoints members of the Supreme Court and judges of the lower courts, but
these appointments do not need CA confirmation.
5) All other officers whose appointments are not otherwise provided for by law; and those whom he may
be authorized by law to appoint.
a) This includes the Chairman and members of the Commission on Human Rights, whose appointments are
provided for by law NOT by the Constitution.
b)
Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of other officers lower in rank in the President alone or in
the courts, or in the heads of departments, agencies, boards or commissions.
c)
BUT: Congress cannot, by law, require CA confirmation of the appointment of other officers for offices
created subsequent to the 1987 Constitution (e.g. NLRC Commissioners, Bangko Sentral Governor).
d)
ALSO: Voluntary submission by the President to the CA for confirmation of an appointment which is not
required to be confirmed does not vest the CA with jurisdiction. The President cannot extend the scope of
the CAs power as provided for in the Constitution.
Procedure:
1) CA confirmation needed:
a) Nomination by President
b) Confirmation by CA
c) Appointment by President; and
d) Acceptance by appointee.
Note: At any time before all four steps have been complied with, the President can withdraw the
nomination/appointment.

2) No CA confirmation:
a) Appointment; and
b) Acceptance.
Note: Once appointee accepts, President can no longer withdraw the appointment.
Ad-interim appointments:
1) When Congress is in recess, the President may still appoint officers to positions subject to CA
confirmation.
2) These appointments are effective immediately, but are only effective until they are disapproved by the
CA or until the next adjournment of Congress.
3) Appointments to fill an office in an acting capacity are NOT ad-interim in nature and need no CA
approval.
Appointments by an Acting President:
These shall remain effective UNLESS revoked by the elected President within 90 days from his assumption or
re-assumption of office.
Limitation
1) 2 months immediately before the next Presidential elections, and up to the end of his term, the
President or Acting President SHALL NOT make appointments. This is to prevent the practice of midnight
appointments.
2) EXCEPTION:
a) Can make TEMPORARY APPOINTMENTS
b) To fill EXECUTIVE POSITIONS;
c) If continued vacancies therein will prejudice public service or endanger public safety.
Section 17. Power of Control and Supervision
Power of Control:
The power of an officer to alter, modify, or set aside what a subordinate officer has done in the performance
of his duties, and to substitute the judgment of the officer for that of his subordinate. Thus, the President
exercises control over all the executive departments, bureaus, and offices.
The Presidents power over government-owned corporations comes not from the Constitution but from
statute. Hence, it may be taken away by statute.
Qualified Political Agency:
1) Since all executive and administrative organizations are adjuncts of the Executive Department, the
heads of such departments, etc. are assistants and agents of the President.
2) Thus, generally the acts of these department heads, etc, which are performed and promulgated in the
regular course of business, are presumptively the acts of the President.
3) Exception: If the acts are disapproved or reprobated by the President.
4) Under Administrative Law, decisions of Department Secretaries need not be appealed to the President in
order to comply with the requirement of exhaustion of administrative remedies.
5) Qualified political agency does NOT apply if the President is required to act in person by law or by the
Constitution. Example: The power to grant pardons must be exercised personally by the President.
Disciplinary Powers:
1) The power of the President to discipline officers flows from the power to appoint the, and NOT from the
power control.
2) BUT While the President may remove from office those who are not entitled to security of tenure, or
those officers with no set terms, such as Department Heads, the officers, and employees entitled to security
of tenure cannot be summarily removed from office.
Power of Supervision:
1) This is the power of a superior officer to ensure that the laws are faithfully executed by subordinates.
2) The power of the president over local government units is only of general supervision. Thus, he can
only interfere with the actions of their executive heads if these are contrary to law.
3) The execution of laws is an OBLIGATION of the President. He cannot suspend the operation of laws.
4) The power of supervision does not include the power of control; but the power of control necessarily
includes the power of supervision.
Section 18. COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF POWERS
Scope:
1) The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
2) Whenever necessary, the President may call out the AFP to PREVENT or SUPPRESS:
a) Lawless violence;
b) Invasion; or

c) Rebellion.
3) The President may also:
a) Suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus; and
b) Proclaim a state of martial law.
Suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus and declaring martial law;
1.
Grounds
1.
Invasion or
2.
Rebellion; and
3.
Public safety requires it.
1.
The invasion or rebellion must be ACTUAL and not merely imminent.
1.
Limitations:
1.
Suspension or proclamation is effective for only 60 days.
1.
Within 48 hours from the declaration or suspension, the President must submit a report to Congress.
1.
Congress, by majority vote and voting jointly, may revoke the same, and the President cannot set
aside the revocation.
1.
In the same manner, at the Presidents initiative, Congress can extend the same for a period
determined by Congress if:
i. Invasion or rebellion persist and
ii. Public safety requires it.
NOTE: Congress CANNOT extend the period motu propio.
1.
Supreme Court review:
i. The appropriate proceeding can be filed by any citizen.
ii. The SC can review the FACTUAL BASIS of the proclamation or suspension.
iii. Decision is promulgated within 30 days from filing.
1.
f.
Martial Law does NOT:
i. Suspend the operation of the Constitution.
ii. Supplant the functioning of the civil courts or legislative assemblies.
iii. Authorize conferment of jurisdiction on military courts over civilians where civil courts are able to
function and
iv. Automatically suspend the privilege of the writ.
1.
Suspension of privilege of the writ:
i. Applies ONLY to persons judicially charged for rebellion or offenses inherent in or directly connected with
invasion.
ii. Anyone arrested or detained during suspension must be charged within 3 days. Otherwise he should be
released.
Note: While the suspension of the privilege of writ and the proclamation of martial law is subject to judicial
review, the actual use by the President of the armed forces is not. Thus, troop deployments in times of war
is subject to the Presidents judgment and discretion.
Section 19: EXECUTIVE CLEMENCY
Scope:
1.) The President may grant the following: [ Pa R C Re]
1.
Pardons (conditional or plenary)
2.
Reprieves
3.
Commutations
4.
Remittance of fines and forfeitures
2.) These may only be granted AFTER conviction by final judgment.
3.) ALSO: The power to grant clemency includes cases involving administrative penalties.
4.) Where a conditional pardon is granted, the determination of whether it has been violated rests with
the President.
Limitations:
1.) As to scope:
Cannot be granted:
a.) Before conviction
b.) In cases of impeachment
c.) For violations of election laws, rules, and regulation without the favorable recommendation of the
COMELEC
d.) In cases of civil or legislative contempt
2.) As to effect:

a.) Does not absolve civil liabilities for an offense.

b.) Does not restore public offices already forfeited, although eligibility for the same may be restored.
Amnesty:
1.) An act of grace concurred in by Congress, usually extended to groups of persons who commit political
offenses, which puts into oblivion the offense itself.
2.) President alone CANNOT grant amnesty. Amnesty needs concurrence by a majority of all the members
of Congress.
3.) When a person applies for amnesty, he must admit his guilt of the offense which is subject to such
amnesty. If his application is denied, he can be convicted based on this admission of guilt.
4.) Amnesty V. Pardon
AMNESTY

PARDON

Addressed to POLITICAL offenses

Addressed to ORDINARY offenses

Granted to a CLASS of persons

Granted to INDIVIDUALS

Need not be accepted

Must be accepted

Requires concurrence of majority of all

members of Congress

No need for Congressional concurrence

A public act. Subject to judicial notice

Private act of President. It must be proved.

Only penalties are extinguished.
May or may not restore political rights.
Absolute pardon restores. Conditional does
not.
Civil indemnity is not extinguished.

Extinguishes the offense itself

May be granted before or after conviction

Only granted after conviction by final

judgement

Section 20. Power to Contract or Guarantee Foreign Loans

Limitations:
(1) The President may contract or guarantee foreign loans on behalf of the Republic of the Philippines with
the prior concurrence of the Monetary Board; and
(2) Subject to such limitations as may be provided by law.
Section 21. Foreign Relations Powers include:
(1) Power to negotiate treaties and other international agreements
(a) BUT: Such treaty of international agreement must be concurred in by at least 2/3 of all Senators in order
to be valid and effective in our country.
(b) Options of Senate when a treaty is submitted for its approval:
(i)
Approve with 2/3 majority;
(ii)
Disapprove outright; or
(iii)
Approve conditionally, with suggested amendments.
(c) If treaty is not re-negotiated, no treaty
(d) If treaty is re-negotiated and the Senates suggestions are incorporated, the treaty will go into effect
without need of further Senate approval.
Note: While our municipal law makes a distinction between international agreements and executive
agreements, with the former requiring Senate approval and the latter not needing the same, under
international law, there is no such distinction.
Note: The President cannot, by executive agreement, undertake an obligation which indirectly circumvents
a legal prohibition.
(e) Conflict between treaty and municipal law.
(i) Philippine court:

The later enactment will prevail, be it treaty or law, as it is the latest expression of the States will.
(ii) International tribunal
Treaty will always prevail. A State cannot plead its municipal law to justify noncompliance with an
international obligation.
(2) Power to appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls.
(3) Power to receive ambassadors and other public ministers accredited to the Philippines.
(4) Power to contract and guarantee foreign loans on behalf of the Republic
(5) Power to deport aliens
(a) This power is vested in the President by virtue of his office, subject only to restrictions as may be
provided by legislation as regards the grounds for deportation.
(b) In the absence of any legislative restriction to authority, the President may still exercise this power.
(c) The power to deport aliens is limited by the requirements of due process, which entitles the alien to a
full and fair hearing.
BUT: The alien is not entitled to bail as a matter of right.
ARTICLE VIII. THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
Sec. 1. JUDICIAL POWER
Scope:
1. Judicial power is the authority to settle justiciable controversies or disputes involving rights that are
enforceable and demandable before the courts of justice or the redress of wrongs for violations of such
rights.
2. Vested in the Supreme Court and such lower courts as may be established by law.
3. Since the courts are given judicial power and nothing more, courts may neither attempt to assume or be
compelled to perform non-judicial functions. They may not be charged with administrative functions except
when reasonably incidental to the fulfillment of their duties.
4. In order that courts may exercise this power, there must exist the following:
1.
An actual controversy with legally demandable and enforceable rights;
2.
Involving real parties in interest;
3.
The exercise of such power will bind the parties by virtue of the courts application of existing laws.
5. Judicial power cannot be exercised in vacuum. Without any laws from which rights arise and which are
violated, there can be no recourse to the courts.
6. The courts cannot be asked for advisory opinions.
7. Judicial power includes:
1.
The duty of the courts to settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable
and enforceable; and
1.
To determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess
of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the government.
Political Questions:
1. A political question is one the resolution of which has been vested by the Constitution exclusively in
either the people, in the exercise of their sovereign capacity, or in which full discretionary authority has
been delegated to a co-equal branch of the Government.
2. Thus, while courts can determine questions of legality with respect to governmental action, they cannot
review government policy and the wisdom thereof, for these questions have been vested by the Constitution
in the Executive and Legislative Departments.
Sec. 2. ROLES OF CONGRESS
1. Defining enforceable and demandable rights and prescribing remedies for violations of such rights; and
2. Determining the court with jurisdiction to hear and decide controversies or disputes arising from legal
rights.
3. Thus, Congress has the power to define, prescribe and apportion the jurisdiction of various courts.
1.
BUT, Congress cannot deprive the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction over cases provided for in the
Constitution.
2.
Creation and abolition of courts:
1.
The power to create courts implies the power to abolish and even re-organize courts.
2.
BUT this power cannot be exercised in a manner which would undermine the security of
tenure of the judiciary.

3.

If the abolition/re-organization is done in good faith and not for political or personal
reasons, then it is VALID. (same rule applies for civil servants)
Sec. 3. FISCAL AUTONOMY
1.
The entire judiciary shall enjoy fiscal autonomy.
2.
Annual appropriations for the judiciary cannot be reduced below the amount appropriated for the
previous year.
3.
Once approved, appropriations shall be automatically and regularly released.
Secs. 4-7; 12 JUDICIARY
Composition of the Supreme Court:
1.
Chief Justice and
2.
14 Associate Justices
Note: Members of the Supreme Court and of other courts established by law shall not be designated to any
agency performing quasi-judicial or administrative functions.
Qualifications of members of the SC:
1. Natural born citizen of the Philippines
2. At least 40 years old
3. At least 15 years of experience as a judge or in the practice of law in the Philippines
4. Person of proven competence, integrity, probity and independence.
Qualifications of members of lower collegiate courts (CA, CTA, Sandiganbayan)
1. Natural born citizen of the Philippines
2. Member of the Philippine bar
3. Possesses other qualifications prescribed by Congress
4. Person of proven competence, integrity, probity and independence.
Qualifications of judges of lower non-collegiate courts:
1. Citizen of the Philippines (may be a naturalized citizen)
2. Member of the Philippine Bar
3. Possesses other qualifications prescribed by Congress
4. Person of proven competence, integrity, probity and independence.
Section 8. JUDICIAL AND BAR COUNCIL
1. The Judicial and Bar Council is under the supervision of the SC.
A. Is under the supervision of the Supreme Court and is composed of:
1.
Chief Justice, as ex-officio chairman
2.
Secretary of Justice, as an ex-officio member
3.
Representative of Congress, as an ex-officio member
4.
Representative of the Integrated Bar
5.
A professor of law
6.
A retired member of the SC; and
7.
Private sector representative
Note: The last four re the regular members of the JBC. Regular members are appointed by the President
with CA approval. Regular members serve for 4 years, with staggered terms.
B. Functions of JBC
1.
Principal function: recommend appointees to the Judiciary
2.
Exercise such other functions as the SC may assign to it.
C. Appointments to the Judiciary
1.
President shall appoint from a list of at least 3 nominees for each vacancy, as prepared by the JBC.
2.
No CA confirmation is needed for appointments to the Judiciary.
3.
Vacancies in SC should be filled within 90 days from the occurrence of the vacancy.
4.
Vacancies in lower courts should be filled within 90 days from submission to the President of the JBC
list.
Sec. 10. SALARIES
1. Salaries of SC Justices and judges of lower courts shall be fixed by law.
2. Cannot be decreased during their continuance in office, but can be increased.
3. Members of the Judiciary are NOT exempt from payment of income tax.
Sec. 11. TENURE/DISCIPLINARY POWERS OF SC
1. Members of the SC and judges of the lower courts hold office during good behavior until
a. The age of 70 years old; or
b. They become incapacitated to discharge their duties.
2. Disciplinary action against judges of lower courts:

a. Only the SC en banc has jurisdiction to discipline or dismiss judges of lower courts.
b. Disciplinary action/dismissal: Majority vote of SC Justices who took part in the deliberations and voted
therein.
3. Removal of SC Justices:
a. Only by IMPEACHMENT.
b. Cannot be disbarred while they hold office.
Secs. 4-6, 13. THE SUPREME COURT
Hearing of cases:
1.
En banc; or
2.
Divisions of 3, 5, or 7.
Cases required to be heard en banc:
1. All cases involving constitutionality of a/an:
a. Treaty
b. International or executive agreement or
c. Law.
2. All cases required to be heard en banc under the Rules of Court:
a. Appeals from Sandiganbayan; and
b. From the Constitutional Commissions
3. All cases involving the constitutionality, application or operation of
a. Presidential decrees
b. Proclamations
c. Orders
d. Instructions
e. Ordinances; and
f. Other regulations.
4. Cases heard by a division where required majority of 3 was not obtained.
5. Cases where SC modifies or reverses a doctrine or principle of law laid down by the SC en banc or by a
division.
6. Administrative cases to discipline or dismiss judges of lower courts; and
7. Election contests for President and Vice-President.
Cases heard by division
1. Must be decided with the concurrence of a majority of the members who took part in the deliberations
and voted thereon.
2. Majority vote in a division should be at least 3 members.
Powers of the SC
1. SC has ORIGINAL jurisdiction over
a. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls.
Note: This refers to foreign ambassadors, etc., stationed in the Philippines.
b. Petitions for certiorari, prohibiton, mandamus, quo warranto, and habeas corpus.
2. SC has APPELLATE jurisdiction over final judgments and orders in the following:
a. All cases involving the constitutionality or validity of any
1.
treaty
2.
international or executive agreement
3.
law
4.
presidential decree
5.
proclamation
6.
order
7.
instruction
8.
ordinance, or
9.
regulation;
b. All cases involving the legality of any
1.
tax
2.
impost
3.
assessment or
4.
toll or
5.
any penalty imposed in relation thereto;
c. All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower court is in issue
d. Criminal cases where the penalty imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher; and

e. All cases where ONLY errors or questions of law are involved.

3. Temporarily assign lower court judges to other stations in the public interest.
Note: Temporary assignment shall not exceed 6 months without the consent of the judge concerned.
4. Order a change of venue or place of trial to avoid a miscarriage of justice.
5. Promulgate rules concerning:
a. The protection and enforcement of constitutional rights;
b. Pleading, practice and procedure in all courts;
c. Admission to the practice of law;
d. The Integrated Bar; and
e. Legal assistance to the underprivileged.
Limitations on Rule Making Power
a. It should provide a simplified and inexpensive procedure for the speedy disposition of cases.
b. It should be uniform for all courts of the same grade.
c. It should not diminish, increase, or modify substantive rights.
6. Appoint ALL officials and employees of the Judiciary, in accordance with Civil Service Law.
7. Exercise administrative supervision over ALL courts and the personnel thereof.
Decisions of the Supreme Court:
1. Reached in consultation before being assigned to a member for the writing of the opinion.
2. A certification to this effect must be signed by the Chief Justice and attached to the record of the case
and served upon the parties.
3. Members of the SC who took no part, or who dissented or abstained must state the reasons therefore.
Note: This procedure shall also be observed by all lower collegiate courts (CA, CTA, and theSandiganbayan).
JUDICIAL REVIEW
Definition
1. Judicial Review is the power of the SC to declare a law, treaty, ordinance etc. unconstitutional.
2. Lower courts may also exercise the power of judicial review, subject to the appellate jurisdiction of the
SC.
3. Only SC decisions are precedent, and thus, only SC decisions are binding on all.
Requisites
Code: [A R S Co R]
1. An ACTUAL CASE calling for the exercise of judicial power
2. The question involved must be RIPE FOR ADJUDICATION, i.e. the government act must have had an
adverse effect on the person challenging it.
3. The person challenging the governmental act must have STANDING, i.e. a personal and substantial
interest in the case such that he has sustained, or will sustain, direct injury as a result of its enforcement.
4. The question of Constitutionality must be raised in the first instance, or at the earliest opportunity.
5. Resolution of the issue of constitutionality is unavoidable or is the very lis mota.
Effect of a declaration of unconstitutionality:
1. Prior to the declaration that a particular law is unconstitutional, it is considered as an operative fact
which at that time had to be complied with.
2. Thus, vested rights may have been acquired under such law before it was declared unconstitutional.
3. These rights are not prejudiced by the subsequent declaration that the law is unconstitutional.
Sec. 14. DECISIONS
1. Decisions MUST state clearly and distinctly the facts and the law on which it is based.
2. Refusal to give due course to petitions for review and motions for reconsideration must state the legal
basis for such refusal.
3. Memorandum decisions, where the appellate court adopts the findings of fact and law of the lower court,
are allowed as long as the decision adopted by reference is attached to the Memorandum for easy reference.
4. These rules only apply to courts. They do not apply to quasi-judicial or administrative bodies nor to
military tribunals.

ARTICLE IX THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSIONS

Section 1. Constitutional Commissions
Independent Constitutional Commissions:
1) Civil Service Commission (CSC)
2) Commission on Elections (COMELEC)
3) Commission on Audit (COA)

Why Independent?
They perform vital functions of government. Their integrity is protected by the fact that they:
1) Are constitutionally created (Sec. 1)
2) Have independent powers of appointment (Sec. 4)
3) Each Commission may promulgate its own procedural rules (Sec. 6)
4) Fiscal autonomy (Sec. 5)
5) Salaries may not be diminished during their office (Sec. 3)
6) Commissioners have a fixed term
7) Commissioners are removable by impeachment only.
Section 2. DISQUALIFICATIONS
Disqualifications:
Members cannot, during their tenure:
1) Hold any other office or employment;
2) Engage in the practice of any profession;
3) Engage in the active management or control of any business, which, in any way, may be affected by the
functions of their office; and
4) Be financially interested, direct or indirect, in any contract, franchise, privilege granted by the
government, any of its subdivisions, agencies, instrumentalities, including GOCCs and their subsidiaries.
Note: The Ombudsman and his deputies are subject to the same qualifications.
Section 3. SALARIES
Salaries
1) Salaries are fixed by law and shall not be decreased during their TENURE.
2) Decreases in salaries only affect those members appointed AFTER increase.
3) Incumbent members do not lose any salary.
4) Increases take effect IMMEDIATELY.
Section 6. RULES OF PROCEDURE
Procedures:
1) Rules: The Commissions may promulgate its own rules EN BANC.
2) Limitation: It shall not:
a) Diminish,
b) Increase, or
c) Modify substantive rights.
3) Power of SC
a). The SC may not, under Art. VIII Sec. 5(5), exercise the power to disapprove rules of special courts and
quasi-judicial bodies.
b). In proceedings before the Commissions, the rules of the Commission prevail.
c). In proceedings before a court, the Rules of Court prevail.
d). The SC may, however, in appropriate cases, exercise JUDICIAL REVIEW
Section 7. DECISION MAKING/APPEAL
Decision-Making:
1) Each commission shall decide matter or cases by a majority vote of all the members within 60 days from
submission.

COMELEC may sit en banc or in 2 divisions.

Election cases, including pre-proclamation controversies are decided in division, with motions for
reconsideration filed to the COMELEC en banc.
The SC has held that a majority decision decided by a division of the COMELEC is a valid decision.

2) As COLLEGIAL BODIES, each commission must act as one, and no one member can decide a case for the
entire commission. (i.e. The Chairman cannot ratify a decision which would otherwise have been void).
Appeals:
1) Decisions, orders or rulings of the COMELEC/COA may be brought on certiorari to the SC under Rule 65.

2) Decisions, orders or ruling of the CSC should be appealed to the CA under Rule 43.
Enforcement:

It has been held that the CSC can issue a writ of execution to enforce judgments which are final.
THE CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION

Section 1. COMPOSITION/QUALIFICATIONS/TERM
Composition:
1) Chairman
2) Commissioners 2 commissioners
Qualifications:
1) Natural-born citizens of the Philippines;
2) At least 35 years old at the time of their appointments;
3) With proven capacity for public administration; and
4) NOT candidates for any elective position in the elections immediately preceding their appointment.
5) Appointees by the President to the CSC need Commission on Appointments (CA) confirmation
Term:
1) Chairman -7 years; Commissioner1 5 yrs; Commissioner2 3 yrs
2) Limitation: single term only, no reappointment
3) Appointment to vacancy: only for unexpired term of predecessor
4) No temporary appointments, or appointments in acting capacity.
Section 2. Scope:
The Civil Service embraces all:
A. branches,
B. subdivisions,
C. instrumentalities,
D. agencies of the government,
E. including GOCCs with original charters.
1.With Original Charter means that the GOCC was created by special law/by Congress
2. If incorporated under the Corporation Code, it does not fall within the Civil Service, and is not subject to
the CSC jurisdiction.
3. Even if once government-controlled, then becomes privatized, ceases to fall under CSC.
4. Jurisdiction is determined as of the time of filing the complaint.
Appointments to civil service shall be:
A. Competitive positions

According to merit and fitness to be determined by competitive examinations, as far as practicable

except to positions which are policy-determining, primarily confidential, or highly technical.

B. Non-competitive positions
1). No need for competitive examinations.
2). 3 kinds
a) Policy-determining
formulate a method of action for the govt
b) Primarily confidential
more than ordinary confidence; close intimacy insures freedom of intercourse
without betrayals of personal trust
c) Highly technical

requires technical skill to a superior degree.

C. The TEST to determine whether non/competitive is the Nature of the responsibilities, NOT the
administrative or legislative description given to it.
D. Both types of positions are entitled to security of tenure. They only differ in the MANNER in which
they are filled.
E. Who may be appointed:
1). RULE: Whoever fulfills all the qualifications prescribed by law for a particular position may be appointed
therein.
2). The CSC cannot disapprove an appointment just because another person is better qualified, as long as
the appointee is himself qualified.
3). The CSC CANNOT add qualifications other than those provided by law.

F. Next-In-Rank Rule

While a person next in rank is entitled to preferential consideration, it does not follow that only he,
and no one else, can be appointed. Such person has no vested right to the position and the
appointing authority is not bound to appoint the person next in rank.

Tenure (Classification of Positions)

Career Service

1. Entrance based on merit and fitness to be

determined as far as practicable by
competitive examinations or based on highly
technical qualifications.

Non-Career Service

1. Entrance on bases OTHER than usual tests of

merit and fitness.
1.

2. Entitled to security of tenure

Tenure limited to:

a)
Period specified by law,
b)
Coterminous with the appointing
authority or subject to his pleasure, or
c)
Limited to the duration of a particular
project for which purpose the employment
was made.

3. With opportunity for advancement to higher

career positions.

Security of Tenure:
1) Officers or employees of the Civil Service cannot be removed or suspended EXCEPT for cause provided by
law. It guarantees both procedural and substantive due process.
2) For LEGAL CAUSE Cause is:
a). related to and affects the administration of office, and
b). must be substantial (directly affects the rights & interests of the public)
3) Security of tenure for Non-competitive positions
a). Primarily confidential officers and employees hold office only for so long as confidence in them remains.
b). If there is GENUINE loss of confidence, there is no removal, but the expiration of the term of office
c). Non-career service officers and employees do not enjoy security of tenure.
d). Political appointees in the foreign service possess tenure coterminous with that of the appointing
authority or subject to his pleasure.
4) One must be VALIDLY APPOINTED to enjoy security of tenure. Thus, one who is not appointed by the
proper appointing authority does not acquire security of tenure.
Abolition of Office
To be valid, abolition must be made:
(a) In good faith; (good faith is presumed)
(b) Not for political or personal reasons; and
(c) Not in violation of law

Temporary employees are covered by the following rules:

1). Not protected by security of tenure can be removed anytime even without cause
2). If they are separated, this is considered an expiration of his term.
3). BUT: They can only be removed by the one who appointed them.
4). Entitled only to such protection as may be provided by law.
No officer or employee in the Civil Service shall engage in any electioneering or in partisan political
activity
1) Cannot solicit votes in favor of a particular candidate.
2) Cannot give campaign contributions or distribute campaign materials.
3) BUT: Allowed to express views on political issues, and to mention the names of the candidates whom he
supports.
4) Prohibition does not apply to department secretaries
Right to organize
The right to organize does NOT include the right to strike
Sections 6-7. DISQUALIFICATION
Disqualifications
1) Losing candidates in any election
a). Cannot be appointed to any office in the government or GOCCs or their subsidiaries.
b). Period of disqualification: One (1) year after such election.
2) Elective officials
a). Not eligible for appointment or designation ANY CAPACITY to ANY PUBLIC OFFICE or position during their
tenure.
b). EXCEPTION: May hold ex officio positions.

Examples:

The Vice President may be appointed Cabinet member

Congressman may sit in the Judicial and Bar Council

c). To be eligible to hold any other office, the elected official must first resign his office
d). Even Congress cannot, by law, authorize the appointment of an elective official.
3). Appointive officials
a). Cannot hold any other office or employment in the government, any subdivision, agency, instrumentality,
including GOCCs and their subsidiaries.
b). EXCEPTION: Unless otherwise allowed by law, or by the primary functions of his position.
c). This exception DOES NOT APPLY to Cabinet members, and those officers mentioned in Art. VII, Sec. 13.
They are governed by the stricter prohibitions contained therein.
Section 8. COMPENSATION
1) Prohibitions: applies to elected or appointed officers and employees
Cannot receive:
A. Additional an extra reward given for the same office i.e. bonus
B. Double when an officer is given 2 sets of compensation for 2 different offices held concurrently by 1
officer
C. Indirect Compensation
2) EXCEPTION: Unless specifically authorized by law
A. SPECIFICALLY AUTHORIZED means a specific authority particularly directed to the
officer or
employee concerned.
B. BUT: per diems and allowances given as REIMBURSEMENT for expenses actually incurred are not prohibited
3) Cannot accept any present, emolument, office, title of any kind from foreign governments UNLESS with
the consent of Congress.
4) Pensions and gratuities are NOT considered as additional, double, or indirect compensation.
THE COMMISSION ON ELECTIONS

Section 1. COMPOSITION/QUALIFICATIONS/TERM
Composition: (7)
1) Chairman and
2) Commissioners (6)
Qualifications:
1) Natural-born citizens of the Philippines;
2) At least 35 years old at the time of appointment
3) Holders of college degrees; and
4) Not candidates for any elective position in the immediately preceding elections.
5) Majority of the Commission, including the Chairman must be:
a). Members of the Philippines Bar
b). Engaged in the practice of law for at least 10 years: any activity in or out of court, which requires the
application of law, legal procedure, knowledge, training and experience.
6) Appointments subject to CA approval
Term:
1) Chairman -7 yrs; 3 Members 7 yrs; 2 Members 5 yrs; 1 Member 3 yrs.
2) LIMITATION: Single term only: no reappointment allowed
3) Appointment to a vacancy: only for unexpired portion of predecessors term
4) No temporary appointments, or appointments in acting capacity
a). Thus, the President cannot designate an incumbent commissioner as acting Chairman.
b). The choice of temporary chairman falls under the COMELECs discretion.
Section 2. POWERS AND FUNCTIONS
Powers:
1) Enforce and administer all laws and regulations relative to the conduct of an election, plebiscite,
initiative, referendum, and recall.
(a) Ex: COMELEC can enjoin construction of public works within 45 days of an election.
1)
Exercise:
A. Exclusive original jurisdiction over all contests relating to the elections, returns, and qualifications of all
elective
1. Regional,
2. Provincial, and
3. City officials
B. Appellate jurisdiction over all contests involving:
1. Elective municipal officials decided by trial courts of general jurisdiction
2. Elective barangay officials decided by trial courts of limited jurisdiction.
C. Decisions, final orders, or rulings of the Commission on election contests involving elective municipal and
barangay offices shall be final, executory, and not appealable.
Exception: Appealable to the SC on questions of law.
1.

Contempt powers

1. COMELEC can exercise this power only in relation to its adjudicatory or quasi-judicial functions. It
CANNOT exercise this in connection with its purely executive or ministerial functions.
2. If it is a pre-proclamation controversy, the COMELEC exercises quasi-judicial/administrative powers.
3. Its jurisdiction over contests (after proclamation), is in exercise of its judicial functions.
E. The COMELEC may issue writs of certiorari, prohibition and mandamus in exercise of its appellate
jurisdiction. This is not an inherent power.
3) Decide, except those involving the right to vote, all questions affecting elections, including determination
of the number and location of polling places, appointment of election officials and inspectors, and
registration of voters.
Note: Questions involving the right to vote fall within the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts.

4) Deputize, with the concurrence of the President, law enforcement agencies and instrumentalities of the
Government, including the Armed Forces of the Philippines, for the exclusive purpose of ensuring free,
orderly, honest, peaceful, and credible elections.
a). This power is NOT limited to the election period.
b). Applies to both criminal and administrative cases.
5) Registration of political parties, organizations, or coalitions/accreditation of citizens arms of the
Commission on Elections.
a). The political parties etc. must present their platform or program of government.
b). There should be sufficient publication
c). Groups which cannot be registered:
i. Religious denominations/sects
ii. Groups which seek to achieve their goals through violence or unlawful means
iii. Groups which refuse to uphold and adhere to the Constitution
iv. Groups which are supported by any foreign government.
d). BUT: Political parties with religious affiliation or which derive their principles from religious beliefs are
registerable.
e). Financial contributions from foreign governments and their agencies to political parties, organizations,
coalitions, or candidates related to elections constitute interference in national affairs. If accepted, it is an
additional ground for the cancellation of their registration with the Commission, in addition to other
penalties that may be prescribed by law.
1) File, upon a verified complaint, or on its own initiative, petitions in court for inclusion of exclusion of
voters; investigate and, where appropriate, prosecute cases of violations of election laws, including acts or
omissions constituting elections frauds, offenses and malpractices.
1.
2.
3.

COMELEC has exclusive jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute cases for violations of election
laws.
COMELEC can deputize prosecutors for this purpose. The actions of the prosecutors are the actions
of the COMELEC
Preliminary investigation conducted by COMELEC is valid.

2) Recommend to the Congress effective measures to minimize election spending, including limitation of
places where propaganda materials shall be posted, and to prevent and penalize all forms of election frauds,
offenses, malpractices, and nuisance candidacies.
3) Recommend to the President the removal of any officer or employee it has deputized, or the imposition
of any other disciplinary action, for violation or disregard or, or disobedience to its directive, order, or
decision.
4) Submit to the President and the congress a comprehensive report on the conduct of each election,
plebiscite, initiative, referendum, or recall.
Section 3. RULES OF PROCEDURE/DECISION-MAKING
Rules of Procedure
1) COMELEC can sit en banc or in two divisions
2) It has the power to promulgate its own rules of procedure in order to expedite disposition of election
cases, including pre-election controversies.
Decision-Making
1) Election cases should be heard and decided in division. Provided that,
2) Motions for reconsideration of decisions should be decided by COMELEC en banc.
3) Decisions mean resolutions on substantive issues.
2) If a division dismisses a case for failure of counsel to appear, the Motion for Reconsideration here may
be heard by the division.
3) EXCEPTION: COMELEC en banc may directly assume jurisdiction over a petition to correct manifest
errors in the tallying of results by Board of Canvassers.
Section 4. SUPERVISION/REGULATION OF FANCHISES / PERMITS / GRANTS / SPECIAL PRIVILEGES /
CONCESSIONS
Regulation of franchises
A. What can COMELEC supervise or regulate

1). The enjoyment or utilization of all franchises or permits for the operation of transportation and other
public utilities, media of communication or information.
2). Grants, special privileges or concessions granted by the Government or any subdivision, agency or
instrumentality thereof, including any GOCC or its subsidiary
B. When can COMELEC exercise this power
1). During the election period
a). Under Article XI, Section 9, the election period commences 90 days before
the day of the election and ends 30 days thereafter.
b). In special cases, COMELEC can fix a period.
2). Applies not just to elections but also to plebiscites and referenda.
3). Plebiscite: Submission of constitutional amendments or important legislative measures to the people
ratification
4). Referendum: power of the electorate to approve or reject legislation through an election called for that
purpose.
COMELEC and the MEDIA
1). COMELEC cannot compel print media to donate free space to the COMELEC. It may, however, compel it
to provide space after paying just compensation.
2). Power of COMELEC is over franchises and permits, NOT individuals. For example, COMELEC may not
regulate media practitioners, for this would violate the freedom of expression.
Section 5. No pardon, amnesty, parole, or suspension of sentence for violation of election laws, rules, and
regulations shall be granted by the President without the favorable recommendation of the Commission.
Section 6
Definition of Political Party

organized group of persons pursuing the same political ideals in a government and includes its
branches, and divisions

Importance of registration of a political party

1) Registration confers juridical personality on the party.
2) It informs the public of the partys existence and ideals.
3) It identifies the party and its officers for purposes of regulation by the COMELEC.
Section 7. No votes cast in favor of a political party, organization, or coalition shall be valid, except for
those registered under the party-list system as provided in this Constitution.
Prohibition on block-voting
1) General rule: Block voting NOT allowed
2) EXCEPTION: those registered under the party-list system
Section 8. PARTY LIST SYSTEM
No Right to be Represented in Various Boards

Political parties, organizations, or coalitions registered under the party-list system shall NOT be
represented in the following:

1). Voters registrations boards,

2). Boards of election inspectors,
3). Boards of canvassers, or
4). Other similar bodies.
Poll Watchers

Political parties, etc. are entitled to appoint poll watchers in accordance with law.

Section 10. Bona fide candidates for any public office shall be free from any form of harassment and
discrimination.

This section does not give candidates immunity from suit.

Discrimination includes unequal treatment in the availment of media facilities.

Section 11. FUNDING

How provided
1) Funds certified by the COMELEC as necessary to defray the expenses for holding regular and special
elections, plebiscites, initiative, referenda and recalls, shall provided in the regular or special
appropriations.
2) Funds should be certified by the COMELEC as necessary.
Release of funds

Once approved, funds should be released automatically upon certification by the Chairman of
COMELEC.

THE COMMISSION ON AUDIT

Section 1. COMPOSITION/QUALIFICATIONS
Composition:
1) Chairman, and
2) Commissioners (2).
Qualifications:
1) Natural-born citizens of the Philippines
2) At least 36 years old at the time of their appointment;
3) Either:
a). CPAs with at least 10 years auditing experience; or
b). Members of Phil. Bar with 10 years of practice.
4) Members cannot all belong to the same profession.
5) Subject to confirmation of the CA.
6) Must not have been candidates for any elective position in the elections immediately preceding their
appointment.
Term:
1) Chairman -7 yrs; Commissioner1 -5yrs; Commissioner 2 -3 yrs.
2) LIMITATION: Single terms only; no re-appointment allowed
3) Appointments to any vacancy shall only be for the unexpired portion of predecessors term.
Section 2. POWERS
1) Examine, audit, and settle accounts pertaining to:
1.
2.

Revenue and receipts of funds or property; or

Expenditures and uses of funds or property

Owned or held in trust by, or pertain to:

1.
2.
3.
2)

The Government;
Any of its subdivisions, agencies or instrumentalities;
Including GOCCs with original charters.

Conduct post-audit with respect to the following:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Constitutional bodies, commissions, and offices granted fiscal autonomy;

Autonomous state colleges and universities;
GOCCs and their subsidiaries incorporated under the Corporation Code.
None-governmental entities receiving subsidies or equity, directly or indirectly, from or through the
government, which are required by law of the granting of institution to submit to such audit.

3) If COA finds internal control system of audited agencies as inadequate, COA may adopt measures,
including temporary or special pre-audit, as may be necessary.

4) Keep the general accounts of the government, preserving vouchers and other supporting papers
pertaining thereto.
5) Exclusive authority to define the scope of COAs audit and examination and to establish the techniques
and methods required therefor.
6) Promulgate accounting and auditing rules and regulations.
1.
2.

Including those for the prevention or disallowance of irregular, unnecessary, excessive, extravagant,
or unconscionable expenditures or uses of government funds and properties.
Failure to comply with these rules can be a ground for disapproving the payment of a proposed
expenditure.

Note:
1) The functions of COA can be classified as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Examine and audit all forms of government revenues;

Examine and audit all forms of govt expenditures
Settle govt accounts
Promulgate accounting and auditing rules (including those for the prevention of irregular
expenditures.
To decide administrative cases involving expenditures of public funds.

2) COA can settle only LIQUIDATED ACCOUNTS or those accounts which may be adjusted simply by
arithmetic process.
3) COA has authority not just over accountable officers but also over other officers who perform functions
related to accounting such as verification of evaluations and computation of fees collectible, and the
adoption of internal rules of control.
4) COA does not have the power to fix the amount of an unfixed or undetermined debt.
5) Where the following requirements are complied with, it becomes the ministerial duty of the COA to
approve and pass in audit vouchers for payment:
1.
2.
3.
4.

There is a law appropriating funds for a particular purpose;

There is a contract, made by the proper officer, entered into in conformity with the abovementioned law;
The goods or services covered by such contract have been delivered or rendered in pursuance to
such contract, as attested by the proper officer; and
Payment has been authorized by officials of the corresponding department or bureau.

6) Prosecutors may still review accounts already settled and approved by COA for the purpose of
determining possible criminal liability. This is because COAs interest in such accounts is merely
administrative.
7)
COA has the power to determine the meaning of public bidding and what constitutes failure when
regulations require public bidding for the sale of government property.
Section 3. No law shall be passed exempting any entity of the Government or its subsidiary in any guise
whatever, or any investment of public funds, from the jurisdiction of the Commission on Audit.
ARTICLE X: LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Section 1. TERRITORIAL/POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES ARE THE:
Composition:
1)
Provinces
2)
Cities;
3)
Municipalities; and
4)
Barangays
There shall be Autonomous regions in:
1)
Muslim Mindanao, and

2)
Cordileras [At present, it is only the Cordilera ADMINISTRATIVE region]
Note: 1) A third autonomous regions would require a constiutional amendment.
2) These political subdivisions, created by the Constitution cannot be replaced by AMENDMENT, and not by
law.
3) While Congress can abolish or eradicate individual units, it cannot abolish an entire class of LGUs
Section 2. Local Autonomy
1)
All political subdivisions shall enjoy local autonomy
2)
This does not mean that the LGUs are completely free from the central government.
1.
2.

Judiciary may still pass on LGU actions

President may exercise disciplinary power over LGU officials.

Sec. 3. Congress shall enact a local government code which shall provide for a more responsive and
accountable local government structure instituted through a system of decentralization with effective
mechanisms of recall, initiative, and referendum, allocate among the different local government units
their powers, responsibilities, and resources, and provide for the qualifications, election, appointment
and removal, term, salaries, powers and functions and duties of local officials, and all other matters
relating to the organization and operation of the local units.
Section 4. PRESIDENTIAL SUPERVISION OF LGUS
Supervision of President
1)
2)

The President exercises general supervision over all LGUs

The President exercises DIRECT supervision over
1.
2.
3.

Provinces
Autonomous regions and
Independent cities.

3)
This power is limited to ensuring that lower officers exercise their functions in accordance with law.
4)
The president cannot substitute his judgment for that of an LGU official unless the latter is acting
contrary to law.
5)
The President may, however, impose administrative sanctions against LGU officials, such as suspension
for 120 days, and may even remove them from their posts, in accordance with law.
6)
Provinces exercise direct supervision over component cities and municipalities.
7)
Cities and municipalities exercise direct supervision over component barangays.
Section 5. EACH LOCAL GOVERNMENT SHALL HAVE THE POWER TO CREATE OWN SOURCES OF
REVENUE/LEVY TAXES, FEES AND CHARGES ETC.
Limitations on Power
1)
It is subject to such guidelines and limitations as Congress may provide. See Local Government Code
for examples.
2)
The guidelines set by Congress should be consistent with the basic policy of local autonomy.
Accrual of taxes, fees, charges
The taxes, fees and charges shall accrue exclusively to the local governments.

Section 6. LGUs SHALL HAVE A JUST SHARE IN NATIONAL TAXES, AS DETERMINED BY LAW, WHICH SHALL BE
AUTOMATICALLY RELEASED TO THEM
Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA)
1)
Share of LGUs in national taxes is limited to the internal revenue taxes.
2)
The share of each LGU should be released, without need of any further action, directly to the
provincial, city, municipal or barangay treasurer. Release is made on a quarterly basis within 5 days after
the end of each quarter.
3)
The share of each LGU should not be subject to any lien or holdback that may be imposed by the
national government for whatever purpose.
4)
Each LGU should appropriate in its annual budget at least 20% of its annual IRA for development
projects.
5)
Adjustments in IRA
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.

Ground: Unmanageable public section deficit

President can make the necessary adjustments in the IRA upon the recommendation of the
following:
Department of Finance Secretary
DILG Secretary
DBM Secretary

6)
IRA considered for purposes of conversion from one political subdivision to the next. (Alvarez v.
Guingona)
Section 7. SHARE OF LGUS IN NATIONAL WEALTH
Share of LGUs in national wealth
1)
LGUs are entitled to an equitable share in the proceeds of the utilization and development of the
national wealth within their respective areas in the manner provided by law.
2)
This includes share the same with the inhabitants by way of direct benefits.
Under the LGC
1)
LGUs have a share of 40% of the gross collection derived by the national government from the
preceding fiscal year from
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mining taxes
Royalties
Forestry and fishery charges
Other taxes, fees and charges
Share in any co-production, joint venture or production sharing agreement in the utilization and
development of the national wealth w/in their territorial jurisdiction
Sec. 8. TERM OF OFFICE
Term of Office
Elective local officials, now including barangay officials have a term of 3 years.
Limitations:
1)
No elective official shall serve for more than 3 consecutive terms
2)
Voluntary renunciation of office for any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in the
continuity of his service for the full term for which he was elected.

Sec. 9. SECTORAL REPRESENTATION IN LGUS

Legislative bodies of the local governments shall have Sectoral Representation (under the LGC) as may
be provided by law
There should be representatives from:
1)
The womens sector
2)
The workers
3)
Third sector (can choose from any of the following)
A) Urban poor
B) Indigenous cultural communities
C)
Disabled persons
D) Any other sector as may be determined by the sanggunian
Election of Sector Representatives
Sec. 10. Creation, abolition and division of LGUs
1)

Requisites
1.
2.

Compliance with the requirements of the Local Government Code; and

Approved by a majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held in the political units DIRECTLY affected.

2)
Thus, a province is supposed to be divided into 2 separate provinces, plebiscite will include voters of
the ENTIRE province, and not just the area to comprise the new province.
3)
LGC requirements relate to matters such as population, revenue, and area requirements.
Sec. 11. Metropolitan political subdivisions
Creation:
1)
Congress may create special metropolitan political subdivisions by law.
2)
It is subject to a plebiscite
Jurisdiction of Metropolitan authority
It is limited to basic services requiring coordination.
Basic Autonomy of Component Cities and Municipalities
1)
2)

The component cities and municipalities retain their basic autonomy

They shall be entitled to their own local executive and legislative assemblies.

Sec. 12. CITIES

Classification of Cities:
1)
Highly urbanized (as determined by law)
2)
Component cities (cities still under provincial control); and
3)
Independent component cities (non-highly urbanized cities whose voters are prohibited by thecity
charter from voting in provincial elections)
Independence from the Province
1)

Highly urbanized cities and independent component cities are independent of the province.

2)
Component cities whose charter contain no such prohibition are still under the control of the province
and its voters may still vote for elective provincial officials.
Section 13. Coordination among LGUS
Consolidation and Coordination of Efforts, Services and Resources
1)
It is optional on the part of LGUs as shown by the use of the word may
2)
It can be done for purposes commonly beneficial to them in accordance with the law.
Under LGC (Section 33)
1)
Consolidation and coordination may be done through appropriate ordinances.
2)
A public hearing should be conducted and the approval of the sanggunian obtained.
3)
An LGU can:
1.
2.

Contribute funds, real estate, equipment and other kinds of property

Appoint/assign personnel under such terms and conditions as may be agreed upon by the
participating LGUs through Memoranda of Agreement.
Section 14. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCILS
Who can provide for RDC
The President shall provide for RDC or other similar bodies composed of:
Composition
1)
2)
3)

Local government officials

Regional heads of departments and other government offices
Representatives of NGOS within the regions

For Purpose of
1)
2)
3)

Administrative decentralization
To strengthen local autonomy
To accelerate the economic and social growth and development of the units in the region

Section 15. AUTONOMOUS REGIONS

Where:
1)
Muslim Mindanao
2)
Cordillera region
Factors:
1)
Historical heritage
2)
Cultural heritage
3)
Economic and social structures,
4)
Other relevant characteristics within:
1.
2.
3.

The framework of the consititution

National sovereignty
Territorial integrity.

Creation:
1)
Provided by law.

2)
EFFECTIVITY of such creation occurs only when it is approved by a majority of the votes cast in a
plebiscite held among the constituent units.
3)
Only those Provinces, Cities, and Geographical Areas voting favorably in such plebiscite shall form part
of the autonomous region.
4)
If only 1 province approved the law, NO AUTONOMOUS REGION created, since the constitution requires
more than one province to constitute one (like what happened in the Cordillera plebiscite)
5)
The question of which LGUs shall constitute an autonomous region is one which is exclusively for
Congress to decide.
Section 16. GENERAL SUPERVISION OVER AUTONOMOUS REGIONS
By Whom:
The President
Purpose:
To ensure that the laws are faithfully executed.
Sec. 17. All powers, functions and responsibilities not granted by this Constitution or by law to the
autonomous region shall be vested in the National Government.
Examples:
1) Foreign relations,
2) National defense and Security
3) Monetary Affairs
Section 20. LEGISLATIVE POWERS
The Organic Act of Autonomous Region shall provide for legislative powers over:
1)
Administrative organization;
2)
Creation of sources of revenues;
3)
Ancestral domain and natural resources
4)
Personal, family and property relations
5)
Regional, urban, and rural planning development;
6)
Economic, social, and tourism development;
7)
Educational policies;
8)
Preservation and development of the cultural heritage; and
9)
Such other matters as may be authorized by law for the promotion of the general welfare of the
people of the region.
Limitations:
1)
Subject to the provisions of the Constitution and national laws
2)
To be exercised within its territorial jurisdiction
Section 21. PRESERVATION OF PEACE AND ORDER/DEFENSE AND SECURITY
Peace and Order
It shall be the responsibility of the local police agencies.
Defense and Security
It shall be the responsibility of the national government.

ARTICLE XI: ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC OFFICERS

Section 1: PUBLIC OFFICE AS A PUBLIC TRUST

Public officers and employees must at all times be accountable to the people, serve them with utmost
responsibility, integrity, loyalty and efficiency, act with patriotism and justice and lead modest lives.
Section 2: IMPEACHMENT/REMOVAL FROM OFFICE
Impeachment: (as means of removal from office)
1. Who may be impeached:
President
VP
SC Justices
Constitutional Commission members
Ombudsman
2. Grounds
Culpable violation of the Constitution
treason
bribery
graft and corruption
other high crimes or
betrayal of public trust
Note: It is an exclusive list. Congress cannot, by law, add to the list of impeachable offenses.
1.
These officers cannot be charged in court with offenses that have removal from office as penalty.
2.
The President cannot be charged with murder.
3.
A SC Justice cannot be disbarred because this would disqualify him from his position.
4.
BUT AFTER an official has been impeached, he can be charged with the appropriate offense.
5.
Resignation by an impeachable official does not place him beyond the reach of impeachment
proceedings; he can still be impeached
All Other Public Officers and Employees
1. They may be removed from office as provided by law
2. BUT: NOT by impeachment
Section 3: PROCEDURE FOR IMPEACHMENT
Exclusive Power of House of Representatives
The House of Representatives has exclusive power to INITIATE all cases of impeachment.
Procedure:
1. Filling of verified complaint
1.
Can be filed by:
1.
Any member of the House of Representatives or
2.
Any citizen upon a resolution of endorsement by any Member of the House or
3.
By at least 1/3 of all the Members of the House of Representatives
2.) Inclusion of complaint in the order of business with 10 session days
3.) Referral to proper Committee within 3 session days thereafter
4.) Submission of Committee report to the House together with corresponding resolution
1.
There should be a hearing
2.
There should be a majority vote of the members
3.
The report should be submitted within 60 days from referral, after hearing, and by a majority vote
of ALL its members.
5.) Calendaring of resolution for consideration by the House
Should be done within 10 session days from receipt thereof
6.) Vote of at least 1/3 of all Members of the House necessary to:
1.
Affirm a favorable resolution with the Articles of Impeachment of the Committee or
2.
To override its contrary resolution
Note: If the verified complaint or resolution of impeachment was filed by at least 1/3 of all the Members of
the House, it shall constitute the Articles of Impeachment. Trial in the Senate shall proceed.
7.)
Trial in the Senate
1.
Senate has the sole power to try and decide all cases of impeachment
2.
For this purpose, the Senators shall be under oath or affirmation
3.
When the President of the Philippines is on trial, the CJ of the Supreme Court presides. However,
he/she will not vote.
8.)
Judgment of Conviction
This requires the concurrence of 2/3 of all the Members of the Senate

9.)

Effect of the Impeachment

Removal from office of the official concerned
Disqualification to hold any office under the Republic of the Philippines
Officer still liable to prosecution, trial, and punishment if the impeachable offense committed also
constitutes a felony or crime.
Section 4: SANDIGANBAYAN
Sandiganbayan = the anti-graft court
Sections 5-6, 8-14: OFFICE OF THE OMBUDSMAN
Composition:
1.)
Ombudsman/Tanodbayan
2.)
Overall deputy
3.)
At least one Deputy each for Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao
4.)
Deputy for military establishment may be appointed
Qualifications: (Ombudsman and his deputies)
1.) Natural born citizen of the Philippines
2.) At least 40 years old at time of appointment
3.) Of recognized probity and independence
4.) Member of the Philippine bar
5.) Must not have been candidate for any elective office in the immediately preceding election
6.) For Ombudsman: He must have been for ten years or more
1.
A judge or
2.
Engage in the practice of law in the Philippines
Disqualifications/Prohibitions (under Article IX, Section 2)
1.) Cannot hold any other office or employment during his tenure
2.) Cannot engage in the practice of any profession or in the active management or control of any business
which may be affected by the functions of his office
3.) Cannot be financially interested, directly or indirectly, in any contract with or in any franchise or
privilege granted by the Government, any of its subdivisions, agencies or instrumentalities, including GOCCs
or their subsidiaries.
Appointment
1. Of Ombudsman and deputies
1.
By the president from a list of at least 6 nominees prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council.
Vacancies will be filled from a list of 3 nominees
2.
Appointments do NOT require confirmation
3.
All vacancies shall be filled within 3 months after they occur.
2. Of other officials and employees of the Office of the Ombudsman
1.
By the Ombudsman
2.
In accordance with Civil Service Law
Term: (Ombudsman and deputies)
1. 7 years with reappointment
2. They are NOT qualified to run for any office in the election immediately succeeding their cessation from
office
Rank/Salaries:
1. The Ombudsman has the rank of Chairman of a Constitutional Commission
2. The Members have the rank of members of a Constitutional Commission
3. Their salaries cannot be decreased during their term of office.
Powers, Functions and Duties of the Office of the Ombudsman
1. Investigate on its own, or on complaint by any person, any act or omission of any public official,
employee, office or agency, when such act or omission appears to be illegal, unjust, improper, or inefficient.
1.
The SC held that the power to investigate and prosecute cases involving public officers and
employees has been transferred to the Ombudsman.
2.
The Ombudsman may always delegate his power to investigate.
3.
The power to investigate includes the power to impose preventive suspension.
4.
This preventive suspension is not a penalty.
5.
INVESTIGATE does not mean preliminary investigation.
6.
The complaint need not be drawn up in the usual form.
7.
The ILLEGAL act or omission need not be in connection with the duties of the public officer or
employee concerned.
1.
2.
3.

8.

ANY illegal act may be investigated by the Ombudsman. In this regard, the Ombudsmans
jurisdiction is CONCURRENT with that of the regular prosecutors.
2. Direct, upon complaint or at its own instance, any public official or employee of the government, or any
subdivision, agency or instrumentality thereof, as well as of any government-owned or controlled
corporation with original charter, to perform and expedite any act of duty required by law, or to stop,
prevent, and correct any abuse or impropriety in the performance of duties.
1.
The Ombudsman has PERSUASIVE POWER, and may require that proper legal steps are taken by the
officers concerned.
2.
The public official or employee must be employed in:
(I).
The Government
(II).
Any subdivision, agency, or instrumentality thereof; or
(III).
GOCCs with original charters
1.
The SC has held that the SP may prosecute before the Sandiganbayan judges accused of graft and
corruption, even if they are under the Supreme Court.
3.) Direct the officer concerned to take the appropriate action against a public official or employee at
fault, and recommend his removal, suspension, demotion, fine, censure, or prosecution, and ensure
compliance therewith.
1.
The Ombudsman does NOT himself prosecute cases against public officers or employees.
2.
Final say to prosecute still rests in the executive department.
3.
The Ombudsman or Tanodbayan may use mandamus to compel the fiscal to prosecute.
4.) Direct the officer concerned, in any appropriate case, and subject to such limitations as may be
provided by law to furnish it with copies of documents relating to contracts or transactions entered into by
his office involving the disbursement or use of public funds of properties, and report any irregularity to COA
for appropriate action.
5.) Request any government agency for assistance and information necessary in the discharge of its
responsibilities, and to examine, if necessary, pertinent records and documents.
6.) Public matters covered by its investigation when circumstances so warrant and with due process.
7.) Determine the cause of inefficiency, red tape, mismanagement, fraud and corruption in the government
and make recommendations for their elimination and the observance of high standards of ethics and
efficiency
8.) Promulgate its rules of procedure and exercise such other powers or perform such functions or duties as
may be provided by law.
Note: The Office of the Ombudsman also has the duty to act promptly on complaints filed in any form or
manner against public officials or employees of the government, or any subdivision, agency or
instrumentality including GOCCs and their subsidiaries. In appropriate cases, it should notify the
complainants of the action taken and the result thereof.
Fiscal Autonomy
The Office of the Ombudsman enjoys fiscal autonomy. Its approved annual appropriations should be
automatically and regularly released.
Section 7: OFFICE OF THE SPECIAL PROCECUTOR
1. Under the 1987 Constitution, the existing Tanodbayan became the Office of the Special Prosecutor
2. Powers
1.
It will continue to function and exercise its powers as now or hereafter may be provided by law
2.
Exception: Powers conferred on the Office of the Ombudsman
3. The Office of the Special Prosecutor is subordinate to and acts under the orders of the Ombudsman
Note: According to Jack, the SC was wrong because the ConCom intended that the SP was to prosecute
anti-graft cases.
Section 15: RECOVERY OF ILL-GOTTEN WEALTH
Prescription, Laches, Estoppel
1.) The right of the State to recover properties unlawfully acquired by public officials and employees from
them or from their nominees or transferees shall NOT be barred by prescription, laches or estoppel.
2.) Their right to prosecute criminally these officials and employees may prescribe.
Section 16: PROHIBITION ON CERTAIN FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS
Coverage:
This prohibition applies to:
1.) President
2.) Vice-President

3.) Members of the Cabinet

4.) Members of Congress
5.) Members of Supreme Court
6.) Members of Constitutional Commissions
7.) Ombudsman
8.) Any firm or entity in which they have controlling interest
When prohibition applies:
Prohibition applies during their TENURE.
Scope of prohibition:
1.) The above mentioned officials cannot obtain, directly or indirectly for BUSINESS PURPOSES:
1.
Loans
2.
Guarantees
3.
Other forms of financial accommodation
From:
1.
Government owned or controlled banks; or
2.
Government owned or controlled financial institutions.
2.) If the loan, etc, is NOT for business purpose, e.g. a housing loan, the prohibition does not apply.
Section 17: Statements of assets, liabilities and net worth
When submitted:
Public officer and employee shall submit a declaration under oath of his assets, liabilities and net worth
upon assumption of office and as often as required under the law.
When declaration shall be disclosed to the public:
These declarations shall be disclosed to the public in a manner provided by law in the case of:
1.) President
2.) Vice-President
3.) Members of the Cabinet
4.) Members of Congress
5.) Justices of the Supreme Court
6.) Members of Constitutional Commissions
7.) Other constitutional offices
8.) Officers of the armed forces with general or flag rank
Section 18: Allegiance of public officers and employees
Allegiance to the State and to the Constitution
Change in Citizenship/Immigrant Status
1.) Incumbent public officers and employees who seek either:
1.
Change his citizenship; or
2.
Acquire immigrant status in another country
Shall be dealt with by law.
2.) If Philippine citizenship is one of the qualifications to the office, the loss of such citizenship means the
loss of the office by the incumbent.
3.) The Election Code provides the rules with respect to non-incumbents, i.e. persons running for elective
offices.
1.
The Code provides that permanent residents of or immigrant to a foreign country cannot file
certificates of candidacy unless they expressly waive their status as such
This renunciation must be some other than, and prior to, the filling of the certificate of candidacy.

ARTICLE XII NATIONAL ECONOMY AND PATRIMONY

Sec. 1. GOALS OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
Three-fold goal:
1. More equitable distribution of opportunities, income and wealth;
2. Sustained increase in the amount of goods and services produced by the nation for the benefit of the
people; and
3. Expanding productivity, as the key to raising the quality of life for all.
The State shall promote industrialization and full employment
1. It should be based on sound agricultural development and agrarian reform

2. It should be through industries that make full and efficient use of human and natural resources.
Industries should also be competitive in both domestic and foreign markets.
Protection of Filipino enterprises
The State shall protect Filipino enterprises against unfair foreign competition and trade practices.
Role of Private Enterprises
Private enterprises, including corporations, cooperatives, and similar collective organizations, shall be
encouraged to broaden the base of their ownership
Section 2. REGALIAN DOCTRINE
Distinction between Imperium and Dominium.
1. Imperium
Government authority possessed by the State which is appropriately embraced in sovereignty.
2. Dominium
1.
2.

The capacity of the State to own and acquire property.

It refers to lands held by the government in a proprietary character: can provide for the exploitation
and use of lands and other natural resources.

Scope:
The following are owned by the State:
1. Lands of the public domain:
Waters
Minerals, coals, petroleum, and other mineral oils;
All sources of potential energy;
Fisheries;
Forests or timber;
Wildlife;
Flora and fauna; and
Other natural resources.
Alienation of Natural Resources
1. General Rule: All natural resources CANNOT be alienated
2. Exception: Agricultural lands
Exploration, Development and Utilization of Natural Resources
1. Shall be under the full control and supervision of the State
2. Means
A. The state may DIRECTLY UNDERTAKE such activities
B. The state may enter into CO-PRODUCTION, JOINT VENTURE OR PRODUCTION-SHARING arrangements with
1.
2.

Filipino citizen or
Corporation or association at least 60% of whose capital is owned by such citizens

3. Limitations:
A. Period: It should not exceed 25 years, renewable for not more than 25 years
B. Under terms and conditions as may be provided by law.
4. In case of water rights/water supply/fisheries/industrial uses other than the development of water power
The beneficial use may be the measure and limit of the grant.
Small-scale Utilization of Natural Resources
1. Congress may, by law, authorize small-scale utilization of natural resources by Filipino citizens
2. Congress may also authorize cooperative fish farming with priority given to subsistence fishermen and
fishworkers in the rivers, lakes, bays and lagoons.
Large-Scale Exploration, Development and Utilization of Minerals/Petroleum/Other Mineral Oils
1. The President may enter into agreements with foreign owned corporations involving technical or financial
assistance for large-scale exploration etc. of minerals, petroleum, and other mineral oils. These agreements
should be in accordance with the general terms and conditions provided by law.
2. They should be based on the real contributions to economic growth and general welfare of the country.
3. In the agreements, the State should promote the development and use of local scientific and technical
resources.

4. The President should notify Congress of every contract under this provision within 30 days from its
execution.
5. Management and service contracts are not allowed under this rule.
Protection of Marine Wealth
1. The State shall protect its marine wealth in its
Archipelagic waters
Territorial sea &
EEZ
2. The State shall reserve its use and enjoyment exclusively to Filipino citizens.
Section 3. LANDS OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN ARE CLASSIFIED INTO
1. Agricultural
2. Forest/timber
3. Mineral lands &
4. National Parks
Note:
1. Classification of public lands is an exclusive prerogative of the Executive Department through the Office
of the President, upon recommendation by the DENR.
2. Classification is descriptive of the legal nature of the land and NOT what it looks like. Thus, the fact that
forest land is denuded does not mean it is no longer forest land.
Alienable lands of public domain
1. Only agricultural lands are alienable.
2. Agricultural lands may be further classified by law according to the uses to which they may be devoted.
Limitations regarding Alienable Lands of the Public Domain
1. For private corporations or associations
A. They can only hold alienable lands of the public domain BY LEASE
B. Period: Cannot exceed 25 years, renewable for not more than 25 years
C. Area: Lease cannot exceed 1,000 hectares
Note: A corporation sole is treated like other private corporations for the purpose of acquiring public lands.
2. For Filipino citizens
A. Can lease up to 500 hectares
B. Can ACQUIRE not more than 12 hectares by purchase, homestead or grant.
Taking into account the requirements of conservation, ecology and development, and subject to the
requirements of agrarian reform, Congress shall determine by law the size of the lands of the public domain
which may be acquired, developed, held or lease and the conditions therefore.
Means by Which Lands of the Public Domain Become Private Land
1. Acquired from government by purchase or grant;
2. Uninterrupted possession by the occupant and his predecessors-in-interest since time immemorial; and
3. Open, exclusive, and undisputed possession of ALIENABLE (agricultural) public land for a period of 30
years.
A. Upon completion of the requisite period, the land becomes private property ipso jure without need of
any judicial or other sanction.
B. Here, in possession since time immemorial, presumption is that the land was never part of public
domain.
C. In computing 30 years, start from when land was converted to alienable land, not when it was still forest
land
D. Presumption is that land belongs to the State.
Section 4. Congress shall, as soon as possible, determine by law, the specific limits of forest lands and
national parks, marking clearly their boundaries on the ground. Thereafter, such forest lands and
national parks shall be conserved and may not be increased or diminished, EXCEPT by law. Congress
shall provide measures to prohibit logging in
1.
2.

a.
b.

Endangered forest and

Watershed areas for such period as it may determine.

Section 5. ANCESTRAL LANDS

Protection of Indigenous Cultural Communities
1. The State protects the rights of indigenous cultural communities to their ancestral lands
A. Subject to Constitutional provisions
B. Subject to national development policies and programs
2. In determining ownership and extent of ancestral domain, Congress may use customary laws on property
rights and relations.
3. ANCESTRAL DOMAIN
A. It refers to lands which are considered as pertaining to a cultural region
B. This includes lands not yet occupied, such as deep forests.
Section 7. PRIVATE LANDS
General rule
1. Private lands CAN only be transferred or conveyed to:
A. Filipino citizens
B. Corporations or associations incorporated in the Philippines, at least 60% of whose capital is owned by
Filipino citizens
2. Exceptions
A. In intestate succession, where an alien heir of a Filipino is the transferee of private land.
B. A natural born citizen of the Philippines who has lost his Philippine citizenship may be a transferee of
PRIVATE ALND, subject to limitation provided by law. Hence, land can be used only for residential purposes.
In this case, he only acquires derivative title.
C. Foreign states may acquire land but only for embassy and staff residence purposes.
3. Filipino citizenship is only required at the time the land is acquired. Thus, loss of citizenship after
acquiring the land does not deprive ownership.
4. Restriction against aliens only applies to acquisition of ownership. Therefore:
A. Aliens may be lessees or usufructuaries of private lands
B. Aliens may be mortgages of land, as long as they do not obtain possession thereof and do not bid in the
foreclosure sale.
5. Land tenure is not indispensable to the free exercise of religious profession and worship. A religious
corporation controlled by non-Filipinos cannot acquire and own land, even for religious purposes.
Remedies to recover private lands from disqualified aliens:
1. Escheat proceedings
2. Action for reversion under the Public Land Act
3. An action by the former Filipino owner to recover the land
A. The former pari delicto principle has been abandoned
B. Alien still has the title (didnt pass it on to one who is qualified)
Section 10. NATIONAL ECONOMY AND PATRIMONY/INVESTMENTS
Power of Congress
1. Congress, upon the recommendation of NEDA, can reserve to Filipino citizens or to corporations or
associations at least 60% of whose capital is owned by such citizens, or such higher percentage as Congress
may prescribe, certain areas of investment. This may be done when the national interest dictates.
2. Congress shall also enact measures to encourage the formation and operation of enterprises whose
capital is wholly owned by Filipinos.
National Economy and Patrimony

In the grant of rights, privileges and concessions covering the national economy and patrimony, the State
shall give preference to QUALIFIED Filipinos.
Section 11. FRANCHISES FOR PUBLIC UTILITIES
Power to grant:
1. Congress may directly grant a legislative franchise; or
2. Power to grant franchises may be delegated to appropriate regulatory agencies and/or LGUs
Public utility
1. In order to be considered as a public utility, and thus subject to this provision, the undertaking must
involve dealing directly with the public.
2. Thus, a Build-Operate-Transfer grantee is NOT a public utility. The BOT grantee merely constructs the
utility, and it leases the same to the government. It is the government which operates the public utility
(operation separate from ownership).
To whom granted:
1. Filipino citizens or
2. Corporations or associations incorporated in the Philippines and at least 60% of the capital is owned by
Filipino citizens.
Terms and conditions:
1. Duration: Not more than 50 years
2. Franchise is NOT exclusive in character
3. Franchise is granted under the condition that it is subject to amendment, alteration, or repeal by
Congress when the common good so requires.
Participation of Foreign Investors
1. The participation of foreign investors in the governing body of any public utility enterprise shall be limited
to their proportionate share in its capital.
2. Foreigners cannot be appointed as the executive and managing officers because these positions are
reserved for Filipino citizens.
Section 16. FORMATION/ORGANIZATION/REGULATION OF CORPORATIONS
1. Private corporations
Congress can only provide for the formation, etc of private corporations through a general law.
2. GOCCs
They may be created by:
a. Special charters in the interest of the common good and subject to the test of economic viability.
b. By incorporation under the general corporation law.
Sections 18-19. SPECIAL ECONOMIC POWERS OF THE GOVERNMENT
1. Temporary takeover or direction of operations:
A. Conditions
i. National emergency and
ii. When the public interest requires
B. May be used against privately owned public utilities or businesses affected with public interest.
C. Duration of the takeover: period of emergency
D. Takeover is subject to reasonable terms and conditions
E. No need for just compensation because it is only temporary.
2. Nationalization of vital industries:

A. Exercised in the interest of national welfare or defense

B. Involves either:
i. Establishment and operation of vital industries; or
ii. Transfer to public ownership, upon payment of just compensation, public utilities and other private
enterprises to be operated by the government.
Section 19. MONOPOLIES
1. The Constitution does NOT prohibit the existence of monopolies.
2. The State may either regulate or prohibit monopolies, when public interest so requires.
3. Combinations in restraint of trade or unfair competition are prohibited.
Filipino citizenship or equity requirements:
ACTIVITY REQUIREMENTS
Exploitation of natural resources

CITIZENSHIP AND/OR EQUITY

1. Filipino citizens; or
2. Corporations incorporated in RP, with 60% Filipino ownership

Operation of Public Utilities

1. Filipino citizens; or
2. Corporations incorporated in RP, with 60% Filipino ownership

Acquisition of alienable lands of the public domain

1. Filipino citizens;
2. Corporations incorporated in RP, with 60% Filipino ownership;
3. Former natural-born citizens of RP, as transferees, with certain legal restrictions; and
4. Alien heirs as transferees in case of intestate succession.
Practice of ALL Professions
Filipino citizens only (natural persons)
*Congress may, by law, otherwise prescribe
Mass Media

1. Filipino citizens; or
2. Corporations incorporated in RP, and 100% Filipino owned

Advertising

1. Filipino citizens; or
2. Corporations incorporated in RP, and 70% Filipino owned.

Educational institution

1. Filipino citizens; or
2. Corporations incorporated in RP, with 60% Filipino ownership
EXCEPT: Schools established by religious groups and mission boards.
*Congress may, by law, increase Filipino equity requirements for ALL educational institutions.
Other economic activities
Congress may, by law, reserve to Filipino citizens or to
corporations 60% Filipino owned (or even higher) certain investment areas.
ARTICLE XIII SOCIAL JUSTICE AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Social Justice
1) Social justice in the Constitution is principally the embodiment of the principle that those who have less
in life should have more in law.
2) The 1987 Constitution advances beyond what was in previous Constitutions in that it seeks not only
economic social justice but also political social justice.
Principal activities in order to achieve social justice

1) Creation of more economic opportunities and more wealth; and

2) Closer regulation of the acquisition, ownership, use and disposition of property in order to achieve a
more equitable distribution of wealth and political power.
Labor

Section 3 of Article XIII elaborates on the provision in Article II by specifying who are protected by
the Constitution, what rights are guaranteed, and what positive measures the state should take in
order to enhance the welfare of labor.

Right to organize and to hold peaceful concerted activities

The right to organize is given to all kinds of workers BOTH in the PRIVATE and PUBLIC sectors.
The workers have a right to hold peaceful concerted activities except the right to strike, which is
subject to limitation by law.

Right to participate in the decision making process of employers

The workers have the right to participate on matters affecting their rights and benefits, as may be provided
by law. This participation can be through
1)
collective bargaining agreements,
2)
grievance machineries,
3)
voluntary modes of settling disputes, and
4)
conciliation proceedings mediated by government.
Agrarian Reform
Goals:
Agrarian reform must aim at
1) efficient production,
2) a more equitable distribution of land which recognizes the right of farmers and regular farmworkers who
are landless to own the land they till, and
3) a just share of other or seasonal farmworkers in the fruits of the land.
CARL as an exercise of police power and power of eminent domain

To the extent that the law prescribes retention limits for landowners, there is an exercise of police
power. But where it becomes necessary to deprive owners of their land in excess of the maximum
allowed there is compensable taking and therefore the exercise of eminent domain.

Reach of agrarian reform

It extends not only to private agricultural lands, but also to other natural resources, even
including the use and enjoyment of communal marine and fishing resources and offshore fishing
grounds.

The Commission on Human Rights

Composition:
1) Chairman; and
2) 4 members
Qualifications:
1) Natural-born citizens of the Philippines;
2) Majority of the Commission must be members of the Philippine Bar;

3) Term of office, other qualifications and disabilities shall be provided by law;

4) The appointment of the CHR members is NOT subject to CA confirmation; and
5) The CHR is not of the same level as the COMELEC, CSC, or COA.
Powers:
1) Investigate all forms of human rights violations involving civil or political rights
A. Violations may be committed by public officers or by civilians or rebels.
B. CHR cannot investigate violations of social rights.
C. CHR has NO adjudicatory powers over cases involving human rights violations.
D. They cannot investigate cases where no rights are violated.
E. Example: There is no right to occupy government land, i.e. squat thereon. Therefore, eviction therefrom
is NOT a human rights violation.
2) Adopt operational guidelines and rules of procedure.
3) Cite for contempt for violations of its rules, in accordance with the Rules of Court.
4) Provide appropriate legal measures for the protection of the human rights of all persons, within the
Philippines, as well as Filipinos residing abroad, and provide for preventive measures and legal aid services
to the underprivileged whose human rights have been violated or need protection.
A. CHR can initiate court proceedings on behalf of victims of human rights violations.
B. They can recommend the prosecution of human rights violators, but it cannot itself prosecute these cases.
C. BUT: The CHR cannot issue restraining orders or injunctions against alleged human rights violators. These
must be obtained from the regular courts.
5) Exercise visitorial powers over jails, prisons and other detention facilities.
6) Establish continuing programs for research, education and information in order to enhance respect for the
primacy of human rights.
7) Recommend to Congress effective measures to promote human rights and to provide compensation to
victims of human rights violations or their families.
8) Monitor compliance by the government with international treaty obligations on human rights.
9) Grant immunity from prosecution to any person whose testimony or whose possession of documents or
other evidence is necessary or convenient to determine the truth in any CHR investigation.
10) Request assistance from any department, bureau, office, or agency in the performance of its functions.
11) Appoint its officers and employers in accordance with law.
12) Perform such other functions and duties as may be provided for by law
ARTICLE XIV EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
ARTS, CULTURE, AND SPORTS
Education
Goals of the State:
The State shall promote and protect:
1) The right to quality education at all levels;
2) The right to affordable and accessible education; and
3) Education that is relevant to the needs of people and society.
Right to Education and Academic Freedom
The right to education must be read in conjunction with the academic freedom of schools to require fair,
reasonable, and equitable admission requirements.
Power to Dismiss Students
1) Schools have the power to dismiss students, after due process, for disciplinary reasons.
2) Acts committed outside the school may also be a ground for disciplinary action if:
a) It involves violations of school policies connected to school-sponsored activities; or
b) The misconduct affects the students status, or the good name or reputation of the school.
Regulation of Right to Education
The right to education in particular fields may be regulated by the State in the exercise of its police
power, e.g. the State may limit the right to enter medical school by requiring the applicants to take the
NMAT.

Free Education
1) The State shall maintain a system of free education in:
a) Elementary level, and
b) High school level.
2) Elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age. However, this is a moral rather than a
legal compulsion.
Educational Institutions
I. Filipinization
A. Ownership:
1). Filipino citizens, or
2). Corporations incorporated in RP and 60% Filipino-owned.
EXCEPT: Schools established by religious groups and mission boards.
3). Congress may increase Filipino equity requirements in ALL educational institutions.
B. Control and Administration:
1). Must be vested in Filipino citizens
2). Refers to line positions, such as President, Dean, Principal, and Trustees
3). Faculty members may be foreigners.
C. Student Population:
1). GENERAL RULE: Cannot establish school exclusively for aliens. Aliens can only comprise up to 1/3 of total
enrollment.
2). EXCEPTIONS: Schools established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents, and unless
otherwise provided for by law for other foreign temporary residents.
II. Tax Exemptions
A. Non-stock, non-profit educational institutions:
1) All revenues and assets actually, directly and exclusively used for educational purposes are exempt from
taxes and duties.
2) This is self-executory
B. Proprietary educational institutions, including cooperatives:
1) Entitled to exemptions as may be provided by law, including restrictions on dividends and re-investment
2) Requires an enabling statute
3) Grants, endowments, donations and contributions actually, directly and exclusively used for educational
purposes are exempt from taxes, subject to conditions prescribed by law.
III. Academic Freedom
A. Educational Institutions
Schools have the freedom to determine:
1) Who may teach,
2) What may be taught,
3) How it shall be taught, and
4) Who may be admitted to study.
B. Faculty members
1) Full freedom in research and in the publication of the results, subject to the adequate performance of
their other academic duties.
2) Freedom in the classroom in discussing their subjects, but they should be careful not to introduce into
their teaching controversial matter which has no relation to their subjects.
3) When faculty members speak or write in their capacity as citizens, then they are free from institutional
censorship or discipline.
C. Students
They have the right to enjoy in school the guarantees of the Bill of Rights.
D. Limitations
1) Dominant police power of the State
2) Social interest of the community
E. Budgetary Priority:
1). Education must be assigned the highest budgetary priority.
2). BUT: This command is not absolute. Congress is free to determine what should be given budgetary
priority in order to enable it to respond to the imperatives of national interest and for the attainment of
other state policies or objectives.
Religious Education in Public Schools:

Religion may be taught in public schools subject to the following requisites:

1) Express written option by parents and guardians;
2) Taught within regular class hours;
3) Instructors are designated and approved by the proper religious authorities; and
4) WITHOUT ADDITIONAL COST TO THE GOVERNMENT.
Section 6. Language
1) National language: Filipino
2) Official Languages: Filipino, and unless otherwise provided by law, English.
3) Regional languages are auxiliary to the official languages.
4 (Spanish and Arabic are promoted only on an optional and voluntary basis.

ARTICLE XVI GENERAL PROVISIONS

Sections 1-2. Symbols of Nationality
1) Flag

Red, white, and blue.

With a sun and 3 stars

The design may be changed by constitutional amendment.

2) Congress may, by law, adopt a new:
(a) Name for the country,
(b) National anthem, or
(c) National seal.
Note: Law will take effect upon ratification by the people in a NATIONAL REFERENDUM.
Section 3. State Immunity
Suability of State
1) The State cannot be sued without its consent.
2) When considered a suit against the State
a). The Republic is sued by name;
b). Suits against an un-incorporated government agency;
c). Suit is against a government official, but is such that ultimate liability shall devolve on the government
i. When a public officer acts in bad faith, or beyond the scope of his authority, he can be held personally
liable for damages.
ii. BUT: If he acted pursuant to his official duties, without malice, negligence, or bad faith, they are not
personally liable, and the suit is really one against the State.
3) This rule applies not only in favor of the Philippines but also in favor of foreign states.
4) The rule likewise prohibits a person from filing for interpleader, with the State as one of the defendants
being compelled to interplead.
Consent to be sued
A. Express consent:
1). The law expressly grants the authority to sue the State or any of its agencies.
2). Examples:
a). A law creating a government body expressly providing that such body may sue or be sued.
b). Art. 2180 of the Civil Code, which creates liability against the State when it acts through a special agent.
B. Implied consent:
1). The State enters into a private contract.
a). The contract must be entered into by the proper officer and within the scope of his authority.
b). UNLESS: The contract is merely incidental to the performance of a governmental function.
2). The State enters into an operation that is essentially a business operation.
a). UNLESS: The operation is incidental to the performance of a governmental
function (e.g. arrastre
services)
b). Thus, when the State conducts business operations through a GOCC, the latter can generally be sued,
even if its charter contains no express sue or be sued clause.
3). Suit against an incorporated government agency.
a) This is because they generally conduct propriety business operations and have charters which grant them
a separate juridical personality.

4). The State files suit against a private party.

UNLESS: The suit is entered into only to resist a claim.
Garnishment of government funds:
1) GENERAL RULE: NO. Whether the money is deposited by way of general or special deposit, they remain
government funds and are not subject to garnishment.
2) EXCEPTION: A law or ordinance has been enacted appropriating a specific amount to pay a valid
government obligation, then the money can be garnished.
Consent to be sued is not equivalent to consent to liability:
1) The Fact that the State consented to being sued does not mean that the State will ultimately be held
liable.
2) Even if the case is decided against the State, an award cannot be satisfied by writs of execution or
garnishment against public funds. Reason: No money shall be paid out of the public treasury unless
pursuant to an appropriation made by law.
Section 4. THE ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES
Composition:
A citizen armed force
Prohibitions and disqualifications:
1) Military men cannot engage, directly or indirectly, in any partisan political activity, except to vote.
2) Members of the AFP in active service cannot be appointed to a civilian position in the government,
including GOCCs or their subsidiaries.
The Chief of Staff:
1) Tour of duty: Not exceed to three years
2) EXCEPTION: In times of war or other national emergency as declared by Congress, the President may
extend such tour of duty.

ARTICLE XVII- AMENDMENTS OR REVISIONS

Definitions:
1) Amendment: an alteration of one or a few specific provisions of the Constitution. Its main purpose is to
improve specific provisions of the Constitution. The changes brought about by amendments will not affect
the other provisions of the Constitution.
2) Revision: An examination of the entire Constitution to determine how and to what extent it should be
altered. A revision implies substantive change, affecting the Constitution as a whole.
Constituent power v. Legislative power
1)
Constituent power is the power to formulate a Constitution or to propose amendments to or revisions
of the Constitution and to ratify such proposal. Legislative power is the power to pass, repeal or amend or
ordinary laws or statutes (as opposed to organic law).
2)
Constituent power is exercised by Congress (by special constitutional conferment), by a Constitutional
Convention or Commission, by the people through initiative and referendum, and ultimately by sovereign
electorate, whereas legislative power is an ordinary power of Congress and of the people, also through
initiative and referendum.
3)
The exercise of constituent power does not need the approval of the Chief Executive, whereas
the exercise of legislative power ordinarily needs the approval of the Chief Executive, except when done
by people through initiative and referendum.
Three (3) steps necessary to give effect to amendments and revisions:
1) Proposal of amendments or revisions by the proper constituent assembly;
2) Submission of the proposed amendments or revisions; and
3) Ratification
Proposal of amendments:
Amendments may be proposed by:
A. Congress, acting as a constituent assembly, by a 3/4 vote of all its members.

The power of Congress to propose amendments is NOT part of its ordinary legislative power.
The only reason Congress can exercise such power is that the Constitution has granted it such power.

B. Constitutional Convention:
1) How a Constitutional Convention may be called
a). Congress may call a ConCon by a 2/3 vote of all its members; or
b). By a majority vote of all its members, Congress may submit to the electorate the question of whether to
call a ConCon or not.
2) Choice of which constituent assembly (either Congress or ConCon) should initiate amendments and
revisions is left to the discretion of Congress. In other words, it is a political question.
3) BUT: The manner of calling a ConCon is subject to judicial review, because the Constitution has provided
for vote requirements.
4) If Congress, acting as a constituent assembly, calls for a ConCon but does not provide the details for the
calling of such ConCon, Congress exercising its ordinary legislative power may supply such details. But in
so doing, Congress (as legislature) should not transgress the resolution of Congress acting as a constituent
assemble.
5) Congress, as a constituent assembly and the ConCon have no power to appropriate money for their
expenses. Money may be spent from the treasury only to pursuant to an appropriation made by law.
C. Peoples Initiative
1) Petition to propose such amendments must be signed be at least 12% of ALL registered voters.
2) Every legislative district represented by at least 3% of the registered voters therein.
3) Limitation:
It cannot be exercised oftener than once every 5 years.
Note:
1)
While the substance of the proposals made by each type of constituent assembly is not subject to
judicial review, the manner the proposals are made is subject to judicial review.
2)
Since these constituent assemblies owe their existence to the Constitution, the courts may determine
whether the assembly has acted in accordance with the Constitution.
3)
Examples of justiciable issues:
a)
Whether a proposal was approved by the required number of votes in Congress (acting as a constituent
assembly).
b)
Whether the approved proposals were properly submitted to the people for ratification.
Proposal of Revisions
1)
2)

By Congress, upon a vote of 3/4 of its members

By a constitutional convention

Ratification
1)
Amendments and revisions proposed by Congress and/or by a ConCon:
a)
Valid when ratified by a MAJORITY of votes cast in a plebiscite.
b)
Plebiscite is held not earlier than 60 days nor later than 90 days from the approval of such
amendments or revisions.
2)
Amendments proposed by the people via initiative:
a)
Valid when ratified by a MAJORITY of votes cast in a plebiscite.
b)
Plebiscite is held not earlier than 60 days nor later than 90 days after the certification by COMELEC of
the petitions sufficiency
3)
Requisites of a valid ratification:
a)
Held in a plebiscite conducted under the election law;
b)
Supervised by the COMELEC; and
c)
Where only franchised voters (registered) voters take part.
4)
Issues regarding ratification:
a)
The Constitution does not require that amendments and revisions be submitted to the people in a
special election. Thus, they may be submitted for ratification simultaneously with a general election.
b)
The determination of the conditions under which proposed amendments/revisions are submitted to the
people falls within the legislative sphere. That Congress could have done better does not make the steps
taken unconstitutional.

c)
All the proposed amendments/revisions made by the constituent assemblies must be submitted for
ratification in one single plebiscite. There cannot be a piece-meal ratification of amendments/revisions.
d)
Presidential proclamation is NOT required for effectivity of amendments/revisions, UNLESS the
proposed amendments/revisions so provide.
ARTICLE XVIII TRANSITORY PROVISIONS

Effectivity of the 1987 Constitution

The 1987 Constitution took effect immediately upon its ratification.

According to the SC, this took place on February 2, 1987, which was the day the people cast their
votes ratifying the Constitution.
Military bases agreements
1)
2)
3)

Renewals of military bases agreements must be through a strict treaty.

Ratification of the agreement in a plebiscite is necessary only when Congress so requires.
Section 25 of Article XVIII allows possible local deployment of only AMERICAN forces.

Reference:
Political Law (Constitutional Law) Reviewer & Memory Aid
Ateneo Central Bar Operations 2001