Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
A. R French
Introductory
ll'KHHS
ooooo
531.01
FRE
senes
OOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOO
ii
llret-yaar
a cornpletc
Aboul
\
tbC
i<>r
Aulhor
member of the
m.
South
PhyalGS and
became
l*)2
hc wenl to
Profc
mi
I
was appointed
t
wo
years later.
has devoted
ai
Introdw
h bj do dm
He hai had
Manhattan
Project,
THE LIBRARY
Renewed not
Re.
NGV
!974
-6. OCT.
Re
19J
975
n<
FEB.
-?
197L.
197
19.
m.
[991
-07.
21.
FED.
1997
The M.I.T.
Introductory
Physics
Series
Special RelatiVity
A.P.FRENCH
Vibrations and
Waves
A.P.FRENCH
Newtonian Mechanics
A.P.FRENCH
TheM.I.T.
Introductory
Physics
Series
Newtonian
Mechanics
A. E French
Nelson
Copyright
1971, 1965 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
First published in Great Britain 1971
PROTON
per
ic'
47809
551 we
Made and
printed by
William Clowes & Sons Ltd, Beccles, Colchester and
London
Contents
Preface
xi
Prologue
PART I
1
21
21
24
32
lerrestrial objecls
Planels
and satellifes
Stars
Galaxies
33
35
36
PROBLEMS
28
31
38
43
The
53
56
resolution ofvectors
59
Time
61
63
67
Velocily
68
lnslantaneous velocily
Relatlve velocily
72
PROBLEMS
74
78
85
Accelerated motions
85
87
The analysis of straight-line motion
93
A comment on exlraneous roots
95
Trujectory problems in two dimensions
98
Free fail of individual aloms
102
Other features of motion in free fail
Acceleralion
105
and acceleralion
108
PROBLEMS
Velocily
in
polar coordinales
106
115
119
123
128
130
and slrings
problems
132
Pulleys
The various
139
forces of nature
139
Gravitatkmal forces
Electric
Nuclear forces
145
147
1 50
problems
VI
152
154
Concluding remarks
154
148
161
161
of inertia
mass: Newlon's law
164
Some comments on Newlon's law
167
principle
Force and
Scales
inertial
170
173
problems
PART
7
II
173
relatioily
176
178
181
CLASSICAL MECHANICS AT
WORK
188
inlroduclory examples
Motion
Mo
187
in
ion in
two dimensions
194
198
circle
200
Charged particle
in
a magnelic fielcl
202
205
Mass
spectrographs
206
The fracture ofrapidly rotating objects
Motion against resistive forces
210
208
213
221
225
231
Universal gravitation
245
The gracitational
Other
satellites
moon
attraciion
of the
eartli
259
of a large sphere
265
Vll
245
261
268
275
Mass and
weight
Weightlessness
279
285
286
291
295
299
of gravilation
PROBLEMS
301
307
309
327
Rocket propulsion
Collisions and frames ofreference
331
333
335
339
342
What
a collisionl
is
346
351
10
Energy conservation
vibrational motions
in
318
352
354
dynamics;
367
367
368
of motion
Work, energy, and power
Introduction
lntegrals
373
More about
376
one-dimensional situations
379
Vlll
405
381
393
397
400
An experimenl by Galileo
Mass on a puraboiic track
423
423
429
431
434
The simple pendulum
437
The pendulum cis a harmonic oscillator
440
The pendulum with larger amplitudo
Universal gravitation: a conservative central force
446
A gravitating spherical shell
450
A gravitating sphere
453
Escape velocities
More
Fields
PROBLEMS
12
III
457
461
Equipotential surfaces
PART
442
463
466
470
476
478
Inertial forces
493
501
Centrifugal force
494
495
504
507
511
514
518
Dynamics on a merry-go-round
519
General ecjuation of motion in a rotating frame
524
The earth as a rotating reference frame
The tides
531
535
Tidal heights; effect of the sun
538
The search for a fundamental inertial frame
542
Speculations on the origin of inertia
Centrifuges
Coriolis forces
PROBLEMS
13
Motion under
546
555
central forces
555
IX
560
Energy conseruation
Vse of the
563
molions
in ceniral force
565
568
Bounded orbtts
Unbcnmded orbits
569
572
574
Small perturbation of a circular orbit
577
The elliptic orbits ofthe planels
583
Deducing the inuerse-scpiare law from the eltipse
585
Elliptic orbits: analylical treatment
589
Energy in an elliptic orbit
591
Molion near the earth's surface
592
Interplcmetciry transfer orbits
595
Calculaling an orbit from inilial condilions
596
A family of relai ed orbits
598
Central force motion as a two-body problem
Deducing the orbit from the force law
604
Rutherford scattering
609
Cross sections for scattering
Alpha-particle scattering (Geiger
Magazine excerpts)
615
An historical note
problems
617
14
600
612
627
Gyroscope
More
in
steady precession
Gyroscopes
as gyroscopes
Gyroscopic motion
in teriris
Appendix
709
Bibliography
lndex
686
of F =
ia
691
Niitation
Answers
677
680
683
in nauigation
to
713
problems
733
659
664
723
694
688
654
628
Preface
the
work
the Science
Teaching Center)
is
and aids
established
by M.I.T.
Friedman as
its
undergraduate
in 1960,
Director.
and
itself,
thereto,
level.
the Shell
W.
is
The books
in
embody
chiefly
emphasize
a considerable
classical
amount of atomic
book
is
designed
ponent
in
many
XI
considerable proficicncy.
the
book
Approach
suggested by
is
its
Newtonian Dynamics,
to
poses. First,
it
is
Part
The
I,
dynamics, more or
less
from
phenomena and of
is
at the beginning, be
by beginning
scratch. Second,
in the
it
This
ment from
reality
brought up
in the British
this
educational system).
The
student
who
some
already has
for
its
expertise in using
broader implications.
Part
Classical
II,
emphasis
is
Mechanics at Work,
Some
is
undoubtedly the
to the status of
background reading.
The
and
initial
objccts.
lengthy chapter
is
and
its
still
be appreciated as a
III,
Some
itself
and
XII
III
and
II
some
prior preparation.
II
One of
make
its
in this
lies in
princi-
book
to
explicit reference to
in this series, to
citations
history, classical
is
not, in this
fields
of
physical thory.
This book,
criticisms,
for publication.
A. P.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
July 1970
XIII
FRENCH
Newtonian
mechanics
/ offer this
work as
the
from
the
nature,
phenomena ofmotions
and thenfrom
to consist in this
to investigate
theforces of
phenomena.
newton, Preface
Prologue
now reading
is
made
we must
we
if
Isaac
is
phenomenon
are to understand
.
Newton developed
a precise and
powerful theory
j
called classical or
book
on itfln so doing he
coBeerned and which
is
Newtonian mechanics.
it
It
was a landmark
in
effect.
Newtonian mechanics had an impressive influence in the development of Western thought and civilization generally, provoking
fundamental questions about the interrelationships of science,
philosophy, and religion, with repercussions in social ideas and
other areas of
human endeavor.
Classical mechanics
character.
For
it
starts
is
it
some
though
it
Sometimes mechanics
is
presented as
self-
it is
and hypothesis.
The
is
impressive,
hand we
solve,
by
without realizing
it,
every
human
being
an
is
not he has ever seen these laws written down. The skilled sportsman or athlete has an almost incredible degree of judgment and
control of the
amount and
It
World
the
Series baseball
'
them
in
ticularly to
consequences, although
it
own muscular
actions
and
Our
their
own
P.
Kirkpatrick,
Prologue
Am.
J.
God
Men
said "Let
Newton
and
be,"
night
in
was
all
light.
immemorial.
the
all
this
enormous body of
in-
summarized as follows:
1
2.
The
The
planets
move
in ellipses
line
mean
The square of
distance
the
is
same
its
Why? was
it
was
still
his
a description
still
looked for
law of force
how
he demonstrated
Using these
of a scheme of things that also included the falling apple and other
terrestrial
tails
of
I
motions.
this
(Later in this
from which
tions of a theory
phenomena, or
familiar
shall
it
would
still
is, it
it
it
was deduced.
fit
unsuspected
an already
into the
is
is
It
subjected to
"Ho,
had
phenomenon must
relate
the ones
book we
Prologue
John Squire)
stand or
fail.
almost entirely
tests resided
but what a
list!
in the analysis
of
known effects
for
which
The bulging of
rotation.
2.
The
The generation of
combined action of
axis
and
of rotation produced by
moon.
years,
festation of
it.)
in
".
Newton had,
in
in this
develop-
gravitation,
its
other implications.
final
of astronomy.
amply confirmed
of
its
in his
own
greatest triumphs.
some
mem-
Prologuc
What more
the theory
striking
Probably everyone
who
And
was not
there be that
works?
this
some
may make
prior
expression in
its
its
it
hard
development
Moon,
Moon
pretty nearly."
An
intellectual
as great as Newton's
or model.
It is
is
Some
facts
it
may even be
temporarily
at
all.
And
is
main
no theory
theory
is
an ever-present
possibility.
Laws of Motion
INDUCTION
1
Laws
of
Force
Observations
and Experiments
DEDUCTION-
J
Mathematical
Models
Predictions
The enormous
made
it
seem,
Prologue
its
The
fundamental limitations.
scale, the
still
more
drastic
required.
And
But
this
variety of situations,
Newtonian
its limits,
figure below.
we
how
the horizons of
its
Mechanics, as we
gradually broadened.
not at
all
application to the
own
view, can be
its
Cosmological
Physics
10-'
10 !0 m
Galaxy
Atom
Size
Proloeuc
it,
is
description
game
We
which
ferent approach, in
Newton
beginning of
Book
III
with apply-
wish to offer a
dif-
at every stage
working with
is
are
justifled.
this is
as-
the
At
the
may
be imagined,
till
made more
either be
exceptions."
accurate, or liable to
is
an experiment or
finish
He
others)
is
clear.
and
the Physicist,
"Look
at this
that the
what he
"A
by
less
physicist
divisible
99 numbers are
first
the Engineer
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and
6.
"He
observes
infers, hence,
by
than a hundred."
mathematician, "that 60
is
cases,
such as
10, 20,
sufficient."
and
30,
"An
book
entitled Induction
and Analogy
in
Prologuc
Yet
ber.
said,
'I
and
1 1
'Corning back to
error.'
9,'
he
" But
It is
it is
fails,
or with
stones
is
it
the precious stones than the pebbles that led the mineralogists
to the wonderful science of crystallography.
perfect
this Prologue,
l,
is
begin our
one of the
We
EXERCISES-HORS D'OEUVRES
meaning of the phrase "hors d'oeuvre" is "outside
The exercises below correspond exactly to that
the work."
definition, although it is hoped that they will also whet the
The
literal
They
power of 10)
an important
role in a physicist's approach to problems but seldom get emphasized or systematically presented in textbooks. For example,
of-magnitude estimates
(i.e.,
^ + b^'^a{\+^
where we assume b
<
b =
a, the result is
of 1.414
.)
a?
(Even
in the
Moreover,
develop the habit of assessing, quite crudely, the magnitudes of quantities and the relative importance of various possible effects in a physical system. For example, in dealing with
effort to
objects
10
moving through
Prologue
liquids,
and
well-known essay by
Size," which
J.
linear
An
dimensions?
awareness
B. S. Haldane,
is
Newman,
New
II
R.
By
It
ed.),
surprising
is
York, 1956.]
of primary information
which
might
in-
Physical Magnitudes
and
liquids
10 m/sec'
kg/m 3
3
4
10 -10
kg/m
Length of day
10
Length of year
3.16
Earth's radius
6400
km
(approx.)
sec (approx.)
10
sec
I0
75
at arm's length
mm (approx.)
Thickness of paper
0.1
Mass of
0.5 g (approx.)
a paperclip
10
km
Earth-moon separation
3.8
Earth-sun separation
1.5
X
X
Atmospheric pressure
Equivalent to weight of
1
(approx.)
10
10
km
km
kg/cm 2
or a 10-m
column of water
Avogadro's number
6.0
Atomic masses
1.6
10
Molecules/cm
Atoms/cm
3
i
n gas at
in solids
Elementary charge
(e)
4 X
_,0
2.7
23
10
1.6
Electron mass
Speed of
light
light
X
X
10
23
10- 27 kgto
_25
kg
10
m (approx.)
10
13
(approx.)
10~ 30
Wavelength of
11
STP
X
X
lO
-1
kg (approx.)
8
10 m/sec
-7
10
(approx.)
sec
Malhematical Magnitudes
w2
e
log, o 3
(radians)
rad
0.16
arc
sr
0.08
log,,, 4
log, o e
full
log,
logc 10
0.48
length/radius.
full circle
m 0.60
~ 0.43
T0.50
10
2.7
20.30
log 10
Angle
2.3
circle
Full
2jrrad.
57.
area/(radius)
2
.
Full sphere
4*- sr.
sphere.
Approximations
Binomial theorem:
Forx
(1
1,
e.g.,
(1
(1
For b
(a
a,
2
-x)" a
+
+
b)"
x)
x)
3*
fl*(l
- **
~
+ jjjY
(1
an
+x)- 1/2
(l+n?\
Othcr expansions:
For
sin
rad,
fl
3
>
6
cos d
For
a:
log (1
1,
log,
No
(l
~ x
+Jc) 0.43x
x)
For
book
some
return to
/
What
them
is
all,
the
them
later.
to check
How many
Make reasoned
breaths ?
number of
ancestors ytou
The
(a)
12
How many
Prologue
(human)
is
about 3
10.
How many
(b) If
feet
long
is
50 years throughout the existence of the human race, when did Adam
start it all ? If the doubling every 50 years were to continue,
and Eve
it
all the
(b)
water corresponding to
(e) the
(0 a small
hill,
500
ft
in.
mouse;
Mount
an elephant;
(d)
of rainfall over
square mile;
Everest.
human
and
(d) the
whole earth.
now
the
form of
Estimate (a) the total volume of ocean water on the earth, and
mass of sah
in all the
universe.
in
oceans.
It is
is
living things.
If all these
(known)
the
in
just touching,
spaces
left
when
10 The sun is losing mass (in the form of radiant energy) at the rate of
about 4 million tons per second. What fraction of its mass has it lost
during the lifetime of the solar system
11 Estimate the time in minutcs that
10%
it
would take
for a theatre
if
audience
the build-
sixth
of the
12 Solar energy
city.
How would
total
1
(1 cal
this
4.2 J;
is
worn
off during
14
13
An
ine.vpensive wristwatch
(a)
What
Exercises
is its
is
found to
fractional dcviation
hors d'oei v
re s
lose
2 min/day.
(b)
differ
from exactly 12
watch
radius of about 2
to
minute of arc
What diameter
(^g).
this
accuracy ?
16 Jupiter has a mass about 300 times that of the earth, but
density
(a)
is
What
fifth
its
mean
radius
would
radius
would a planet of
a planet of Jupiter's
mass and
earth's
density have?
(b)
What
earth's
mass and
Jupiter's
density have ?
tightly
packed
in
a given volume
of space.
(a)
know
spheres, but only the density of the material, in order to calculate the
total
mass contained
in the
of the volume are large compared to the radius of the individual spheres.
(b) Consider the possibility of packing
more material
if
two
sizes
of spheres
(c)
r,
(b)
a cube of edge
a,
and
(c)
(a) a
sphere of
area?
19
How many
at the sun?
20
From
the time the lower limb of the sun touches the horizon
it
diameter
(c)
What
14
Prologue
for the
(e.g.,
earth?
min
21
How many
(e.g.,
22
is
ball,
and
the earth.
23
What
is
would
strike
a man-made structure?
A human ?
24
Two
students
One of them,
procedure.
when he
of sound in air
possibility
is
If they
sides of length 5
5%, what is
25
angle.
approximate
What
is
in this
result.
is
ruler to
the
abscissa.
mark
On
this piece
and a normal
(For example,
intensities
proporin sensa-
intensities
the equation
dB = lOlogio
(a)
what
An
is
intensity /o?
15
Exercises
hors d'oeuvres
By
(b)
brightness of
is
in
terms of magnitudes.
Stars differing by
Thus
200-in.
The
is
2.5
times brighter
tances.
is
r,
a corresponds
V at any
time
is
instant.
to
Show
given by
dV
dt
3a
lists
the
mean
Planet
r/rg
Mercury
Venus
0.72
1.00
(a)
Make
abscissa.
is
Earth
Mars
1.52
Jupiter
5.20
Saturn
Uranus
9.54
19.2
is
logarithmic paper.)
On
this
samc graph,
r /re against
7,
8).
16
(i.e.,
at n
6,
line.
(b) If
belt
number
n on semi-
and
order ():
0.39
in
Prologue
this ?
Compare with
the actual
mean
radius of
imply ?
(d)
Compare with
light
of (b) and
(c),
8.)
PHILOSOPHLE
NATURALIS
PRINCIPI A
MATHEMATICA
Autore
J S. NEWTON,
S.
S,
Reg.
5.
Juiii
Soaetatis Rcgi* ac
title
was
officially
S.
I,
Strealcr.
Proftat
Amo MDCLXXXVII.
in July, 1686,
JE S
1686.
Typis Jofepbi
plures Bibliopolas.
Facsimile oflhe
Soc.
ND
L
Juflii
Sodalt.
IMPRIMATUR
R
P
Mathefeos
Profeflbre Lucafiano,
apud
PartI
The approach
Newtonian
dynamics
to
//
seems probable
Matter
in solid,
to
in the
Beginningfortrid
Particles ....
universe of particles
THE PARTICULATE
VI
EW
the essence of
the
which
it
outset
we
is
by
subjected
its
is
is
that
environment.
can be treated as
Nevertheless,
nothing
you have
in
nature that
fits
if
In the
this definition.
world of particles
and
is.
If you have read
George Orwell's famous political satire Animal Farm, you may
remember the cynical proclamation "Ali animals are equal,
feel
that
more
some
particles (electrons or
made
in
terms of
In somewhat
is
specific
specific questions
But
particle
in
can
kinds of
And
a particle?"
is
'Actually,
might
(i.e.,
behave)
like
Newton himself
now
call
but the
building blocks
21
Fig.
1-1
Photograph
of a portion of the
night sky. (Photograph
from
the
Hale
Obsercatories.)
particles if
you don't
hit
and an
if
you
get far
internal structure,
and there
Very often
this will
be done by picturing a
(If the
possible to
make
less firmly
connected to one
it
may be
22
universe of particles
and behave,
What
sort of information
description of a particle?
we
write
Mass
2.
Size
3.
Shape
list is
exhaustive
sharply categorized):
4. Internal structure
Electric charge
5.
6.
Magnetic properties
7.
8.
Interaction with
though that
Partial
same kind
may
be,
it is
we
If
many
an important
may be
sufficient to
Most other
composed of large numbers of atoms, are normally
electrically neutral, and in any event the mass alone is for many
identify such a particle in
circumstances.
objects,
dynamic behavior
provided
we take
'
Not only
this
is
may
to be filled in later,
if
we want
laws of interaction
The
many
one of our
object, but
its
interactions of the
23
we
'Of course,
as
is
it
the particle
which
on
It is,
On
minimal description
mass and
size.
the contrary,
particulate view
(e.g.,
is
we have sought
from characteristic
by gravitatton), then the
the subject of Chapter 5.
in
Our survey
to reduce
minimum,
to a
it
eral
linear dimensions of
some
typical particles.
We
up the
scale until
You
to be a fundamental limit.
it is,
will
results
note on units
In this
book we
second
(MKS)
with
it,
If not,
shall
metric system.
it
You
at this time.
We shall,
however,
make
it is
is
in
just
A tabulation
of
MKS and
other units
is
given in the
Appendix.
of physics and
and neutrons.
mentary
The
amount of research on
and on the structure of
particles,
title
vast
filled
is
and protons.
Theelectron,withamassofaboutl(r
to be
24
more
precise), is
by far the
universc of particles
30 kg(9.1
lightest (by
l(T
more than
31
kg
three
(The elusive
powers of
no
mass at
This puts
all.
of the electron
it
-15 m.
size
is
If,
10
The
is
any object.
in
is
a mass of 1.67
proton
is
it
(like the
In
it
kg,
is
the other
the
charged form
cannot survive
its electrically
13
neutral
is,
it
form
isolation
in
about
electron,
electrically
its
the neutron
but that
is
10
just a speculation.
-15
m by
Nucleons
which we mean
to have a quite
structure, in
complex internal
ATOMIC NUCLEI
The combination of protons and neutrons
to
vides the basis for the various forms of stable, ordinary matter
as
we know
it.
The
individual proton.
(that of
10
-25
238
kg.
smallest
The
U) contains
and
lightest nucleus is
of course the
25
Alomic
nuclei
is
It is
very convenient
named
after the
1
Enrico Fermi
Italian physicist
lfermi(F)
H)" 18
m=
10- 13
cm
The
is
from about
10
17
kg/m 3
This
is
so vast
(it is larger,
although we
now have
we
enormous.
is
evidence that
-25
its
3 to 20 F.
kg and a radius
density is about
14
by a factor of 10 ,
cannot apprehend
some astronomical
it,
objects
ATOMS
A
great deal
From
it
was
that
individual
The
existence of characteristic
transfers in electrolysis
way
to absolute
atomic charge
to establish
measurements
listed in
in
1909.
Some
representative atomic
Table 1-1.
and
'E. Fermi (1901-1954) was the greatest Italian physicist since Galileo
one of the most distinguished scientists of the twentieth century, gifted in
both theoretical and experimental work. He achieved popular fame as the
man who produced the first self-sustained nuciear chain reaction, at the University of Chicago in 1942.
26
universe of particles
TABLE
ATOMIC MASSES
1-1:
Atomic
Electrotytic
mass
kg/C
Element
H
C
1.04
lO" 8
10- 8
10- 8
10~ 7
8.29
Na
Al
K
Zn
Ag
mass.
kg
1.67
2e
12
2.00
2e
16
2.66
23
3.81
3e
27
4.48
39
6.49
65
107
1.09
X
X
2.38 X
9.32 X lO" 8
4.05 X 10" 7
3.39 X 10- 7
6
1.118 X 106.22
Approximate
relative mass
Charge
per ion
transfer,
2e
e
1.79
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
lO" 27
10" 26
lO" 26
K)- 26
-26
10
-26
lO
10- 2S
10~ 2S
lamu =
1.66043
Since almost
all
10" 27 kg
atom
is
concentrated in
its
we can say
that to a
mass of
just the
as
we have
nucleus.
its
represents a leap of
eters,
first
many
But, in terms of
orders of magnitude.
the
size,
is
atom
Nuclear diam-
-14
m. Atomic
4
diameters are typically about 10 times larger than this i.e., of
-1
the order of 10
m. One way of getting a feeling for what this
factor
this
means
page
is
is
you
letter i
on
on a printed
is
about 10
ft
means
in three dimensions.
-10
as a unit of distance
and
The
A.
unit
named
Swedish
physicist,
Angstrom:
J.
It is
is
angstrom (A)
10 -10
m=
10~ 8 cm
10 5
27
Atoms
'
Fig.
1-2
'
preciation of the
the tiniest
anda mass
to
10~
fi
kg.
tory
10
-1
'
billion
atoms.
their diameter.
This
justifies
(although only
move
first
introduction to molecules
is likely
to be in an elementary
its
attention to
C0 2) Na 2 S0 4 C 6 H 6
,
28
2 0,
universe of particles
Edge of Bacterium
coli
Foot-and-
mouth
virus
Bushy stunt
virus
10,000,000
Yellow
fever virus'
Sizes
,000
half-le
of
microscopic objects,
from
,
J.
bacteria
down
to
.
r, i t -a
A. V. Butler, Inside
units (1|30 0)
'
George Allen
,, %
&
0.1
u.=
10,000
We
plexity.
can feel
justified in
The
de-
amu
m.
Such objects
are,
processes,
particles.
The
in bio-
particle
is
a pretty
slim subject
its
is
29
Molecules; living
cells
A convenient unit
of length
The
micron (m)
= lO" 9 m =
largest object
across and
would be
limit of resolution
of
shown
is
10 4
in Fig.
visible in a
about
is
0.2/n
the micron:
A
1-3 (a bacterium)
good microscope
rather
less
is
(for
about 1m
which the
light).
definite size
and mass,
possessed
of a
rather
Figure
is
Fig.
1-4
particles
Sphericat
of
polio virus.
[C. E. Schwerdt et
al.,
Biol.
(1954).
Photograph
courtesy of Robley
C. Williams.]
30
A. universe
of particles
'
1
does reveal their spatial relationships.)
Certainly
it is
most of them
outside physics.
is
lies
except,
and
per-
atomic interactions.
Although some
single cells
may be
than
less
1/*
(certain
l4
atoms.
and are
word
These
particles,
The
and inanimate.
earth's surface,
and
small
the
of
ground.
The
combined
The
fail.
effect
visible,
atmosphere above
biggest ones
which the
but
in
fate
of wind
may be
seen as
no
and
gravity.
Ac-
maximum of about
mm. Below that size
from a
of about 0.01
airborne,
and
mm diameter to a minimum
31
Fig. 1-5
Size distribulion
(After R. A. Bagnold,
The
Physics of
10
-4
mm
(=0.1/*) diameter.
classification
particles.
we cannot
human
and a
factor of 1000
achieve a rather
terms, 100
is al-
up or down in
linear
In ordinary
scale
limits of
anything that can properly be regarded as a fuli, first-hand contact with the physical world.
chiefly
upon
we depend
and analogy.
we
find
them
mg
2
to 10'
kg
(i.e.,
10
tons).
it
Actually, if
mass
itself
about 10
mg
some
or as heavy as 1000
it
would be
fair to
human
kg i.e., up
to a factor of 10
32
universc of particles
tions of
its
of physical
if
And all
this scale,
of them
their orbits
In Kepler's mathe-
and subsequently
modifica-
surface.
legitimately
no way
relevant.
The
reason, of course,
was the simple one that on the scale of the solar system the
little
diameter
only 10
that a
is
good
-2
No
wonder, then,
first
we
cannot.
When Newton
such an approximation;
became a key
feature, because
it
was only
this that
made
possible
In
any
case, once
we
free ourselves of
phenomena, the
particles that
Mercury and
is
considerable
Jupiter.
Since the
is
mean
densities
do not
differ
of water), the masses cover a very great range indeed. Again the
extremes are Mercury and Jupiter, and there
33
is
a factor of about
Fig. 1-6
Relative sizes of
llre
planets
and the
The
sun.
which has
about the same density as Jupiter but 10 times the diameter and
about 1000 times the mass, is indicated for comparison. The
1-2:
in
Table 1-2.
Mean
radius,
km
M/ME
R/Re
10 3
Mean
density,
6.37
1.00
1.000
5400
5100
5520
(Moon)
Mars
(1.74)
(0.27)
(0.012)
(3360)
3.37
0.53
0.108
3970
Jupiter
69.9
10.98
317.8
Saturn
58.5
9.20
95.2
680
Uranus
Neptune
23.3
3.66
14.5
1600
17.2
2250
Mercury
Venus
Earth
2.42
6.10
0.38
0.054
0.96
0.815
22.1
3.48
Pluto
3.0
0.47
(Sun)
(6.96
10 6 )
1330
0.8?
(3.33
(1093)
kg/m 3
10 5)
(1400)
all
the mass of
matter around the sun (and Jupiter alone accounts for almost
two thirds of
it),
we
is
ignore
enormous.
satellites.
These
it
has only a
satellites
little
universe of particles
1%
is
relatively
of the mass of
34
over
If
in-
The planetary
by the minor
satellites are,
Tens
'
the orbits of
in
larger body.
"the
If
is
at
by professional
skywatchers.
STARS
gigantic
we
interior
and
see nothing
unless
this,
which
sources
of an
points,
most powerful
the
scopes.
farther
elec-
tele-
much
system.
vacuum
light-year
The
9.46
is
year:
10 15
about 25,000,000,000,000
in
is
miles!
number of other
stars that
order of 10 light-years or 10
17
is
A cluster or
galaxy
less
still
than
emptier
kind of system.
The word "asteroid" derives from the
objects as seen through a telescope.
35
Stars
star-like
Most of
2
the range of 10* solar masses.
star.
is
much
very
really
of stars; and
this is certainly
it.
We
stars,
54
to 10
58 atoms) can
still
immense
GALAXIES
In 1900 the words "galaxy" and "universe" were regarded as
being synonymous. Our universe appeared to consist primarily
of a huge number of stars many billions of them scattered
through space (see Fig. 1-1). Here and there, however, could be
seen cloudy objects
nebulae near
known and
catalogued.
G) was only one of innumerable systems of the same general kind. The first suggestion
for such a picture of the universe was in fact put forward by the
own Galaxy
philosopher Immanuel
at that time
it
1958.
36
universe of particles
Fig.
1-7
Cluster of
Borealis.
Corona
Dislance
graphfrom
(Photothe
Hale
Observatories.)
To
tell
at present, they
A
10
'
'
single galaxy
stars.
may
21
(10
light-years).
As we have
already seen, the stars within an individual galaxy are very widely
although there
is
particles,
by
On
separations perhaps
galaxies
is
scale,
Thus even
the
be regarded as
treating
them as points
uniform concentration of
tinues to be true
galaxies.
If
up to the theoretical
we assume
limits of observation,
we
For
it
37
Galaxies
10
light-years (10
26
m).
The
l0
light-
called
source
in
for radiation
shift
effect),
from a moving
the transmission
fail
we
to be about 10
-a(i
kg/m 3
(10
-6
assume the
26 3
i.e.,
10"
total
10
78
stars.
m3
which
is
what
we described at the outset as "the particulate view" flnds some justiflcation over the entire range
of our experience, from the nucleus to the cosmos. And the fact
that this approach to the description of nature makes sense, while
physical world
40
in distance
it
and 10 80
in
mass,
is
we
give. to the
behavior of
view
is
a strong candidate.
PROBLEMS
1-1
Make
volume, mass, and density for a wide selection of objects that you
regard as being of physical importance e.g., nucleus, cell, and star.
For the diameters and masses, rcprcsent the data by labclcd points on
(b)
38
The
The
universe of partieles
you can
naked
eye.
1-3
nuclear matter
1-4
closely
Sir
own
mm of
6
evacuates a bottle to a pressure of 10~
A vacuum pump
1-5
-9 of atmospheric pressure).
mercury (about 10
(a)
(b)
1-6
[Phil.
Mag.,
started with a source of the radioactive gas radon (itself a decay product
later.
When
particle emission
10 9 per second.
Six
later,
in this
experiment?
function of time
is
is
Noe-*'.
\dN/dt\
the value of
1-7
law
volume
in the universe
unit
17
part in 10
per second (see Hors d'oeuvres no. 29, p. 16). According to one theory
is
being
if
of new matter,
it
J.
On
to the
39
Problcms
(J.
new mass
created
G. King concluded
on
sure of
1-8
feasible.)
Torr
(1
mm
of mercury).
Theodore Rosebury,
in his
book Life on
all
is
bottom of a thimble.
taken to be 5
y.
(1
If the
10
-6
mean
on the
accommodated
Convert your
result to
m), what
is
Compare
all
globe.
1-9
It
sun,
been
its
mean
density in
kg/m 3 ? (Do
in the
its
radius,
in the calculation.)
(b)
mean
(In terms of the radius of the earth's orbit, the orbit of Pluto has a
is
at
about
3 units,
and
the
ratio
typically contain
of a gas?
40
mean
may
5 light-years.
universe of particles
/ do not define time, space, place and motion, since they are
well
known
to all.
newton,
Principia (1686)
Space, time,
and motion
WHAT
IS
MOTION?
you are undoubtedly
familiar with
motion
in all kinds of
mani-
For
it
depends
in
ability to give
Ali of us grow
our
intuitive ideas
up
to be
are a
The
with those of
and
himself.
may appear
description
many
Newton
natural
and
plausible,
but
it
embodies
difficult
or impossible to defend.
its
its
(set
provisional status)
own words
in the Principia:
"Absolute space, in
its
own
nature,
43
Fig.
2-1
Slrobo-
scopic photograph
of
a motion. {Front
PSSC Physics, D.
C.
Healh, Lexington,
Massachusetis, 1965.)
and immovable."
[Space
is
into which one can place objects or through which objects can
Each
and
change of
its
and
time.
An
And
although
it
would not be
it.
Moreover, our
is
44
is
also absolute
and mathematical
and from
its
own
name
language
is
said in the
time, of
itself,
The
As Newton
called duration."
remark quoted
[One can neither speed up time nor slow down its rate, and
throughout the universe. If we
and
it
and an hour
we assume
mark
later
the end
has been identical for every object in the universe, as could (in
time intervals,
it
would be
common, simultaneous
would
instant.
thereafter correctly
mark
and
we
find
it
impossible
"nowhere"
all,
in space.
or
Both
to have no
knowingly or unconsciously,
the universe.
many
we mentioned
in the
This
first
became apparent
in
his
development of special
how
own
relativity
theory,
it
light,
was Einstein,
who exposed
concept of time.
45
our picture of
in developing
It is
What
is
motion
'?
is
that
it is
as spatial
of them
And
and motions, we
For
it
may be that
there
is
no body
ferred."
space,
ments.
it
If there is
really at
may be
re-
can only be by inference from these relative measureThus our attention turns to the only basis we have for
describing motion
observation
in
FRAMES OF REFERENCE
If
would be quite
what
is
is
moving," you
being described
is
a change
of position of the car with respect to the earth's surface and any
buildings and the like that may be nearby. Anybody who an-
nounced "There
is
relative
it
We
and therefore at
accept the
rest relative to
and measured.
motion of an object
it is
is
entirely
a matter
is
most efficiently
up and down
the ship itself
uniform
motion
of
The
(according to deck number).
directions fore
46
and
aft,
may be
on the navigation
officers.
become accustomed
We would
not say
so.
We
have
its
And
since
'i
'
'
JK
f'
'
Fig.
2-2
Apparent
circular molions
of
'
ff
'f
ir
Tower of Wellesley
College, Wellesley,
Mass., from J. C.
Duncan, Astronomy,
19.)
%ti<$
47
Frames of reference
&Row,J954,p.
ntjaKKm
we regard
the totality of
them
as
It
it
really rotating
on
to
is
Later
we
judgment
for preferring
others.
The "best"
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
frame of reference, as we have said, is defined by some array
of physical objects that remain at rest relative to one another.
Within any such frame, we make measurements of position and
doing
this
we have
In
is
we must
us
first
let
48
Fig.
2-3
(a)
Square
of
Carlesian coordinates
in
a specific direction.
uniquely define
by
ing r
is
2-3(b).
r
makes
in
Here
axis, as
P
r
two dimcnsions)
as shown in Fig.
(r, 0),
P from O and
r is the distance of
measured
(In
we can
axes,
d is
in
a counterclock-
= x2 +
y
= -
tan
(2-1)
X
x =
cos d
= r sin
We
shall
unit vectors
ordinate directions.
shall
we
respectively.
two dimensions)
xi
we
in the direction
(2-2)
symbol e r to
of increasing r at constant
49
+ y\
Coordinate systems
the
9.
German word
for
unit,
this
which
is
/*>"
'""'V
y>iui.ins<
(b)
(a)
Example of Cariesian coordinales in use a portion of midtown Manhattan, New York City. (b) Example of plane polar coordinales in
fig. 2-4
usea
North
(a)
is shown
afew
km,
200 km; the lighter circles are spaced by 25 km. (Photograph courtesy of
Department of Meteorology, M.l.T.)
important as
As we
soon as we
all.
shall see,
why
r is
simply
however,
it
is
becomes very
pendicular to
r.
one
a non-
50
may
possess.
Fig.
2-5
Ihal
is freguently
relativity.
confocal ellipses
If
(b)
Orthogonal
and hyperbolas.
necessary to specify
it is
ofthe kind
all
(r, 6, <p).
z),
illus-
chosen to
direction
is
it,
the process
It
then
right-handed
+z
to
in Fig.
2-3(a),
would
51
xi
+ yi + zk
Coordinate systems
(2-3)
2-6
Fig.
(a)
in three
dimensions,
ofa
and longitude) on a
by angular coordinates
sphere,
and
question.
The
take.)
The
distance
One
origin.
end point
tween the positive x axis and the projection ON. This angle (p)
The geometry of the figure shows that the
is called the azimuth.
rectangular and spherical polar coordinates are related as follows:
x =
y =
z =
If
52
we
set
r sin
cos
r sin
sin
tp
(2-4)
<p
r cos
tt/2,
we make
to the two-
The
first
two equations of
r cos
y =
r sin
>
v?
It is
symbol
d,
the vector
as
r
we
and the
x axis
two-dimensional case.
in this special
This need not become a cause for confusion, but one does need
to be
We
negative.)
e^,,
points
due
is
As with
given simply by re r
at
a point P\ on a
flat
by
Fig.
2-7
(a)
make the
+x and +y in
P g. Imagine
Suc-
cessiue displacements
is
independen!
of the order
in
which
made.
{b)
Addition
53
that
we
Fig.
2-8
Seatar
2r
multiples of a given
veetor
r,
including
negative multiples.
IHnBBHBBHHBBHBB^HEHBHiBI
sz
due
su
cast
su
due north, or
(2) travel
rcach the
veetor
yj
is
r in
sum
all
those quantities
combinations
we
illustrate
head to
tail,
we
how
veetors
call
and
is
not confined to
at right anglcs.
and C, placed
drawn from the original starting point to the final end point.
This is what we mean by adding the veetors A, B, and C. The
order in which veetors are added is of no consequence; thus
successive displacements of an object can be
combined according
is
that
What we mean by
a veetor
it is
we changc the
ing
is
its
means that
direetion.
defined to
added to the
direetion, so that
negative multiplier,
tion
positive multiplier, n,
and changed
n, then
in length
original veetor
it
gives zero.
by the faetor
n.
is
accomplished by
we form
Thus
the veetor
A - B = A
54
if
veetor
B and
is
add
(-B)
to be subtraeted
it
to
A:
from veetor A,
Fig.
2-9
Addilion
and subtraction of
Iwo given vectors.
may be
{as
In Fig. 2-9
we show both
We
veetors.
the
sum and
A B
emphasize the
is
and
A +
B;
combination
is
P\
is
r2
ri2
r 12
[see Fig.
The
(2-10)],
such that
is
to be read as
"one-two" and
is
r,
Fig.
2-10
tion
of the
(i> 2 )
r2
P!
Clearlyr 2
P2
relative to
i
= r 12
is
Construc-
ofone
with re-
55
common
Similarly,
relative
position vector
point
P2
ri
is
position of
r2
Fig.
2-11
(a)
Com-
ponents of a given
vector in two different
rectangular coordi-
by an angular
dis-
placemenl 9 in the
xy plane.
(b)
Com-
ponents of a given
vector in a rectangular coordinate system
and
in
an obligue co-
ordinate system.
is
its
components
this
is
is
its
in a given
coordinate system,
is,
however, an important
we had
a vector
its
A x = Acosa
We know
that
separate angles
'U
is
hoped that
/3
/4cos<3
(tt/2)
>
we have a formalism
this seetion
may
56
In this
axes.
cos
cos 2 /3
cos 27
A = AJ + A v\
=
{A cos d)\
(A cos
;8)j
is
two
vectors.
is
and B,
is 0,
equal to the product of the lengths of the two vectors and the
because
d.
This product
is
conventionally written as
it is
B. Thus
we have
= A B = AB cos d
B we now choose
is
just the
component of A along
the direction
Ax = A
Ay = A
A =
(A-i)i
written as follows:
(A-j)j
statement that
along x-and y:
A = Ax +
Ay\
Forming the
Now
(i
57
The
i,
= A x (i
i)
unit length
both sides of
scalar product of
this
equation with
we have
i)
and
A(i
i)
i)
(j
0,
resolution of vectors
are
and t/2,
respectively.
all
of
Thus
we have a more or
less
in turn.
no
this
above development
further, the
more apparent
if
is interested in relating
different coordinate
vector in
given
one
Its
value becomes
the components of a
Consider, for
systems.
example, the second set of axes (x\ y') shown in Fig. 2-1 1 (a)
they are obtained by a positive (counterclockwise) rotation from
The vector
valid representations:
AIf
AJL
we want
= AJV + A u '
Aj
to find
i')
i'
cos 6
terms of
A(i
Looking
AS
in
the
i'
i'
i')
we
cos f
sin
Hence
A z = A z cos
'
sin
Similarly,
A y = AA-f)
'
+ AJl'f)
/*xCOs(;;
+B +
)
/*COS0
Therefore,
Ay =
'
-A x sin d + A y cos 6
useful
if
a vector
is
to be resolved
shown in Fig. 2-1 (b). The axes are the lines Osi and
Os 2 and the components of the vector A in this system are OE
and OF. If we denote unit veetors along the coordinate direetions
by ei and e 2 we havc
situation
58
A =
siei
we form
we havc
If
s\
S2*2
= A zi +
A\
J2(e2
ei)
= A x (i
ei)
/i(j
ci)
this
.
and
s 2 separately.
It is
and
e 2 are
no longer
or-
e2 )
and the
is
This
it
is
is
surface
is
curved.
As
and
flat,
earth's
poses
the
is
all is well.
But
if
59
(i.e.,
This
Fig.
2-12
Successiue
displacements on a
sphere are not com-
of the displacements
are not small compared to
the radius of
the sphere.
This means, in
it
effect,
tests for
departures from
it
is
can
be used to
of the
making two
successive displacements
on a sphere and use the data to deduce the radius of the sphere.
When we acknowledge that the space of our ordinary experience
is
we look
at
from a different point of view. We recogon the surface of a sphere can actually
be scen as displacements in a three-dimensional world that obeys
the foregoing analysis
a merely two-dimensional
in
to be non-Euclidean.
this point
itself,
is
itself:
But at
Can we
rigorously Euclidean?
is
60
Space,
tirae,
and motion
in
a "hyperspace"
Some
'
have sought
exactly 180.
three-dimensional space has been detected through such observations. The concept that space may, however, be "curved," and
that this curvature might be revealed
if
observations over sufficiently great distances, occupies an important place in thcoretical cosmology.
You may
another
in
geometry
We
(Chapter
in
it
in
shall
very
general
8).
TIME
In the preceding sections
of spatial displacements.
let
us very
tions of
men philosophers,
scientists,
so.
every one of
us.
We know, in
some elemental
sense,
what time
is.
'Kari Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) was one of the outstanding mathemaIn the originality and range of his work he has never been
surpassed, and probably never equaled. He delved deeply into astronomy
ticians of all time.
and geodesy and was perhaps the first to recognize the possibility of a nonEuclidean geometry for space. See E. T. Bell's essay about him in The World
of Mathemalics (J. R. Newman, ed.), Simon and Schuster, New York, 1956.
61
Time
'
human thought
the world of
particularly, the
those to which
To
gencrally,
if
one
may
in physical science
it is
Nevertheless,
and
tries to
to time.
is
we
events or situations
the
We
almost subconsciously
line
But
we have
the rest
is
in terms of direct
an
knowledge
intellectual construction.
is
Thus, although
it
may
is
It is
phenomenon
make
it
successive intervals in
How
do we know
is
truly cqual?
The
No
fact is that
clock
is
we
don't;
perfect, but
we
better
in the
and
watch, however,
is
62
N. J.,
tells
more nearly
equal.
found to be
Human
is
doctor observes
itself irregular
when compared
1947.
more
critically
is
we approach
that
We
flow existed.
observing
its
the
the remarkable
measurement of time as
if this
we can quote
its
steady
And
in
using
it
interval with a
when we proceed
then,
we introduce
time,
the symbol
and
treat
as a continuous
r,
/,
and so on.
tities
Our choice
and standards.
is
and reproducibility
and present
state
in
of this process
is
briefly
summarized below.
Length
The
the
meter
was
introduced,
along with the rcst of the metric system, in the drive for
ten-millionth (10
in
France
scientific
But
it
proved im-
on
the
most
line
to
krypton 86.
63
units of length
to
part in 10
or better
there
is
the
measured,
in
ordinary sources.
on observing
if
is
that the
measurements depend
development of
lasers
of over 100 m.
some
It
wash out
1 ft.
The
up
and
at
The reason
to path lengths
Time
The
it
significantly apart
nomenon and
assumirrg that
it
same length.
The Standard of time the second
intervals of the
the
earth's rotation.
mean
solar day
It
was
first
i.e.,
the average,
defined
from noon to noon or midnight to midnight at a given placc on the earth's surfacc. This is an awkward
definition, because the length of the day, as measured from noon
over
to noon,
is
not a constant;
it
and its distance from the sun are continuously changing during
one complete orbit. A logically more satisfaetory definition of
the second can be based
on the
sidereal
day the
day
it
has gradually
come
to be rccognized, thanks to
Some
Standard
64
is
and
logical grounds.
on
its
axis is exactly
abrupt variations.
to be lengthening
(A
year 1900.
tropical year
is
We
equinox.
"latehes
on"
poses.)
It
how one
is
it
defines
fre-
time as defined by
keep step at
all
celestial
atom?
Does
interest involved.
1938 by P. A.
M.
It
was suggested
itself,
i.e.,
about 10 10
years.
If this
were
would,
in the
true,
is
how
these basic
especially,
mea-
precise
Dirac, a British theorelical physicist, was one of the leaders in the development of quantum thcory around 1926-1930. He was awarded the Nobel
prize for this work.
65
'
which astronomical observations over the centuries have contributed data of a refinement that almost passes belief.
SPACE-TIME GRAPHS
The primary data
in
an astronomer's logbook, or a
photograph such as
Fig.
21.
In general
mensions of space.
may
many
Fig.
2-13
if
the motion
is
along a straight
Example
of a space-lime graph
for a one-dimensional motion.
the
(From
PSSCfilm,
M.
Hafner, Edueation
Deiselopment Center
Time
'For further reading see, for instance, An Introduction to the Physics of Mass,
Length and Time, by N. Fealher, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh,
1959. On the matler of time in parlicular, which probably holds the greatest
1968.
66
'
rule, thc
time
is re-
way
is
It
it
conveys directly, in a
motion.
minimum
from the
distance
identify points of
a given
maximum and
which the
VELOCITY
The
that of velocity.
It is
The
vcctor.
motion
is
quantitative measure of
is
one of the
is
and
based on
Has it ever struck
have invcntcd names for the units
a deriued quantity,
time.
all sorts
it,
In nature
we have not
that
directly rccognizablc as a
is
length or time,
magnitude
c
It
we do
find a
itself,
things
seem to be quite
thc
(2.997925
(Seafaring
0.000001)
empty space:
10 8 m/sec
c.
And
in a
comparable way,
Mach number
is
used
sound
in air.
But
this
devcloping.
67
Velocity
is
in
The measurement of a
two measure-
and
(ri, Ij)
and
(r 2 ,
2 )-
of what we can
direction
T2U
Vav
t%
However,
this
/l
average velocity
Sometimes we may
interesting quantity.
versus
linc,
(let
not, in
is
most
cases, a very
find that a
graph of s
is
a straight
and
is
the same.
But there
is
problem:
much more
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
Richard
P.
Feynman
for speeding at
tells
who
is
caught
"That's impossible,
sir,
was traveling
The lady's objection does not convince us (or the police omcer);
we understand that what is at issue is not the persistence of a
uniform motion for a long time but the property of the motion
as measured over a time interval that might be arbitrarily short.
In order to talk about this in specific terms, imagine that alongside a straight section of a
point, P,
we have placed
details,
his
68
field theory.
Fig.
2-14
Arrange-
of a car as
it
passes
the point P.
On
The
each pole
movie camera
is
an
electric
face,
A car comes along the road; the cameras are set running and
photographic records are developed.
of a race. Each film
the front
pole.
will
is
more or
let
range of distance
Ax
and
centered on P.
Now
smooth curve
values of As.
We
=
is
We
(a)
Eual-
by extrapolation
to
of a graph of
against As.
instantaneous velocity
ds/dt by extrapolation
WAt =
of a
graph ofAs/At
against At.
69
it
can
intervals A/, as
As m
As/At
2-15
Unless the
extrapolate
Fig.
construct a graph, as
in Fig.
As/A/ for As
multiple of 10
shown
less
called A;.
the
the photofinish
We now
It is like
Instantaneous velocity
is
shown
in Fig.
2- 15 (b);
2-16
Fig.
is
measured in whatever
each
graph
itself
terms,
is
velocity,
A Q and Aq,
evaluated
shrunk to zero.
is
notation, which
in
speaks for
we write
itself,
to the mathe-
in this case, of
instantaneous velocity o
=
dt
lim
(2-5)
A-oA/
The
synonym
quantity ds/dl, a
is,
in
mathe-
first
geometrical terms,
graph of s versus
it
at a particular value of
In
t.
t.
2-16
is
in
is
order.
The graph
e. g.,
in
as in
Thus
alone.
there
is,
in general,
we mean simply
(Q 2
<2i)/(<72
<7i)-
In
this ratio,
is
its
own
characteristic units
e.g.,
same
If the
we
= hm
Ar
= dt
dt
In Fig. 2-17(a)
Clearly,
(2-6)
ArO Ar
if
wc
we
indicate
70
entails.
is
tangent
Fig.
2-17
diagram
(a) Vector
to define
(b) Instan-
path.
With
this
is
is
made
The speed
thus,
by
is
The
The spced
is
o that figures
the velocity;
it
may
which of course
direetion of
Even
if
is
motion
we
in the
one-dimensional case.
line,
will
be necessary
Fig.
2-18
if
on
the line.
71
Instantancous velocity
(b)
Corresponding
on the
line itself.
because
It is,
motion from
a straight-line
this
it
We
larger context.
can become
displacement vcctor Ar
the position vcctor
in general, in
r,
This then
origin O.
is,
its
scem
[Fig. 2-18(b)]
although
may
it
less abrupt.
It
be very convcnient,
in the
may
necessary and
case of straight-line
itself, this is
certainly not
is
is
just
Thus
if
one
is
from object
R =
The
at r!
r2
to object 2
Vm
given by
is
- n
rate of changc of
to object
is
is
and wc have
-
dt
dt
dt
i.e.,
V =
v2
~7)
(2
vi
is
1.
that at
some
shown
in Fig. 2-19(a).
72
Fig.2-19
(a)Paths
ship
(b)
Path of
relative to ship
do not
collide even
move.
The paths of
initial
The answer
distance?
B, intersect at a point P.
to this question
stiek to the
A and
will
if
we
is
not at
all elear if
deseribe things
we
from the
we
brings
to rest, as
it
ship B, relative to A,
and V],
the ships
as
is
shown
is
in Fig.
miss
by
A by
So now we
line shown, as
the distance
to the line of V.
is
The
2-1 9(b).
AN,
The time
at
which
BN divided
this elosest
It will
from A
approach oecurs
sight,
73
you
will
know
Relative velocity
that
and
it
relative
motion
it is
pointing.
in particular
of
its relative
first
own
accuracy for several thousand years. But the question has always
been
how
Fig.
2-20
(a)
Palh
ofob-
servalions on Mars.
{.Both
E.
M.
diagrams after
Rogers,
Princeton Uniuersity
Press, Princeton,
N. J., 1960.)
IA
is
that naked-eye
astronomy
is,
stars.
century B.c.)
moon
'
is still
all
first
we need
if
place in terms
with
sphere
its
own
It is
the
celestial
them with
to find
shown
axis of rotation
(cf.
Fig. 2-2).
in Fig. 2-20.
the projections,
on the
celestial sphere,
of orbital motions of
various kinds.
(geocentric)
or
sun-centered
(heliocentric)
solar
system.
The most
is
Not one
of us, without
any
other way, and the ancient descriptions, such as the biblical one
in Genesis, are entirely justifiable in these terms.
It
who
was the
built this
and
also
Chapter
8.
M.
Physical Science,
lis
MIT
Press,
Cambridge,
astronomy.
75
Fig.
2-21
in the
(a)
{b)
C follows a
P moues on
described
be
The motion of a
planet,
is
closely
fairly
an approximately
year, around the earth, E, as
however, is compound. It can
center.
reflection
in his great
it
the
travels uniformly
travels in
extra circle
motions,
is
if
path that can have backward loops as shown. Precisely the same
result
would be obtained
circles.
If
it
we
onto the
celestial
this
earth,
and
We
tion that
path,
is
shown
which
in Fig. 2-20.
carries the
76
(Verify this.)
distance,
This
we interchanged
projecting
tilting
if
is
known
as the ecliptic.
circle
little.
To
fit
it is
neces-
sary to choose appropriate values for the ratio of the radii of the
two
circles
of each.
It is
and
in the
is
sidereal year.
we now regard
as the truer
picture.
same radius
the
planet, P, travels
at the center, as in
around a
travel
circle that
has
Then
the
circle,
if
of radius equal
to that of the primary circle in Fig. 2-21 (a), the relative positions
velocities of
and
We
before.
E and P
and
in the
The reason
two
for
two
It is this
associate the
in
his
("On
was much
suggestion that
who from
other observations
knew
no
first
distant
it
is).
There
is
was developed
interesting, by the
in quantitative detail
before Copernicus.
It is
Here
"For
is
a translation of
all
change
his
in position
own
which
seen
is
due to a motion
moved equally
same
things,
For when
no motion
'From Arthur
New
77
relatively to the
Berry,
Publications,
York, 1961.
Given the
Ptolemaic scheme,
may seem
it
much
when
its possibility
It
we have been
system,
solar
numerous auxiliary
introduce
were driven to
nicus
and
circular
itself
of the
of
all celestial
the
laws
more
We
shall
fully, in
come back
Chaptcr
to
13.
PROBLEMS
2-1
travels
30 miles northeast
in a
SSW
straight line,
a.
ship
making a countcrclockwise
Find the x and
eastward, y northward) and its
direetion
(a
y coordinates of
its final
posilion (x
2-2
The
ABcosOah, where 6 mi
(a) By expressing
nents, show that
cos d a u
(b)
is
B,
is
equal to
the
relation
show
and (R,
6\, <p\)
compo-
A,B Z
veetors,
A Z BX + AyBy
AB
By using
two
sin 0i sin
between the
on a sphere
$2 cos (^2
is
given by
<pi)
(Notc that the distance between the two points as measured along the
78
expressed in radians.
2-3
New
(a)
(41
York, U.S.A.
Take an
origin
pole and an
The
earth's
(b)
Compare
(c)
Sydney.
You
flight.
this,
directly
it
on a
2-4
(a) Starting
a eastward and
then through an
of the point
is
that
coordinates are
its final
x2
Verify that
= R2
final position
through an angle
a northward,
/3
then changes
along a great
circle that
out eastward.
starts
Show
(c)
that
As 2 = 2 2 (sin/3
sin
(d)
(1)
is
As between
the
end
given by
a cos P) 2
result,
of
position
(b)
initial
x R, y = 0, z = 0, show
R cos a cos /3, R sin a cos /3, and R sin 0.
taken to correspond to
in
the text
The approximation
1000 miles.
cos 6 s 1
(Put
2
d /2
Ra = Rp =
will
be found
useful.)
2-5
If
planet,
what
To
To
(a)
(b)
2-6
The
of
its
radius?
day at noon,
He
79
also
the Nile,
knew
Problcms
mouth of
and observed
He
lived at Alex-
that on
midsummer
^-AleKandria
7.2
Equator
/
/
/ 500
milesi\
sun
Alexandria saw the sun as being directly overhead at the same date
this
What was
2-7
It
answer?
is
repre-
(i.e.,
a nucleon diameter.
of the universe
2-8
in
particle
fiecting walls at
is
is
and x =
x =
a.
upon each
i>2
collides with
an
v/2. Construct
and after collision
(a) For the case that
moves
upon reaching
is
foi).
at
with velocity
velocity
it
reflection
reduced by a factor/(i.e.,
2-9
limits
(b) If
results.
x = xo
+v (along x)
= with
at /
velocities.
(b)
2-10
tion
is
r(f)
particle
given by
(a)
xi
moves along
x =
the curve
= Ax
upon impact.
such that
its
posi-
Bt.
+ yy
80
We
(=
/.
light
may be understood by
purely kinematic
light takes
the shortest
medium
point
2,
it
medium
1 be vi and
go from point A
in
x.
let
i?2-
takes light to
to
Given that
vi
where the
and
c/rti
n's are
V2
known
c/ri2
refraction:
i sinfli
/2sin02
the
It is
is
10
of a certain
same time
ship
is
50
km east and
40
At
is
Draw
(a)
and
relative to A.
(b) If the ships continue to
is
to
is /.
plane
fiies
occur ?
it
a straight course
V relative
from
air.
speed v
to
is
(a)
B and
move with
if
to the
a wind of
Along
the line
from A
to B.
At an angle d
to this line.
is
of the wind.
2-14
ship
is
offshore, at speed V.
81
Problems
is
< V) sets
q^*
*
-o=
-f:
Port
(a)
Show
point a distance
D(V 2
must
start
(H ini: Draw
a vector diagram to show the vclocity of the cutter as seen from the
ship.)
(b) Tf the cutter starts
out at the
latest possible
moment, where
Bulge rotates
to keep pace
with
it
on
its
axis in
moon-
amount
sidereal
is
the
mean
day ?
(b)
That
is,
in this
on
is
longer than
Show
2-16
The
orbital radii of
min
tide
moonsee
(60
min =
cor-
solar day
is
an ocean
the figure.)
solar day).
moon
stars.
successive days
rotation
noon
1.52 times
.88
how
with time as seen from the earth, assuming that the orbits of
planets
lie in
(b)
the
same
plane.
Compare your
ecliptic (the
all
three
tilted
own
by about
2-17
(a)
What methods can you suggest for finding the distance from
moon (without using radar or space fiight) ?
Moon
82
(b)
ago,
same
days to
hr.
moon
itself
Use
and
by the earth
moon
2%).
The moon
takes about 29
moon's
is
about
distance.
Moon
87.
What
result
would
this
really is
on earth -
Problems
found
Observer
83
imply?
At present
it is
investigate
and
to demonstrate
may
be).
Two New
Sciences (1638)
Accelerated motions
ACCELERATION
from THn purely
of motion
velocity
is
the
little
se (kinematics) to
This
is
Again we
shall
in
the
first
instance in the
found to be a
is
the
same
is
we
at all
times and equal to the slope of the graph as evaluated from any
two points on
it.
If,
by
in Fig.
3-1 (b),
a limiting process:
instantaneous acceleration a
dv
A?
a,_o
Ad
i-
lim
..
,.
(3-1)
di
Thus
the acceleration
'The units
in
which
is
the
first
the acceleration of
a car
is
is
But
in
the
85
uniformly acceleraled
motion. (b) Motion
with varying acceleration.
In the indicated
respect to time.
we
however,
If,
wish to
tie
our definition of
wc can
write
it
/:
(3-2)
In general,
we must be ready
so
we previously considered
neighboring instants, as
in Fig. 3-2,
to a state-
Av
dv
'-^oAt-di-dfi
As
reason
far as kinematics
why we should
by
itself is
stop here.
is no good
and evaluate
concerned, there
We could
define
is
and acceleration.
you have some prior
You may
fcel, cspccially
v(/
if
we have gone
A/)
86
Fig.
3-2
bot/i
Small change of a
Accclcratcd motions
familiarity
mistake about
But make no
The notion
it;
that
that point
antiquity. Indeed,
it is
who contended
that
if
an object
l
was moving it could not be said to be anywhere.
If you want to test your own mastery of these ideas, try
explaining to someone how an object that is at a certain point
(i. e.,
we have
shows an example of
in Fig. 3-3,
this.
The
and acceleration.
variations of velocity
sequence of diagrams
a straight-line
in
this
doing
The
basic definitions of
From Eq.
this.
(3-1)
we
change of velocity Av
by the equation
Av = aAt
Of course, "approximately"
that the smaller we choose
is
At to be, the
In Fig. 3-4(a)
graphical presentation.
celeration versus time
it
more nearly
we show
a graph of ac-
t.
From
strip, the
there
top of which
it is
a short step
tributions.
is
obtained by summing
(We
also negative.)
'On a
all
We
87
The
motion
made
quanlum mechanies
and the velocity of a
analysis of straight-line
is
moving
two given
Av an
values of
is
Again we resort to a
v.
(a)
Fig.
3-3
Sel ofre-
of
(a) posilion,
(b) velocity,
and
(c) acceleralion.
This
is
u2
sum
of
all
t.
01
wherc we write
sidered as a
(3-3)
aU) di
a(t) to
show
specific function
evaluated up to
some
of time.
indefinite
time
00
is
/,
Most
starting
.
is
to be con-
is
Thus we put
(3-4)
fl(0 di
88
(or at
some
/.
Accelcratcd motions
(b)
(a)
Fig.
3-4
o/a graph of
of velocity-time graph
to find
displacement.
arately; v
requires
is
some knowledge of
or
of the
specific value of v at
of v against
(which
may
may
itself
we can proceed
It is
represented
and
the ordinates at
S2
si
axis,
t:
(3-5)
v(t) dt
up to
most usual to evaluate the integral from / =
an arbitrary time, and again a constant of integration the
must be supplied
position s o at t =
Again
it is
Very
Si)
(3-6)
v(t) dt
often, of course,
it
is
possible to choose Sq
0,
but one
should never forget that the area included under the velocitytime graph gives us only the change of position.
The
a
first
or a
in Fig. 3-5(a).
89
The
If
is
the acceleration
analysis of straight-line
In the
motion
Fig.
3-5
(a) Veloc-
(b)
Velocity-lime graph
for a constant
(positice) acceleration.
is
given by
is
The magnitude of
appropriate.
Fig. 3-5(b)
celeration
a = slope =
do
we took
a as given, then
we would
DO
The area
/ dt
Jo
(3-7)
at
Hence
s
so
Combining
s
so
vot
the last
Dot
\{o
Uo)l
two equations, we
get
\at 2
result of evaluating the
so
(dq
+ at) dt
=
=
Dot
+
+
at:
(3-8)
%at
./o
It is
the time, by
o2
90
2a(s
so)
Accelerated motions
all explicit
(3-8).
reference to
This gives us
(3-9)
lv
Kinematic
equations
=
=
=
+ at
vq
(3-10a)
+ 2a(s
+o +
useful,
it
(3-10b)
so)
\at 2
as a group:
for
(3-1 Oc)
accelerated
should be remembered
correspond to the
is
Later
there.
less
may
we
on
free
do not
facts,
become
celeration to
g, really
For low
it
which the
varies
in
problems
in
kinematics
problems on motion
will
e.g.,
+&t) =
v(t)
+a(/)Ar
s(/+A/) =
s(l)
+ v(t)At
v(t
s(t)
so
+!>(') A'
dynamical processes go on
prime reason for
is
this is that
is
and acceleration into their components in a rectangular coordinate system and then proceed to
work with the separate components. Under these conditions, as
we have mentioned before, it is not necessary to make use of
vectors of position, velocity
91
The
anaiysis of straight-line
we know
motion
that
we
are dealing
becomes
It
sufficient to
choose an
made
we must
of a particular problem
Which we choose
negative.
is
stick to
it.
Directed quantities
e.g.,
the unstraight
will
line
matically
of the
moving along a
known
as
tells
In other words,
origin.
comes out
the answer
If
it
it is
is
inject
Example.
10
will
acceleration a
and position
do
in the
=
x
it
15
for you.
direction.
its
velocity
We have
=
=
o(0
d(8)
oo
+ at
15
= -25
(-5)(8)
m/sec
Also
x(t)
x(8)
Thus at
= x +
= 10 +
ial 2
(15)(8)
|(-5)(8) 2
8 sec
much
is
shown
information
sees at once
t
sees
how
is
in
is
The whole
creasingly negative x.
- -30 m
provided at a glance
in these
how
the
maximum
its
diagrams.
3 sec and at
its initial
One
value.
its initial
sign,
original displacement (x
how
One
up to
Notice
at
6 sec
particle
when
has
92
Acceleratcd motions
m
Fig.
3-6
(a) Veloc-
40
30
of ini-
20
and con-
10>
sianl (negatiue)
acceleration.
(b) Posiiion versus
/-20
plays
many
various details
fit
worthy of note.
And
seeing
how
the
basic kinematics.
How
velocity at
does not
tell
sequence whatsoever
For example,
from
93
rest at
if
an
A comment
how
lndeed,
it
of no con-
initial
is
falling freely
on exlraneous roots
we have
O and
We may
h.
its initial
from
it
The most
i.e.,
for
Eq. (3-10c).
is
identical in
both
cases.
is
the equation
Mathematically, this
the time
is
or
rest,
is
a quadratic equation
is
given and
to be found.
Because
initial
may
not be valid.
To
Suppose we
x(t)
Putting
i
10
x =
6t
15?
we
0,
x =
0.
We have
at which
V 13
6.6 sec or
0.6 sec.
Figure
3-6(b) makes quite apparent the origin of these two roots and
may be
quite unjustified.
it
10
We
might,
if
direction with
But that
"Oh
yes, I
and then
its initial
velocity of
0.
asked, say:
t
x = Oat* = 0.6
recognize that
should
not,
it
One
reality.
asking, in the
way we have
first
a clear
The matter
In quantum mechanics,
were
an electron
positive
having no physical
94
After
all,
Accelerated motions
Fig.
3-7
Idealized
parabolic trajectory
absence of
air resistance.
states
and was
the existence
predicted
of positrons and
which
other "antimatter"
particles.
TRAJECTORY PROBLEMS
One
is
IN
TWO DIMENSIONS
that of free
fail
It
provides an
illus-
may be
not present.
Systems (1632),
We
initial
may be
first
recognized this
speed v
analyzed as
at
an angle
fact.
if
Galileo's insight
and
intellectual sophistication.
95
They
above a
level plain.
motion
is
to the actual
g (=
9.8
is
m/sec 2 ) downward.
the motion
of air resistance
effects
Later
we
Let us
now
How
1.
long
What
What
2.
3.
We
see
shall
is
how
is
the range
is
the velocity
3-8
=
-
t'o
ground?
upward
(y)
we
and to the
righl (x).
The
values of the
components, and
in Fig. 3-8.
separale horizontal
pt
striking the
the acceleration
Fig.
upon
directions to be
and
initial
shall consider
and
vertical components.
cos e
*-
wmm,
Horizontal
< ! ox
"l
Component
'o
COS
W,,
cos
Vertical
v sin o
e-0
u
H (unknown)
ai
(always)
Component
li
(minus because it is
below the origin of the
coordinate system
g (acceleration due to
gravity)
(a)
96
Accelerated motions
(b)
[A note about
to gravity
32 ft/sec
The
in order here.
g.
acceleration due
In this
book we
shall
is,
is
That
signs
represented by a vector,
is
This
vector A.
or
convention in which
the symbol
is
if
the
y com9.8 m/sec 2 ). In
direction as positive.
set
We
equal to +g.
y component of g must be
calculation,
we
direction, but
on
we
depend
this.]
We
Figs. 3-7
1.
now
return
and 3-8:
How
long
We know
is
as applied to
motion
in the
vo y t
+ \ay
direction,
if
we take Eq.
we know
(3-10c),
everything
i.e.,
-h =
We
(do sin 8
)t
\{-g)t 2
relevant one.
2.
What
is
ha **
i.e.,
R =
In this
culation
97
we
(do cos
0oV
1.
obtained in cal-
What
3.
the velocity
is
The components of
the value of
Vz
vx
do cos Ba
Then from
may
striking the
=
vv =
oy
azt
4-
ground?
upon
io
1.
Oyt
"o sin do
( g)'
components we have
these
Magnitude of
Direction of v
tan d
(v z
vu 2 ) l/2
ov
ox
downward below
tion pointing
we can
calculate the
represents a direc-
be negative, because
will
the horizontal.)
magnitude of o 2
directly
Alternatively,
as follows:
=
=
o 2
vy 2
Or
v
oo 2 cos 2 0o
2a u y
sin 2 6
2(-*)(-A)
Therefore,
v2
The
oy
direction of v
sin d
2gh
in
vacuum
cast sharp
On
(initially
moving horizontally)
lem of the
problem.
last section,
It
fail vertically
at such speeds?
would be just
Figure 3-9(a)
we take
prob-
the horizontal
98
Accelerated molions
^
.
*-
Fig.
3-9
tory
ofaloms
vacuum
with
(a)
(a) Trajec-
^^^^.
in
an
inisial
horizontal velocity.
The
vertical displace-
ment
is greatly
gerated.
exag-
{b) Para-
bolic trajectory
of
atoms in an atomic
(b)
>
and
slils
Lt
>3
Oven
to reach the
detector
lm- *j
D.
start
v,
lm
- D
we have
Horizontal component:
X =
GQ xt
%ax t 2
Therefore,
L =
vt
Vertical
y
y
=
=
component:
v 0y t
+ \ayt~
K-*)'
gives us
-g L
this result to
sec (2 msec)
and we should
have
The
2
2
\500/
10
-5
is
it
99
Frcc
fali
effect,
of individual atoms
ment was
as
shown schematically
Fig.
in
al.
Their arrange-
Atoms of
3-9(b).
oven
slits
in
and
beam was
mm
wide.
collimated by two
level, as
shown. The
slits
detected by
mm
across.
As
have a small
initial
In the absence of any gravitational deflection, the intensity distribution across the
beam should be
Some
results are
moving so fast that they are scarcely deflected at all; others are
moving so slowly that their deflection is many times greater
than the most probable deflection (which corresponds to the
maximum of the intensity distribution). The complete curve
must reflect a characteristic distribution of speeds of the atoms
in the
We
on the
pattern but
comparison
mass =
39)
move on
it
the
136 (1946).
K. atom, striking the hot wire, becomes ionized by losing
nearby electrode at a negative potential with respect to the
wire will collect these positive ions and the resultant current flow can be
detected with a sensitive electrometer or galvanometer. If a thin straight wire
2
neutral
an electron.
Cs or
is
used,
(e.g.,
100
Accelerated motions
Oven
* Detector current
Slit/f
Vertical line
along which
detector travels
(a)
10 _
'E
.O
<0
"S
l/l
4)
*-
+-"
/\
c
*-,
'
Widthof
Width of
detector
\_;
>>!-_
03
0.4
Deflection,
mm
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Def lection,
mm
(b)
IPflJPI^^H^^^JIP^flU^^^^^^H
F/g. 3-10
(a) Magnified detail of geometrical image
formed by atoms moving in siraiglu lines through Iwo
slits.
by the detector
in
any given
position.
average
much
faster
is
an expression of the
fact that
result that
As
133) at
we quote without
the thermal velocities, let us look at the peak of the cesium curve.
It is
by about
101
Free
fail
0.11
mm.
Now
in
the arrangement
of individual atoms
shown
in
beam
Fig.
3-9(b),
A B = BC =
if
v*
Hence
1/2
L'L = lm and y =
1.1
10~ 4 m we
get,
300 m/sec.
temperature.
'
We
cite
it
vacuum
it is,
laws of free
is
in fact,
fail
air.
if it is
possible to
an immensely more
difficult
way.
completely
swamp
all
is
a rather complicated
IN
affair.
FREE FALL
moving object
near the earth's surface, the horizontal component of velocity
always remains constant and the vertical acceleration always
has the same value, g (downward). It may be interesting to point
In the idealized description of motion of a freely
1)
N. B. Johnson and
102
Accelerated motions
Fig.
3-11
"Universal
and a
given horizontal
component of velocity.
beiween poinis
C and
D corresponds lo
the
about
this,
but
it
can be useful
in helping
in-
For example, it
between the two atomic-beam paths
relation
i.
is
Then the
obtained by adding to v
shown.
illus-
vertical
(downward) vector a At as
motion has
same
is
the
This
its
end point on
value.
Yet another aspect of this same free-fall problem is illusby the venerable demonstration of the hunter and the
trated
Fig,
3-12
Array of
successive velocity
eralion
is
constant
under gravity
in the
(This type
of diagram
is
known
as a hodograph.)
103
in.
frce fail
aA/
Fig.
3-13
bullet
Ihe
placements in
monkey
lets
monkey.
from
The
and
monkey undergo egual gravilational disegual limes and are doomed to meet if ihe
ihe
directly at the
makes no
gun fired.
go as soon as he sees
This
is
monkey
as
it
hangs
it
path as shown.
monkey
begin falling at
the same
it
It
and the
bullet
Thus the
and monkey
receive the
2
same contributions, \gt
to their
Thus
monkey's
fail
is
bound
to be reached at the
value of g;
it
it,
104
Accelerated motions
Quite
Fig.
3-14
(a)
in
a uniform
circular motion.
(c)
Vector diagram
motion
if
in a circular
and acceleration
path
to the
is
some constant
at
is
speed.
uniform
to
rate.
and
r,
its
The instantaneous
magnitude v
is
[Fig.
3-14(a)].
directions of r
A0 =
is
is
v A/,
velocity
constant.
is
its
from
From
to
Pz
direction at a
we can
distance traveled
problem of
In this case,
readily
A/, the
the
two corresponding
oAt
105
Uniform
circular
this angle
motion
is
diagram
in
which Av
As A0
is
M).
vanishingly small, sin(A0/2) becomes in-
made
is
A0/2
distinguishable from
itself (in
radian measure).
Thus we
'
can put
= 2usin(A0/2)-x;A0
|Av|
But &d
v M/r, so
|Av|
we have
M/r
o2
and
direction
its
circular path
This
is
given by
(3-12)
is
the
called
is
|a|
is
acceleration
(literally,
"center-
any motion
that
is
IN
component
itself.
POLAR COORDINATES
and other
results
of more general
of some
starting point
a center of force
is
if
and the
unit vector e r
(3-13)
re r
We now consider
a change of
The
product of
its
length, or
from a change of
its
direction, or
from
g-,0.
106
We
this
Accclcraled motions
Fig.
3-15
(a) Vector
form
(b)
uni-
circular motion.
Changes
in the
unit vectors t,
and
how Ae,
et
is
and Ae
parallel to
is
parallel
a combination of both.
change of
which
is
a short time At
r in
Ar
shown
direction of this
Its
drawn
at
magnitude, as
is
from
The
is
right angles to e r as
The
change (Ar)
clear
is
rAdee
we then have
the
result
(Circular motion)
If
we
= dB
dt
dt
(3-14a)
dt
(measured
in rad/sec),
we have
(Circular motion)
length
is
by
expression of
ce
(3-14b)
result
Although
its
with r
wree
its
r itself.
rate of
In fact,
we can
d6
(3-15a)
ues
direction of
107
Velocity
shown,
r ; it
it
is
ej.
If the
change of
and accclcration
in
is
e$ is in the
polar coordinates
-** =
| (e.)-
-we
(3-15b)
is
in rectan-
we
If
and
to
both
(Uniform circular
d (e)
,
a =
...
motion)
cor
= -co2 re r =
er
di
(3-16)
Thus the
by Eq. (3-12)
result expressed
together with
its
correct direction.
restricting ourselves to
If, still
out automatically,
falls
we
If
motion
in
circle,
we remove
component
(Arbitrary circular
radial
circular
component of a
motion
do
dd
e o e
di
dt
motion)
The
Starting
also.
from Eq.
we have
the
is
(since dd/dt
by a transverse component,
same
a.
v/r
as
,.
,_
(3-17)
we obtained
), but
it
is
for uniform
now
joined
Thus we have
{_-r=r
ae
do
do)
di
dt
(where
co
=r d-6
(3-18)
dfi
dd/dt)
PROBLEMS
3-1
At
building.
an object
At the time
/o
is
released
a second
from
object
rest at the
is
top of a
tali
point.
(a)
108
Accelerated motions
glo
/ is
given by
1T
How
the result.
3-2
first
is set
at the
Distance (cm)
Time
in
photo
0.56
0.84
1.17
1.57
2.00
2.53
3.08
3.71
4.39
by the equation s
3-3
these data, to
to)
Taking
a constant acceleration.
the car
%a(t
on
at
is
(a)
x =
What
m at =
/
2
,
and
show
a sloping floor
is
x =
sec,
find /o-
known
to have
at / = 0, it is observed
and at x = 4 m at / = 2 sec.
and
initial
that
to
(b) Plot the position of the car as a function of time up
/
4 sec.
(c)
When
is
the car at
x = 2
m?
an illegal water-filled
window. Having lightning reflexes, he
observes that the balloon took 0.15 sec to pass from top to bottom of
his window a distance of 2 m. Assuming that the balloon was re3-4
The
how
window was
the
guilty party?
3-5
next page
109
Problems
is
(a)
and 65
(b)
Sketch a graph of
(c)
From
celeration
3-6
at
25, 45,
sec.
had
y as a function
of
for the
its
greatest positive
and negative
whole
trip.
values.
In 1965 the world records for women's sprint races over different
60
(a)
Make an
7.2 sec
100
yd
10.3 sec
100
11.2 sec
seconds.
(b)
The graph
will
show you
can be well
fitted
by
l>,
If this description
Set
v.
a,
is
up
and t that
what
correct,
fit
the de-
is
the dis-
tance in meters traveled by the sprinters before they reach their steady
velocity?
Two cars are traveling, one behind the other, on a straight road.
Each has a speed of 70 ft/sec (about 50 mph) and the distance between them is 90 ft. The driver of the rear car decides to overtake the
2
car ahead and does so by accelerating at 6 ft/sec up to 100 ft/sec
3-7
(about 70
110
mph)
after
which he continues
Acceleratcd motions
he
is
90
ft
How
car.
coming in
and end of
this
operation?
If
a third
and
(If
you are a
3-8
how
note of
driver, take
In Paradise Lost,
Book
I,
is.)
fail
of Vulcan
To Noon
he
from Noon
fell,
to
M om
from
dewy Eve,
setting Sun
(It
was
(9.8
m/sec 2 )
can be ignored
If
What would
the fact
Heaven and
3-9
particle
moves
in a vertical
its
(horizontal)
and y
(vertical) coordinates at
/,
sec
x,
10- 2
10~ 2
y,
4.914
4.054
5.000
4.000
5.098
3.958
(u x
= Ax/At,
etc), calculate
(a)
The x and
The
to 2
10
acceleration vector.
[similar to Fig. 3-9(b)] shows a parabolic atomicvacuum, passing through two narrow slits, a distance L apart on the same horizontal level, and traveling an addiVerify that the atoms
tional horizontal distance L to the detector.
3-10
beam
(a)
The figure
trajectory in
111
Problems
below the
first slit,
such
Oven
*.
L/
that
>>
gL 2/v 2 where u
is
L.)
through two
slits
component of velocity
initial vertical
3-11
maximum
obtained at a
is
first slit?
the theoretical
at the
initial
speed
of 45 to the horizontal,
firing angle
5 (where 5 can be
and furthermore that the ranges for angles 45
any angle < 45) are equal to one another. Verify these results if you
maximum
at the
3-12
Wall
same
instant
is
half
what
it
is
back over the head of the thrower, as shown in the figure. When
above the ground and 4
leaves the thrower's hand, the ball is 2
from the
wali,
and has
i>ox
i>o
How
10 m/sec.
4m
3-13
A man
a with
at
on a smooth
stands
He
the horizontal.
hillside that
(a)
Show that,
down
2v
(b)
sin(0
if
air resistance
it
far
behind the
10 m/sec 2 .)
at a distance j
initial
speed vo
figure).
+ a) cos 8
g cos 2 <x
Hence show
value of s
Tmn*
is
obtained with
(Use calculus
112
would be
if
t-'o
(1
45
a/2 and
is
sina)
g COS2 *
if
you
likc, but
Accelerated motions
it is
not necessary.)
and
a, the biggest
given by
3-14
A baseball
is hit
is
ft
actually cannot),
implied by these
3-15
cm
initial
that
speed would be
What
(a)
is
hand
be-
What
(b)
marked 4
the point
0.)
on the
sec
and
it
passes
dial ?
( 10 m/sec 2 ):
The acceleration toward
multiples of g
(a)
on
The
The
(b)
(c)
acceleration of an electron
on
acceleration of a point
of 26
in.
diameter, traveling at 25
3-17
particle
r cos
r sin
0,
(the
first
moves
in
mph.
a plane;
its
x =
a proton at
The
(d)
the earth.
moving around
a speed of about 2
orbit of the
moon toward
acceleration of the
and y = r
(r, 0),
where
sin 6,
and
Calculate a z and a y as the time derivatives of r cos
where both r and B are assumed to depend on /.
(a)
respectively,
components
in polar
coordinates
are given by
ar = az cos
= ax sin
+
6
au
sin 6
a cos 6
and
0j,
from
(a)
3-18
x =
particle oscillates
0.05 sin(5/
tt/6),
where x
(a)
What
are
(b)
Make
a drawing to
its
is
in meters
and
in sec.
and acceleration at t = 0?
show this motion as the projection of a
velocity
Using
the position
through the
113
(b), find
how long it
is,
through
Problems
//
seems clear
to
me
that
broad,
Scientific
Thought (1923)
as
we
in
More
But
was
to learn about
does not
this
on an object
than that, he
the muscular
We
puli.
shall
initially
It
push or a
we
look at forces
and
in
veloped
in
another context
equilibrium.
Coulomb
rest, in static
the
gravitational force
still
was
static
and the
obtained largely
equilibrium situations,
we
shall
begin
with
shall
115
we
involved;
shall then
do not
of development
IN
we
we
FORCES
is
ideas.
STATIC EQUILIBRIUI
Let us consider a very simple physical system
In Fig. 4-1 (a)
and
straight
situation
shown
its
the
human,
in the
Fig.
4-1
A
(a)
resting stale.
What
an arrow
in the
shape shown
in Fig.
4-1 (b)?
Putting aside
force
is
are in balance.
not disembodied;
it
is
drawn back
(r)
at midpoint,
Arrow
in the pro-
this
applied to something.
116
into the
back
it
bow
bow
must
mean?
the
there, a force
hold the
in Fig.
Remove
an archer's bow.
the
We
taut.
be supplied.
toward
we show
Fig.
4-2
(a)
Balanc-
S S ^>
S fe
l>
ofunequal
forces in accordance
with the law ofthe
(a)
lever.
(b)
on which
exerted.
it is
is
some
This
directions
CA
and
piece of string
little
CB
and
ACB.
of angle
We
is
C in
string,
the bisector
Fig.
in
forces,
string.
These
combine
latter
along the
line of
and opposite
to F,
librium requires that the bowstring supply a net force equal and
opposite to
back up
that this
is
obvious, but
It will
we can
involve one
if
And
by equal amounts.
is
this balancing
all
equi-
librium situations.
But
let
bow
will
not be
new
to
at equal distances
on
F2 h
is
satisfied.
suggest the
ment.
'
establish
117
not so.
Forces
we need
to have a
in static
Archimedes
is
[Fig. 4-2(a)].
first result,
To
equilibrium
result
way of obtaining
by pure
logic,
but this
Fig.
4-3
Basic ar-
rangement of a
"steel-
of a Standard
the
all at
single spring, or
on the other
in Fig. 4-2(b).
way
in
side of the
some
entails
it
to measure an
no assump-
and
unknown
justified
force in terms
of an arbitrary Standard.
shown
different
side, as
since
purpose of weighing
its
many
UN1TS OF FORCE
For the purposcs of
librium,
we do not
magnitudes of
force,
unit,
forces.
The
of forces
in
equi-
strictly
will often
be convenient
going further we shall state what these measures are. (You have
The
all before, in
118
we
is
any
shall
case.)
This
is
a force
of
The
all
kg
it
it
mass
to a
MKS
system.
we need
that
for the
moment
is
The magnitude of
size.
is
m/sec 2
is
most appropriate
about 9.8 N.
this
kg
force of about
on a medium-sized apple
may
well be true) that the fail of an apple provided the starting point
CGS
In the
force
is
acceleration of
and
dyn
10
-3
cm/sec 2 to a mass of
we have
kg,
= 10- 5
lished, so that
Since
g.
cm =
10~ 2 m,
the relationship
we take
the relation
F = ma
as already estab-
The dyne
is
thus an ex-
on a mass of
mg as
by roughly
The only
is
the pound.
we
shall
is
we can
still
pound
is
we
practical implications
and
of that
in
is
pound.
more
We
detail later
(Chapter
8).
static
conditions:
1
119.
The object
Fig.
4-4
(a)
An
ob-
ject in ekuilibrium
(6)
Two
equally acceptable
condition
2F =
0.
(b)
(a)
move
bodily;
it
The
2.
it is
to twist or rotate
The
in
what we
first
what we
it; it is in
of the bowstring.
It
has been
known
Newton's
that they
in the
same way
tional displacement.
to
it
and
fit
nitudes
it
Suppose that
it
a loosc
3,
and
4,
5,
as defined by corresponding
is
removed,
if
mag-
numbers of
when
is
Then
in equilibrium,
ex-
even
shown
in Fig. 4-4(b).
Fi
+F2 +
It is a basic
120
we say
one
In formal terms,
to zero:
F3 =
immaterial (Chapter
addition in
up
many
2).
same
Thus,
object,
if
we have a
it is
large
is
number of
Fig.
4-5
(a) Seueral
same poin:,
(b)
The
force veciorsform a
closed polygon, showing equilibrium.
(c) Equioalent veclor
diagram lo
(b).
a closed polygon
Since forces
may
(i.e.,
be applied
and the
is
in
any direction
if
in
equilibrium
will in general
add up to zero
though
exists.
three-dimensional
usually,
al-
When
figure.
Thus the
condition of equilibrium
first
can
be written
as follows:
Vector statement:
F = Fi
+F2 +
F3
(4-la)
Component statement:
Fz = FU + F2l + F 3l +
Fu = Fi + F2u + Fa, +
F = Fu + F2l + F3l +
z
It is
=
=
=
(4-1 b)
its
components.
xy plane, resolved
components:
F = Fj
121
+ Fj
Fig.
4-6
(a)
inlo orthogonal
com-
ponents.
(b)
theforce
F,
giue zero.
(c) Resoluiion
of F
to
inlo
nonorthogonal components.
We represent F by a
stitute for F
triangle, in
F,
itself.
full line
In Fig. 4-6(b)
we show a
FA + Fvi + (-F) =
We
can then recognize that any other pair of veetors that give
zero
equivalent to
forees
Fm
>
and
Fv
>
in
itself.
way
of
way of resolving
In a similar vein,
as in Fig. 4-7(a),
Fig.
4-7
(a)
if
any
we can
The
F 2 and F 3
,
is
bal-
ibrantFB
FK
122
combine to give
zero,
combination offorees
Fi,
set of forees
labeled here as
the others.
E)
as the equilibrant
force equal
their resuJtant,
shown as R
the balancer) of
(i.e.,
and opposite
to
sum of
FE
is
all
then a force
in Fig. 4-7(b).
familiarity
IN
We
have already used a kind of principle of uniformity to prescribe a way of reproducing a force of a given magnitude or
force.
We
assume that
identical
forces.
spring
is
is
his
compressed.
You know
Regard-
is
In
its
123
yields,
it is
No
existence.
gives a
little
force until
matter
how
it
There
in
may
rigid a surface
sefem,
it
always
no basic
in a
sit
difference between
comfortably upholstered
down on
a concrete ftoor.
and
yield visibly
by
We
shall
now
satisfied.
way
first
is,
condition,
in fact, in
forces.
If,
is
An
forces remain
tion
Fig.
4-8
is finally
bound
A and B
(a) Rota-
applied at different
points of an extended
(b) Equal,
plied in
a way
that
Iffree to rotate,
the object
mouesfrom
orientation (b) to
an
equilibrium orientation.
124
acted
at which the
truly in equilibrium;
to twist.
is
If
[e.g.,
as
it
has no
shown
in
unchanged as the object turns, equilibrium orientashown in Fig. 4-8(c). How do we con-
reached, as
object.
object
0,
F =
equilibrium
Fig.
F,+F,
rotational equilibrium?
The law of the lever provides the clue. Look again at the
situations shown in Fig. 4-2. In particular, consider situation (b).
The balancing of the forces F and F 2 with respect to the pivot
The product of the
at O reauires the condition FJi = F 2 / 2
force and its lever arm describes its "leverage," or twisting
ability; the technical term for this is torque. The torques of F t
t
and
F2
with respect to
direction
that
F2
due to
Let us
counterclockwise.
call
is
is
in
equal to zero.
is
of magnitude F,
be
2 if
the
first
Now,
is
as
itself.
let
it
must be
condition of equilibrium
satisfied.
Fig. 4-9.
+F
However, what
if
is
to
shown in
no torque
we choose
to
but
it
exactly balanced
to
Fj and
F2
new
this result is
of
its
correctness.
to you, take a
What
it
says
is
= F2 / 2
momcnt
is satisfied.
If
to convince yourself
sum of
the
other point
So
far
is
also zero.
we have
of parallel forces.
that a force
125
is
Suppose
K
l
sin
\Sf
COS
ip
(J*
'
/v
(
(a)
Rgi 4-/0
(a) Force
F by finding
effeclive lever
its
some other
(c)
r.
arm,
be
The
first
I.
thing to notice
diagram.
into components
Evaluation of lorgue of
F would be
if
were indeed a
it
and F
It
lie.
therefore
makes
excellent
itself,
regarded
torque?
We
to
as a vector of
that r
is
we have chosen
of
sin^)
(b)
Z'
=r
some
sort.
between
If the angle
r.
indicated
perpendicular to
first,
and F
is
<p,
these
r,
gives a torque of
this result
is,
arm
Then
acts.
magnitude rFsin
ON
from
is
F can
to the line
just the
same
as
if it
lever
arm of
We
length
equal to r sin
'
<p.
symbol
M for the
126
<?.
magnitude
a force in this
way
Fig.
4-11
A and B.
and F.
{a)
(b)
Torque vector,
Then we have
of the torque.
M = rF
(4-2a )
siri <p
is
A and
This
at hand.
two
vectors.
defined
is
and B and of
magnitude given by
C = AB sin
where
is
other being 2v
d).
There
are, of course,
A and B
(the
4-1
until
it lies
l(a)].
thumb
extended (do
it!),
If the
rota-
body
all
is
these properties,
is
then written as
C = A XB
127
Note
is
crucial; reversing
B X A = -(A
Using
is
XF
(4-2b)
of
B)
two
different values
<p;
which
down
and
the
the vector
sum
of
second condition
Then,
to occur.
of cquilibrium
we can
finally,
all
on an
object,
equilibrium
with
YM
ri
If the object
Fi
X F2 +
r2
on which a
as an ideal particle
(i.e.,
rotational equilibrium
set
r3
F3
(4-3)
all
the forces
are applied at the same point, they cannot exert a net torque
about
this point;
and
if
the condition
is
also satisfied,
they cannot exert a net torque about any other point either.
If
the
same value of r
condition
r
this in
more formal
(EF) =
F =
no new
information.
embody
paused to
In Fig.
128
Fig.
4-12
#E>^
in equi-
Objecl
(o)
-~n=\
(g)
ofa
the action
single uerlical
(c)
The
measured weight
to
(C)
(b)
is
W.
from a
Experience
us that this
tells
is
How
an unbalanced situation.
This may seem like a trite or even
At
upward on
this time
do we
trivial
we
it is
quite clearly
dilemma?
resolve the
question. In fact,
examine
shall
it
has
much
it is
only from
it
it.
Later
we
wider ramifications.
to imagine
sum
and so on.
your confidence
You
are used to
Now
is
you
fuli
see
an equilibrium
it is
the reading
upward force on
force, as
shall call
129
it.
The magnitude
of this equilibrating
we
shall restate
it
be defined as the
will
of what
process that
in
now
measurement
question.
an example
is
is
of the quantity
is
This
it
called
is
fail freely,
is
(We
we
If
Chapter
it.
broken, so that
is
way
graviin
the
8.)
held
is
On
we can say
is
as
is
shown
in
indeed a static
not synonymous.
much
But keep
it
firmly in
mind
By maintaining
this distinetion
we
shall be
problems involving
pulleys
and
more physics
first.
If the
pivot
is
F2
arms of length
exactly at
its center).
magnitudes of Fj and
T, which
130
we can thus
is
pivoted
F2
the strength
Fig.
4-13
(o)
Ten-
of a string where it
meels a slationary
circular pulley must
be
in rotational equi-
librium.
(b)
Set of
(O
(b)
(a)
applying a force of
gicen magnitude in
its
The
length.
its
magnitude.
sum
F2
of F, and
ments of the
2Tcos(6/2)
its
lie
If the tension at
is
and
string,
W,
of the object
is
of magnitude
in any desired
can be used to supply a force of magnitude
direction. Figure 4-14 illustrates the typical kind of arrangement
a simple experiment
To
to study the
Fig.
4-14
(a)
Simple
rangement involving
three nonparallel
pomt
P.
(b) Vector
(a)
131
Pulleys
and
strings
(b)
F 2)
and
2,
PROBLEMS
The ends of
4-1
puli
on
it
with
show why
4-2
may
defined
F, not 2F.
is
It is
object
on an
of the object.
(a)
Use
this fact to
show
of the figure]
may
be
x)/L acting
l-
(b) If
at
H-. -I'
one end
of the
is
hung
atPif x =
(b)
4-3
LW/UW +
Diagram
v).
(a) represents
corners.
its
H'.
H,
>
iy
w,
'W,
(b)
(a)
(a)
To
CG
of
this
x and y axes
132
as shown.
and
(= wi +K-2-f-H'3
from
w4)
this axis at
will
keep the
system
rotational equilibrium.
in
be
to
Then the
ing distance y.
(b)
An
center of gravity, C,
is
To
each case.
CG
is
to
hang the
is
and
You
want
to mail
fortunately
it is
it
You
letter to
your
at once, so that
it
giri friend
will
(or
be collected
office is closed,
and a
and you happen to have learned somewhere that the density
of nickel is about 9 g/cm 3 The ruler itsclf balances at its midpoint.
When the nickel is placed on the ruler at the 1-in. mark, the balance
point is at the 5-in. mark. When the letter is placed on the ruler,
centered at the 2-in. mark, the balance point is at S^in. The postal
a
letter scale
12-in. ruler
nickel,
rate
is
You
on?
(This problem
is
How much
drawn from
real life.
4-5
(a)
As mentioned
in
17),
/,
from
from a fulcrum
must balance (by symmetry), he argued that one of these forces could,
again by symmetry, be replaced by a force F/2 at the fulcrum and
another force F/2 at 21. Show that this argument depends on the
truth of
(b)
133
what
Problems
it is
less
purporting to prove.
vulnerable argument
is
Suppose that
vectors.
parallel
Show
that this resultant intersects the bar at the pivot point for which
Fili
4-6
F2/2.
The weight
4-7
(a)
way
0.5 kg
elothesline
hung
is
at the
by 8 cm. What
is
is
tied
When
middle of the
line,
the midpoint
is
and a
tree that
is
pushes with
on the car?
man
The
a,
down
pulled
were
(= 50 kg
suflicient to
to be 50 ft
midpoint.
its
ft
move
that
Instead, he ties
when
),
begin to
stranded
is
knows
happens
displaced transversely by 3
force of 500
If this
car
driver
is
he
apart, in such
(b)
negligible.
is
in the
is in static
how
man
this exert
the car,
ft,
If the
the
and the
would
far
the car be shifted, assuming that the rope does not streteh any further?
seem
Does
this
4-8
Prove that
like
on an
if
must be coplanar and their lines of action must meet at one point
(unless all three forces are parallel).
4-9
Painters sometimes
is
is
Keeping
(a)
side,
what
(b)
150
lb.
around
he
lets
4-10
is
the
On
in
mind
maximum
that he
must be able
to
move from
side to
One day he
this instead
go of the rope,
An
it
breaks and he
is
is
falls
hung
as
But as soon as
to the ground.
shown
Why?
in the figure.
lb,
and
The
the
134
works on
lb.
system
by
One
at its ends
long ropes that pass over fixed pulleys, as shown in the figure.
lb.
Slr Isaac
Newton
(a)
poin t
What
(b)
What
the supporting
4-11
man
the
is
minimum
above
A?
A man
the magnitude
is
arm
at
A under
and
weighs 180
lb,
on
these conditions?
the ladder 20
The
lb.
The
smooth, which means that the tangential (vertical) component of force at the contact between ladder and wali is negligible.
The foot of the ladder is placed 6 ft from the wali. The ladder, with
rests is very
it,
man
hang a picture
to
at a certain place
1 ft
ift
How
lb.
up
far
safely climb?
to the left
figure).
You
and 2
ft
to the right
appropriate lengths from these nails to the top corners of the picture,
2ft
2ft
balancing weight of
some
(b) In
straight unless
frame weighs 10
lb,
hang
what
it
A
is
(a)
is
the least
(Hint: Find
the
discussion, be
yo-yo rests on a table (see the figure) and the free end of
its
What
is
geometrically
if
135
how would
string
in the strings.)
picture
4-13
you add
kind.
Problems
it
is
you consider
What happens
(b)
a yo-yo, test
4-14
a
diffcrential
of rotation.
free pulley
An
is
based on what
is
callcd
connected with a
common,
is
radii
fixed axis
and around a
figure).
If the
part of the chain will (ignoring friction) suffice to prevent the load
from descending
if
can be neglected?
(b)
(more
realistic)
4-15
force
F with components
x = 0, y =
nitude
and
Fz
5
3N,
m, and
M,
of
Fy = AN, and Fz = is
= 4 m. Find the mag-
F about
angles that
the origin.
i.e.,
(Express
4-16 Analyze
vertically
weight w?
total
terms
how
(Clearly
the contact of the rear wheel with the ground plays an essential role
in this situation.)
136
And
almost
all the
attracting
and
and
Powers ....
The
various forces
of nature
we know of
that
The following
at present:
of their masses.
2.
in
motion.
about 10
It
>An
-15
m.
may be
excellent
background
to this topic
is
the
PSSC
film,
"Forces," by
J.
R.
make
easy
and
New
139
dream
is
to
all these
forces as aspects of
different kinds
we
shall
briefly
consider these
significant.
standpoint of classical
classification
will
It
what we
"contact forces"
shall call
the
forces
Al-
though these forces are merely the gross, large-scale manifestation of the basic electromagnetic forces between large numbers
of atoms, they serve so well to describe most of the familiar
phenomena
interactions in mechanical
of their own.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCES
Ali our experience suggests that a gravitational interaction be-
is
a universal phenomenon.
The
an attractive interaction.
It is
always
its
by the
by
we
call its
mass.
Newton
any other
is
will
at
by
particle attracts
this
of the force
Departures from
ihis
theory of relativity.
particle
It is
is
tational interaction.
The various
particles.
measurable de-
3 that a particle of
They are
140
two
force has no
forces of natura
of
m2
can be written as
G^f
Fl2 =
where
mass
particle of
(5-1)
r l2 is the distance
and
is
mi
to the center
gravitational constant.
size.
The value of
the constant
the
first
example
of a physical law.
what
it
in this
It is
really says.
book
it,
is
By m
in
is
one that
Thus
But
it
is
always the
particle at-
Keep those
italicized phrases in
Thus
it
really con-
By
The
classic
141
Henry Cavendish
Gravitational forees
in 1798.
It
involved a
Fig.
5-1
lorsion-
balance experiment.
arrangement
torsion balance
to
Two
rod
to
is
its
midpoint.
Two
The
fiber attached
An
is
reached
when
equilibrium
a substantial
arrangement of
of the most
The
this type,
on
torsion-balance
is
one
gravitational foree
is
astonishingly
it is
kg each.
The center-to-center distance between a small sphere and a
lead spheres, each of 15-g mass,
and
142
The
va-rious forees
of nature
Fig.
5-2
Globular
M 13
in the
constellation Hercules).
from
(Photograph
the
Hale Obser-
vatories.)
one
large
is
about 5 cm.
Under
weight of a single
than
human
hair
is
about 6
10~ 10 N.
The
this!
stars
edge of the
due to
maximum
all
cluster
and the
star will
The
net
143
Gravitational forces
Fig. 5-3
Schematic
Galaxy.
of
all
all
its
times
The
cluster).
is
Thus a
starting position.
star
center of cluster.
much
any
stellar collision is
is
chance of a
Thcre
stars is so very
star, the
this).
clusters.
Galaxy
and there
is
cluster), again
each other.
between masses
illustrate cases
is
where gravita-
the motion.
where at
that
it is
exercises
least
is
size is
involved
note
lives.
One can
144
The various
forces of naturc
atoms
under
their
galaxy.
on one another
The basic law of
force
is
that found
known, Coulomb
force. Coulomb's law
states that a
will
of
their separation
given by
*-km
(5-2)
is
coulomb
more than
is
is
coulomb
the
The
The constant k
identical in
10
huge amount of
N-m 2 /C 2
electric
3500 N
charge
vastly
One coulomb
(approximately 800
(C).
in. in
lb).
Yet
diameter contains
'Their experiments were performed at almost the same time, but apparently
they acted quite independently of one another in their choice and development
of the torsion-balance technique.
2
Note
of"
145
that insertion,
is tacitly
Electric
assumed.
'
5-4
Fig.
Cakulaled
irajectories
its
its
magnetic field.
(After D. J. X. Monlgomery,
It is interesting
to
compare the
balance mentioned
in
earlier.
If
electrons
electric
and
processes
biological
domain).
It
in
(i.e.,
and
is
chemical reactions.
We
have been
discussing
the
forces
electrical
between
in
Chapter
An
7.
illustration
is
provided by the
earth.
of protons approaching
146
The various
in
forces of nature
magnetic
It is
field.
confidently
motion.
Actually, from the standpoint of relativity theory, the magnetic force is not something new and different. Charges that are
one accepts the basic idea of relativity, one may expect to be able to relate a magnetic force, as
observed in one reference frame, to a Coulomb force, as obThus,
respect to another.
if
NUCLEAR FORCES
Although
atomic
For we
nuclei.
electrically repelling
themselves,
know
all
one another and not stabilized by a comBut nature has supplied another
known
of
10
Coulomb
unknown
-13 cm (=
small,
Although much
in a nucleus.
but
it
F) this
dominates over
still
force that
is,
down
all
It is
to about 0.4
smaller separations.
It is, in part,
a noncentral
Coulomb
interactions,
it is
particles, the
known
among
-8
sec or less).
of which are unstable and very short-lived (10
interactions
nuclear
associated
with
force
type
of
Another
147
Nuclear forces
is
also
known
to exist but
is
yet.
estimated to be only
weak
interaction
is
15
two protons 10~
different
m apart
i.e.,
Type of interaction
Gravitational
Coulomb
X 10-"
X 10 2
Nuclear (strong)
The magnitude
in
which
it is
of the
weak nuclear
effective, is
but even so
force,
it is
10
1
of the order of 10~
of the electrical
23
by a factor of the order of 10 ,
greater,
tween two
particles.
is
We
cannot
cite
any
particles is
direct observa-
tions
gravitational
is
theory that has almost no use for the concept of force as such.
really
in
we
are
tion,
fact
the electric
in contrast to gravita-
may be
148
The various
forces of nature
two
clectrically neutral in
On
no
the face of
forces
it,
therefore,
on one another at
all
quite true.
It
if
This, however,
not
is
and negative
point. We know,
the positive
distribution
when
nucleus
particle
named
force increases
Dutch
much more
manifestation of this
(to put
atoms a
between neutral
physicist
J.
much more
One
it
force
This
as
way
off with
increasing distance
in a
falls
is
two unbalanced
The
Waals force
is still,
of course, the
its
quantum
mechanics.
neutral
The
varying as l/r
detailed
between
There
is,
is
is
made
to squash
with decreasing separation even more rapidly than the van der
force.
neutral
if
the
sum
atoms are
identical.
The
repulsive
component of
below r
that
is
tion).
149
Fig.
5-5
The dashed
nonphysical
idealization
one anolher.
attract
The dashed
line in Fig.
5-5
in-
>
<
Since almost
all
the objects
we
from the
importance, as
we
is
of fundamental
CONTACT FORCES
Many
we
strings
we
and
push and
cables,
upon by such
ordinary
forces as
puli of struts
and so
on.
servation.
The book
is
supported by the
sum
these interactions
purposes, however,
all
table.
would be
we can
in
A submicroscopic analysis of
prohibitively complex.
For most
lump
call
we
shall
category but a
useful one.
on a
150
The various
makes
it
Our
discussion in
forces of nature
Fig.
5-6
(a)
Two charged
conlact.
apparently in conlact.
this
Two
is
balanced by
uncharged spheres,
aries
would disappear.
The development
is
pressed against
It is characteristic
of
such forces that their variation with the distance between the
objects
is
much more
no fundamental distinction between the situation represented by two charged spheres, visibly held apart by their electrical repulsion, and the same two spheres, uncharged, apparently
There
is
in contact, as
assumes a
trical
shown
force on
separation
in Fig. 5-6.
final position
it
it
just balances
(a) Quali-
charged spheres
ofFig. 5-6{a).
conlact
i. e.,
is
if
in Fig. 5-7,
is
so abrupt that
it
The
"soft"
tween
F and
slowly with
(b)
weight.
its
Fig.
W varies
r.
Comparable graph
The conlact
is
"hard"
W occurs only
Separation of centers, r
over an extremely
narrow range of
(a)
values of r.
151
Contact forces
Separation of centers.
(b)
Do
an
and that
not
forget,
refined
is
idealization,
sufficiently
discussion
in
of two objects. Such forces are then at right angles to the surface
we
of contact
of that word.
call
But
them normal
when
the attempt
is
made
We now
apply a hori-
zontal force P.
being supplied via the contact between the block and the surface.
This
is
balance P, just
crease if
rection,
we
It
automatically adjusts
deliberately pushed
down
we can imagine
(a)
Block
on a rough horizontal
table, subjected to
its
maximum
limiting value,
it
may
horizontal puli, P.
{b) Qualitative
graph
The condiiion
can be
S = P
satisfied
up to
S =
nN. After
the eguilibrium
bound
that,
is
to be broken.
152
But then,
S
when P is
broken
is no longer ablc to keep step with it. The equilibrium is
down, and motion ensues. A graph of S against the applied
force P might look like Fig. 5-8(b). Once S has been brought to
increased beyond a
Fig.5-8
in-
In both cases
electric
to
itself
would automatically
The various
forces of naturc
even drop at
first
as
is
F
v
(i')/
Fig.
5-9
(a) Force
on a sphere in a
flowing fluid.
(b) Total force o
fluidfriction is
1
mtr-i
r^
)
Av
-
mode
P ofseparate terms
and quadratic
in the
relativeflow
celocity, v.
and
to motion,
it
value thereafter.
ff
may depend
JF
is
in detail
on the
P >
(n)
The only
velocity.
S corresponds
F is
is
the empirical
the
their quotient
coefficient
of friction
is
11N
(5-3)
The above
surfaces.
One
ferent.
is
The
basic
driven past
it
is
is
Over a wide
well described
where
The
first
second
is
= Ao + Bv 2
and
153
fluid,
and the
knows
(5-4)
first is
proportional to
is
Since
v,
one
domi-
nated by turbulence, however small the ratio B/'A may be. The
same consideration guarantees that at sufficiently low speeds the
resistance will be
directly propor-
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In this chapter
we have
To
recapitulate:
Nuclear
force
is
important only
if
magnetic interactions.
The study of
physics
is
In mechanics
we
essentially the
their
con-
more
all
in
how we
PROBLEMS
At what distance from the earth, on the line from the earth to
the sun, do the gravitational forces exerted on a mass by the earth
and the sun become equal and opposite? Compare the result with
5-1
5-2
By what
of
normal
its
ft
Do you
away?
could be detected ?
5-3
is
is 5
154
The various
is
forces of naturc
-8
10
Scale
^20 g
is
(Remember
that the
through
turned.)
when
observed that
effect
Deduce
the value of
shifted
is
their initial
on the
moved from
mean
m away.
by 8 cm.
more
distant of the
larger spheres.
on
The
5-4
more
distant spheres.
original
is
natural
made a miniature
suspensions.
sensitivity
if
It is
which the
radii
A and
and separations of
all
down by
maximum
with respect to A.
We
a certain factor
each
sensitivity in
apparatus by using the thinnest possible torsion fiber that will take
Now for a
the weight of the suspended masses without breaking.
torsion fiber of given material
mum
and
supportable load
its
Using
is
torsion constant
this
proportional to
is
two
section, the
where d
is its
d2
different sizes
maximum
maxi-
diameter,
/ is its
length.
angular deflections
of apparatus.
(Remember, the
lengths of the torsion fibers also differ by the scaling factor L.)
5-5
155
The
Problems
atom according
to the original
Bohr
'
is
0.5 A.
(a)
What
theory
is
the
the
How
(b)
Coulomb
far apart
A? What
is this
com-
parable to?
5-6
Coulomb
gravitational attraction.
electrons that
5-7
What would be
would achieve
For a person
mass of
this?
living at 45 latitude,
what
the day,
minimum
gravitational forces
is
the approximate
between the
maximum and
from the fact that the earth's rotation causes the person's distance
from the moon to vary ? What is a manifestation of this kind of force
effect in
5-8
nature?
You know
that the
Coulomb
force
and the
Suppose that
is
gravitational force
it
Thus
would not be
What
(a)
and negative
How
could
5-9
The
(a)
two
nucleons close together but also suggests that to describe the nuclear
interactions in terms of forces
any way
in
(b)
is
earliest
and simplest
F( ,)
Can you
suggest
two nucleons
Yukawa)
at large separation
theoretical
the force of
would be given by
_d e -'"o
15
m and the constant A is about
where the distance r o is about 10~
10" 1 N-m. At about what separation between a proton and a neutron
would the nuclear force be equal to the gravitational force between
these
two
particlcs?
156
The yarious
forces of nature
tional, electromagnetic,
5-11
As mentioned
all
of the
For a number of
well
is
FV w
where
newtons and r
is in
in meters.
C]:
mentary charges [Eq. (5-2), with<?i = ?2 = e = 1.6 X 10~
=
about
equal
to
the
diameter
is
a
distance
r
4
A.
(This
(a) For
of a molecule of oxygen or nitrogen and hence barely exceeding the
closest
in a collision.)
One
the
is
is
the
tensile force
terms:
(a) If
-3in.-
3 in. wide,
a water film
and a
Waterfilm
is
lg
it
across
and
film.
atoms
takes
This
lying
Supposing
its
lower end.
First,
calculate this breaking force in tons per square inch. If the fracture
is
on
the upper
and lower
sides
about
5-13
A.
time-honored trick method for approximately locating the
is
to support
it
horizontally
any two arbitrary points on one's index fingers and then move the
fingers together.
(Of course, just finding its balance point on one
finger alone works very well, too!) Explain the workings of the trick
method, using your knowledge of the basic principles of static equilibrium and a property of frictional forces: that they have a maximum
at
/x
com-
157
Problems
5-14
A string in tension
(a)
is
in
A0
on
r)
that
the pulley
equal to TA9.
is
Hence show
(b)
This
to T/r.
AN with
Show
is
that the
is
equal
bigger as r decreases.
when a
string is
tightly tied
as
it
the contact
(c) If
is
amount AF
AN, where n is
Deduce from this
The
AT is
value of
equal to
and
rod.
y.
= T
ep
string
a dock
and a bollard on
of
T corresponding
7"
For
is 0,2.
100
values
note that
proportional to To-
is
This allows
will,
amplifier.)
To make
(r
due to a flow of
air
of speed v
is
(newtons)
where u
due to
is in
2.5
10- 6 <;
10
-s,,2
The
158
cm
apart).
(Hint:
Do
not bother to
v.
enough to
159
Probiems
values of u so obtained
is
clearly already
To
tell
by which
it
But
acts
is
endowed with an
to derive
two or three
how
the properties
in
would be a
We
by forces?
on the face of
it,
How
really began.
We
saw
much
What can we
simpler:
is
Chapter 4
in
how
will
in the
is
zero.
What
For an object
this, to
net force
conclude that
following diseussion
in
if
is
superfluous.
on
not,
on
and, as a kind
many problems
Do
at rest
at rest, the
of corollary to
>You
was
moving a
It
is
is,
subjected to no forces?
an object
objects
all,
our experience
of Newton's
assume that the
in the use
that account,
wish to get
down
to business
have come about in just this way. Einstein arrived at special relativity by
thinking deeply about the nature of time. And Newton, when asked once
about how he gained his insight into the problems of nature, replied "By
constantly thinking unto them."
161
'
Limitalions on in-
Fig. 6-1
ertial
surface.
An
mighl end up on a
In the process
hilttop at B.
would be bound
to slow
it
down.
effort
does have to
possible;
is
in
is
Initially, this
resistive forces,
plane.
it
free of all
if
For a
a limited sense.
truly
flat
if
is
horizontal plane
true only
is
tangent
it
must
form
uniform motion
in his "first
body perseveres
in
its
which we probably
upon
all learn
shows a
say? The
in
it."
our
It is
first
state of rest,
in
or of
compelled to change
a familiar statement,
practical illustration of
it.
But
Thus
objects.
is
much
around and make a
We
it
it
goes
For
Galileo's
Two New
tions,
162
own
Sciences (H.
New
York.
Fig.
6-2
(Photograph by Prof.
good
an
inertial
Most
observations
made
within
was on
is
After
suitable.
first
place!
A more critical seruti ny shows that this is not quite good enough,
and we need
own
doesn't."
163
The
Ann
principle of inertia
line,
it
version
in its state
except insofar as
to
what
is
No
is
under
test
is
deviation,
due to extremely massive objects at very large distances. Moreover, there is the far from trivial question of defining a straight
line in a real physical sense:
nor
is
it is
it
Nevertheless,
a valid generalization
is
it
Closely linked to
this is
is
affected
by
affected
"Force"
ciate
it
is
ticularly clear-cut if
otherwise
move
we apply
164
(a)
6-3
Fig.
(a) Strobo-
scopic pholograpli of
a uniformly accel-
The
eraled molion.
Acceleratior
(From PSSC
2 springs
Physics, D. C. Heath,
Lexington, Massa-
chuselts, 1960.)
(b)
Simple dynamical
Acceleration
block
block
deoeloping Newton'
second law.
spring
(b)
spring, stretched
produced
2. If a
in
is
doubled.
is
the accelera-
is
constant.
first
That
is,
if
we
take a
known
and
stretch-
first,
the ac-
multiple of a
is
165
Force and
ineriial
down
F and
simple equations
accelerations a:
= kF
a
or
F=
k'a
k' describc thc inertial properties of the particular
where k and
Which of
object.
We
convenient?
3.
If
we
place
on
the
answer
first
is
more
by given arrangements of the springs are rcduced to half of what was obtained
with one object alone. We can express this most easily by choos-
it is
observed that
all
accelerations produced
ing the second of the above equations, so that the inertial property
is
additive
i.e.,
two
different objects
can be simply added together, and the acceleration of the combined system under a given force
F=
(Ar'i
k'2 )a
is
immediately given by
l+2
i.e.,
1+2
fci
It is
is
+ JG
universally
F = ma =
m
di
(6-1
is
tities
and
is
always
in the
same
direction as
An
interesting
historical
fact,
often
overlooked,
is
that
the Principia.
Instead,
time.
In other words,
of
to
Newton's version
FAt =
166
mAo
(6-2)
We
shall see in
Direct
mg sin
regarded as
6, is
fulfilling this
purpose.)
we remind
If
given instant.
frame
in
In fact,
is
measured
fills
celeration vector
an important
result;
it
is
an expression of the
This
combine
in a linear
way.
attached to
it
force Fi in the
acceleration
y.
F /m
t
direction.
along
Acting alone
direction.
that
the
acting together
is
just
vectors Fi and
F2
to
is
it
acceleration caused
not
by
F2
n the
predictable by
the
two springs
mass
[Fig. 6-4(c)].
The observed
on the object a
would produce an
exerts
x.
it
Spring
Acting alone
It is
pure logic
167
inertial frame.
along
an
is
this role.
Next comes
is
we see
cannot be separated from
we tacitly assume that the
in
the trajectory
we
discusscd as a
problem of Chapter
is
3.
the
'
Fig.
6-4
(a)
ular directions.
Obserced acceleralion
as found in (b).
If this
difficult.
The
of instantaneous components
we can always
of acceleration
automatically proceed to
consider
in
magnetic
more
detail later, if a
field, the
charged particle
component of
is
moving
in a
pends on the component of velocity perpendicular to that direction. In such a case, we have to keep traek of the way in which
that perpendicular velocity
component changes
one may
is
in the
same
it
is
intuitively
is
sufficiently
comes the
It
may
be worth
if
high-
fast to require
the
relativity.
at a certain rate
a,
168
in this series.
Fig.
6-5
inertial
Increase of
mass with
speed, as revealed in
experiments on high-
speed electrons.
Based on data of
(open circles) Kauf-
mann
(1910), (filled
circles)
Bucherer
(1909),
and
(crosses)
New
York, 1961.)
remarkable result;
Newton's law
let
ment,
or
is
No!
it
its inertial
us consider
it
mass m.
is
all
a very
further.
by any
conditions.
This
is initially
this state-
stationary
speeds that
the acceleration
way
The
(6-3)
- oVc2)" 2
(1
This relation
is
in all situations to
for
any v
which
classical
c the value of
preciably different
from
is
inap-
169
plication
is
in itself a
remarkable
result,
which as
far as
we know
high
velocities.
It
if
one
We
all
car,
know
the
that phrase
to
an acceleration that
is
is
it
be called a "jerk"
should
be introduced as
The conclusion
is
that
ultimately limited in
discussion
applica-
its
particles.
chanics.
they produce.
from the observed acceleration that it produces. Because the measures of force and
inertial mass are linked in the single equation F = ma, there is
danger of circularity in our definitions. But we shall not delve
into the subtleties of this problem; we shall simply present a
analytical tool for deducing the force
is
stretched to the
170
same elongation,
it
object attached to
exerts the
for
it
we
We can then
...
1, 2, 3,
a x a 2 a3
F=
scale because
number
at a time
(i.e.,
We
take a
them one
puli
mass
inertial
we can put
m\a\
12^2
W!l
fl3
W3<33
Therefore,
m\
One
fl2
all
called a "kilogram."
(arbitrarily) as
quantitative measure
Standard object.
was defined
to be the
3
mass of 1000 cm of water at its temperature of maximum
density (about 4C), but it is now the mass of a particular cylinder
of platinum-iridium alloy, kept at the International Bureau of
France.
in Sevres,
was discovered
it
liter
was decided
in
to switch to the
terms of durability,
and convenience.)
If the inertial
mass
is
used.
different
The
mass
different accelerations,
same as
mass as a
Our
one
before.
inertial
so that in the
MKS
inertial
system, as
New-
we mentioned
in
our
first dis-
m/sec 2
1
kg an
is
acceleration of
kg-m/sec 2
171
Scales of
mass and
in other systems of
force
measurement can
be defined
Chapter
i.e.,
in
4, is
formulation of
F = ma
may
be tempted to
experimental
As
test.
commonsense
is,
it is
sum of
to the
a shade
But
sound.
just to
question here,
we
let
them come
mass of the
and proton?
Why?
less.
is
and
that
No;
You
Is the inertial
electron, separately,
atom equal
additive.
in principle, a legitimate
we have measured
imagine that
and an
is
mass
then
atom, with the binding together of the proton and electron, the
equivalent of a tiny
radiation.
it
individual parts
For ordinary
in
is
it
sum of
etc.
objects,
we can
inertial
masses
e. g.,
This proportion-
:2:5: 10 ....
for
The very
in fact, a definition
first
is,
a given material.
a definition that
"How," they
say,
fire,
because some
critics
regard
it
as circular.
Newton had
manner, and
it
The
calculation of the
this
mass of a
172
effect
in this chapter
of a
is
force.
look
first
is:
What
is
You
is applied to an object and maintained for a while?
no doubt aware that the answer to this question can be given
in more than one way, depending on whether we consider the
time or the distance over which the force is applied. To take the
that
are
let
F=
we have
motion
that
is
is
Then
is
kinematic equations:
d
at
x =
At time
caleulate
Ft
\ttfi
and we can
of F:
= mat = mv
2
Fx = (ma)$at 2 ) = %mv
Thus we
arrive at the
energy.
The
effect
of
as
is
called
its
what we
call
defines
work or energy
basic unit of
in the
MKS
system
the
joule.
Thus we have
impulse
work
* momentum in
>
= kg-m/sec
N-m = joules
N-sec
kinelic energy in
The invariance
o\'
Newton's law;
relativity
Fig.
6-6
a particle
to
Molion of
P referred
iwoframes
that
have a relatiue
uelocity v.
The
frame of reference.
will vary
therefore,
how
It is
worth
seeing,
which
The
one
inertial
forces
S',
first
point to establish
frame,
(i.e.,
moves uniformly
is
that, if
we have
Thus
if
first is
any
is
identified
if
if
is
and the
u',
To
up rectangular
y and
moved a
the coordinates of
ing equations.
work
in
law of
0, at
and
which
at a later time,
/,
when the
Then
axis of S.
that
Galilean transformations.)
174
in the
(It is
at
known
as the
x'
(Galilean transformalion:
moves
S'
relative to
a constant speed u
L'
with
in the
The
last
r'
- - vt
(o
const.)
=y
=
=
z'
-\-x direction)
= X
(6-5)
z
r
We
**
dx'
= x
Putting x'
u'z
d
=
,
(x
two
dx
-d7
in the
'
'di
and
vi,
vt)
u,
dt'
dt,
we have
dt
The transformations of
all
three
components of
velocity are as
follows:
u'x
u'y
's
= ux
= u
(6-6)
"z
we have
time,
(for
components of acceleration:
du'x
du x
dUy
dUy
du'z
du z
dt'
dt
dt'
dt
dt'
dt
acceleration
is
the
same
in
both frames:
(6-7)
Since this identity holds for any two inertial frames, whatever
their relative velocity,
we say
in classical mechanics.
relativity in
This result
is
it
175
The
illustrate
an invariant
To
is
relativity).
Fig.
6-7
Two
ferent views
trajectory
after
it
dif-
of the
of an object
has been
with respect to a
moving frame.
ide released
from rest
n .V frame
S'.
Frame S
Frame S'
BI
simple and familiar example of a particle falling freely under
Suppose that at
gravity.
0,
when
from
The
drops a particle
in S'
in
is
and
In the
initial
aetion of gravity,
different frames
falls
down.
straight
ma, where
they use the same F, accounts properly for the trajectories for
any
particle
launehed
in
any manner
in either frame.
The frames
cerned
frame
either
in
frame
may
correct explanations
we
a simple
is
itself.
more
carefully
what
is
have an
explicit
law of foree,
by something
like a stretehed
is
provided
can put
F = f (r).
For further
simplicity, let us
176
i.e.,
is
we
motion
object 2
by object
F12
=/(*2-
as measured in
F 12 =
f(x?
x\)
now
shall
X2
S,
can be written
(6-8)
2, is
(6-9)
/M2fl2
entirely in terms of
Eq. (6-5)
frame
*i)
We
is
measurements made
in the
it is
frame
expressed
S'.
From
we have
Xi
(X2
X[)
vl)
(x[
+ ot) =
x2
x\
Thus
Fl2
f(X2
but according to
f(x'2
x[)
is
the
terms of measurements
Fl2
assumed law of
force,
function
the
of the force
F i2
in
in S'.
F\2
mass
F[ 2
We
motion
inertial
is
a constant:
= f(x 2 -
x\)
a';
and
m2 =
m'i.
= m'2a 2
how
more complicated
invariance.
force law,
it
same property of
on
absolute positions
however, the force depended
e.g., if the force law were of the form
and
to write
(6-10)
in
If,
this
velocities
F12
= f(xl -
x?)
same
177
make
re-
appear different
in
If the
at constant velocity.
It
how
exist, in the
in
form of a
light
could be
carried.
(Otherwise,
earth?)
all
all inertial
more
dramatically, although
Look
two
objects.
Which were
"We
don't know."
motion
picture of these
and it
of Newton's
laws.
The reason
is
motion.
acceleration
the
unchanged.
downward
(Gravity,
This
direction.)
is
by
it
in
the
leaves the
remains in
itself.
We
do not
see attractions
And
it
yet,
when we
see
in reverse,
leaving
objects
human
that
actions, which appear strange for quite different reasons
Imagine,
for
direction.
most physical actions havc a well-defined
example, a sequence
in
which a glass
178
Force, inertia,
and motion
falls
V-/
(b)
(a)
Fig.
6-8
(a) Strohoscopic
down?
collision.
lis
(b) Slroboscopic
time sequence
completely reversible.
is
photograph ofan
lo all intents
and purposes
179
elaslic
jumped up onto
would
clearly be
Yet a
"micromovie" of the individual atomic encounters at every stage
that.
Thus we
numbers of
particlcs,
The
reversible.
statistical analysis
in the detailed
As long
we
as
do not
we
are dealing, as
them
found
is
of many-particle systems
as statistical mechanics.
sider
is
large
shall
particles,
the problems
and we
arise
further.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It will
The
is
complex and
law
first
version of
it.
in
many
is
still
Newton
stated
"The Origin
mass? Or
is it
acceleration?"
Consider
fields
it is
to define
Is it
a definition of foree?
Of
Ellis
argucs that
how Newton's
it
is
something of
second law
is
all
of these:
actually used.
In
a seale of foree.
How
else, for
example, can
But
is
it
is
some
is
used
we meaalso
un-
sometimes used
in yet
other
fields,
where
foree, mass,
and
Newton's second law of motion funetions as an empirical coracceleration are
all
easily
Colodny,
180
Newton 's second law in ballistics and rockTo suppose that Newton's second law of motion, or
any law for that matter, must have a unique role that we can
the application of
etry
and
an unfounded
is
unjustifiable supposition.
Since forcc and mass are both abstract concepts and not
objective realities,
we might conceive of a
description of nature
in
reality
it is
'forces,'
the description
accelerate,
nomena can
Now
accelerate.
it
acting
in
split
Ellis spells
many and
out
this
same idea
measurements,
elastic forces
forces by current
made and
is
momentum
this re-
sultant foree.
And
so
it is
that
we obtain an immensely
fruitful
and accurate
PROBLEMS
6-1
Make
is
indeed ac-
is
181
Problem-,
6-2
at a speed of 0.3
is
10
:i
kg.)
m/scc
A man
6-3
a
it.
its
is
thereafter he pushes
Can he
A man
(a)
window
after
on the dock
on
of mass 80 kg jumps
down
is
bends
it
is 1
it
N to
He
his
when
it
neglects to bend
arrested in a distance of
1.5
bone structure ?
his
distance h after
his feet
on him by
ground
the
is
normal weight ?
6-4
An
object of
mass 2 kg
20
N at 8 =
tion.
47r/3.
is
xy plane:
The
direction 6
at 6
0,
10
at 6
corresponds to the
velocity
object's velocity
and position at
jt/4,
+x
and
direc-
m and
has
Find the
2 sec.
Note!
Parabolic
(a)
(Vertical lines
equally spaced)
Direction
,of
motion
(b)
/
=
(c)
182
An
6-6
observer
first
to be
components
For each
Fx and
case,
F.
full
of 5
g,
(a)
(b)
(c)
6-7
has a mass
If the object
take a
partiele of
mass 2 kg
oscillates
the equation
x =
where x
0.2 sin
is in
(b)
6-8
-!)
meters and
What
What
(a)
5/
in
seconds.
is
is
the
maximum
car of mass 10 3
kg
is
on the
partiele at
on
traveling at 28
= 0?
the partiele?
m/sec
(a
over
little
The
ahead.
and comes
to
(a)
is
driver applies
What
(take g
fraetion
is it
9.8 m/sec 2 )?
-1
with
had been on a downward grade of sin
the brakes supplying the same decelerating force as before, with what
speed would the car have hit the tree ?
^)
6-9
partiele
of mass
xy plane
that
is
de-
Sketch
(b)
Can you
6-70
suggest a
if
183
is
way
the circle
maximum
is
Pro b lem s
/,
is
the
this
motion.
tension T,
What
this path.
maximum
in a cireular path.
may be
whirled
Part II
Classical
mechanics
at
work
Does
of a given
it
Of course. Does
Yes.
strength of a field
mass
in
Does
its
acceleration in a given
by measuring
ha t field? Certainly.
the acceleration of a
Why
then, should
known
any one
is
brian
that
it
ellis,
rr is
worth
used
in
1.
we can
calculate
its
all the
motion.
2.
may be
infer
what
may seem
This
and quite
trivial
separa-
it is
not.
law
in
is
Skill in the
physics and
satisfaction.
thrill
study of motions.
It
was
in this
way
that
Newton discovered
atomic nucleus, and that the particle physicists explore the structure of nucleons (although, to be sure, this last fleld requires
analysis in terms of
quantum mechanics
rather than
Newtonian
mechanics).
If the law of force is also known, this can be used to obtain information
about an unknown mass. The quotation opposite treats this as a third
category.
187
thing
will
else.
And some
We
later.
Thus we
shall be able
(3-10)].
=
=
=
Kinemalic
equations
>
d2
do
so
+ eot +
do
here:
at
2a(s
(7-1)
so)
first
to identify
all
We
merely an exercise
of the situation
Do
lies in
in
Taken
troductory problems.
Generally, this
trivial
nature of these
more
We
sophisticated problems.
in-
is
is
used in far
lems are
trite.
Examp!e
we mean one
to
itself.
this to
No
that
is
on a smooth
table.
method it is powerful.
By a "smooth" surface
be a useful idealization.
Wc
first
Question:
What
In
this
188
full
diseussion.
is
at
only approxi-
Fig. 7-1
(a)
BIock
pulled horizontally on
a perfeclly smooth
surface.
(b)
Same
an arbitrary
direction.
showing
all
draw a sketch
on the block.
They are
=
T =
force of gravity
We
is
letter
acting in
ma.
we conclude
vertical direction,
is
that
thus
+N+
no acceleration
in the
N+
Expressing this a
of F
is
diflferent
The
sum of
the forces
on
its
direction,
is
defined as a
the
in
the equation
0.
The
both
'We
with
189
and a horizontal).
shall, in these
all
Some
if it
were a point
introductory cxamples
particle,
The
initial
N+
Vertically
Tsind
N
(The
Tcosf?
equation
and horizontal
=
= ma
us the magnitude of
tells
is
into vertical
Horizontally
first
it
we
substantial if
The
is
N'.
= Fg - Tsmd
component of
vertical
less
than
Fg
.)
The second
tells
ccleration.
We notice
that there
is
on
a physical limitation
this analysis.
necessarily upward, as
is
necessarily positive.
it
Thus,
if
in the
Tsin
and we
is
Fig. 7-2).
Although
we can put 5
The value of
equal to
<
nmg.
A'
The
7-2
<
the
satisfy
table.
As
Example
in
1,
we
frictional force 3\
Fa
/* is
If
it
is
"dry
fric-
in this case,
and
so, writing
gravitational acceleration g,
FB
as
we have
itself,
up to a
Block
pulled horizontally
on a rough surface.
190
we cannot
F,
where
fiN,
cqual to
times
force to adjust
Fig.
is
>
certainly
is
this
will
its
shall
to support
shown
T+
T<
If T >
If
We
nmg:
nmg:
JF
acceleration, leads to
ff
=
=
(and hence a
T nmg = ma
[and hence a
0)
(T/m)
fig]
of
You
5F.
and hence,
in turn,
bound
to
We
Two
incline.
normal
forces act
on
to the (frictionless)
These are
in different
we wished, introduce horizontal and vertical coordinates x and y and write equations for
F = ma that would define the components az and a y of the
block must accelerate.
could,
if
vector acceleration a
Ncosd
N
It is clear,
= ma
= ma x
siri
however, that a
in this case to
is
and
it is
representing distance
in
F sin 6
N-
cos 6
the
we
tions gives us
= g sin
Fig. 7-3
Forces acting on a
191
the forces
= ma
=
If
simpler
Some
introductory examples
first
of these equa-
Fig. 7-4
BIock at
respect to
resi with
an accelerating elevator;
apparent weight.
Example
A block sits on a
4: BIock in an elevator.
package
down?
it.
They
are:
Va =
N =
The package
is
is
what we
N. The
measwed
weight
{W) of
the
block.
If the elevator
acceleration a,
la
it)
has an
measured as positive
w requires
Thus,
if
velocity
the elevator
upward
is
stationary or
on
the block.
m(g
N=
is
But
if
is
equal to
we have
a)
192
on
it.
One
will
often
on the
of the
feet,
the elevator
is
is
acceleration
Similarly,
soles
when
the elevator
if
is
slowing
when
when it
upward
down
in its
acquires
(upward) acceleration,
little
If the elevator
heart
onc's
and
tissues to
is
a simple example
apply
F = ma
to
it
alone.
is
free to
surface.
the situation?
P,
and the
common
to both
mass
P =
is rtii
(mi
plus
m2
Hence we have
+ mi)a
This at once
tells
we can imagine an
masses. Next,
Ti
and
isolation
In Fig. 7-5
Two
applied to
its
ends.
con-
193
Some
is
boundary surrounding
we
is
introduetory examples
The sum of
its
must
Assuming
these forces
acceleration
a.
the string.
what
is
worth noting
is,
any
that, in
is
would
at the
Finally,
and
m2
isolation boundaries
around
T = m\a
P T = mza
Adding
these equations,
we
But
if
we take
motion of
Once again
these problems.
T in
terms of
we
shall
But
if
own
way
in
which
they will be
MOTION
IN
F = mz.
TWO DIMENSIONS
Ali the examples in the last section dealt with motion along one
is
situation at
force
in
It is
occurs when
directions.
the acceleration a
is
The
a constant
velocity
example of
this
procedure
is
194
'
Accelerating
Vertical
Fluorescent
deflectins
screen
plates
anode
(a)
Controlgrid-
Focusing anode
Horizontal
deflecting
Glasswallof tube
plates
Vertical deflection
Fluorescent
plates (simplified)
screen
Resultant
deflection
from central
axis
(b)
Fig.
7-6
Diagram of
(a)
cathode-ray tube.
the
(b) Simplified
is
Let us consider
ray tube.
this as a
beam
in a cathode-
dynamical problem.
a schematic diagram of
is
well-focused
beam
strike
beam
principal features.
some
transversely
if
away from
We
shall
transverse deflection,
The
'We
shall
electron
make
gun
in a real oscilloscope.
(2nd
195
ed.),
Motion
in
two dimensions
tential difference
eV
(where e
is
gitudinal velocity
it
acquires a lon-
component v 2 given by
= eVo
jn?,fi
(7-2)
Therefore,
is
We
shall
an electron were
it
on
by the transverse
it
in
its z
co-
applied
is
plates.
plate to another,
electric force
Fy
If
we suppose
the plates
to be parallel
to their
points between the plates, so that the gain of energy would also
Fv d.
be given by
Hence we have
=^d
Given
Fv
this value of
between the
plates,
md
How
plates.
zontal
component of
passage
its
it
be deflected?
This will
of the plates
is
/,
and the
hori-
given simply by
is
]_
Vz
From Eq.
we
196
(7-1)
sy
vov t
+ \a
2
cari
yt
md\vj
(7-2),
mvz 2 /e
is
2V
just
so
we
obtain
IL
(7-3)
it
plates.
The
resultant displace-
ment away from the central axis of the spot on the fluorescent
screen may bc found from trigonometric considerations. The z and
y components of the displacement of the electron while between
the plates are given
z
by
o,
is
no further force on
it
and
it
= aj =
plates.
is its
an
transverse velocity
Now we
have
Y as the
eV
%
i
eVI
VI
vz
mdo?
IVad
to the screen
is
thus given by
r-*?-g
2Vod
(7-4)
v,
If
/,
as
is
[sensitivity
AU
we can
of an actual oscilloscope
We may note
(7-4).
sensitivity
in
Any
It
and
remains
true,
which the deflection depends on the accelerating and deflecting voltages, and also, in a less specific way,
197
indicate the
way
Molion
two dimensions
in
in
MOTION
IN
A CIRCLE
The problem of
circular
motion
is
it
F =
it
of the acceleration
is
is
component
we suppose that
around a circle of radius r at a
Such a motion can be set up, for
first
an object of mass
is
traveling
object
nitude
is
We know
o' /r.
is
of mag-
F = ma =
(7-5)
we have
the string
magnitude,
7-7
And
it
will
198
T in
would
is
Fig.
now
free of forces
along a tangent.
S*
>
n*
u e
To center
of curve
~^j
/
/
/
/
/r
F.
(b)
Rjf.
7-5
(a)
m front.
practical
this type.
presents an important
and
is
banked
at
an angle a
as
shown
in Fig. 7-8(b).
with speed
v,
of banking
is
to
make
it
/r.
diagram
The purpose
some
on
it
were horizontal.
(And
i.e.,
would have to be
thcre
if
would be no
F = wa, we have
Nsina =
r
(7-6)
Ncosa Replacing
tana
Fa
=
for a,
we
find that
(7-7)
gr
199
Motion
in
a circlc
of a frictional force
nitude
ij.N)
perpendicular to
banked surface
(see
Problem 7-17).
changes
its
speed as
travels
it
it
the path.
component of
acceleration tangent to
is
in
easily
component of
a,
(r is the radius
of
curvature)
transverse acceleration)
}
a$
,-
lim
a<-.o
= do
Al
the change of
di
is
magnitude (only)
of the velocity
vector]
(7-8)
With only
slight rcinterpretation,
we may apply
these results
and
u to
mean
and the speed, the above expressions are perfectly general. They
give the instantaneous acceleration components tangent to the
as
200
we have
diseussed.
is
in faet
(i.e.,
centripetal),
Arbitrary path
Fig. 7-9
for
graph turntable as
example of a
it
particle
starts
components.
celeration
(Fig. 7-10)
(a r
is
the
1'
2
.
is
we
of a string, so as to bring
circular
motion
(as, for
it
from
rest
the
hammer") we
(1)
and
Fig.
(2)
7-10
vector
ofa
Net acceleration
particle attached to
201
mv 2 /r
Fig. 7-11
Pariide tracels in a
To
in-
PO'
circle.
supplied by
it
circle.
To
fiil
this
if the
con-
is
This
tinually
path, as indicated.
the
instinctively in practice.
IN
the
circular
motion
The separate
section
is
is
the
fields.
F mag =
where q
moving
magnetic
(7-9)
is
now imagine
Let us
q,
X B
in the
fieid
plane of
this page, in
points perpendicularly
a region
down
in
which the
F = qvB
This
is
(7-10)
a pure deflccting
particle's
motion.
change, but
its
although there
ticle
202
Hence
force,
Thus,
no center of
[Fig.
(b)
(a)
Fig.
in
7-12
(a)
circular path
tracks ofelectrons
and posilrons
is
the paih
MeV going
a cloud chamber.
in
ofan
eleclron of inilial
loses energy.
7-1 2(a)].
The
centripetal acceleration
is
law we have
qvB
mu
whence
mo
Thus
203
(7-11)
Charged
particles in
is
a mcasure of the
uniform magnetic
momentum mv
ftelds
in a given
nuclear physicist's
magnetic
method
for
This fact
field.
determining the
or bubble chamber
circular track which
known.
is
qvB = mwv
or
o>
% = 1B
which
is
(7-12)
mass of the
led
him
fre-
magnetic
a fixed
particle.
Lawrence that
is
The angular
It
in
first
cyclotron, in
field
The holdmeans
of constant frequency.
of a magnetic
field is
an
essential feature of
most high-energy
nuclear accelerators.
in
we can imagine
ular to
a plane perpendicular to
But
if this
v to be resolved into
condition
7-13
parallel to B.
Helical
having a velocity
vs
component parallel
t o a magnetic field.
204
(Jsing
Newton's
lavv
not
is,
of
satisfied,
Fig.
is
const.
The
it;
latter,
by
the former
in precisely the
perpendicular to
CHARGED PARTICLE
It is
IN
is
fixed circle, as
described above.
Thus
shown
in Fig. 7-13.
A MAGNETIC FIELD
a matter of experimental
particle
way
is
an
fact that
electrically
in space, experience
charged
a force when
moving which is abscnt if it is at the same point but staThe cxistence of such a force depends on the presence
somewhere in the neighborhood (although perhaps quite far
it is
tionary.
away) of magnets or
The
force
is
[cf.
Fig. 7-14]:
The
force
is
is
3.
is
force
reversed
is
The force
amount of charge,
reverses
if
is
For motion
parallel to
tion in which a
W at that point.
(o) Situa-
of zero force
in
Field direction
magnet ic field.
(b) General veetor
relationship
ity,
of veloc-
magnetic field,
(b)
205
align itself.
at a given
is
zero.
size
v.
Field direction
tions
q,
It is called
Fig. 7-14
the
reversed.
5.
if
reversed.
of the force
4.
The
proportional to the
charge
Detailed observations
electric currents.
Charged
particle in a
magnetic
field
force
is
field
direction.
6.
The magnitude of
the force
is
and the
field direction.
summarized
in a very
compaet
mathematical statement.
field
way
by the
it
may be of
(Note
normal to the plane
Then the value of F, in both magnitude and
either sign
is
and that F
is
F =
We
vXB
of the magnetic
this
field
with a speed of
1) to a
charge of
moving
N.
MASS SPECTROGRAPHS
The
magnetic
field
make
The
and second
whercas the
on
electric force
in
the
charged partiele
is
not.
fmag =
first
in the
is
is
proportional to
given by
(7-13)
is
$<-'
206
manner deseribed
Fa =
in
all
as a velocity selector
last seetion.
q/m
in opposite direetions
by
Fig.
7-15
(a)
spectrometer.
Exampfe ofisolopic
separalion
and
207
Mass spcctrographs
There
is
field at right
field.
(7-14)
Bd
Figure 7-15(a)
that uses a velocity
is
filter
in a semicircular
alone.
field
path
Figure 7 15(b)
possibility of fracture
they
portion of
it
as a wheel
is
rotating, every
Suppose, for
required.
is
is
rotating about
Then
any small section of the hoop, such as the one shown shaded,
by
its
Fig.
7-16
2irn
(a) Rotat-
a small
ele-
208
is
defined
its
mass, m, multiplied
by the equation
If
ar
(7-15)
isolation
diagram
shown shaded
portion of material
on
it
on
'
via
at
its
contact with
to the
Am
must be supplied
exerted
given by
lirrn
we make an
be tangential
is
if
the force
radially outward,
with which
it
was
in
But
Am
portions such as
asymmetries of
in
this kind.)
Thus we can
a uniform hoop,
is
no
by
all
any
basis for
T at each
it
end.
subtends
an angle A0, equal to As/r, at the center O, and each force has a
Thus
component equal
= Am
27"sin(A0/2)
Putting sin(A0/2)
7"A0
^ Am
r
i.e.,
T ~ Am
or
7" A.?
Let us
o2
Am
now
(7-16)
Am
is
A,
If the
we have
Am = pAAs
'We
shall
assume
gible strength.
209
The
negli-
Eq. (7-15), we
CM7)
T = 4trV<
Now,
from
lirrn
an cxperimental
it is
rod of a given
if
that a
hoop of
the kind
above which
ratc of rotation,
it
will burst.
We
have, in fact,
1/2
Wmox
iw
(7-18)
and
The
ultimate strength
its
is
is
N/m 2
about 10
hoop of radius 1 ft
about 7600 kg/m 3
steel
density of steel
rpm much
faster
However, the
up to a
shall
an object
now
is
motion opposed by
a resistive force,
but has
an object
is
and so on.
its
pulled along a
in
Typical of such
moving
a funetion of
must be written
as follows:
F -
= m
R(o)
As we saw
in fact nearly
that
Chaptcr
-=
Usili;
5,
independent of
we can put
R(c)
210
in
(7-19)
const.
Newton's
la
is
Resistive
force
Fig.
7-17
(o) Dric-
Driving force
Driving force
mg and resistive
RW
Frictional force
by dryfric-
(b) Dricing
and
object resisted
ff
an
by
"m
fluid friction.
(b)
(a)
MHHHnfflBH
MBBHHBHBimiHHi
The
Eqs. (7-1).
situation
is
o,
as
by the
relation
In this case,
the force
force
is
= Ac
R(c)
(7-20)
we consider an
if
,
Bv 2
object starting out
FJm,
is
from
rest
under
it
is
because as soon
exposed, in
its
m
dt
Fq
Av
One must be
Bu
(7-21)
A, B, and v are
what
careful to consider
all
taken to be positive.
is
reversed.)
The
is
not at
all
awkward
solution to an
to
plunge into
stead, this
211
is
all
are
now
We
do not intend
a suitable
Motion against
Wc
differential equation.
moment
In-
resistive forces
proximate numerical
methods in
have a good
some
method
in
Chapter
it.
First,
We
outlined
however,
let
we
us consider
with slope
2.
As c
/m.
increases,
There
is
(Fig. 7-18).
foree.
It is
seeted
by a horizontal
Algebraically,
7-17(b)].
it
is
equal to
is
inter-
[see Fig.
equation
Ao - F =
B v*
(What
is
and why
is
it
to be
discarded?)
is
approached (and
in principle
if
and
it is
Fig.
7-18
ccrtainly
lo terminal
Asymplolic approach
speed for object in a
fluid resislice
212
medium.
traveling under zero net force. This basic dynamical fact tends to
motion once
it
is
the large
In order to see
(7-21)]
works
feature
in
their
dependence on the
Fig. 7-19).
that
we have
A = C\r
B = C 2 r'2
and thus
R(v)
C\ro
+ C2'V
(7-22)
become equal
at a critical
Vc
(7-23)
c 2r
We know
picture if v
Fig.
7-19
Bv 2 /Av
(a) Linear
a small
object, with
viscous resistance
predominant.
(b) Similar
graphfor
predominates at
a/l
213
v),
dominate the
but we know
much
>
in excess of vc (say v
If the resistive
medium
10uc ) the
the
is air,
ci
c2
Thus,
if
0.87
10- 4
3.1
kg/m
kgm-
sec
_1
we have
expressed in meters,
is
...
3.6
v c (m/sec)
10~ 4
,, ...
(7-24)
is
in free fail
problems of practical
(we
interest
shall consider
in
resisting
^
di
The
F - B
(7-25)
resistive term,
Bv 2
is
motion of
putting dv/dt
tional force,
radius
in
we
if
The
:s
pr
c 2r
4(2.5
is
2
)
Bu, 2
10
(10"
2 3
)
for
an object of
in the
10" 2 kg
The value of
this size is
about 10
the coef-
-4
kg/m.
equation
find
Vi
Under
214
by
B (=
F -
:!
we
set
value of
ficient
mg.
of water,
This
30 m/sec
fail, this
speed would
be attained
about 150
We
appreciably
significant
than these.
Iess
problems of
meets
become quite
sistance
ized
in a
ft.
free fail
within
under
re-
many
of the ideal-
in his first
now
Let us
to handle the
Given a computer,
these problems.
it is
almost as
full
it
is
little
trouble
form.
We
and
will
in
A/,
of Af. In the simplest approach, we assume that the acceleration during each small interval remains constant at the value
(n)
Thus, for an
is
The
end
At
initial
is
set
of this interval
thus given by
Using
ci
2 At
02
At:
m Cl
tfo
given by
is
We know
this
we
Applying
aoA/
this velocity,
ai
F Jm).
(=
equal to a
velocity Vi at the
first
vi
fli
At
that the
first
The
calculated values
x +i
215
vAt
Fig.
7-20
(d) Basis
ofsimple ealculation
of acceleration versus
time for objecl start-
ingfrom
resistive
resi
n a
medium.
The acceleration
is
{b)lmproved
interval.
=
=
=
x\
X2
X3
ro A/
(clearly
x\
oi
X2
CiAt
At
an underestimate)
vi At
would be the
result
of
n.
more
is
1)
At
is set
Fig. 7-21
(a) Veloc-
on
velocities at the
Improved graph
based on velocities
evaluated at midpoints of the time
intervals.
216
-J)
At.
v n +i
a n+ i /2 A/
*+l
Vn+i /2 &l
This looks
fine,
but
(7-26)
of the
first interval,
were able to
and a
Fig.
7-22
(a)
.)
start
We are
Com-
parison ofidealized
(resistanceless)
and
aclual dependence
of
of
radius l cm.
(b) Idealized
and
by such a pebble.
217
initial
conditions v
little,
although we
are
still Ieft
V112
vn 2 from
What we do
is
the equation
(7-27)
o -z
and then we are under way. Figures 7-20(b) and 7-21 (b) show
what this method means in terms of graphs of a and v against
time.
of speed and distance with time for our 1-cm-radius pebble falling
in air,
frce-fall
for comparison.
we
such as particlcs of dust, then, in contrast to the situations discussed above, the resistance
is
due almost
of radius
v.
If,
m (= 10
we con-
for cxample,
-6
and Bo
bccome equal,
is
alone,
writtcn, without
and
Av
controlled by viscous
any appreciable
form:
*
m di mFo -Ao
(7-28)
with
A =
c\r
air.
known, the
resistive
driving foree
foree
is
it
at v
218
electric
Fig.
7-23
experiment.
In order to apply
electric forces to
Two
by
of a battery.
'
The force on a
q anywhere be-
given by
where
is
particle of charge
(7-29)
is
If
is
and d
is
is
measured in coulombs,
Thus
a dynamic balance
cathode-ray oscilloscope,
p.
up between this
force Av-, we should have
were
set
q-j=
a
The
Ad,
if
and the
resistive
ciru,
droplets
of various sizes.
195.)
are
for
his experiments were the smallest (partially because they had the
own
weight).
were so
no
direct
their
size.
between the
Fo =
plates.
mg =
Under
these conditions
y pr g
where p
is
speed of
fail
voltage
we have
under gravity
is
kg/m 3 ). The
terminal
then given by
Millikan himself used plates about 20 cm across and 1 cm apart and several
thousand volts. Most modern versions of the apparatus use smaller values
of all three quantities.
219
Motion governed by
viscosity
4jt
y pr g =
(Gravitational)
cirDB
(7-30)
Putting r
f
10
lju
-4
i?
10
m/sec
-0
10 r 2
find
(u in m/sec,
(
m)
in
m, we have
0.1
mm/sec
we
It
term Bo 2
is
motions as
(It is clear,
sistive
is
utterly negligible.)
stability
of this system,
it
up.
Conversely,
motion of a
if it
If
little,
air,
being
If
a net
is
it is
there
behavior would
made up
of individual
homogeneous
fluid.
In
some
is
and sign
will
if
we measure
velocity in both
is
velocities
magnitude
mg + *r- cm,
where
motion of
(7-31)
and q is the net charge on the drop (positive or negative). Although in principle the terminal velocity is approached but never
quite reached (see Fig. 7-18), the small droplets under the conditions of the Millikan experimcnt do, in effect, reach this speed
much
less
than
msec
in
most cases
220
Using Ncwton's
lavv
'
for
many
which to puli
it
up or down
its electric
at will.
charge as a handle by
The
tained.
crucial observation
was that
in
set
of sharp and
comes
itself
in discrete units.
obtained the
first
elementary charge.
You
method
on a charged
principle be possible to hang such
measure the
electric
force exerted
would in
on a balance and measure the force in a
However, in practice, when only a few
static arrangement.
elementary charges are involved, the forces are extremely weak
and such a method is not feasible. For example, the force on a
After
particle.
an
all, it
electrified particle
cm
charge of 10 elementary
between them,
is
units,
between plates
13
N,
only about 10~
resistive fluid
medium
What happens
value.
We can
rises asymptotically
if
is
suddenly removed?
speed
is
If the initial
sistance alone
and
=
m
dt
is
governed by a
is set
special, simplified
re-
form of
equal to zero:
Av
(7-32)
or
do
=
dt
where a
'For his
at)
= A/m.
own
full
see R. A. Millikan,
221
in a
Series),
Chicago, 1963.
rcsisted
motion
Fig.
7-24
Growth
ofa parlicle
controlled by a vis-
cous
resistiue force
proportional to v.
You may
equation of
not,
is
recognizc Eq.
all
you may
how
this
Whether you do or
like to see
number
1)A/
proportional to the
is
mean
n At and
interval:
Au =
Solving
t;
v n+ i
we have
this,
+i
-*~-"\2) At
+ a Al/2
aAt/2 _
where/is a constant
ratio, less
and putting k =
1
fO
o(t)
t/At,
we
(= k
Al)
is
If the
given by
thus get
aAr/2\
a At/l)
l/Ai
we
made shorter and shorter, and their
number correspondingly greater. To simplify the discussion, we
We
shall
now
shall put
aAt =
222
The quantity
approach
is
oi/=
Besides substituting
u(l),
we
we
shall
allow to
infinity.
exponent t/At by
its
equivalent
Thus we have
quantity, azt.
/l
\/2z\
a"
\TTtj2z)
\i -r i/^z/
i.e.,
o (0
tfO/>
where
As z
increases, the
made
is
number p
larger
and
clearly ap-
is
TABLE 7-1
Decimal value of p
y(z)
0/3)'
0.3333
(3/5)
0.3600
(5/7)3
0.3644
(7/9)*
0.3659
(9/1 l) 5
0.3667
(19/21)'
0.3676
10
this value is
famous number
0.367879
and
is
the
(= 2.71828
.), which forms
or Napierian logarithms. Thus in Eq. (7-32)
e
we can put
lim p(z)
0.367879
-1
e
Z*X
223
v(i):
v(t)
The
reciprocal of
v e~'
(7-34)
in
Eq. (7-34)
resisteci
is
molion
We can
m_
ar
air,
for
t,
the ex-
is
express this in
terminal velocity of
much more
fail
vivid terms
under gravity, vg
by introducing
the
we have
mg
"'w
It
(7-35)
Thus t
is
a velocity equal
free fail.
this
under conditions of
/j.,
For example,
v(t)
and put
v
voe-'
we take
if
falls
ir
(7-36)
becomes
less
than 10
-4
toward
its
terminal velocity
is o,
v(l)
If
oAl
t v
u(0
the approach to
is
it,
In
under these
described by
- e-" T )
(7-37)
this in the
form
lir
(
explicitly
how
closely the
224
of
AIR RESISTANCE
When
projectile
made
It
a great contribution
may
be worth pointing
down
of ordinary
size.
is
At a given
instant let
the horizontal,
its
velocity v be directed at
as shown." The
gravitational force, F,
and a
object
an angle
above
is
of magnitude
m -^= -R z
= -Bo 2 cose
at
dCy
= mg
m-^
Since v cos 6
vz ,
_ 2
Bu
and v
n
sin 6
sin 6
vu ,
we can
=
do*
\
- la
{BojOm
m- = -mg dt
(flOPy
velocity
is
a)
ferent
Fig.
7-25
partiele
225
The
larger
this cross
the magnitude of v,
Resistive
moving
in
the
total
motion of a
falling
really
dif-
cannot
a vertical plane.
to the horizontal
component.
who
Recognition of
this fact
may
be
there
is
same
horizontally at the
The
first?
Which one
is
fired off
fast horizontal
it in
will
is
demonstrably
false,
isn't
Notice that
Moral: Beware of
if
the resistance
is
facile idealizations.
may depend
critically
on
of a mass
to
its
confined to the
F(x)
all
dynamical problems
that
is
by a force proportional
the motion is assumed to be
axis
If
we have
= -kx
(7
~38)
would normally
rest at a position in
226
is
neither
into play
in either direction is
The constant k
is
by a
then well
(a)
7-26
Fig.
(a)
horizontal surface.
(b)
vertical
(c)
'
from
this equilibrium
of
its
new
The
mg) propor-
ya).
mass
we
shall just
He
first
later
it
227
was!
d\
Rewriting
(7-39)
this as
we
d x
dfi
k/m
recognize that
Denoting
dfi
We can
is
this
by w
2
,
our
is
2
.
becomes
= W X
(7-40)
i(
di \<//^
i)
in a small interval
of time At
2
- - CO X
and so
(f)~- w! xM
This
is
defined
Fig.
7-27
Chapter
3).
Displace-
motion.
228
(7-41)
originally
Suppose, to be
x = x
and v
Then
7-27.
(=
at time
xo
i>o
- w 2 A;oAr
x
rfx
we
that
specific,
dx/di)
both
with
shown
in Fig.
out at
start
positive, as
A/ we have
f o Ar
As
long as x
we go from
if
dx/dt
2.
to
negative
is
The
graph has
Using
as
more
change of dx/dt
it
gets smaller;
proportional to x.
is
The
it
becomes
less
and as x
x becomes
negative, dx/dt
these considerations,
a curve that
positive
is
a straight line.
As soon
negative or
\idx/dt
becomes almost
3.
is,
Several
A/. That
it
rate of
its
is
Using
less.
on.
we can
is
axis), necessarily
(i.e.,
the
Now
x = A
where
is
sin(af
the
^o)
maximum
value attained by
Testing this
fit
(time)
the value of
trial function
-1
at
0.
/:
= aA
cos(atf
at
+ <^o)
.2
= -2 =
at
We see
a = w.
229
oc
sin(a/
<f>o)
fit,
final result:
= A
x(t )
Equation (7-42a)
what
is
1/2
(7-42a)
harmonic
called a
is
what
is
The
oscillator.
is
ip
w =
is
equation of motion
this
at
where
constant
-ay
+ *?o)
sin(w/
The
instant.
is
0).
result represented
by Eq. (7-42a)
= A
cos(at
<p'
/:
(7-42b)
<p'
This form of the
some purposes.
is
is
for
characterized by
its
period, T, which
end of which
T is
readily obtained
Eqs. (7-42) by noting that each time the phase angle (at
tpi
2vr
ip
cycle of variation.
<pi
x and
from
+
o>(/i +
uti
</>o
T)
vo
Therefore, by subtraction,
2w = 10T
or
'
/'
(r)
!-(!)'
The form of
and
if
more
result
this
knowledge that
if
the spring
is
(7-43)
madc
stiffcr (largcr
more
slowly,
rapid.
Example.
a fixed point.
When
a mass of 2 kg
is
is
stretched by 3 cm.
What
is
the period
230
we
The
gravitational
force
on the mass
of
extension
is
9.8
m; therefore,
we then have
0.03
N.
19.6
= 653 N/m.
19.6/0.03
1/2
""
'-*(&)
(You might
like to
=- 35!sec
note that
cm when a
mass
Any
will
certain
is
this
hung on
it
same mass.
Why?)
We
initial
x.
position,
we
initial
A and
A and
<p
>n
Eq- (7-42).
<po
and v we
as follows:
Eq. (7-42a),
= A sin(co/ +
=
we
phase. If
From
as the
Most commonly we
and the initial
x
= wA
^
dt
ifio)
cos(o>/
+ *>o)
(7-44)
Therefore,
xo
Vq
= A sin v>o
= o>A cos v>o
It follows that
1/2
'-k+(?)T
tan^o =
oixo
oo
231
More about
(7-45)
geometrical representation of
There
is
basic connection
very
Imagine that
7-28(a).
peg
will
way of
SHM.
u about a
angular speed
that a peg
SHM
vertical axis
mounted on
is
Then,
if
the disk
through
its
center.
Suppose
shown
in Fig.
to ut
<pq.
SOP
in Fig.
as
it
travels
7-28(c)
is
around the
is
equal
seen as the
circle.
The
peg has a velocity v that changes direction but always has the
magnitude u A.
(7-44).
7-28
Fig.
a uniformly
disk.
(a)
Thus
Resolving v parallel to
the
Peg on
rotating
(b) Displace-
Detailed relation
of circular motion
to
simple harmonic
motion.
232
Ox
sponds
along the
Dynamical
performing
SHM
axis.
relation
between
motion of a harmonic
oscillator
may
be.
particle of
A by means
v,
mass
is
of a string attached
If the particle
given by
mv
T=
~A
Now
and the
acceleration,
total acceleration at
any instant
doing
Fig.
7-29
this,
because
and
a,
Dynamical
relationship between
and
circular motion
linear
harmonic
motion.
233
More about
nitudes.)
mu
cos e
Fx = - T cos e =
ax
cos 8
motion with
SHM, we
uA.
We
Fx and
ax
putting v
and
then have
Fx - mco 2 Acosd = mw 2x
ax = u 2 Acos8 = u 2 x
The
first
was our
exactly to
d x
Thus we
every respect.
dynamical correspondence
It tells us,
is
complete in
if
we wished,
go the other way and treat a uniform circular motion as a superposition of two simple harmonic motions at right angles. This
is, in fact, an extremely important and useful procedure in some
contexts, although
we
it
up here
and now.
PROBLEMS
7-1
Two
identical gliders,
speed and
tow rope
is 7"o.
A and B immediately
234
What
Two
7-2
on a horizontal
table.
M as shown.
to block
blocks, of masses
and the
There
m =
2 kg, are
F =
in
contact
is
applied
be-
block
first
kg and
is
7-3
mass
sled of
is
surface of snow.
It
Draw an
on
at angle 8
The
isolation
W exerted on
diagram showing
all
the sled.
F = ma
(b)
horizontal and
vertical
the
for
(c)
terms of P,
6,
m,
n,
and
g.
(d)
in
the
biggest acceleration.
7-4
it
is
mi
block of mass
on a
rests
eyelet, to a
mi
that rests
on
a frictionless incline
Draw
(a)
tion of
and write
the equa-
(b)
(c)
in the string
jt/2,
pected results.
7-5
In the figure,
F acts on
(a)
it
is
An
external force
as indicated.
and left-hand
and the
tensions.
(b)
What
relation
among
the motions of m.
M, and P
is
pro-
Use
the
above
results
and
F.
Check
make
simplified situations.
A man
move without
235
Problems
is
raising himsclf
frietion,
tilting effects
of the platform.
Assume g = 10m/sec 2
(a) What are the tensions
.
(b)
Draw
draw a separate
isolation
What
clearly indicate
all
direction.
its
is
and C?
man and
in the ropes A, B,
on
the
man
by the
platform ?
7-7
is
balanced by the
masses 3mo and 2mo, which are connected by a string over a pulley
of negligible mass and prevented from moving by the string
the figure).
e.g.,
if
the string
is
(see
suddenly severed,
"S
5i
3i
2m
7-8
prisoner in
jail
He
down
rope to a hook outside his window; the bottom end of the rope hangs
If the
the least velocity with which he can reach the ground, starting from
7-9
(a)
length by
means of a
force
is
fric-
F pulling
it
its
an expression
mass
is
Assuming
the mass of the rope to be w, calculate the tension for the horizontal
and
vertical cases.
236
-07
-K
o-
momentarily
Wilh
zerc.
the voltage
if
on
equal to 2.449
10
Hz
(1
Hz =
equal to
at a frequency
cycle/sec), Kirchner
found that
when
Under
these
(K
was
set at
1735 V.
to
one
(b)
(c)
way between
the front
and
is
to have
rear axles. It
How
known
when
is
the car
its
driven
up
a 20 incline.
is
child sleds
10
ft.)
down a snowy
hillside, starting
from
rest.
The
The
hill
child starts 50
the ride.
7-13
beam
parallel plates, 3
mm
apart and 2
It is
cm when 100 V
if
long.
cm
Vo on
the electron
gun?
What must
(Show
first,
be
in
237
is that
Problem s
used on p. 197.)
7-14
ball
known
It is
of mass
is
made
table, is
/.
The
ball,
supported by a frictionless
7-75
cm
mass of 100 g
is
long.
circle
Draw a
(a)
mass
You
7-16
all
on the
for
in a horizontal direction,
Red Baron
is
just 300
ft
with-
stand only 4 g's of acceleration before blacking out, whereas you can
withstand 5
down
g's,
You
dive straight
Assume
comes
is
constant after you start to puli out and that the acceleration you
experience in the are
will follow
is
Since
5 g's.
you know
that the
Red Baron
you, you are assured he will black out and crash. Assuming
initial
point (but with initial speeds given above), to what altitude must
Assuming
must
a poor shot
down,
in trying to follow
will
and must
ft
that the
recall reading
if
on your plane?
7-17
curve of 300
of 25 m/sec
is
55
mph)
What
(b)
The
radius
on a
level
Red Baron
you
your subsequent
road
is
Is
at this speed.
bank ?
tires and road can provide a maximum
tangential force equal to 0.4 of the force normal to the road surface.
What is the highest speed at which the car can takc this curve without
is
the angle of
frietion
between
skidding?
7-18
238
large
mass
M hangs
(stationary) at the
end of a
string that
passes through a
a circular
from m to the top end of the tube
in
Write
down
the
must
dynamical equations that apply to each mass and show that
v2
Consider
whether
time
of
2ir(lm/gM)
orbit
in
a
complete one
.
there
is
any
7-19
model rocket
restriction
rests
motion.
on a
/
in this
and is
moves
/.
The string will break if its
The rocket engine provides a thrust F of
The
constant magnitude along the rocket's direction of motion.
in
from
rcst at
0, at
what
(b)
What was
(c)
What
/ 1 is
the rocket
acceleration at time
when
later time
7-20
It
equator
is
about 0.3
or 3
10
-5
MKS
(at.
With
units (N-sec/C-m).
(i.e.,
orbit
lead
7-21
1.6
atom have
to be accelerated to give
form of a
it
239
Problems
singly ionized
The maximum
is
speed ?
in the
frictional
equal to a fraction n of
wali.
to avoid slipping
down?
(b)
At what angle
(c)
If
to the horizontal
(<p)
must he be inclined?
m,
is
at
the
cyclist
air.
valid over a
It is
R(c)
-4rJ
3.1
10
0.87/-V
N, r
is in
in
1%
determined within
by the
first
term alone
R(v)l
(b)
determined within
(c)
were no
If there
rest before
7-23
An
paratus.
oil
experiment
The
mm
When
is
radii,
mm
is
made 1100 V
is its
net charge,
1.6
plates un-
from one
line to
10" 19 C.)
What voltage would hold
fail
What
What
is
With the
apart.
deduccd
7-24
Assume
charges? (e
(c)
(b)
mm.
from
apart.
kg/m 3
two horizontal
(a)
fail
is
plates are 8
charged, a droplet
distance.
it
the other.
air resistance,
[Use the
in part (b)].
Two
R and
equal charges q.
The
in
Iarger sphere
is
resistive force
i>o
and
on a sphere of radius
vi, the
vo (down-
lm (upward).
r at
As-
speed o
is
7-25 Analyze
in
240
Using Ncwion's
lavv
Do you
ground.
about
inside) of
cm
7500
kg/m 3 .)
air-filled toy
0.5 g.
of an
it
7-27
is
What
(b)
The
(c)
and
the 2-kg
What
0.
cm
When
is
cm and
table.
then
is
is
with a speed of
what would be
7-28
a mass of 2 kg
spring
I f,
x =
is
cm when
is
released at
x,
extended by 10
(a)
The mass
off at
pression
the
the equation of
mass
is
doubled
motion?
diagram
in
//.
What
is
AH
diagram (b)?
(a),
shown
individual springs
are identical.
7-29
Any
submerged
in a fluid,
rn: _L
n
2m
cylinder of density p
length
/ is
floating with
its
is
buoyed
uniform
axis vertical, in a
7-30
(a)
and
fluid.
(a)
(b)
at
when
7-31
is
of length
SHM
L and
under
is
that the
mass
in
mass
is
attached
motion of amplitude
A and
is
period T.
vertical,
is
what
is
horizontal,
is
string
a distance
is
The
constant tension T.
deseribes
is p.,
what
is
the
value of
and the
the
maximum
coefficient of frietion
maximum
value of
that
200 kg give
it
How
far
passengers, each of
241
Problems
mass 75
(b)
The
road whcn
2
in.
it
car with
its
passengers
is
Assume
in.
before the
body of the car begins to movc upward. In the ensuing rebound, are
the passengers thrown clear of their seats? Consider the maximum
acceleration of the resulting simple
242
harmonic motion.
in
we must,
in
and all
likewise
in like
manner towards
conseauence of this
rule, universally
moon
of mutual gravitation.
newton,
Principia (1686)
Universal gravitation
we have
built
it is
first
to establish.
in
In a
now
consider, as a topic
splendid example of
its
We
and displacements.
own
shall
and most
how
and
historically
study of motions.
It is
convcnient,
The
sense that
the law of force that governs the motion of objects near the
earth's surface
is
Newton was
The proof
that
the
true planetary
law of
force.
orbits,
which are
explained by an inverse-square
we
fully,
245
Newton himself
had
originally
to)
how
which
is
close to
its
surface.
We
shall present
Chapter
in
is
11,
where
discussed.
this special
The
third
is
something that we
shall not
go into
how
motions of the
and Saturn
By
this
we mean
enough span
We
known.
same
position in
uses.
Let us
more
The
first
thing to recognize
is
that,
to a
all
depends
now look
it
is
the
From
approximation, as a small
whose
That
for these
two
of the epicycle [Fig. 8-1 (a)] to travel once around the deferent
i.e., the same time that it takes the sun
is exactly 1 solar year
The planets Mercury and Venus never get far from the
sun. They are always found within a limited angular range from
the line joining the earth to the sun (about 22J for Mercury,
2.
246
Universal gravitation
of
.'/.'(
Venus always
earlh.
range
$m
angular
of the
sun's direction.
(6) Heliocentric
picture
of the same
situation.
46
for Venus).
Both of these
for if
we go over
We
8 l(b)].
circle
own
orbit
this
accounted
we can proceed
to
may
make
orbit of the
be).
Given
quantitative in-
This
Thus
we
maximum
equation
sin
(rB
The radius of
>
(8-la)
r)
is
mea-
suring other astronom ical distances, and has long been used
for this purpose:
1
astronomical unit
(AU)
mean
(1.496
247
The
we
then have
distance
from earth
X 10" m)
to sun
For Mercury:
For Venus:
When
it
sin 225
sin 46
AU
0.72 AU
0.38
linked to the sun's position; they progress through the full 360
with respect to the earth-sun line. This can be readily explained
if
we interchange
epicycle
sun.
is
now
is
taken to be the
and the
is
now
Thus
0m
of the epicycle
is
^=sin-
(rB
<
(8-1 b)
r)
in
which the
(8-la).
roles
of
and
1,
and
6, respectively.
These would
esc 6
For Mars:
For
Jupiter:
For Saturn:
esc 11
AU
5.2 AU
9.5 AU
1.5
Thus with the Copernican seheme (and this was its great triumph)
construct
it became possible to use the long-established data to
Fig.
8-2
(a)
Motions
from
The
angle 8 m here
charaeterizes the
magnitude of the
retrograde (epicyclic)
motion.
(6) Helio-
centric picture
same
of the
situation.
248
Universal gravitation
Fig.
8-3
Universe
according lo
Copernicus.
(Reproduced from
his hisloric work,
De
Revolutionibus.)
a picture
distance
historic
his
too,
1400 years before him) were actually far too good to permit a
simple picture of the planets describing circular paths at constant speed around a
common
center.
was
offset
Thus Copernicus
how
carried
this
problem, but
shall
this,
not discuss
as
its
when he recognized
compIexities.
PLANETARY PERIODS
The problem of determining
249
Planctary pcriods
'
Fig.
&-4
(a) Relative
posilions
the
of the sun,
earth, and Jupiter
Et
at the beginning
fr
Comparable
gram for
earth,
dia-
*
E,
//
V/ 1
\
and Venus,
>
v,
(b)
(a)
^^HBH BI
ifit is to be visible.
is
our earth.
in
some
is
the
which the sun, the earth, and another planet return, after
same positions relative to one
The length of
another.
in question.
this
is
known
as the
the sun.
Consider
Jupiter.
first
lie
in a
The
straight line.
the celestial
and
is
Ei and J t of the earth and Jupiter, the next one will oecur rather
ycar later, when the earth has gained one whole
more than
revolution on Jupiter. This is shown by the positions E 2 and J2
1
6.
observer
250
Universal gravitation
figurations
by the symbol
in general
r.
we have
unit time,
Hr
rtjr
But n E and
Te and Tj
tij
and solving
we have
Tj we have
this for
Tj =
(8-2a)
- i.
Te /t
Tb/t
Putting
two con-
is
365/399
0.915,
we
we
is
little different.
naked eye, see these planets when they are in line with the sun,
because it would rcquire looking directly toward the sun to do
We
so.
can
easily get
ES and EV
Venus as a morning
tions
star,
around
this
Thus
it is
Venus
251
Tb/t
Planetary periods
hr or so
The same
This
In this
we now have
1
east.
instead of the
ngt
about
from west to
TE /r
Putting
7V
365/583
0.627,
we
find that
^224 days
is
diagram (Fig. 8-3) and are repeated in his text: Saturn, 30 yr;
Jupiter, 12yr; Mars, 2yr; Venus, 9 months; Mercury, 80 days.
The worst
(9
cases are
Mars
(2 yr instead of
7$).
about
i)
and Venus
was
Perhaps he was
careless about quoting the periods because his real interest was
in the
The
any event,
is
most part,
for the
quoted. This
ican
and
the
is
differ
significantly
lists
TABLE 8-1:
AU
Sidereal period
Modern
Planet
Copernicus
Modern
Mercury
Venus
0.376
0.3871
115.88
87.97 days
87.97 days
0.719
0.7233
538.92
224.70 days
Earth
1.000
1.0000
224.70 days
365.26 days
365.26 days
Mars
1.520
1.5237
779.04
1.882 yr
1.881 yr
Jupiter
5.219
5.2028
398.96
11.87 yr
11.862 yr
Saturn
9.174
9.5389
378.09
29.44 yr
29.457 yr
tical
Copernicus
Copernicus
own
b.c.
up to
252
Universal gravitation
This
is
displayed
Fig.
8-5
Smooth
of the planets.
The
first
In
was
it
first
believed
the
World.
was dreaming
it is
absolutely certain
TABLE
8-2:
Radius r of
of planet,
orbit
Period T,
/T2 ,
Planet
AU
Mercury
Venus
0.389
87.77
7.64
0.724
224.70
7.52
Earth
1.000
365.25
7.50
Mars
1.524
686.98
7.50
Jupiter
5.200
4,332.62
7.49
Saturn
9.510
10,759.20
7.43
days
(AU)'i /(dayy2
10"
shows the data used by Kepler and a test of the near constaney
2
of the ratio r 3 /T
Figure 8-6 is a different presentation of the
.
show
T~
This
is
this relationship:
r3 ' 2
known
(8-3)
253
!|HBHnaHMMngHBmHHn|HmaHgnBMjfl
Fig.
8-6
Log-log
plot of planetary
period
T versus
radius
r,
orbit
using data
guoted by Copernicus.
T is proporlional
to
in the Prologue)
concerning the
elliptical
planets.
third law
had
to
it is
possible
if
we
the center.
It
254
2itr
Universal gravitation
is
at work.
known
quantities, r
and
T,
we have
4
==-
ar
From Newton's
=ma
From
we
law, then,
on a mass
=- *&
we have
the relation
Y=K
(8-6)
K might
applies to
all
(8-5)
where
in
must be given by
circular orbit
Fr
(8-4)
it
(8-6)
gives us
= -
Fr
The
(8-7)
implication
of Kepler's third
in
planet
proportional to
is
its
inertial
its
is
mass
therefore,
Huygens
when
on a
law,
analyzed
all
Newton's
appear to have
the planetary
in
in
terms of his
the
natural-seeming of
all
conceivable effects
something
spreading
gets
weaker according
The
required
an inverse-square relationship.
to
by Eq.
appreciated the
(8-7),
full significance.
mean
object just as
Newton
it is
is
to the
must
of the attracting
Each object is
concerned. Hence
one
is
255
must be expressed
famous
the
in
Gmxm2
F_ _
where
(8 _ g)
is
matter of determining
the
in
led
We
m, and
we
shall discuss
his greatest
It is
an old
as a
young man of
story,
still
23,
is
there
is
much more
striking
way of looking
discussing.
structed
an
intellectual
at
moon
it
the familiar
describing an ap-
To this extent it is
we have just been
and the
latter
phenomenon
his garden.
that
it
moon was
away than any other falling object in our experience. But perhaps t was all part of the same pattern.
As Newton himself described it, he began in 1665 or 1666
to think of the earth's gravity as extending out to the moon's
orbit, with an inverse-square relationship already suggested by
so
much
farther
'
We
it
to the
any point A
in
its
In effect hc said
orbit (Fig. 8-7).
256
Universal gravitation
this:
moon, but
it is
own way
of dis-
Imagine the
moon
Fig.
8-7
portion
ofa
y from the
ment
AB ( = x)
lltat
would be
would
the
AB, tangent
Instead,
it
moon
is
its
far the
moon
radial distance r
falls, in this
ft
is
AB as x, and
bit of analytic
the distance
sec,
BP
toward O, even
Let us caleulate
how
and compare
with
it
unehanged.
sense, in
to the orbit at A.
though
First,
If
fail in
that
geometry.
BP as y,
it
If
will
same time.
we denote the distance
be an exceedingly good
approximation to put
(8-9)
~2r
ON =
NP
result
= x
is
OP =
y)
x2 =
x
r2
= 2ry - y 2
Since
as a
AP (=
s) is
257
A B, we
*-
(8-10)
The
distance to the
moon,
as
known
to
discussion
is given in Figs. 8-8 and 8-9 and the accompanying
everyone,
is that the
(pp. 259-261). The final result, familiar to
r
(m
During
denote
sec)s
this
y>i
= 2ttX
3.8
2A x
same time
to identify
it,
it
falls
0*
-
in
10
1
m.
sec
it
_ 1000
|WM m
1Q|
we
will
>-i7: -^lo
(ini sec)
=1 3X,0 ~ 3m
-
In other words, in
a distance of
mm,
indeed
or about 5V in.;
slight.
sec
is
On
projected
surface,
1
its
falls vertically
through
is
the
vertical
displacement
in
given by
y2 = yr- = 4.9
Thus
'i
'O"''
Newton knew
moon's
orbit
was about
And
yet,
what an astounding
result.
Even granted an
inverse-
258
Universal gravitation
is
attracted as
though
Newton
He
first
p.
earth's
One way
came
out, perfect
and
MOON
it all
radius
made 500 miles farther south at Syene (now the site of the
Aswan Dam) showed the sun to be exactly overhead at noon.
(In other words,
Cancer.)
It
follows at once
from these
angle of 7.2 or
Hcnce
_
Re ~
Re ~
4000 miles
500
or
Fig.
8-8
Basis of the
method useci by
Eratosthenes to find
the earth's radius.
When
the
midday sun
259
moon
g rad
AS,
at the
in
who
made observations
of Rhodes,
in
earth
radii
lived mostly
about 130
B.c.
on the island
from which he
and moon.
moon
Hipparchus measured
a.
that sun
and
at the earth.
1/103.5 rad); he
also
sun
We know
is
knowledge
in
(Fig. 8-9).
The shaded
plete
shadow;
its
moon by
boundary
lines
is
the earth
com-
is in
PA and QB make an
angle a
coming
from the extreme edges of the sun. The moon passes through the
the
this passage
now do some
moon
geometry.
is
If the distance
PQ
AB 2RB - aD
8-9 Basis of the method used by Hipparchus tofind
moon's distance. The method depended on obseroing
Fig.
the arc
260
shadow of the
AB.
Universal gravitation
of the moon's
earth, as represented
from the
BA
is
very
diminished by the
amount aD:
the
itself.
by
AB ~
_
2.5a
AB
2.5aZ>
or
first
equation WC have
3.5aDi 2R F
,
or
D _
2
3.5o
Since a
Z)
5-
Combining
of .Re
itself,
we have
236,000 miles
Modern methods
Refined triangulation techniques give a mean value of 3,422.6",
or 0.951, for the angle subtended at the
radius.
(Re
6378
km =
moon by
the earth's
earth's radius
3986 miles)
one obtains almost exactly 240,000 miles for the moon's mean
distance.
far surpassed
The
fiight
time of such signals (only about 2.5 sec for the roundtrip) can
be measured to a fraction of a microsecond, giving range determinations that are not only of unprecedcntcd accuracy but are
also effectively instantaneous.
his discovery
261
The
extcnding to the
discrepancy, resulting
earth's radius.
from
his use of
since
fail,
was
of
moon's
method discovered by
When Newton
first
more
in a
(In
Let us
Chapter
1 1
now
we
consider a
shall tackle
way of
it
again
sophisticated way.)
assume that the density of the material of the sphere may vary
with distance from the ccnter (as is the case for the earth, to a
very
We
is
the
same
at all points
Fig.
8-10
(a)
shells.
by treating
262
it
(b)
Universal gravitation
The
befound
The
total
is
the
by a
Thus
all
basic problem
masses.
we show
In Fig. 8-10(b)
a shell of mass
AP.
shell.
we
If
mass
M,
radius R, of
at a distance r
it
exerts
on
It is clear
the resultant force due to the whole shell must be along the line
near
will
we need
near A,
force transverse to
OP
due
to material
Thus
if
only consider
dM
its
shell to
m.
GmdM
s2
now
Let us
shaded
is
in the
diagram.
shown
It
and
and the same mean values of s and <p apply to every part of
Thus, if we calculate its mass, we can substitute this value
dM in
the belt
2irR
R dd
is
and
sin 6 dd.
mass of the
_. =
dM
belt
2TrR
OFr
263
The
task
now
circumference
is
is
..
sin
Now
the width of
sm6d6 M = M
is
4irR
2
;
its
area
hence the
d6
gives us
GMm
j
its
The area of
is given by
Our
as
is
it.
to
co s f
sin 9
dd
..
sum
,.
(o-lZ)
Ti
dFr
over the
whole of the
and
e.
shell, i.e.,
<p,
.?,
little
From
and
<p
in
,+ *cose = -
From
the
sin 6
first
n
dd =
,
-uar
s.
By two
R2
~^T
sds
-rR
we
+ s2 -
=~
"* v
is
it
terms of two
<p
and
sin 6
dd in Eq. (8-12),
obtain
dFr
The
= " GMm
~4^R
total force
minimum
is
+ s2 -
(r
R 2 )ds
found by integrating
value of
(=
R) to
its
this expression
maximum
from the
value (r
R).
Thus we have
d4^'f
"--^ir
-
The
integral
is
just the
sum
r+B
f
/T-R
we
2
2
"*"% _
2 J.
S*
-R
ds
[(r
+ R)-
(r
= 2R - (r- R)
= 4R
264
Universal gravitation
R)]
- R _ r - R2\
\r+ R " r- R J
_ (r
(r
R)
we have
we
have
Fr = -
(8-14)
What a wonderful
the radius
result!
It is
all.
It is
uniquely a
effect of
would
force law
no other
follows at once.
way
which the
in
density varies between the center and the surface (provided that
it
though
not matter
how
it is
in fact outside.
feet
is
to the surface
Take a moment to
is.
Ask yourself: Is
fiat
down?
It is
little
about as
far
own
between
satisfaction, the
grand connection
terrestrial
moon and
81
is
an
of having other
embraced the
satellites
possibility
at
illustration
World (which
transition
explicitly
is
from the
of short-
of a
satellite
orbit at a distance r
265
Other
satellites
from
of the earth
The necessary
Fig.
8-11
Newlon's
normal
parabolic trajectories
to complete orbits
encircling the earth.
is
provided by gravitational
attraction:
= G Mnm
mv
r*
Mg
where
and
is
the
mass of
the earth,
the
mass of the
satellite,
(8-15)
.-(T
often convenient to express this result in terms of
It is
familiar quantities.
object of
on
it,
by Eq.
F.
But
mass
We
(8-8), is
GMatn
Re 2
can be
set equal to
GMgm
mg =
2
Rs
or
GME
= gRE
266
more
Universal gravitation
we
get
mg
for the
mass
in
-W
1/2
The
2xr _
2^/2
(8-16)
g ll2 R E
g =
Putting
by
9.8
m/sec 2
/?g
6.4
10 m,
we have
a nu-
Tw
(Earth satellites)
where
T is
in seconds
For example, a
and
5.3
The
first
10 ;i sec
man-made
an orbit as shown
10~ 7 r 3/2
(8-17)
r in meters.
satellite
3.14
minimum
at
6.6
practicable altitude
10 m, and hence
90 min
satellite,
Sputnik
Its
distances from the earth's surface were initially 228 and 947
respectively, giving a
Fig.
8-12
satellite
(a) Orbit
mean value
of Sputnik
I,
man-made
the first
satellite
com-
267
Othcr
satellites
of the earth
km,
With
this value of r,
on
that
satellites
such
its axis.
satellites will
and a
figure.
attaches to synchronous
set of three of
them,
in Eq. (8-17),
Putting
spots.
km
42,000
T=
day
Thus
or 26,000 miles.
must be about 22,000 miles above the earth's surabout 5 earth radii overhead. The first such satellite
such
satellites
face,
i. e.,
to be successfully launched
was Syncom
II in
July 1963.
satellite traveling in
a circular
mass of
about 100 kg
debris with a
direct
G,
This result
is
any object
THE VALUE OF
is strictly
proportional to
its
own
mass.
Although the
result expressed
it is
The
calculation that
we have
carried out
shows
mass m)
mass M. But now we can apply the result
a second time. Thus we arrive at Fig. 8-1 3(c),
and a point
of the
particle of
Iast section
r,
as a rigorously
The above
result is
268
important
in
Universal gravitation
in the analysis
Chapter
5, for
of the experi-
Fig.
8-13
lion.
(a)
Two
treating
it
ofone
(b) Effect
spliere
as a poinl mass.
(M)
(c)
can be calculated by
gravitation constant. G,
spheres of
effect
known
masses.
is
so extremely weak,
is
it
usual
by only a
little
the radii.
It is
then a great
Some
determine
have
made
them
of the measurements to
to high precision.
explicit
The
G =
6.670
X 10-" m 7kg-sec 2
(8-18)
Principia, he
common
remarks
at
little
lower, in mines,
about
it
we denote
the
if it
mean
consisted
The
value of
G',
of water
269
all
on a
is
is
about
is
found
probable
may be
.
five
."
partiele of
by
9Mn
F=
(8-19)
R2
where
Hence
4*
F =
-- (GpR)m
acceleration
is
in free fail,
we
also have
F = mg
It follows, then,
that
^GpR
g =
(8-20)
If in this cquation
we put g
9.8
m/sec 2
5000
R ~
to
6.37
10 m,
6000 kg/m 3 , we
find that
(6.7
0.6) X
10-"
:,
/kg-sec 2
Thus Newton's estimate was almost exactly on target. In practice, of course, the calculation is done the other way around.
Given the
directly
G [Eq. (8-18)] we suband (8-20) to find the mass and the mean
The result of these substitutions (with
determined value of
R =
6.37
5.97
=
=
10
m)
X
X
10
5.52
10
is
24
3
kg
kg/m 3
LOCAL VARIATIONS OF g
If
we take
F =
270
GMm
+ A)2
(R
Universal gravitaiion
is
on an object of mass
given by
at
If
we
identify
we have
tion,
For
F with m
/i
R,
this
(8-2,)
linear decrease
of g with height.
GM(.,h\
,,,
* 2~
\
h,
we have
gCA)-w(l-f)
= GM/R 2
where g
(8-22)
[Alternatively,
It is
GM
= -^T
Therefore,
ln
g =
const.
2 ln r
R, g
Differentiating,
As
k _ 2 Ar
r
g
Hence, putting
Ag
go,
and Ar =
h,
we have
^ - 2go -
to
Eq. (8-22).
Notice
how
this
method
271
e.g.,
the value of
fact
Local variations
ofg
lot
of unnecessary arithmetic in
some
to
lationship.]
He
height.
Hooke,
Robert
contcmporary,
Newton's
made
several
Not surprisingly, he was unable to find any difBy Eq. (8-22) one would have to ascend to a point
about 1000 ft above ground (e. g., the top of the Empire State
of deep wells.
ference.
As we
10,000.
shall
Superimposed on the systematic variations of the gravitaforce with height are the variations produced by in-
tional
one
is
For example,
much lower
in density
value of
to be reduced.
small, can be
tool in geophysical
prospccting.
Almost
all
which a mass
gravity
and an
other words,
in
modern
is
in
it is
by a
spring.
as the instrument
is
change
methods or
In
electrically
is
de-
capacitance,
displaccment.
To
is
changed by the
slight
-7
or
Figure
less.
With
made
for effects
272
in these gravity
gal
cm/sec 2
surveys
is
\Q~* g
altitude,
in-
ment
due to varying
(a)
Fig.
8-14
ofa
sensitiue
carries a pointer P.
control spring
S\ and a
made by
be oblained
Example
indicating
an ore
deposit.
D. S. Parasnis, Mining
273
(.b)
(After a survey
52
provided by a
is
ofa
main weight.
Local varialions of g
This
far
is
One can
appreciate
how
impressive this
is
by noting that a
8
(1 part in 10 ) corresponds to a change
about
cm
We
(Fig. 8-15).
how
law,
have seen,
the use of
in the diseussion
of Kepler's third
F = -
4tt
mr
/-
Fr
is
Fr = -
GMm
r*
where
is
expressions,
the
these
4*y
(8-23)
GM
We may
Fig.
8-15
maled by a
sun at the
cemer.
274
two
Iniversal gravitation
commented on
in
con-
What does
other planet.
M,
in
is
independent of the
matter
is
the
we have an equation
that
tells
some
if we
us the
*-
<H4>
3
2
Kepler's third law expresses the fact that the value of r /T
The statement of
of r and
T for
either.
It is sufficient
to
know
is
this result
or,
the values
and period.
mass
of the sun from Eq. (8-24), however, the use of absolute values
We
essential.
days of antiquity.
to the sun
is,
known with
how
is
the length
mean
in this chapter,
The
The development of
this
is
summarized in
final result,
expressed as a
story,
which
Eq. (8-24), along with the other necessary quantities as folio ws:
r*** 1.50
TK ~
G =
We
3.17
6.67
XlO H m
X 10 7 sec
X 10-" m 3 /kg-sec 2
M m
2.0
10
30
kg
first
the great
made
third century
but
made
ineffectual
in principle
He knew
is
in-
moon was
moon were
275
Sun
Earth
Fig.
8-16
(a)
moon.
(b) Triangutation
to find
SEM at half-
melhod of cslablishing
the
scale
of Venus front
When
the
moon
differenl poinls
is
on
exactly half
Ihe earth.
full,
the angle
SME is 90.
If, in
this situation,
a ~ 3 ~ 55 rad and
measured angle is 9 and
judged
hcnce
/\s
20/\u.
Our
present knowledge
tells
may
be (and
is
is)
very great.
in the situation
hundred instead of
20.
by Kcpler, although
its full
exploitation
until
later.
Even so it at once becamc clear that the sun is
more distant than Aristachus had concluded. The basis of the
method is indicated in Fig. 8-16(b). It involves observations on
much
276
Universal gravitation
both planets
line joining
distance between
Now
radii.
earth,
When Mars
if
them
Mars
more
to the vastly
to the sun.
is
is
should appear
it
with respect
The
A and B
is closest to
it
is
S,
To measure
by
the earth's
this angle
one does
arc,
which
distance to
is
Mars
in this configuration
relatioe
(Table 8-1),
it
distance
was
at least
radii, i.e.,
80 million
An
miles.
Italian
astronomer,
involved what
is
known
as a transit of Venus,
disk, as seen
As
and
which the
Edmund
Halley, best
known
on
i.e.,
from the
Its
a passage of
earth.
it
apparent path,
earth.
for the
Figure
passes aeross
depend on
comet named
Flamsteed
in
Long
277
before
is
accurately
yield accurate
measures
can be used to
transit
one can use an analysis just like that for Mars. These transits
arc fairly rare, because the orbits of the earth and Venus are not
in the
same
would occur
then
in
them
in 1761
between about 8.5 and 9.0 seconds of arc, corresponding to a distance of between about 92 and 97 million miles. Thus
the currently accepted result was approached. (The best meadcfinitely
surements of
its
elosest
this
made on
to
E2
Jupiter
one of
is
Jupiter's
planet.
186,000 miles/sec in
deduce that the earth's orbital radius is equal to this speed times
about 480 sec, or about 90 million miles. (The caleulation was
originally donc just the other way around, by the Danish astron-
Fig.
8-17
light.)
Measure-
of Jupiter's moons
and
the apparent
of light
through space.
278
Universal gravitation
we must
still
however, we can
If
fact that
we ignore
make
this
use of the
rE
AU =
1.496
10 n
was the fundamental connection that he recognized beinertial mass of an object and the earth's gravitational
force on it a force roughly equal to the measured weight of the
object.
(Remember, we have defined weight as the magnitude
science
tween the
It
the earth
it
was
fail
just
a kinematic
fact.
have
by F =
ma,
F, =
It
But
If
objects near
Until
g.
Newton
Newton's law
an object
is
it
observed to
given
it
i.e.,
mg
(8-25)
the acceleration g
it is strictly
remarkable
same
the
is
is,
static
experiment.
a springlike device
and has, as
qg
appreciate
a torsion
the force
fiber.
One
it
finds a quantity,
with
which
This "charge"
inertial
purely
in a
by balancing
is
do with the
how
serateh to in-
One measures
To
to
in terms of
significance.
all
mass, which
is
nothing at
stretehed springs).
One
all
all sorts
and so on.
It
by
of
then
charge
is
strictly
279
Is this just a
remarkable coincidence,
or does
this
it
may,
that gravitation
be equioalenI to acceleration.
in a sense,
Einstcin's
"postulate of equivalence,"
charge q
and the
inertial
mass
embodied
that
gravitational
own theory
when we
the
same
of gravitation as
We
shall
come back
reference.
We
of F to
in
What we
what we are
actually interested in
of material.
We make
the valuc of
is
the
is
amounts
same
and
but
if its
mask
this
scale
were marked
out and
Standard masses.
Fig.
8-18
(a)
Weigh-
balance
in effect
comparison of
masses, valid whatever
direct
the value
(b)
of g.
Weighing with a
spring balance
measurement of the
gravitational force,
directly dependent
the value
on
of g.
280
in kilograms,
we should have
to
Universal gravitation
Fig.
8-19
pendulum.
own
in his
He
Eq. (8-8).
therefore
made a
series
To
period.
mass
see
how
m hung on a
this
The two
T and
forces on
it
(ignor-
From
F.
= ma =
Fig. 8-19,
Fa smd
from which
= (Fg/m)sin 9
At every angle
(8-26)
depends on the
6 the acceleration ag
for given
ratio
F/m.
bob
So also the
period for one completc round trip will depend upon the ratio
(Fs /m). Newton observed the periods of pcndulums with difTherefore
initial
conditions
determined by
From
ferent
the periods of
all
More
this ratio.
was proportional to
part in 1000.
measurement.
It
depends on
fact has
radius r
= R cos \,
whcrc X
it is
is
means
where
answer
is
is
that,
when
How
mu 2 r
is this
This
must be acting on
force provided?
it,
The
281
by
is
Fig.8-20
methodfor comparing
mass and
mi object that
the earth
the inerlial
the gravitational
is
mass of
at rest relatice to
and hence
is
being aceeler-
And
To
if
and F
is
will
not
strictly
be different
posite directions with respect to the horizontal bar but that givc
Fig.
8-21
Principle
balance measurement
of T! and
T2
(o)
To
fiber.
from a
torsion bar.
f the
objects
if
the directions
is
(b) I
On
The
do
T, sin B
of inerlial to
In eguilib-
jyi
main supporting
directions
T2
ofTi and
r, sin
'6
a
(a)
vertical axis.
282
Universal eravitation
(b)
(c)
i*
hori-
Fig.
8-22
To see
Eotvos
exisls in the
apparatus
turned
is
through 180".
This
zontal
beam
would be
if
existed,
its
existence
revealed.
More
recently,
have been performed by R. H. Dicke and his collabBy such experiments it has been shown that the strict
this type
orators.
hence,
would be reversed by
'
proportionality of
FB
to
holds to
part in 10
10 or better.
related
W at an angle a
Wsina =
Jfcosa =
where
moi 2 rsin\
mui 2 rcos\
= R cos X.
Since a
is
in the
the result
W
'See R.
283
Fg -
H. Dicke,
mo> 2 R cos 2 X
Sci.
it is
Fig.
8-23
is
and magni-
It
follows that
Wo + mu 2 R sin 2 X
W(\)
where
iy
is
on the equator.
Putting
80
<*
R sin 2 X
we
this expression
If in
R =
6.4
with g
g(\)
10 m,
9.8
9.8(1
This formula
we
2
m/sec
is
find
/?
3.4
-1
and
10~ 2 m/sec 2 , which
27r/86,400sec
gives us
0.0035 sin 2 X)
more
w =
substitute
m/sec 2
successful than
it
we
would
bc,
but
it
otherwise
The
resultant value of
scribed
it
is
g(\)
9.7805(1
0.00529 sin 2 X)
(8-27)
its
value
284
Universal gravitation
WE1GHTLESSNESS
It
is
among
The very
we have drawn between the gravitational
force on an object and its measured weight makes use of what is
called an operational definition of the latter quantity. The weight,
as we have defined t, is the magnitude of the force that will
words
Our
definition of
An
it
is in
object
state
we assume
that
its
is
In this
An
object that
and deformations
librium state.
This
may become
in
its
equi-
when a drop
very obvious, as
face.
The above
any
The
and
gravitational environment,
this is the
phenomena of
bizarre dynamical
life
way
should be.
it
in a space capsule do
not depend on getting into regions far from the earth, where the
much
the capsule,
acceleration,
ample,
if
and everything
which
it,
is
is in
orbit
same
For ex-
in
a spacecraft
in
around the
earth,
200
km
above
is
down
from
earth,
to j^Vo of that
In both situations
orbit
285
Weightlessness
When
viewcd
in these
nomena of
still
al-
recognition of the
In
if
its
own, we can
find its
mass by an analysis exactly similar to the one we used for deducing the mass of the sun from the motions of the planets
This provides the simplest way of finding the mass
themselves.
Such
satellites.
satellites, if
a planet has
third law, taking the planet itself as the central gravitating body.
its
few of the sketches that Galileo himself made, night after night,
over a period of many months. Figure 8-24(c) is a graph constructed from Galileo's quantitative records, using the readings
that can be
four satellites.
had no
motion
we would
describe
at right angles to
it,
our
line of sight.
On
and
at
Newton,
in the Principia,
cision, obtained
(p.
290)
lists
rithmically
by
his
(cf.
way
as to
give
286
Universal gravitation
Newton's day.
known
suri,
It is
By analogy
and
in particular
266,
(GMj\ 1/2
2xr
whence
Mj =
Putting
Mj =
we
^ Pj Rj
get
i
_ 3t n
'>
n*/T 2 ~ 7.5
3
m /kg-sec 2 wefind
Substituting
10- n
of
10
-9
sec
-2
,
mass may be
inferable
called
disturbing effects
one another's
and Venus.
orbits.
from a
6.67
its
perturbations
that
planets exert
on
The unraveling of
complicated and
case
G -
1050 kg/m 3
its
and
pj
i.e.,
difficult
in at least
is
one
it
long time.
would need to
be modified slightly
ship.
The
away from
was
finally achieved,
almost a
287
The moons of
In 1608
Jupiter
Hans Lippershey,
successful lelescope.
own
design.
Galileo learned of
this,
may
lelescopes
first
of his
The
Slarry
Messenger:
"On the secenth day of January in this prcsenl year 1610, al Ihe first
hour of Ihe night, when I was ciewing ihe heavenly bodies with a teleseope,
Jupiter presented itself lo me, and
I perceiced that beside Ihe planet
.
there were three small starlets, small indeed, bui cery bright.
belieced them lo be
among
Though I
my
curiosily
Afew more
was
seeing: "I hadnow [by January 11] decided beyond all question thal there exisled
in Ihe
Fig. 8~24(a)
and
its
Jupiter
four mosi
prominent
salellites as
The first
illustrale
Yerkes
Obsercatory photographs)
288
Universal gravitation
4-J-
d -7-
4-S-A?
'y i
r.
f-.tv-r-
*^_^>D^
#r>_
-7
<a.6?M/
(8&
T'
.=:
Kr.
<-* r- tf-
=*-*=^V*
jf *
J?Tb
4- '
o v** "'*'
0***-* +
Fig. 8-24(b)
own
Fig. 8-24(c)
A graph
conslrucied from
Galileo's
own
records,
mol ion
ofCallisto, the
is
clearly exhibited.
289
"
*"
'
"
"
TABLE 8-3:
n = r/Rj
Satellile
Fig.
8-25
Period (T)
Io
5.578
1.7699 days
Europa
8.876
3.5541 days
Ganymede
14.159
7.1650 days
Callisto
24.903
16.7536 days
1.53
10 5 sec
7.4
10-
3.07
X
X
X
10 5 sec
7.5
10~ 9
6.19
1.45
10
sec
10 6 sec
7.5X10-
7.4
IO" 9
log-log
applicabilily
of
of Jupiter.
It
may
be
"Thcse same data have been presented in a striking way in Eric Rogers,
Physicsfor the Inauiring Mind, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
N.J., 1960:
Satellile
T2
(milesy
(hours) 2
X
X
10 3
7.264
29.473
lfl
29.484
10 3
160.440
10 16
160.430
10 3
1.803
Europa
7.261
Callisto
How
cidencc
is
X 10"
X 10 10
X 10
Io
Ganymede
290
r\
10 3
Universal gravitation
1.803
relationship (5Tj
term
in
(~900
2TS
)-
yr) that
the mystery
it
was
When
further.
still
in 1781,
know as Uranus.
and
stars,
his
Then, having
stars.
Once
returned to
in-
his attention
it
limit of resolution
it
was moving
maps
n earlier star
(first
by John Flamsteed
new measurements
with
(finally to
When combined
many months,
they
AU
its
known
source.
Figure
The
291
suspicion began to
The
anomaly
grow
discovery of Neptune
was
yet
another
Fig.
8-26
(a)
at
unknown
Two men J.
Francc
292
C.
Adams
relalive
of
mag-
dijferent times.
in
in
England and U.
Universal gravitation
J.
LeVerrier in
unknown
basis of this
by
J.
Bode), which expresses the fact that the orbital radii of the
known
R (AU)
2,
0.4
is
4, 5,
and 6 one
and Uranus.
asteroid belt.)
= cc,
is hard to defend).
Using
good values for Jupiter, Saturn,
(The missing integer, n = 3, corresponds to the
Figure 8-27 shows this relation of orbital radii
(Mercury requires n
n
(0.3X2")
where n
1,
which
gets quite
it is
7 gives r
Fig.
8-27
Graph for
new
Bode's law.
293
clear that
a simple exponential
works almost as
38.8
well,
but
AU, and
if
one
this is
Given the
definite picture, as
the
new
is automatically defined by
becomes possible to construct a
the period
radius,
and then
shown in
it
way
in its orbital
which
in
Uranus
orbit the
its
Adams
particular date.
omer Royal, G.
B.
Airy,
own
whom
made an immediate
calculations until
he wrote
and
search
first
(J.
next night
it
had
G. Galle,
identified
Germany)
new planet
It was only
8-28). The
in
the
night of observation.
letter,
LeVerrier
(see Fig.
status.
and of human
received
it is
frailty.
Adams was
no support from
bachelor's degree
some respects a
good and bad,
in
is
(he
his seniors
when he bcgan
was
fresh
-.
v'--
8-28
Star
map
of Neptune, September
23, 1846.
(From
Astronomical Discovery,
Edward
*.
-,
'
Arnold, London,
i
1904.)
294
Universal gravitation
his
Airy missed
his calculations).
Fig.
but he
from
'
man
Adams
who
value
is
about 30
AU
The
true
was therefore
near to
its
was so
it.
But
let this
A great discovery was made, with the help of the laws of motion
and the gravitational foree law, and it remains as the most
triumphant confirmation of the dynamical model of the universe
that
in
Neptune's
own motion,
ment.
fixed
ceptions.
schel
The
first
classes of results.
stars in a
way
volvcd in a general
movement of
is itself in-
own
orbital speed
an empirical
faet.
This also means that they overestimated the mass necessary to produce the
observed perturbations of Uranus. LeVerrier gave a figure of about 35 times
the mass of the earth; the currently accepted value is about half this.
For a detailed account of the whole matler, see H. H. Turner, Astronomku!
Edward Arnold, London, 1904. A shorter but more readily
accessible account may be found in an essay entitled "John Couch Adams
and the Discovery of Neptune," by Sir H. Spencer Jones, in The World of
Mathemaiks (J. R. Newman, ed.), Simon and Schuster, New York, 1956.
2
Discovery,
295
8-29
Fig.
willi
'1868
/*"
1864
the
1880
Varialion
1821
of
members ofa
double-star syslem.
1885
S:1827
A Short History of
Astronomy, 1898;
reprinted by
Dover
Publications,
New
1781
1897
1890
1830
1895
*
l84o"
York, 1961.)
For
Newton's dynamics.
to the operation of
the
Herschels
first
to be sub-
paws of the
constellation
(It is
known
as
The
This
is
easily
proved
in
the case in which the orbits are assumed to be circles around the
common
stars are
the center, C.
stars,
If
[see
Fig. 8-30(a)].
we
mit
/W2WI1
(r.
'
The
individual
line passing
through
F = ma
for
common
to both stars.
one of the
we have
say mi,
mass
center of
= miu
r\
r2 )2
where w (= 2tt/T)
is
Hence
2
CO
Gnt2
ri(ri
For a
296
full
r2 )2
Universal gravitation
(a)
Fig.
8-30
(a)
Motion
ofthe members of a
binary star system
with respect to the
orbits.
visual euidence
of the
motion of a binary
system Krueger 60,
photographed by E. E.
Barnard. (Yerkes
Obseroatory photograph.)
(b)
However, by the
'i
mi
we have
rri2
where
r
It
n + ri
Thus
if
G(m\
+ m2
r,
by
from a knowledge
the
masses is at once
sum
of
of their angular scparation), the
determined. Finding the individual masses entails the somewhat
(e.g., starting
orbital
297
motion of an
Fig.
8-31
Rotating
Canes
(Photo-
AU
state
stellar
of general rotation, as
are embedded,
clear,
however, that
Fig. 8-31,
and that
the Milky
i.e.,
its
in it
The most
which we ourselves
It finally became
Way
basic structure
our sun
is
in
galaxy.
is
much
very
describing
some
20
like that
of
kind of orbit
m (= 30,000
around the center, with a radius of about 3 X 10
light-years) and an estimated period of about 250 million years
,5
(= 8 X 10
sec).
Using these figures we can infer the ap298
Universal gravitation
orbit, that
would define
this
.23
With
G=
X 10~" m
40
m~
/kg-sec
we
X1 G1
find that
41
we
of about 10"
ke
10
about 2
is
10
This
stars is implied.
It is
30 kg,
is
not
a kind
of ultimate tribute to our belief in the universality of the gravitational law that it is confidently used to draw conclusions like
those above concerning masses of galactic systems.
We
how Newton
it
mass
For Newton
this
was a
is
in leading
must be
strictly
him
to the con-
a general
dynamical
law of
result, ex-
pressing the basic properties of the force law. But Albert Einstein,
in 1915, looked at the situation through new eyes. For him the
fact that all objects fail
inertia,
He
regarded
it
as
sun because
example) follows
in so
that
geodesic line
doing
is
it
is
its
charaeteristie path
traveling along
to say, the
what
around the
is
called a
of getting
geodesies
299
become curved
lines.
The
of a massive object
of a gravitational
space"
facile
not
is,
field
of force but
in
terms
in
terms of a "curvature of
ferring
it
But
in
This
nomenon
is
liptical in
is
is
the
The phe-
is
in
is
distinctly elits
own
Most of
this precession
in
century.
'
it
on Newtonian theory
for
own
orbit
all
came
to grief
facts
Einstein's theory,
of
on
to
observation.
It
corresponded,
very
The way
in
which a
cussed in Chapter
square law
had been
is
dis-
13.
small
but apart from their arbitrary character they also led to false
predictions for the other planets.
it
term was
its
The
about
Chapter
300
own
14).
Universal gravitation
of the equinoxes
see
PROBLEMS
Given a knowledge of Kepler's third law as it applies to the
solar system, together with the knowledge that the disk of the sun
subtends an angle of about at the earth, deduce the period of a
8-1
hypothetical planet in a circular orbit that skims the surface of the sun.
8-2
well
It is
known
is
occupied by
and
by a
8-3
It is
satellite in
a period of 2 hr.
How high
(a)
above the
were
the
earth's surface
would
same
it
have to be?
and
how
long would
it
in
be
be?
The
satellite is to
is
9.9 hr,
Rj
its
mass
is
Mj
about
is
first
the gravita-
Mj
8-5
satellite is to
surface of the
moon.
period of revolution ?
8-6
The
satellite is to
satellite's
power supply
is
in
orbit.
If the
maxi-
mum
satellite
during
radius of
8-7
be placed
The
its
lifetime is 10,
its
what
is
orbit?
length of about 3
frictionless surface
compressed
(a)
state,
between
How much
would
about
301
1,000
Problcms
kg/m
in its un-
fits,
The
mutual
density of lead
is
system be rotatcd
At what
ir-
8-8
mass of
He
Maskelyne.
was made by
find the
the earth
the British
The figure
The change of direction of the
made
for the change in direction of the local vertical because of the curvature
where Fm is the horizontal force on the plumb-bob due to the mountain, and Fe =
E m/RE^. (m is the mass of the plumb-bob.)
The value of a is about 10 seconds of arc for measurements on
GM
m high.
Suppose
of the base.
these figures.
a to
gravitational deflection
is
about 6
10
8-9
Imagine that
in
roughly cone-shaped
mound
of granite 250
high
and
km
is
diam-
in
all directions.
tected
by a surface
detect a
change
in
g of
Assume
(Hint:
vessel
0.1
mgal?
mound
at the
mass locatcd
Note
same
that in
has displaccd
its
302
kg/m 3
Universal gravitation
its
particle that
moves
in a circular orbit
mean
(Jupiter
mean
sun's diameter
the length of the earth's year, and the fact that the
subtends an angle of about 0.55 at the earth.
8-12
An
astronaut
who can
lift
km
(roughly spherical) of 10
50 kg on earth
is
exploring a planetoid
kg/m 3
(a)
is
and as
problem.
rocks, even
It is
if
it
(This
is
velocity
its
obviously a fanciful
an astronaut were
The
cliff.
cliffs
or loose
when he
"weightless"
satellite,
only
m/sec.
8-13
yet
it is
is in
noted in
The moon
is
of
8-14
bathroom scale
he takes the elevator to the top, positions himself on a
and pencil to
inside the airtight car with a stopwatch and with pad
record the scale reading, and directs an assistant to cut the car's
Presuming that the scientist survives the
support cable at I = 0.
is
terminal velocity.)
8-15
planet of
mass
M and a
single satellite of
is
(a)
(b)
D.
What
What
is
fraction
of the total
motion?
kinetic energy
rcsides in the
satellites?
own
axes.)
8-16
We
303
Problems
common
center of mass.
(a)
mass
earth's
is
is
How much
(b)
moon and
81
60 earth
negligible
if
at a speed of
10
(One light-year^ 10
What do
M. (Note
value of
year to
X 10" m
around
sun's mass
of
about 250km/sec
moon were
the
in a circular orbit
of our galaxy.
radii.
its
mass responsible
that
numbers of
vast
invisible particles
in all
shadowing
effect that
opaque objects
This proposal
is
easy to refute.
fairly
is
This theory
is
particles
by
much harder
to dismiss.)
crease
we have
T~
A/ " 2
away from
the sun.
by assuming that
side,
for a
gradually spiral
low
mass M,
at
progressive in-
that as
its
in
given radius
E = Mc 2 ) to a steady decrease in
4 X 10 tons/sec. This implies a
size
itself increases
of the
the
get
an order-
remains constant.
fact
planets
on the
approximate increasc
decrease
in
in
r,
estimate the
8-20
It is
how
Einstein's theory
Newtonian
speed o
304
foree of gravitation.
in a circular orbit
of radius
Universal gravitation
GMm
r2
where c
is
(a
Show
GMm/r 2
is
that,
if
denoted by
is
given approxi-
mately by
-(-3)
(Treat the relativistic correction as representing, in effect, a small
fractional increase in the value of G,
orbit.)
orbit
of
305
its
orbit.
Problcms
God
and
now conserves
operations, as
in the universe,
in its parts,
by His ordinary
originally
created.
and
Collisions
conservation laws
we
shall be discussing
ticle
things and
and gives
it
is
The sun
an acceleration, to be
it
sure,
pulls
on a planet
is
we can ignore
disparity. The
its
wanderings.
But
this is only
is
an accident of
made up
of two inter-
must be con-
processes,
307
it first
us then consider
investigation
with care.
it
of collision phenomena.
experimental clarification
Contribu-
tions were submitted shortly afterward by John Wallis (mathematician), Sir Christopher Wren (architect), and Christian
and the
principle of con-
momentum.
servation of linear
We
have already
(in
of ordinary objects.
found was
that,
if
these
commonsense
his
contemporaries
quantitative basis for relating masses, then a very simple deseription of all collisions could be
matically
m\u\
as follows:
is
+ m-iu-i
= mwi
(9-1)
/M2t"2
and
v2
is
This
is
and
it
'The Society was formally chartered in 1662. (Newton was its President
from 1703 until his death in 1727.) Several other great European seientific
academies came into existence at about the same period.
308
Collisions
measure of
pirical
of v 2
v y (the
this,
used by
hardened
steel
others,
is
ball
is
the ratio
u> (the
Newton and
more
much more
elastic
this sense.
to
almost
later,
added
elasticity.
physicist
conserued
is
(i.e.,
unehanged)
in physical processes.
Once he has
phenomena.
make
They
start out
in
is
The statement
promoted to the
some new instance the condown, one's faith in the law may
be so great that one hunts around for the missing piece. Should
status of a conservation law.
If in
it
is
strengthened
is
accepted as a guide to
all
was
first
still
in
further.
chemical
possible measurements
When
on
it
appeared
309
The conservation of
linear
momentum
Some
embodied
in statements
about conserved
quantities.
mentum
such a statement
is
one
on the
marized
in
If,
word momentum
a compact statement:
collision,
i. e.,
momentum
a conserved quantity.
is
Underlying
the
this generalization
effectively isolated
is
In the experiments of
else.
to describe the
momentum
total
it is
based
Eq. (9-1).
single
Tbe
It is
mo-
this
was achieved
swing.
were
by
essentially free
their
mutual interaction.
Since
the
momentum
by an object
carried
is
given,
in
values of
i.e.,
and v separately
along a given
Pi
then
+ P'i
line
describes
with velocity
it
is
mv and
not by the
convenient to introduce a
v.
The
relation
(9-2)
const.
the conservation
of
momentum
in
two-body
apparent from
its
definition
the
momentum
of a particle
is
So
same momentum
310
as
body of mass \m
traveling with
v.
mo-
particle.
mentum
written as follows:
Pli
P2i
pi/
P2/
and
(9-3)
/ are
used to denote
precollision
(i.e.,
and
and
initial
final
postcollision).
are
known.
momentum
It will
example,
if
mi +
u 2 and Vi, v 2
m2U2 = mivi
and
Each of these
(x, y, z).
satisfied.
m2
have
Thus, for
initial
and
/H2V2
(9-4)
m\u\ x
miui,,
ntiui,
+ nt2U2r =
+ nt2U =
+ JW22. =
fltiPia
miviy
2y
mivi,
+ m2D 2z
+ m 2 02 V
+ /W202.
(9-5)
and
unspecified masses
made
terms of the
in
This
is,
Example.
An
on
mass
3 kg.
shown
We
in Fig. 9-1.
What
momenta
Let the
Pi/
P2/
P2/ =
Pl.
Pl/
+x
Momentum
original
the velocity
Then we have
(sincep 2
its
1).
Let us denote
as pi/ and p 2 /.
Pii
311
momentum
is
observed to
the initial
is
2 m/sec at 30 to
Pli
0)
+ ( Pl/)
as a vector quantity
final
Fig.
9-1
Conserva-
ple collision.
momentum
the initial
60 kg-m/sec, and
its
is
as shown.
and v 2 /
The
of 80 kg-m/sec.
direction
component form.
m\ =
u\ z =
W2 =
5 kg
16 m/sec
v\ x
=
= 6\/3
i;i
= 6 m/sec
Pi/
First, let
triangle,
Along
list
momentum
the
known
conserva-
quantities:
K2
m/sec
80
x:
us
kg
2x
(9-5)]
30\/3
= 30
Along^:
+
+
3t> 2 ,
3l>2
Hence
U2l
l-
f2
The
= 10.0 m/sec
= [(9.3) 2 + (10.0) 2 ]" 2 13.6 m/sec
=
(80
direction of v 2
tan 5
312
is
-SU = = V2
2x
is
length and
Alternatively,
tion in
The
found as p 2 /Aw 2
we can write down the
is
length of
10.0
:-
9.3
-47
Notice that
this result
conservation alone;
requires
it
momentum
momentum changes
collision will,
We
Newton
we
lines
draw attention to a
somewhat different approach, which can be more readily adapted
to relativistic dynamics, although it is in harmony with Ncwton's
that
Later
himself used.
shall
Newton
is
we
a summary
made
use of in Chapter
6.
is
One can
conserved.
then,
by using F
collision.
collision is
F2
a force
exerts a force Fi
on object
(Fig. 9-2).
on object
We make
This
last
no assumptions
assumption
2; object 2 exerts
certainly reasonable,
is
come
same
F = ma
as
it
We
= miai
F21
'
F12 =
1282
Isolation
l.e.,
boundary
ai
No.
F21
&2
F12
(9-6)
Fig.
9-2
and reaction
Yet this is anolher of those intuitively "obvious" conditions that is not binding and indeed has to bc qualified in some of the collision problems that require the use of special relativity.
313
a time
At.
Then we have
Tl
ui
A/
- u2
v2
mi
At
(9-7)
rri2
where Ui and a 2 are the initial velocities of the two objects and
From these equations we
?i and v 2 are their final velocities.
therefore have
mivi = /miui
W2V2 = W2U2
+
+
F2jA/
F\2At
/KlVl
WJ2V2
/MlUl
Experimentally, however,
get
/M2U2
(F21
we have Eq.
+ Fi2>A/
(9-4).
We
(9-8)
deduce, there-
fore, that
F21
F21
= -F12
F J2 =
i.e.,
(9-9)
We
have already
made
we
indicated
it
in
instant,
made
ference
same terms.
Kaving introduced these forces of interaction, we can now
relate them to the changes of momentum of the individual
in the
314
objects in a collision.
and F 2
Thus,
At
if
is
is
the change of
momentum Api
particle 2
of particle
on
particle
1,
in the collision is
given by
F21A/ = Api
More
generally,
if
on a
acts
change of
particle for
momentum
that
it
given by
is
FA/ = Ap
is
F At
is
called
direction during the time span At, one can proceed to the limit
F =
(9-10)
at
is
dynamics.
at least a
would be quite
unrealistic.
It is
In
we took
most cases
some
momentum change
Ap =
mo-
that
it
generates
is
and
if
At,
given by
Fdt
(9-11)
Jo
In a two-body collision, the duration of which
315
is
we
is
actually observe
is
momentum
In terms
Api
From
this
Ap 2 =
we
F2
this
by the condition
result is expressed
infer that
dt
= -
Pu
dt
However,
failing
a one-dimensional
collision the
Thus
in
true!
There
is
no
is
a postulate.
difficulty as far as
It is
And
important to
it is
not always
Newton's
transmitted in-
stantaneously, and
if
For no
interaction
is
reaction can
no longer be used.
is
Fn
O
Fig.
9-3
action
and
Corresponding variatioiis of
course of a collision.
316
Collisions
third
A/
A/
A
sug-
Fig.
9-4
objects.
At a
cart,
block
a stream
is
a second
Suppose
distance
which the
in
fires off
there
L away
momentum, thanks
to a large
first
is
fired off
from A, we
time
L/V
is,
later
does
in effect, a
and reaction
them
a brief burst of
if
B remains
There
set
at rest.
Not
until a
in such a case.
By
we
one
momentum
it
if
we
artificial
because, after
closely
striking B.
Nevertheless,
offers
all,
more
or
those
of electromagnetism.
We know
field,
two
and
us say,
is still
The
first
charge) involves
c.
If
we
change
317
in
the
momentum
of the
first
momentum
tion, instant
to bc a failure of
is
we
unless
instant,
field
associate
that carries
more
vivid
when we introduce
momentum and an
have associated a
There
is
we
the quantiza-
individually,
The
precisely
By
the time
is
we
between
static interaction
electric
and
finite
It is
We have
little.
tion of
There
momentum
is,
last section a
which loosens
this
Newtonian mechanics.
This approach can be defined in terms of a question
do we
What
The answer
is
measurements
u2
respectively, collide
velocities Vj
and
objects,
v2
In
and B, with
and
set of
+ a2U2 =
'In circumstances
same time"
:vi
where such
i.e.,
itself
section
recommended
approached
318
in
may
concept of "the
It is
(9-12)
simultaneity
Newtonian mechanics
a 4 \2
relativity
becomes
essential.
it
is
if
This as
stands
it
ments for
is
But experi-
all sorts
(a scalar
<*! = a 3 = aA
corresponding
scalar
prop(a
property of A)
and a 2 =
on
= aB
erty of B).
on
if
any of
In that case
that of light.
it is still
become comparable to
made
parameters a are
if
the
we
mass with
now
The
two given
on
collisions
is
that, in
change of one
= const(vi m)
u2
It is precisely
come out
(9-13)
same
to the
it
provides a measure of
We
objects themselves.
One can
1, 2, 3,
up an
set
is
found to
some
we can
infer
property of the
intrinsic
inertial
mass
scale for a
number of
objects
action processes
of objects
and
mm
|Av[i
II
|Av|2
and defining
2,
|Av'|i
m\
|Av'|.3
and so on.
If
mass
by
rm _
the inertial
is
and
3,
we then have an
319
momentum
in this series.
conservation
We
If
we
let
and 3
objects 2
interact,
m3 _
|AT"| a
m2
|Av"| 3
must be
two measurements.
In fact
same
it is,
from the
ratio obtained
and
m m
2,
first
experimental
this internal
z,
mea-
... as
Having
set
in this
El
V2
U2
mi
(9-14)
mim +
wi2U2
Thus an equation
mm
(9-15)
I2V2
identical in
how
Newtonian
analysis.
We
this
con-
Once this has been done, the terms in Eq. (9-15) automatically
add up to the same total before and after the collision.
What we have done here, in effect, is to give primacy of
place to momentum conservation. The question as to whether or
not action equals reaction does not
valuable.
interactions
(i.e.,
is
arise.
And
this
can be very
momentum-conservation
principle
has
proved
so
extremely
powerful that the latter course has been chosen, and conservation
of linear momentum is a central feature of relativistic dynamics.
This
way of analyzing
cesses exposes
the
Newton
320
to the
momentum.
m and
solid surface
and
speed
mass
on a
particles or fluid
(i.e.,
number
through an imaginary
v, strikes
all
per second) at
a block of
which
particles pass
stream
be denoted by R.
unnoticeably small.
momentum
brought in by the
velocity acquired is
stationary
carrying
momentum
hits
it.
At
is
restrained in
cerned).
any way as
By conservation
RmvAt = (M
of linear
motion
+ AM)u
AM = Rm At
(o)
striking a
321
The
is
is
where
9-5
move with
have
Fig.
RAt, each
some constant
is
not
conthen
we
arrive at
d
- Rm -
at
(9-17)
single
the
in
beam.
is sufficiently
rest; its
displacement
Clearly, if
appear to remain at
and
its
But
in
any event,
force
if
on
exerted
the block
it
is
stationary at
some
some
time.
instant, the
M du/dt.
F =*
M~rat
Rme -
Thus a strcam of
exerts
an average
fo'rce
(9-18)
po
on
it
But
this
is
Our
we
At
let
in
is
The word
we might be
The
particles,
force
is
produced by
and on a
sufficiently
Figure 9-5(b)
a constant
this time
upon
it
Suppose
to rest in a time T.
During
S- T
If the force exerted
on the block as a
one
would then be a
it
The
force
'The correctness of Eqs. (9-16) and (9-17) depends, in fact, on this condition.
which the particles strike it is reduced
from R to R{\ u/6), and the values of du/dt and dM/dt are reduced
If the block has a speed u, the rate at
accordingly
322
Collisions
/ to
contribution
its
However, at a time
of the
the
particle,
first
latter's
after arrival
constant
some
mean
total force
value
F but
value.
The
if
shown
siderably in time, as
making
The
in the figure.
This corresponds to
it
takes for an
We
It is
this clear.]
R, this
number
is
make
just
RT.
F =
{RT)f
RT
i.e.,
F = Rmu
as before.
It is
against the plate (and hence also the average force the plate
exerts against the
beam
of atoms)
is
The average
mentum of
force
the
is
atom undergoes.
mo-
beam.
of a
beam of
'
downward onto
323
The
Force on
balance pan
Fig.
9-6
Time dependence of
mentum
tveight
and
transfer
-Time
the
Beamturned on
ticles striking
at this instant
mass as
^total
+ M'
= V
tiv
M =
3.4
5.6
10- 7
10- ,0 kg/sec
v,
of
silver
atoms
at
1363K:
v = 600
m/sec
momentum.
In a
of the stream
is
by Eq.
(9-18).
Thus
if
we imagine
is
given by
324
Fig. 9-7
P=
One
l*VO
sees this
same
work on a smaller
principle at
scale in garden
exhaust gases
process of
that
is
an important role
momentum
in the over-all
transfer.
is
speed with respect to the plane, and most of the moving mass
supplied by the
It is very
air.
is
is
instantaneously at
forward at a velocity
v,
the air
rest.
If the
plane
velocity v a in
at the rate
total
/x fucI
Thus,
if air
(kg/sec)
and
this frame.
shown
ward
traveling
is
is
rate
/x ftir
is
in
back-
being carried
fuel is being
momentum
burnt
defines a
equation:
P=
")
(9-19)
A jet aireraft
is
Wuel0
Example.
H\t{O0
in 100
the gases
of each engine?
325
What
Reaction from a
fluid jet
is
the thrust
wc have
P =
=
1.4
500
10
+
4
50(500
250)
Four engincs of this type would thus give a total driving force
of about 12,000 lb, a more or less realistic figure.
at least in
the
Fig.
9-8
Launching
of a Saturn
V rocket.
(N.A.S.A. photograph.)
326
Collisions
first
Total mass
2.5
=
=
=
lb
from thesc
2
quarter of the
process
initial
as
itself,
total
10
10
kg/sec
kg
initial acceleration is
puli
down
is
one must
on the rocket!)
fuel
have
to only about a
continually
is
X
X
mass
The
value.
mass
3.4
10
(Remember
2.8
first
1.4
=150sec
min
is
about 2 m/sec
By
10
3100 tons
at liftoff
Burntime
gases
7.6
infer
system:
15tons/sec
Total thrust
One can
Rate of burning
on published data 1
lost,
is
next section.
ROCKET PROPULSION
This has bccome such a very large subject
lying
do no morc than touch upon the underdynamical principles. For anything like a substantial dis-
clear that
it is
we
shall
The
fact remains,
however,
Under
of the rocket
this
is
shown
plus
its
NASA
2
+ At,
1960;
S.
remaining
Facts: Space
L.
Am
a mass
The
of fuel
fuel at /
Launch
M. Barrere
m
At,
is
Between time
the total
and o
is its
velocity at time
t.
Vehicles.
et al.,
327
is
situations before
of
effects
approxima-
and time
first
Rocket propulsion
New
York, 1963.
MM|mnBMH|BnnH
N/
'Vi'
time
(b)
f/g.
9-9
tion
of an element
The
(w
+ Am)u =
m(v
is
the masses
By conservation of
velocity.
rocket.
since initially
reverse,
and jusi
Am ofmass by a
and
Am
momentum we have
linear
+ Av) + Am(v
vo)
Therefore,
mo
+ u Am = mo + mAv + o Am voAm
Therefore,
mAv = voAm
or
Ao =
This equation
(9-20)
is
(Why?) But as we
let
At ap-
Given the
final
initial total
mass w/ of
If the initial
Vi
fuel,
and the
tells
and
by the
final velocities
of
us that
2 ~ Am
when
if
multiplied by v
is
fuel) at
328
any
instant,
it is
more
its
satisfactory to interpret
remaining
dm
as the
9-10
dm
in a
time
di.
is
in this
way,
integrated
from
Defined
when
the beginning to the end of the burning process gives the value
of
m;
rrii(< 0).
"/
You
Vi
= 00 /f
J mi
m =
dm
(m.\
Poin
(9-21)
\mf J
is
final result
all,
although of course
it
would do so
if
we wanted
to consider
the rocket
always just
It is
The
first
itself.
,
is
Thus
make
through
is
as great as possible.
chemical
it is
in
burning
The
highest values of v
processes
are
of
the
is
directly
it
pays to
attainable
order
of
50%
of the ideal
329
Rocket propulsion
"
particles
by
electrical acceleration.
Hence the
interest in develop-
(that of light)
is
is
the
way
in
fuel
which
mass
final velocities
on a given
payload.
velocity equal to
starting
from
rest.
v/
V(
vo
foln
Therefore,
-.
-2.718...
m,
But to attain twice
this velocity,
we need
to have
-fe)
i.c,
=
m,
Uli
- .
7.4
Table 9-1 presents the results of such calculations in more convenient form.
The
last
column represents
the extra
mass needed,
TABLE 9-1
v,
vt
mi/m,
(w<
m,)/mf
vo
2o
2.7
1.7
7.4
6.4
3uo
20.1
19.1
4o
54.5
53.5
The
practical
problems of producing
very large mass ratios are prohibitive, but the use of multistage
rockets (which also have other advantages) avoids this difficulty
(see
330
Problem 9-12,
p. 359).
A
is
may seem
result that
surprising at
sight
first
is
that there
is
Thus
motion one
see both the rocket and the ejected material moving forward with respect to the frame in which the rocket started out
from rest. No violation of dynamical principles would be involved, and if one made a detailed accounting of the motion
of all the material that was in the rocket initially, one would find
that the total momentum of the system had remained at zero
would
be ignored).
gravity
It
and of
resistive forces
due to the
air.
momentum
men
involved
Christian Huygens
bound.
by
brilliant
of the particular case of two objects with perfect reHe based his argument on symmetry and on the equiv-
The
analysis
is
Figure 9-1
ground to the
situation.
is
Huygens
is
He assumes
that they
is
a symmetry argument.
Next,
to take place
on a
collision,
331
m* m
O
Fig.
9-11
Huygens'
visualization of a n
elaslic collision be-
De Motu
Corporum
ex Per-
cussione (1703).
(Reprinled in Vol. 16
ofC. Huygens,
Oeuvres Completes,
Marlinus Nijhoff, The
Hague, Netherlands,
1940.)
the
is
first
velocity 2v,
stationary.
More
generally,
if
from
u, different
v,
Body
Body 2
Before impact:
Afler impact:
Thus Huygens
on
predicts,
two
identical masses.
on the
The
perfectly elastic
common
feature
to
all
If a
moving object A
strikes
Imagine that
velocities v
this
is
and w as indicated
will
in Fig. 9-12(a).
moving
Huygens
argues that the exact reversal of the motion of B, as seen from
this second frame, must also imply the exact reversal of the motion
of A in this perfectly elastic process. Thus the final velocity of A
must be (m w/2) n this frame. But this velocity is also
equal to v w/2, because the final velocity of A as seen from
velocity w/2.
to the
left,
Then before
with velocity
332
Collisions
is
seen
After
Before
Fig.9-12 Elastic
collision between two
Seen from
(a)
unequal objects as
laboratory frame,
and
O-
Seen from
O^
the shore
(b)
the boat
O*-
-*o
""2
the shore
Hence we have
is v.
- (u -
- -x
=
=
w/2)
w/2
(9-22)
u
that in the elastic collision of
any two
unaltered.
momentum
servation of linear
thing
involved here.
is
is
call
The
extra some-
kinetic energy,
and
its
Let us
If this
system
we have conservation of
fluences
m\U\.
W22 =
WlJ-'l
is
shown
linear
momentum:
12 2
1-"
following relationship:
Ml
M2
t>2
Di
We
v2
The
"i
1$
results are
11 12
r "i +
11 + 2
2ii
I
IW2
Kinetic energy
2I2
r
- 2
11
333
11
12
mi
mi
U-2
12
in collisions
final velocities,
v y and
it is
a straightforward piece of
mivi 2
You
W2^2 2 = miui 2
/W2W2 2
(9-23)
total kinetic
energy
We
initially.
have arrived
is
at this result
We
of forces or work.
basis of
mention
Some of
on the
explicit
moment we do
and
collisions,
Having,
of a moving
in
mv 2
object.
effect,
we shall now develop an imporgood whether or not the total kinetic energy
conserved.
Let us consider
this
same
collision
5 and
words,
We
then have
u\
v\
We
(In other
S.
=
=
shall
initial
U2
Pl
PJ
now show
and
=
=
U2
V2
final states is
an invariant
i. e.,
it
in both frames.
In S:
^initial
#fii.al
= hm u 2 +
= i'Wlfl 2 +
>
AK =K,-
4"22 2
Ki
'M2U2 2
= (imim 2 + im 2
(^wiwi 2
(.-2
2
)
2
Jm22 )
In S':
^'initial
^'final
AK'
= il(Ml - V) 2 + \tm(M2 - V) 2
= il(d - V) 2 + im 2 (V2 - v) 2
= (%mivi 2 + fffttoa 2) (2"ii 2
334
VftmiVl
W2f2>
(miUi
i"J22
7M22)]
2
)
Fig.
9-13
Arbilrary
(a)
InS:
(b)
ms'-.
one-dimensional collision
as seen in two
different
frames
related by
fW
a velocity v.
By momentum
0*r
o*r
is
if
is
com-
AK
AK' =
Thus,
AK'
one frame,
specified in
it
fact of
all
frames.
momentum
in
any one-
initial velocities
wi
is
third possibilities
in the
these terms.
it
momentum
frame
is
is
m\, where
frame
of a particle
which the
total
its
is
zero,
and
this
it
is
a reference
vanishes;
momentum
likewise find a
of any system of
is
of
335
and interaetions
in general
but also, as
we
shall
show
Fig.
9-14
Basis of
momenlum
{center-of-
To
dynamical implications.
see
how we
identify
task
is
such that
momentum m\v\
+ m-iv'i
'
s ecl ua ' to
zero.
From
relative to
v\
v'2
=
=
Fig.
are given
c\
02
and
if this is
(/Ml
/M2C2
miL-i
to be zero,
m2)v = /Hll
Equation (9-24)
relative to
trary.
We
m2
rrtiU
particles in S' is
/W202
mzv
we must have
(9-24)
OT2l>2
Eq. (9-24)
of tn^ and
by
velocities
in the
m 2 as simply as possible.
If
werewrite
equivalent form
or better as
[(mi + m 2 )x]
dt
336
[mixi + m 2 X2]
di
way of
two
Fig.
9-15
necessarily identical
"llg
sets of
m *t
center ofmass.
tvilli tJte
The
square brackets.
difference between
them must be a
We then
have
_ = misi
mi
+ m2x2
(9_25)
+ m2
Fgi
the forces
and
Fg2
would not be
proportional to
strictly
m!
is
identified
way we
is
=
=
l/l
V2
where
15
D]
V2
is
velocities v[
develop
shall again
In frame
by our laboratory)
In the
zero-momentum
v
C
defined
by Eq.
(9-24).
can put
337
To
Putting
m\
+ tn%
= M, we
where
in
any
^^
P is
(9-26)
collision proccss:
P =
ntyvi
We now
HtaD2
(9-27)
const.
and the
velocity v
CM. We
the
K=
velocities v[
ImM + df + im
2 (o'2
2
(wiid'i
+ JTJttPa ) +
+ Kmi + w 2 )0 2
Now, by
and
v 2 of
mi and
relative to
have
+ vf
+ m2
(miv'i
v'2 )o
(9-28)
zero-momentum frame, we
have
miv'i
miv'y
term
is
i;
of the
CM. Thus we
can
write
K=
This
is
K'
n
+ \Ml -
(9-29)
we
shall express
it
in
words
also:
The
two
total
The
into
two parts
and
the
way
to
the possibility
to the
CM)
as a whole.
it
works only
is
the
the
new
of analyzing
the internal
(We
shall
show
338
if
reference frame
good not
One of the
of kinetic energy
locked up, as
is
it
that a certain
is
amount
center of mass.
can calculate
K-
=
=
K'
is,
We
it
$Mo 2
(imivi
\m2v2)
from Eq.
Substituting for d
\{m\
/2)0
by simple algebra
-22?-
K'
\
2 mi
(c 2
Bl
rri2
(9-30a)
is
called the
Thus we may
K,
K' =
y..
(9-30b)
where
u
Prel
m\m2
mi
ni2
02
1>1
For example,
if
- -o':
moving
02
object of
unit,
mass 2
initial kinetic
when
TWO DIMENSIONS
is
and so on,
COLLISION PROCESSES IN
and
collision
339
energy
it
is
two
Collision processes in
two dimcnsions
Actually one
+M>
+.w
Fig.
9-16
(a) Collision
seen as occurring in
colli-
dimensionat.
to
go
all
the
way
two
partieles after
One
thing that
is
worth recognizing
at the outset
is
that
have diseussed so
far,
can
in faet lead to
we
predietions about
we can turn
a two-dimensional one by
a
Consider, for example, an
of
view.
simply changing our point
imperfectly elastic collision between two identical spheres that
one-dimensional
collision
into
approach one another along the y axis with equal and opposite
velocities, u [see Fig. 9-16(a)]. Suppose that as a result of this
collision they recoil
(symmetry
would appear
opposite).
the
to
how
velocities
be equal and
parallel to
This defines a whole class of oblique collision probof which can be solved with reference to the simple
axis.
lems, all
it is
basically the
moment of
same
collision.
340
This suggests a
vcry
Imagine yourself
which the
collision is
in the
frame
in
be the
this will
opposite momenta.
in this
CM
and
frame, and
transformation.
momentum
total
in this
frame
is
as
shown
momentum
final
in
vectors
CM
shown
p[/ and
frame.
Thus, as
The
relative directions
of
p{,-
circle.
The
relative lengths
we have
p'f
we have p) =
0.
p'i.
0,
p}
processes
To
>
0.)
we may
begin with,
let
And
find
in
p}
(a)
An
less than,
We
are defining
an
ar-
bilrary collision as
momentum
vectors in the
CM
CM
of the momentum
vectors
lie
on
circles.
341
where
p\.
9-17
situation,
Fig.
In a completely
Collision processes in
two climcnsions
of a view from
elastic collision
unchanged by the
collision.
As we have
seen, this
conserved.
is
is
equivalent
momentum,
One
the other
collisions
is
is
his laboratory,
and interactions he
is
By
studying.
whose
learning to skip
nimbly from one frame to the other he gets the best of both
worlds.
Proton-proton collisions
Figure 9-18 shows a collision between two protons, as recorded
in a photographic emulsion.
hydrogen atom
in
One
before the collision took place; the other entered the emulsion
MeV.
is
make an
/
9-18
Fig.
collision
Elastic
between an
incident proton
and an
initially stationary
proton
in
a photo-
graphic emulsion.
.
{From C. F. Powell
and G.P.S. Occhialini,
...
Ox-
New
York, 1947.)
342
/
.
-%.,..; ...^...
Nuclear Physics
in Photographs,
othcr.
This
we
up
get
is
Newtonian mechanics
we can
By
first
no
is
looking into
Let
be
Then
v.
this
the
opposite velocities as
shown
at
velocity v/2,
and
in
ir
B'
on the other
in Fig. 9-19(a).
in the direction
To
get
and
6' /2
02
(ir
6')/2
62
r/2
Therefore,
0i
Fig.
9-19
collision
=
=
2(y/2)cos0i
2(u/2)cos0 2
=
=
ucosfli
wsinfli
(a) Elastic
between two
CM frame.
Transformation to
showing a 90 angle
between the final
velocities.
343
two
We
any such
see that in
served, because
KE =
Final KE =
Initial
\mv 2
m(t>cosfli) 2
= /wt; 2 (cos 2 6i
= %mv 2
+ \m(o cos
+ sin 2 0,)
2)
it is
not perfectly
elastic,
but
it is
impres-
sively close.
Neutron-nucleus collisions
In nuclear fission processes, neutrons are ejected with a variety
Fig.
9-20
collision
is
of the order of
PSSC
Physics, D. C.
344
MeV.
10
-1
eV
slow-neutron reactor
And
(thermal energies).
is a
elastic collisions
assumed stationary.
M.
Let the
in this
M+
(9-31)
momentum
vector v
frame,
shown
velocities, as
of
d',
its final
and
through an angle
measured
d' in
the zero-
yourself,
relative to
by Eq. (9-24):
(Exercise:
Do
is
the
final
unchanged as a
The
Fig.
9-21
is
scattered straight
we have
D
(v
B)
= -(to -
{a) Elastic
collision between
two
uneaual masses, as
seen in the
CMframe.
(b) Transformation to
from
90.
345
2v)
n the lab-
backward
(d'
x).
--*(i-jjF?y
M- m
For
e'
Thus
collision is this?)
no energy at
all.
(What
sort of
mtiX
Since
= ^mvo
is most
mKn that tells us what value of
neutron
average
reduction
of
the
greatest
lead
to
the
likely to
it is
And we
energy.
see that
cannot do as well as
makes
Kmin
equal to zero;
this for
it
we
be
Thus
part in 10
deuterium, beryllium, and carbon) offer a better compromise between moderating and trapping of the fission neutrons.
(e.g.,
INELASTIC
net
In
We
now
shall turn
change of
and
collision
first
total kinetic
it
is
energy
we obtained on
in general.
particles
CM frame (S')
_
is
show this, we
moving in arbitrary
and m 2 and velocities
Then
wiivi
>"2V2
mi
mz
346
a one-dimensional
In order to
(9-33)
measured
in 5' are v[
and
v'2
we then have
Vl
v'i
v2
v'2
We now
+v
+v
write
down
$mv 2 of a
as Jm(v
particle
K=
mi(vi
}i(Ti
Now
in
i.e.,
+ m (v v2 )
(v| + v) + $m 2
vi)
+ v)
(v'2
v)
(v 2
v)
+ v)
(v'i
Using
(v',
this result
above expression
8
(Jmii/i
K=
+ v)
and
for
=
= v?
v',
its
vi
2v',
+
v
K, we have
+ im 2 02) +
2v'i
that,
by the
+ m2v2
(miT ,
definition of the
is
+ i(m, + m2 )D
zero-momentum
zero, so that
we come back
= K'
Applying
after collision,
Ki
K,
We
A/B 2
=
=
we have
K'i
2
+ iMV
K}
+ %Md 2
total
D.
Thus we again
in the
arrive at
the result
K/
where
Ki
is
= K} - Ki- Q
the
amount by which
The
actual value of
The
virtually
347
results
no modification,
Inelastic
in
may
m 2 which
m 3 and m
and
masses
two
react to produce
Then we can
different nuclei,
of
of conservation
my
Mass:
Momentum:
Thus
the
initial
+ 14
ms
/W2
/wivi
W2V2
= W3V3
mi\4
wiv'i
i2V2
= W3V3
mnv'n
and
kinetic energies
final
= Mv
=
can be written as
follows:
Ki
Kf =
im^f + \m f + MD
ImM? + kmiMf + \Mo
Kf -
with
Ki
Q.
Example: The
reactions
nuclear
2 {o'2
D D
(and
One
reaction.
an
important
one
is
for
the
process
the reaction of
two
a neutron '
?H
+ ?H
2He
i/i
+ 3.27 MeV
What
as viewed in the
CM
about3.34
frame?
is
kinetic energy of
MeV
First, let
us cal-
forc,
D,
- (HiJ
1.0
10
m/sec
the
348
the total
Before
m,
m,
After
After
Fig.
9-22
(o)
Reac-
and
m,
m2
O'"
oftwo
ticles,
(6)
different par-
m z and m,.
Same process as
CMframe.
seen in the
Laboratory frame
In
CM
In
(b)
(a)
m2 =
Since
In the
ffli
d i/2
m2
and
0.5
frame
is initially
at rest,
we have
10 7 m/sec
of magnitude equal to
Kinitial
Kfnitiai
= hKx =
Hence we have
C.
%miC 2 =
/HU>l
i.e.,
[We
MeV
0.5
If
moving
object collides with a stationary one of equal mass, only half the
energy
initial kinetic
is
CM frame.]
Now
total kinetic
=
=
Kfinal
energy i n the
Kinitiol
3.77
CM frame
3.27
MeV =
is
way
that the
momenta
m 4 and V4,
3v'j
respectively,
+
a
4
349
Inelastic
W4V4
10" ,3
final
He and
The
given by
McV
6.03
This
is
Denoting the
we have
,./
Then
= |m 3 (,'3)
Putting
and so
^(^)W
^+ W
m
3
I4) ,
, ,.2
>
amu and m 4
amu,
this gives us
2.3
thus have a
full
U4
We
W3( ffl3
(=
3!)
10 m/sec.
CM
in the
add the
The
that, regardless
of the
final
directions as specified
by
way
is
the
4,
desirable or necessary to
go into the
may
What
CM frame.
4 in
work
momenta
ft
directly
always
beam?
is
it is
In such a case
for energies
it is
and
+ Q = *8 + K<
Pl
P3
(934)
P4
(In the
differs
or zero; the
Note
last
In
momentum
treating
this as
the particles.
350
is
here taken to be a
known
WHAT
IS
it
from a complete
set
of measure-
A COLLISION?
We
it
may
word
"collision" with
some
quite gentle
interactions.
1.
within
some
is
confined, for
all
it
practical purposes,
of any
though
it
were isolated.
between two
mounted
in the
Fig.
frictionless
vertically
9-23
(a)
is
certainly
collision
permanent magnets.
(b)
The
identical
center
film,
(a)
351
Whal
(b)
is
a collision?
no contact
is
meaning of the term. One can see that the velocities are
magnitude and direction except over the
physicist's
effectively constant in
linear
now
This
is,
look
will suffice to
tension to any
particles,
and
two-particle system.
The
ex-
Let
m, and
m2
by
particle 2,
and
f2
f i2
be
particle
is
surroundings.
particle
by
at a
number of
its
on
on
particle 2
I.
particles individually
states that
Fi
F2
+
+
f21
fi2
=
=
/wi
-7-
(9-35)
t/v 2
nt2
7-
Newtonian, and we
fl2
Adding
f21
=
we then
Fi
F 2 = mi
Fi
F2 =
+m
get
-j-
or
(mi vi
(9-36)
/n 2 v 2 )
and
f2
all
in
on
f1 2
mentum of
352
-at
the system.
mo-
We
can express
very compact
way by
If
/rnri
m\
This
is
given by
is
+w
+
2r2
(g_ 37)
rri2
lVl
where
cordingly,
F,
and
/W2V2
= Mv
(= m\ +
we have
+ F2
2)
is
the total
M^
di
= F =
Ac-
(9-38)
this
The implications of
this
system of particles
is
method
to analyze
its
center of
its
saw
earlier.
is
it
mass and
internal
First,
motion of a
(2) the
The
motions of the
latter
motion, the
namics
object
moves
In particular,
in translation, i.e.,
when there
is
when an extended
no motion of any
the
whole story.
We
shall return to
such questions
in
Chap-
ter 14.
basis for
If external
353
forces
in
is
a col-
effect of
any
are indeed
the product
At
same condition
different
way of
stating this
is
colliding particles
negligible.
is
we
transfers
on the
example of
last
processes and
collision
momentum
of a gas,
is
due
of
the molecules of the gas with the atoms that comprise the wali
of the container.
We
of mass
makes
shall
wi
is
made up
of n particles, each
1.
2.
The
them were,
particles
at
any
same speed,
two
The gas
3.
is
v.
and
two other
hard walls.
None
The
first
container
of these assumptions
two are
we
shall
an
stands.
not flat and hard. Nevertheless, the calculamake, using these assumptions, comes very close to
it
sticky,
there
is
knobbly and
tion
certainly
is
false,
essential
The reason
is
symmetry
in the
individual molecule
may
An
a short while,
and jump
off again at
the normal to
AA
AA
in
354
Collisions
[ t>Af
Fig.
the pressure
AA
wali
AA
momentum m Q v;
coils with
How many
all
it
momentum
v and re-
v,
If
we assume
Ar has elapsed.
Thus
cross section
AA and
unit volume.
Hence
length v A/.
cylinder
nv Ar AA
But of these, only one sixth are moving, not just along a
perpendicular to AA, but specifically approaching
receding from
it.
impulse communicated
total
AA
line
instead of
AA
to AA
that
AF exerted
in A/
in
Ar
on AA
is
= \no At AA
= 2mov X 5/J0 A; AA
= $nmov 2 AtAA
the impulse divided by
Hence
AF =
The mean
wali, is
^nmov 2 AA
force per unit area, exerted normal to the containing
what we
'
Thus we
arrive at the
result
P =
Since
^=
nm
density p,
nro
the total
is
we can
(9-39)
is its
alternatively put
P = hpv
or
"
'In this section,
355
The
1/2
p always
(<M0)
pressure of a gas
momentum.
Thus,
our calculation
if
is
we can
justified,
Takung nitrogen
gas.
room temperature,
at
for ex-
ample, we have
p
p
10 5
N/m 2 =
1.15
kg/m 3
kg/m-sec 2
10
Therefore,
v
500 m/sec
How
is
defensible
Eq. (9-39)?
is
We
more
careful calculation
So the v 2
in
we could
much faith in
re-
And
calculation,
although
the rigorous
not,
place
it,
,.
certainly
theory confirms
An
it is
we considered
only an
(It
would,
AA, instead of
we
we
cern,
shall rest
is
And,
THE NEUTRINO
At the beginning of
this chapter
we pointed out
but that
then
its
if,
in
status
may
failure,
it is
be greatly strengthened.
provisional,
finally vindicated,
connection
with
the
neutrino
that
elusive,
neutral
The
particle
prediction
its
existence
nonconservation of linear
356
momentum.
Fig.
9-25
The
visible tracks
[Front J.
collinear.
JETP,
8,
749 (1959).]
The
situation
It is
known
A-B +
where
is
e~
effectively isolated,
momentum
and
and B the
final nucleus.
initially stationary,
If
were
would
from
regardless of
involvement of another
all
Any
departure
demand
the
particle.
6.
another particle
the
neutrino
is
the electron.
if
the final
There must be
momentum
vectors
are to add
initially
is
its
escape unnoticed
only about
so
in 10
12
of
its
it
to
chance would be
PROBLEMS
9-1
particle
357
Problcms
an
of mass
Make
M.
m/ M from m/ M =
9-2
ball
how
Consider
bouncing
m/
to
M=
10.
momentum
conscrvation of linear
applies to a
off a wali.
is placed upon a
movements of the box over
the table? Just what maneuvers could the mouse make the box perform? If you were such a mouse, and your object were to elude
pursuers, would you prefer that the table have a large, small, or
9-3
mouse
is
Could a
table.
clever
mouse
control the
9-4
In the Phncipia,
Newton mentions
one
that in
set of collision
was
Suppose
velocity of approach.
mass 3wo, of
this material
traveling with
an
an
that
velocity Do-
initial
of their relative
five ninths
final velocities
of
2/wo,
of both
objects.
9-5
particle
mass 2mo. As a
particle of
final
mass
speed of uo/2.
of mass
mo
is
deflected
Was
kinetic energy
conserved ?
Two
9-6
skaters (A
and
B), both of
mass 70
m/sec.
carries a
bowling
ball
with a mass of 10 kg. Both skaters can toss the ball at 5 m/sec relative
to themselves.
forth
two
To avoid
when they
tosses,
i. e.,
are 10
apart.
on
the
is
initial
back?
fast,
about
weighs half as
much
If the ball
how many
back and
How
do they need?
Plot
of time
Is
marked along
the abseissa,
and
the advance
(Mark
and include the
x =
in the
5 m,
a boomerang instead of a
ball.
J.
P.
an
artiele entitled
9-7
Find the average recoil foree on a machine gun firing 240 rounds
if the mass of each bullet is 10 g and the muzzle
velocity
358
is
900 m/sec.
9-8
Water emerges
in a vertical jet
enough
thin
The
to be rather flexible.
its
of 2.5
static
an amount proportional
mass of 10 g, hung upon it, causes
pressed vertically by
and that a
It
has
is
de-
a depression of
cm.
How far is the nozzle depressed by the reaction force from the water jet ?
[This
problem
9-9
is
Am.
E. F. Schrader,
"standard
784 (1965).]
J. Phys., 33,
fire
70
on
ft
a building
whose base
fire
department
63
is
ft
Neglecting
air resistance:
What
(a)
is
what force
would the stream exert? (Assume that the water sprcads out over the
surface of the wali without any rebound, so that the collision is effectively inelastic.)
9-10
mass M.
Its
out a circle of radius R, and air over this whole circular area
in
i>o-
The
vertically
is
pulled
density of air is p.
hovers
at
some
what must be
fixed height,
One
(b)
9-11
1.3
rate \dM/dt\
y.
and
^ 10 m.
kg/m 3
What
is
to for hovering in
Mo
upward from
vertically
(b) If vo
its
2000 m/sec,
how many
kilograms of
upward
it
starts
launch pad.
mass 1000
fuel
tons,
must be
an
initial
g?
is
(e.g.,
Suppose
is
Nm.
359
and
Show
Problem*
mass
that
(casing) to initial
is
nm.
In each
is vo-
the velocity
ij
C
c
A>m
from
starting
ln
r /V
(b)
given by
is
A'
vi
rest
+ (1 -
r).
(d)
Show
value of
and
o,
scribed by r
maximum
and
it
two
stages.
makes sense
corresponds
Find the
maximum
(e)
Suppose that
(f)
it
is
km/sec and r
0.1.
is
im-
Show
possible,
2.5
single-stage rocket.
an arbi-
(g) If
trary
possible to
stage
is
by each
the same.
Show
that the speed acquired by the block after the th particle has
struck
it
is
fluid
On
(b)
360
this
rebounded
model,
elastically
an object
is
fluid
traveling
(supposedly
at speed v
through a
fluid
oo
when
What
2Sm/m.
as well as for an
moving
an
initially stationary)
(a)
e" an ), wherea =
i>o(l
of density
p.
By
is
is
sphere of radius
r,
it.
medium
of density
p,
what would the magnitude of the resistive force be? The whole calculation can be carried out from the standpoint of a frame attached
to the sphere, so that the fluid particles approach
it
-v. Assume that in this frame the fluid particles are reflected as by a
mirror angle of reflection equals angle of incidence (see the figure).
You must consider the surface of the sphere as divided up into circular
zones corresponding to small angular increments dd
possible valucs of
9-15
various
0.
particle of
particle of
at the
mass mi and
mass mi.
The
initial velocity
collision
is
i strikes a stationary
perfectly elastic.
It is
observed
velocities.
Find
(a)
(b)
(c)
The
The
The
ratio 012/011.
two
2
of mass frame expressed as a fraction of %m\Ui
(d)
9-16
The
mass
final kinetic
/1 collides with
a mass
012.
Show
the
(2)
The magnitude of
suggested that
(It is
is
conserved.
you
unchanged.
is
9-17
collision
pended so
appa ratus
is
made of a
f 2 mo,
first
is
The
first
the third
mass
set
0!o,
hfma.
361
Problem s
The
at a speed vo.
".
Om o6666666iifm
A
fm
(a)
elastic,
show
i>o
/,
Hence show
(b)
written as
that, if
e (with e
is
mass to the
last one,
n.
For
/=
energy of the
last
(c)
can be
it
0.9,
n =
mass in the
line in terms
and
kinetic
Compare
this
last
mass
in
the line.
9-18
16 J,
how
should
this
energy of
(this is
mass 6000
Southwest.
in the
middle of an
The
inter-
vehicles
mph.
you believe the witness?
Whether or not you believe him, what
section at 50
(a)
(b)
362
Do
was converted
kinetic energy
initial
forms of energy by
into other
thecollision?
9-20
nucleus
and B
The
collision results in
its
is
a change
observed
is
direction of motion of A.
What
What
(a)
(b)
and U2?
gained or lost
is
9-21
particle of
mass
The
to /\/3.
m is
initial velocity
u collides
elastically
deflected
particle of
mass
and
initially at rest.
(Ali speeds
and angles
an angle 6 to
laboratory system.)
Find
(a)
in
terms of m, and v
in
terms of
u.
angle 0.
(b)
mass system?
Make measurements on
9-22
lision of
of linear
momentum and
(first
total kinetic
and
initial state
particle of
2m
of mass
CM
initially at rest.
frame.
9-24 In a
historic piecc
in
fast
the
maximum
was
3.3
14 nuclei
does
10
was
this tell
(a)
(b)
recoil velocity of
hydrogen nuclei
maximum
10
1932 obtained
elastic collisions
He found
of
that
(initially stationary)
10%. What
you about
Take
363
the mass of an
Problems
nucleus as
amu and
nucleus as 14 amu.)
9-25
4 amu with an
of 1.90
initial velocity
The
10
collision
of 2.98
10
initially stationary,
its
speed to 1.18
acquired a velocity
m/sec at 18 with respect to the initial forward direcWhat was this second particle ? Was the
results,
subject to errors of
9-26
your
(In interpreting
collision elastic?
up
to a few percent.)
atoms of
nuclei in the
by
fast
The carbon
can be regarded as
effectively
A fast
neutron, of kinetic
energy
mass frame?
As measured
(b)
carbon nucleus
is
What
are the
final
(c)
collisions,
elastic
involving
random
mean energy
the
loss is
MeV
if its
from
to
values.
9-27
(a)
moving
mass
particle of
mass
m <
M. Show
that the
maximum
CM
(b)
particle
stationary particle of
of mass
mass
M > m.
The
incident particle
more massive
9-28 The
is
the following:
?H
In
deflected
m does the
particle recoil?
is
fH
- !H + ]H +
4.0
MeV
Suppose
of kinetic energy
364
Collisions
is
MeV.
What
(a)
(b)
are the
proton produced in
What
is
maximum
the
make
incident deuteron?
oratory
when
is
it
What
is its
this reaction?
kinetic energy as
as units through-
out.)
9-29
boat of mass
man
tionary; a
M and
m
of mass
length
is
at the
is sitting
bow.
(a) If the
how
of the boat,
far
is
at all to
result of the
motion
man's
trip
More
realistically,
resistance given
Show
of the boat.
by kv, where
its initial
result that
position.
that,
according
to (b), any nonzero value of k, however small, implies that the boat
ends up at
its
How
it
analysis by
365
D.
Problcms
else.
Tilley.
Am.
J.
fundamental
role, the
quantum mechanics.
which
is
thefirst law
has played a
say,
Yet
it is
fruitfully
mechanics.
C. G. GILLISPIE,
It
may be
discussion
wished
is
to
indeed had no
it.
This
it
arises:
is
We have
R. B.
'
10
Energy conservation
in
dynamics; vibrational
motions
INTRODUCTION
of all the physical concepts, that of energy
is
it
means. Energy
we
is
The word
electricity,
not think
in
call
work.
Energy
tum.
we
is
each
way
or
We
do
momen-
countless denominations;
those to which
The
it is
cussion
ofi
in
367
that
it is
We have set
up quantita-
which
peared,
And whenever
electrical,
it
it
new
In this
book we
shall
the
the potential energy associated with elastic deformations, gravitational attractions, electrical interactions,
and the
like. If
energy
motion we
lost.
This
restrict
call heat,
is
it
means
it is
that, if
we
our attention to the purely mechanical aspects, the conis not binding; it must not be blindly assumed.
servation of energy
Nevertheless, as
we
many
physical situations
good, and
in
such contexts
it is
of physical problems.
It
is
an
we are temporarily parting company with Newalthough not with what we may properly call Newtonian
subject of energy
ton,
mechanics.
its
awe-inspiring
F =
ma, has
its
own
how
to!
'
For Newton,
special contributions to
F = ma
make.
We
kinetic energy.
INTEGRALS OF MOTION
In Chapter 6
we
of the work
pendulum motions.
368
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
object,
producing a corresponding
it
considerably further.
Let us again take, for a start, the simple and familiar case of
an object of mass m acted on by a constant force F (we shall begin
by assuming a straight-line motion for which vector symbols are
unnecessary).
F =
= m do
dt
do
ma
di
from Vi to v 2
Fl
Then we have
= mal = m(o 2 -
(10-la)
ui)
F is equal to
the change
it acts,
we
obtain
Fx = max = ma
VI
+ V2
+u
m(ar)(Di
= im(v 2 -
2)
ui)(ui
Wl)
Therefore,
Fx = \mv2 2
00-2a)
J/wi 2
We
is
equal to the
last
tell
remark,
let
us different things.
us note that the
is
unneces-
For we have
F- m d
Multiplying by dt and integrating gives us
r 2
'2
F di = m
/;
do
= m(o 2 -
ci)
J Vl
369
Integrals of
motion
(10-lb)
'*%*
But
dv
dx
di
dt
Fdx
The
vdv =
side
total
j((?2
is
of Eq. (10-2b)
force.
(10-2b)
Ci )
is
F against
The
its
momentum
is
a given magnitude
it
acts.
Thus
in circular
motion, as
situation
becomes
clear
if
we
dt
with respect to
Fig.
with time.
The area
plotted as afunction of
displacement.
The
measures the
total
work.
370
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
mag-
all.
F = m
however,
The
or
we have
and
is,
/:
dt = m(v2
The
vi)
is
an instruction that,
the
if
we must form the appropriate vector sum of all the small impulses F A/ applied in sucThat is exactly how
cessive time intervals At between t\ and / 2
Newton himself conceived the action of the varying force to which
direction of the force changes with time,
orbit
itself
Chapter
(cf.
it
moves along
its
F over
We
applying a force at
some
is
are asking:
What
the effect of
is
object?
is
exposed as
13).
a force F!
If
At,
it
its
it
If
F2
a force
is
v,
Thus
of
v,
|F|
cos 6
where Av
10-2(c)].
is
|Av| cos d
At
The element of
At/m
is
[cf.
Fig.
given by
Ar = vA/
Fig.
v.
(b) Velocity
change due
to
an arbitrary
change due
to
an impulse parallel to
impulse.
371
Integrals of
motion
v.
(c) Velocity
by the
Hence the
ponent along
v,
The above
cos d
|F| [Ar|
|v|
we have suppressed
we use
com-
all reference
in
To
force
given by
|Av| cos 6
a scalar equation;
is
to the effect of
is
left
with
of two vectors
a b =
|a; |b|
In this notation,
cos e
= ab cos e
we have
F Ar = m(y Av)
But we can now play a neat (and valuable) trick. Consider the
quantity v v. This is a scalar, and its magnitude is just the square
of
|v|, i.e.,
o
v
we have, by
differentiation,
= Av
is
A(u 2 )
vectors
i.e.,
Av =
2v
Av
It
is
But since
simply.
in
two
Hence
Av = J A(u 2 )
follows that
we have
F-Ar = Jmift) 2 )
integrating over any path that the
So now,
W=
2
F- Jt = lm(02
\
-'
force,
we
fol-
- d')
(10-3)
r
i
which deseribes
in general
done and
point
372
the
(r 2) in
a two-dimcnsional displacement.
Enerev conservalion
in
dynamies
Fig.
10-3
tion
of work done
Calcula-
vector
An
scalar quantities.
moving
object
vertically with a
momentum would
at this
its
in
chiefly
is
dynamical methods based upon the concepts of work and mechanical energy.
The
The purpose
priate units.
of this section
to introduce
is
some
Our
unit of
1
If the
work or energy
CGS
erg
N-m =
in the
dyn-cm
system
the joule:
kg-m 2 /sec 2
system of units
1
MKS
10
is
-7
wc
is
the erg:
shall introduce a
seeming diversion
dW
dt
v.)
Power
is
373
= F
t/r,
we have power =
it
takes to perform
some
given
"
may
vital consideration.
For example, a
Power
far
is
be using
would take
it
it
may
be
too long.
we
shall not
in
W-sec =
J/sec
i.e.,
The most
venient
it
volts
energy unit
lkWh =
3.6
it
is
through
important to
'
con-
for
10 J
ofwaterfrom
amperes, but
electrical,
is
In chemical
of course,
is
electricity bill)
is,
the
is
to raise
kg
15 to 16C:
Cal = 4.2
10
:i
keV
the
(10
3
),
MeV
leV =
and
),
GeV
(10
9
).
The
its
related units
electron volt
is
amount
through
(10
10-
19
'The other familiar unit of power is of course the horsepower. About this
say only that 1 hp = 746 W, so that (as a very rough rule of thumb)
one can say that it takes about 1 kw to drive a 1 hp electric motor.
Most of the power levels of practical importance can be conveniently
6
W,
described using power units based on the wattmicrowatts (10
3
3
typical of very weak radio signals), milliwatts (10~ W), kilowatts (10 W),
and megawatts (10 W, useful as a unit in generating-plant specifications).
It is worth noticing, for comparison, that the sun's power output is about
we shall
3.8
374
X 10" W!
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
TABLE
10-1:
- - 10" J
Energy equivalenl of sun's mass
10"J
(fi
= mc')
- - io^J
Kinelic energy of moon's orbital motion (relalive lo earth)
- -
I0>J
in
U 05
fission of
kg of
Energy equivalent (
m< *) of g of malter
Energy of explosion of I ton of TNT
I
- - I0"J
One
daily diet
kilowatt-hour
Kinelic energy of
rifle
bullet
I0M
Oneerg(IO-'J)
--io-"> J
Energy cquivalcnt (K
Energy produced by
Energy equivalent
(<')
("
i< *)
--io-j
Energy
lo
break a
DNA
molecule
one nueleus of
ai
in
in air
- 35 e V)
--10--J
m/sec
or Pu
is
In
classical
but
it is
kg of mass
cquivalent to 9
is
10
we show
interest,
all in
16
one place:
in
tude of energy,
all
Wc shall
it
is
Let us take a y
goes higher.
An
moving under
object
gravity,
axis, positive
= yi
with velocity u
= y2
level
with velocity v 2
(Fig. 10-4).
is
and reaches y
up-
given by
v2
m2 +
2a0> 2
.yi)
with
a- -g
leading to the familiar result
.2
V2
_
=
,,,2
2
v\
2g(yz
yi)
K2
K\ = Jmi>2 a
>>i
and y 2
Now
K\ =
mgiyz
the quantity
mg
given
by
\mv\ z
K2
is
is
this
can be written
yi)
just the constant gravitational foree,
376
Energy conservalion
in
dynamics
10-4
Fig.
-yt
u%
F, that acts
10-4).
K2 - K =
x
We
F,0 2
- yi)
on one
side,
at
first
y = y2
K2 +
(-Fy 2 )
rcsult is
-Xi +
at
two
(.-F yi)
here
y\ appear
to the position
is
way
(10-4)
that the
different positions.
That
is
= -F,y
G0-5)
U =
making
at
'
we
Eq. (10-4)
thus gct
E = K2 + U2 =
where
is
tf ,
(10-6)
Ui
Putting
Fe mg
in
= mgh
'We
symbol
is
377
symbol
we
shall avoid
velocities.
throughout
it
this
here because
book. The
we
so often
Fig.
10-5
Energy
graphs shortly.
undoubtedly be familiar with another way of interpreting a potential encrgy such as U(h) in the last equation. It
represents exactly the amount of work that we would have to do
You
will
in order to raise
it
In order to
Fig.
10-6
If the object
of increasing gravita-
bigger
'To make it even more precise, wc could apply a force just a shade
then
moving,
the
object
beginning,
to
get
the
brief
time
at
than mg for a
change to F t exactly equal to mg for most of the trip (the object thus continuing to move upward at constant velocity under zero net force), and
just before the
finally let F, become a shade less than mg for a brief time
point.
end, so that the object finishes up at rest at height /i above its starting
378
Energy conservation
in
clynamics
is
tational force
work done on
by the gravi-
it
is
h to y
in Fig. 10-5).
Many
is
an
object,
more
result
due to
To
Equating
K2 -
F(x)dx
this
work to
Ki
is
this
given by
we have
F(x)dx
but
(10-7)
we
x.
moves from xi to x 2
in
W=
environment supplies a
force as an object
environment, depends
its
x and express
the
work
integral as follows:
r 'z
r*i
/
F(x)dx =
r 'i
F{x)dx-
K2 +
We
F(x) dx
\-J
F(x)dx
(10-8)
Jx
Jx
i,
we have
- Ki
+ -/
1
F(x) dx\
following equation:
U(x)
U(x
= -
F(x)dx
(10-9)
Jx
Notice once again the minus sign on the
right.
379
situations
is
The
potential
always defined
work done by
U(x
),
we
moves
The value of
can be
itself,
please, because in
we took
Increas-
ingly,
quantity literally
so,
role,
= -
F(x)
we
obtain
(10-10)
is
it
many
energy differences
one has no
physical situations in
direct
example, and
for
The
acting.
electronic
the dissociation
from some
may
point
initial location.
not be
known
How
well
perhaps not at
from point to
all.
$mv2
is
written as follows:
U(x)
= E
(10-11)
D(x)
This
is
(^^)"
dO-12)
we can
discuss
it
380
would be observed, a
little later,
Energy conservation
in
If
to pass the
dynamics
same
point, traveling
downward
at the
same speed
The
v.
been reversed, but there has becn no loss or gain of kinetic energy.
In such a case the force
unique function of x.
It
same
at
it
It will certainly
direction of
long as U(x)
is
can see
property?
We
said to be conseruatiue.
is
which
to
it is
applied.
object goes
upward through a
motion of an
As
object.
the
on
it
desccnds.
it
the kinetic
than
initially.
The
is,
if this
that
is
condition
is
correct.
later
be a single-valued function of
is satisfied
It
is
work
over any journey beginning and
crucial feature
(Chapter
r is
neces-
of possible motions
in a
one-dimensional system.
In
fact,
often are of
teristics
381
little
help
in
of the motion.
is
as follows:
We
i.
:<
Fig.
c6
10-7
-E,
X<f
sional system.
lines
is
total energy.
The
kinetic energy
K of a
particle is equal to
(E
U),
i.e.,
E2
other as long as
seeing this
is,
its
energy
is
E 2 One way
of
K between x 4 and x 7
point
x = x3
point
is
at
some
Its potential
382
instant.
E = E 2 intersect.
Energy conservation
Thus the
in dynami.cs
has zero
kinetic energy
and hence
there
on
is
a force
is
The
+x
force
direction.
on
rest.
However,
negative
and hence
it,
instantaneously at
it:
At x = x 3 dU/dx
in the
is
its
which U(x)
is
i.e.,
right.
at
d(J/dx
>
is
0)
now
it
diagram displays
approaches x 4
but there
kinetic energy
information before
all this
direction.
us,
The
Finally, at
x4
itself,
-x direction. What happens? The particle picks up speed again, traveling to the left, until
it reaches x 3 with its velocity reduced to zero.
This whole cycle
is still
motion, of which
we can
without solving a
discern
single
tell
as long as the
itself indefinitely
We
many
likewise periodic.
We can dispose
For a
still
higher energy
briefly,
E3
having
two kinds of
values of x, speeding up as
reversing
its
duplicating
the
still
it
passes
direction of motion at
all
larger energy
E4
is
unbounded;
down, speeding up, slowing down again, and reversing its direction of motion at x lt after which it proceeds inexorab!y in the
direction of ever-increasing x.
vertical distance
Caution:
It
line
of constant energy to
in Fig.
10-7
is
383
Do
down
the
it is
The
is
is
do
with altitude.
After this general introduction,
let
us consider
some
specific
ball,
moving along a
(loss)
vertical line,
first
bounces
is
re-
no
ball,
and take y =
correspond to
is
0.
For y
We
>
by the
first
contaet
given by
U(y)
= mgy
Now y =
Fig.
{y
does not,
>
in
0)
any
lically.
wliicli
(b) Idealizalion
the impaet at
wlrich there is
384
U=
some
y =
of(a)
is
10 represent
a situation in
completely rigid bu t in
dissipation
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
An
slightly.
on the
The
of the ball.
it
compressed
however,
CG
ball until
moves
into the
it
for
<
rise to a
very
steep.
the
in
Now
to
y2
might
in practice
For instance,
easily
<
by a
an
However,
and
is
we can
justifiably
The motion
is
confined to
>
defined by
i/w, 2
mgy =
if
(y>
is,
(10-13)
0)
mg
To
0:
(10-14)
T of the
from y =
it.
[a
2
J =0
dy
(10-15)
Vy
Now
385
flight is
OU
2(
- mgy) "'
m
*r
Ti/a
J
r=2/ Us-2
/o L2( - Oj
6-
g7o
m/ mg)-
y]
We
r- J*'
/Wo
This
is
is
just the
maximum
(A->-) 1/2
y)
You
will,
It
facilitate this.
should not be forgotten that most motions involve varying accelerations, so that the Standard kinematic formulas for motion with
constant acceleration
do not
apply.
any
is defined at any point by the energy equation, can be used for
numerically
if
one-dimensional motion and can be integrated
necessary.
let
us use
it
to illustrate
one
We know
that
Although there
loss at
each bounce.
is
is
how
this behavior
386
The
is
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
maximum
height of
Mass on a
figure.
many
physical
systems not
mass
analogues
0, are quite
spring
1.
two
just ordinary
and even
me-
electrical
features:
which has
its
in diverse
kinetic energy.
2.
spring represents a
means of storing
potential energy
its
counterparts
We
harmonic oscillator
in
this
problem
the
problem of the
it is
in part as
an
illus-
tration of this
problems in
oscillatory
classical
mechanics;
it
Our
F = -kx
where x
is
(10-16)
relaxed position,
in
N/m, and
this
0-
387
jo
F(x) exerted
Within the
extension x.
U(x)
real spring
No
real spring
of
its
obeys
an
by Hooke's law:
is,
linear
by the spring
as a function
F{x)dx=
kxdx = '^-
(10-17)
Fig.
placement for a
spring.
(b) Potential-
Graph ofapplied
a stalic deformalion
ofa
spring.
U=
shows
x.
for
x =
0, i.e.,
this potential
when
the spring
is
work done by a
force
itself,
force
FCKl
just sufficient to
Fcxt
against
388
Energy conservalion
in
dynamics
Fig.
10-10
Mechanical hysteresis.
Before
would happen
spring from
much
very
its
it
let
us
As we compress such a
original length,
in the
in Fig. 10-10.
if
behaves
However,
its
is
in Fig.
10-10.
not conservative.
The value of the force depends not only on the compression but
also on the past history. At the value x of the compression in
Fig. 10-10, we find two values of the force, one as the spring is
x
called hysteresis
Let us
now
and
it is
released.
results in dissipation
of mechanical energy.
way
in
energy
U=
\kx
a harmonic oscillator.
plotted against x,
Ei and E 2
For a given energy E\, as we have already discussed, tne
vertical distance from the horizontal line E x to the curve U =
gies,
%kx 2
Fig.
10-11
for
any value of a:
is
Energy
Hooke's
law.
389
energy method
This
at x.
maximum
is
and the
kinetic
at
x =
maximum
The
speed.
is
kinetic
and
reduced to zero
is
i ,
positions
x =
is
clearly oscillatory.
The amplitude A
energy E\.
x =
of the motion
is
Ki (=1
U)
is
zero at
Au we have
=
$kAi2
Ei
or
,1/2
- -
(10-18)
(fJ
the amplitude
is
(E2/E1) " 2 , but the qualitative features of the motion are the
same.
It
is
motion as inferred from the energy diagram would be the same for
and
All
is
mo-
in
detail, e.g.,
is
Then
T.
we can imagine
for
dia-
up into four equal portions, any one of which contains the essential information about
the motion. For suppose that, at t = 0, the particle is traveling
gram,
x =
particle will
at
its
and u
have during
maximum
0. It
its
motion.
it is
At
positive displacement (x
then retraces
its
the positive
in
steps,
= T/4
(x
390
= A) and
T/4
at
it
goes to
= T
Energy conservation
is
its
its
the particle
is
+A
in Fig. 10-11),
after a further
rcaching*
Let
direction.
= vm
In
two
in
dynarnics
Fig.
10-12
Sinus-
oidal variation
velocity with
of
timefor
a particle subjected to
a restoring force
proportional to dis-
placement.
The mo-
quarter-period suffices
of
for the
first
that,
and
results that
Dynamics of a catapult
The catapult is an ancient and
of a mass.
n Fig. 10-13(a)
we show
and final
f the
stages o
launching of an object
by a
catapult,
(b) In-
termediale state,
391
Somc examples of
the energy
method
An
ment.
elastic cord,
An
/ ).
mass
object of
is
with speed
A and
(A C
is
= CD =
B.
BC, and
When
it
is
at the point
it
begins
its
free
o.
its
increase of length.
when
the mass
is
to calculate
length
x ,
U=
i*(/i
/o)
Wi -
2
/o)
In the idealization that the cord has negligible mass and thus
we can
its
own
motion,
initial potential
\mv* =
/o) 2
(/i
/c(/i
we have
and so
,1/2
-(S)
/o)
making the
F =
mass by
to
direct application of
we should have to
when the mass
= I. The tensuch
that
AP
was at some point P between B and C
/ ), and the instansion in each half of the cord would be k(l
ma. Then, as indicated
taneous acceleration
m^- = Fx =
2k(l
/o) cos d
at
is
392
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
is
the
now
shall
The
mass on a spring with a restoring
/w 2
where
is
is
\kx 2 =
(10-19)
Since v
total energy.
hm
(4j?\
= E
**2
(!0-20)
full
we must
x (and hence
so as to obtain
Our way
v) as functions of
r.
x, but to
at
We
start
(dx\
We
k_
2E\dt/
2E
x2
is
(10-21)
sum
The sum
is
equal to
its
Now we can
t).
sin
/>,
then
ds
and
s2
cos2
<p
sin2
p =
(10-22)
must be able
to
2E\dt)
in
form!
W/
2
The second of
393
these
The harmonic
is satisfied
by putting
meihod
We
X =
What
'">-*>
(t)""' - (t)"'***
We can
is ^s?
find
it
= /2EV
dx
dip
cos-
\k)
dt
But the
equation of (10-23)
first
* m (2g\V **
\m/
dt
Comparing
d(f>
these
condition on
that
by putting
U*
m (2\
\m)
QM
Y"
is
is satisfied
<p:
= (*
J
dt
\m/
where w
t:
- u
(10-25)
we met
in
problem (Ch.
7, p.
F=
ma.
(p
where
wt
<po is
we thus
get
ipo
the
initial
phase.
<p
fejtj
sin
(co/
(10-26)
w>)
prefer to proceed at
(I)
f)'
and hence
2.1/2
,2 X)
di'"* 4 ~
dx
394
Energy conscrvation
in
clynamics
dx
,dt
ut
(4
(po
x2)I/2
-1
= A
and so x
sin
sin (ut
-J
as before.]
<p
tell
mass on a
spring,
is
a result that
is
We depend
this are
heavily
number of complete
tremendously important.
i.e.,
would become
SMALL OSCILLATIONS
IN
but
if
in
which an object
It is at rest at
it
to
its
in
is
what we
under
some point
tending to return
it
GENERAL
stable equi1ibrium.
force
it
original position.
some
experiences a force
Such a
shown
marked as x
force, unless
is
in
.
Fig.
10-14
offorce with
10-14(a).
The normal
(a) Variadis-
placement on either
side
of the equilibrium
position in
a one-
dimensional system.
(o) Potential-energy
curve associated
with (a).
395
Small oscillations
in
tion
call
no net
value for
Fig.
by a
in general
One
UU)
Fig.
10-15
it
bottom,
sitting at the
minimum
of which
x = x
Now wc can fit any curve with a polynomial expansion. Let
us do this with the potential-energy funetion but let us do it
by putting
with reference to a new origin chosen at the point x
is
at
x = xo
from equilibrium.
5 is the displacement
where
energy curve,
now appearing
The
potential-
+ as +
= U
U(s)
ic 2 s
%c 3 s 3
(10-27)
will
appear
almost immediately.)
The
foree as a funetion of s
= _
is
tion
so that
we have
= Cl
F(s)
However, by
Now, whatever
will
= C2S
F(s)
css
0,
at 5
0; this
is
the equilibrium
F becomes
(10-28)
C3S 2
less
small enough.
all
and
as small as
we
c 3 , there
it
will
0)
be
we can be
some very
is
in s
is
equal to
please by choosing s
having c 2
tions
5,
made
more
strongly,
396
much
to
definition, F(s)
Hence c
position.
C2S
We
can write
U(s)
%c 2s 2
( 0-29)
of
We
A;
for the
motion
is
this analysis
in all
surface could well be in the form: The polen tial energy ofan object
of mass
the
raised to
is
Such
mass of a
particle
is
very small
mass
is
its
it
effectively
mass of the
the
this larger
ence. This
near
is
compared to
interacts. In
is
surface.
It
if
is
mgh.
which
refer-
one of them
is
one
is
is
mgh
is
increased by an
amount
h.
when
If
it
is
is
particles
now
It is
to this
particles, of
masses
m, and
m2
(otherwise
it
would have
infinite acceleration)
and hence,
between the masses and the spring, the forces exerted on the
397
The
linear oscillator as
a two-body problem
c
Fig.
10-16
System
"h
F, 2
Wom 700
/i/l/t
nected by a spring,
i
and
forces.
mass
by the spring
We
equal to
is
2,
F 12
the force
F2
exerted on
in stored potential
to the changes
-Vs
.i
'i
suppose that
dW =
moves a
the spring
Fi2dx2
F2 1 dx\
Fi2(dx2
dx\)
Fi 2
d(,X2
is
m 2 moves dx 2
given by
(sinceF2i
= Fia)
Xl)
x2 x x
rather than
x x and x 2
separately,
defines the elongation of the spring (and hence the energy stored
in
it).
= X2
r,
to denote this:
x\
Then
dW = F 12 dr
The change of
(10-30)
dU = (r)=
dW.
we have
F12 dr
(10-31)
Our
discussion of
that
we should introduce
refer the
as
398
two-body systems
in
the ccntcr of
in the
CM frame with-
we have
Energy conscrvalion
in
dynamics
dynamics
By Eq.
we have
(9-29)
= K'
where K'
v[
two masses
as
measured
CM
by
= imivf
K'
We
K'
is
CM
in the
A/5 2
+ \mv
(10-32)
it is
in
of the two
Vr
V2
f'l
m\m2
M =
From
mio'i
Using
m
,
y.,
particles:
this,
CM
/2^2
v,T
U
;
;
m\
f
02
2
find
mi
n\2
we
"'i
"r
"i2
Substituting these values into Eq. (10-32) one arrives once again
at the result expressed
by Eq. (9-30a):
r.JJHLl-i
2mi +
Pr*
00-33)
n\2
We
acting,
On
we have B =
which case
dK = dK'
The motions
At
this point
we can assemble
evaluated
dW [in
although, as
only
399
The
onxa Xi,
spring.
We
which
is
equal to x'2
linear oscillator as a
x[
depends
two-body problem
dK =
We
dK'.
we have
just seen,
= F\zdr
dK'
Likewise, as
r.
Integrating,
K'
Fl2 dr +
And now,
const.
K'
For the
U(r)
CM frame:
E'
(10-34)
specific case
length r
we can
U(s)
$ks2
put
s
Also
dr
ds
[Eq.
(10-34)]
becomes
J* (f)
+ito8-i?
00-35)
where
M =
This
is
mim-2
mi
+ m2
exactly of the
angular frequcncy
-It is
($)"*
form of the
w and
r-
its
period
T are
given by
(,
*(?r
mass
/x is
less
is
- 36)
its
clamped
is
shorter i n
tight.
400
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
we can
We
9.
problem by imagining a
little
much
me-
trouble.
more than a
object of
For
amount
certain
mass
and
that an object of
mi approach
If Mi
will
is
it
Suppose that
10-17(a)].
[see Fig.
this device
mass
is
attached to an
collides with
to be initially stationary,
and
it.
let
with a speed i.
be compressed a
is
The spring
perfectly elastic.
when m^
little
strikes
it,
but
it
will return
comes to an end.
lision process
spring
is
at all
and
is
2 is
subjected to an accelera-
it
left.
certain positive
the
is
maximum compression
At
locking position.
to one another,
is finally
mi and
this instant
reached in which
is
+m
this
is
the
inelastic.
Fig.
10-17
(a) Collision
energy-storage device.
(b)
Same collision
is elastic if
401
to the
mass mi
it
by the
crilical
in the center-
work needed
amount.
What
changes from
CM
collision
elastic to inelastic?
which the
frame
total kinetic
10-17(b)].
[Fig.
energy given
(cf.
In this
the previous
by
2
K' =
ivu>T
with
m\
vT
mi
= "i
(because uz
0)
n\2
kinetic energy of
Lab frame
in the
m2
Now
well-defined
the
K'
K, =
stored in
f/o
or
+ m2
_ mi
(10_ 37)
Uq
n\2
If
is
given, the
become
a threshold value
ofKu
possible
we
consider
it
and a
pushes
is
compressed beyond
critical length
Ku
higher values of
still
and
and
we
stops.
2 apart, giving
obtain situations
its
During
them a
motion
this partial
final relative
in the
CM frame.
in the spring,
Our
analysis in Chapter 9
in fact,
made
precisely
way. The quantity Q, representing the value of K/ that we introduced there (p. 347) is in this case simply equal to
in this
-t/-
402
Energy conservation
jn
dynamics
The
is
closely paralleled
nuclear physics,
"ground
state."
understood
teristic states is
that
is
we
need here
is
in
normal
its
If
all
a study
made of
levels involved.
shown
effect
so
(K')
is
may
In the
considerable
energy
difference between
and the
is
CM
the
in
case,
latter
is
still
classical
occur, with a
This
is
quantum mechanics that one only has relative probawhen several outcomes are possible.
of events
bilities
To
One
collision.
by the
initial
impact.
if
com-
an explosive collision
Such a process
minimum
comparable to
threshold energy to
this
experiment
toy pistol)
in
is
make
go.
Something very
is
possible to
do a
quantitative
mounted on a mass
that
is free
403
it
to recoil,
(e.g.,
in a child's
and
on an
is
deto-
air track).
180
190
e'
a)
">B<0.72
MeV)
">B(0)
w B*(2.15MeV)
C(0)
"B*(1.74 MeV)
250
Relative proton
momentum,
~
300
nJll
.350
units of Br
(b)
Fig.
Experimental resulls on elastic and inelastic collision proshowing Ihe production of characteristic excited states ofsharply
10-18
cesses,
[AfterL. C. Van Alta, Phys. Rev., 38, 876 (1931).] (b) Scattering of
Some carbon was also present as an
404
Energy conservation
in dynainics
The threshold
significantly greater
than
if
the
cap
is
mounted on an unyielding
is
support.
typified
is
nuclei play the role of point masses (which of course they are to
in
comparison
atoms plays the role of a spring system that can store potential
energy.
We
possible mode
of internal
and
this will
be a
we must considcr
the shape
and energy
We
there
is
two atoms.
order of
This
is
called the
angstrom (10
-10
m).
The
fact that
is
always of the
such an equilibrium
mental data,
U(r)
is
to
d_ *
where A and
(10-38)
>
b.
away
is
The term
- B/r6
is
negative potential energy, also falling off with increasing r but less
rapidly than the
first
term, and
it
shown
Now
The
but
it
in Fig.
10-19.
physics as such.
405
dis-
Fig. 10-19
Simple
ofa
dialomic molecule,
defining an eguilib-
rium separation ro of
the nuclei.
tance;
At
it is
dU
aA
dr
f<>+\
bB
ro-
0:
bB
'
(10-39)
fi + 1
(10-40)
"
the parameters A, B,
energy
we have
aA
If r o is
dU/dr
is
a,
and
b.
Also, at r
the potential
given by
this gives
--(-l)
The energy U(r
) is
we must add
406
It is
Energy conservaiion
in
dynamics
if
we are
to
a quantity of
3H)
(10-41)
we
have
we must
Clearly, however,
unknowns.
down
make some
specific
some
assump-
really
need to know,
is
for the
purpose of con-
We
dis-
and arrived
(p. 395),
t/(s)
\C2S 2
where
s
The constant
ro
can be
c2
k and can
U (r):
*-(3L-(3)L
Applying
sides of
d U _ a(a+\)A
dr2 ~
r o+2
b(b
to r:
\)B
UW"J
r 6+2
we can reduce
it
to
(d V\
a+
bB
_ 6(AJ+
\)B
Therefore,
This
407
still
if
with Eq. (10-41) you will see that the equation for the dissociation
energy
taking
value of k, as follows.
(a
b)B
From
Eq. (10-41)
we have
= aD
ro"
we
find
= abD
(10-45a)
ro 2
we content
C-
where
is
Fig.
10-20
(10-45b)
r 2
408
Energy conscrvaiion
in
dynamics
Morse
M.
potential (after P.
Morse).
we have used
It
It
known
is
but
we have
used,
it
as the
based on a
powers of
r.
set up,
a two-way
It is
traffic,
in other
-1
words.
Fig. 10-20;
we
shall
be coming
The period of
masses /i and
is
(10-45b):
T=2xr (&)'
(--)
where/i
(10-46)
reduced mass
in vibrations
= m\m%l(jn\
+ m2
).
The frequency
v,
-UT
Let us see what this equation might suggest with an actual mole-
We
cule.
shall take
/m( l2 C) = 12amu =
m2(
lc
O) = 16amu =
2.7
A-
1.1
X lO-^m
D
First
10- 2C kg
-26
10
kg
X
X
1.1
lOeV =
2.0
1.6
K)
-18
we have
_m1 m3_
/Mi +- M2
12
^o
x 2? x
_
]0
20kg _
16
_2 o
1()
kg
409
Therefore,
DI
1.4
y.
10 8
m 2 /sec 2
whence
j-
If
X lO^C'^sec-
1.7
we ignored
the factor
*1.7X
1'
we would have
10 13 sec-'
The
7
visible
10
-7
That
is
We
-7
to
-6
10
m, so the wavelength
10
CO
Actually there
is
a funda-
Eq. (10-47).
having a
5 and b
this
value by putting
C" 2 =
in
U(r)
that our
is
be regarded as a source of precise information about intramolecular forces. Our purpose in introducing it is simply to illustrate
the general way in which vibrations about an equilibrium configuration can be analyzed.
There
with
is
it, is
a feature
is
this is that
that we
vital feature
quantized.
hv (where h
is
have ignored;
= Ex - E2
(10-48)
We shall not go into this here, except to point out that the smallest
possible
410
jump between
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
as
it
It is
the basic
and since
simply.
custom of
lent energy
Since,
fre-
relation,
applying
further,
and used
to
E=
hv
= hc\~
still
in
D=
cm- =
1
36,300
we have
D=
For example,
involved.
is
HC1
of
3.63
relation,
is
10 6
and
in Fig.
10-20,
given as
m"
substituting h
6.62
10- 34
in this case
(6.62
10 8 )(3.63
10)
0,
10- "J
7.2
4.5
particle
10" 34 )(3
eV (approx.)
PROBLEMS
10
F whose
value at
becoming zero
at
of mass m, at
/
=
t =
rest at
10-2
What
T.
is
An
object of
mass
kg
is
subjected to a force
linearly with time,
x = 50
is
= r?
at t
41
is
m?
Problems
x =
0,
what
is
its
speed (a) at x
from
rest
25 m, and (b) at
10-3
(a)
force
particle of
mass m,
which increases
relationship between
F and
acted upon by a
initially at rest, is
F=
Deduce
Cl.
the
result.
(b)
How
initial velocity
10-4
is
the graph of
made
versus
uo?
man
has
to
work-energy relation
dW =
t/s,
it.
and appealing
By analyzing
the
to conservation of
your
"me-
Radius b
10-5
(a)
The Stanford
linear accelerator
("SLAC")
of approximately 200
IceV/ft.
delivers energy
How
does this
is
(after
within 10
that of light).
How
SLAC attain a
far
velocity
travel in attaining the speed of light if their kinetic energy were given
by the
classical value
10-6
while
it
railroad car
travels
412
KE =
is
mo 2 ?
through a distance of 10
is
dischargcd.
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
(a)
What average
keep
(b)
(c)
What
moving
it
10-7
car
(c).
is
his
hand with
(a)
is
Of
on what
A common
at a given rate
answers in
the road?
(a) to the
car.
10-8
objects, over
work done by
the passenger
what
distances.
of revolution
is
known
as an absorption dynamometer.
is
clamped
to the output
(a)
v.
leaves
and by the
it
What
constant speed?
is
at
known
distance
and
is
away.
and
03
arm
(b)
You
F times
its
lever
torque and horsepower agree with the data published for automobile
engines? Explain
10-9
An
why
electric
measures 30 by 20
pump
ft
may
there
and
is
be discrepancies.
is
15 ft high.
4 ft.
(a)
(b)
pump
level.
of 15
ft,
Problems
a 4-ft flood?
413
pump was
instead
(a)
record throws.
(b)
What
2 m, would be
re-
Do
air resistance
amount of
its
length 230
What
erected
(it
has since
m.
kg/m 3
high
It is effectively a solid
the total
is
first
you can.
fully as
10-13
men and
It is
took 20 years.
If so,
it
less
chute
model
in
it
see the
figure.
To
slide
rise to
efficient.)
it
from
rest
down
a friction-
is
represented by a mass
M,
tween
sufficient to eject
414
Energy
definite
amount of potential
corrservation. in
dynamics
relative to
energy, U,
M.
(This
the fuel
(a)
how
all
What
is
fired at
is
after sliding
To what
(c)
is
down
released?
height above
now?
Is this
By how much?
skeptic
10-14
who
neutral
What
vacuum.
hydrogen atom
is
10-15
from
rest
bottom?
(1
eV =
1.6
through 100
in
kinetic energy in
its
10 -19
Avogadro's
J.
.)
= -kiX-
F(x)
where x
falls
is
k 2 x*
its
unstretched length.
The spring
rests
on
a frictionless surface,
10-16
particle
function of position
figure.
415
Indicate
Problcms
on your graph
Its potential
axis.
Make
energy as a
a careful freehand
significant features
and
relationships.
M and
/0-77
rically
length
is
It is
turbed slightly and begins to slide off the peg. Find the speed of the
rope at the instant it leaves the peg completely.
10-18
Two
(a)
m,
on m\ such
this force is
suddenly removed.
(b)
Consider
problem
this
when
Let
How
the supports.
knowledge of
(c)
tuilion
by
m\ drop
far will
Now
that
(1) letting
you have
mz
you
it
Does
problem?
against your
mi be zero.
in-
Espccially
common
in the second case, does the theoretical answer agree with your
10-19
particle
moves
in a
is
given by
U(x)
(a)
3x 2
- x3
What
is
the
maximum
is
possible?
in the positive
10-20
J)
x.
U in
(x in m,
is
the force
on
the particle
direetion ?
A highly elastic
ball (e.g.,
a "Superball")
is
released
from
rest
a distance // above the ground and bounces up and down. With each
bounce a fraelion /of its kinetic energy just before the bounce is lost.
Estimate the length of time the ball will continue to bounce
and / =
rtf.
10-21 The
elastic
distance 2b apart.
416
if
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
Show
(a)
direction
its
length, the
is
propor-
is
= 2kb \-}n -
-r-sr
\sin 6
sin
cos
O/
(b)
x = b
given by
moving a distance
to find the total
is
stored in the strctched cord (p. 392). (After carrying out the calculation
that
way
in the
work
10-22
which
What
the ball
(Take y
tion of height y.
(b)
dropped upon
r is
ky.
a graph of the potential energy of the ball as a func-
Make
(a)
M and radius
F=
of deformation,
when
mass
a deformable floor
is
is
level.)
(Note that
this corre-
sponds to the
(c)
over
its
period
10-23
at time f
newtons
x =
at position
acts
m=
of mass
particle
2 kg on a
0.
to
as functions of
= Otot =
(b)
10-24
What
is
force of magnitude
t
Fx =
in this period.
the total
work done by
sec?
F(x)
sin(ir/)
2 sec.
= -kix
by
k 2x 2
Take
displacement x.
(b)
It is
stored energy
at
x =
is
0.
ki
in terms
of
= b
Ari
is
twice the
and bt
(c)
(d)
The spring
in (b).
end
fixed.
mass
in the positive
417
Problems
lies
m is attached to
direction
fast is
it
moving
(e)
x = +6?
at
What
at the
An
object of
force given by
= -ax 2
F(x)
How far
+x axis
along the
does
it
get?
m as
a function of
oscillation
if
x axis
is
as shown.
equal to
3l/o/2.
2t/
'h,
i.
(a)
Show
x =
0,
on
in the
direction
is
~- kx -( l+
$)
[
l
(b)
/o),
show
is
proportional to
U{x)
What
is
~ Ax*
(x
/o)
may be
helpful.)
418
Energy conservation
in
moving along
dynamics
the
axis in a
given by
is
U = Ax 2 +
compared
tude
is
to
Ax
i
,
Bx A
is
given by
,_ A (i-g)
A
10-29
between
The
of mass
particle
potential energy
tangular
hump
is
and energy
shown,
is slightly
of height
period of oscillation
[It is
vertical walls as
i.e.,
E is
changed by introducing a
AU (
U=
0.
tiny rec-
Show
that the
effect
disturbing effects
This
AU
is
Ut -
U=
blocks of masses m and 2m rest on a frictionless horizontal
They are connected by a spring of negligible mass, equilibrium
L, and spring constant k.
By means of a massless thread
Two
10-30
table.
length
is
is
L, k, and o find
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
How
do
velocity c
is
if
the initial
spring?
419
Problems
is
ion as a
__
2
A
= -Ke + __
/(,)
where the
values of
K=
first
constants in
its
10
The equilibrium
Lil molecule
N-m 2 /C 2
On
(a)
1.6
X KT 19 C
about 2.4 A.
is
(in
what
is
the frequency v
small amplitude?
2
value of d U/dr
26
as 10kg.)
10-32
-7
,
two
at r
rosee
-'
p. 407.
Take
the
k as the
mass of the Li +
with
"W-7T + I
M experience
atoms of mass
identical
force proportional to r
so massive),
it is
(a) If in addition
varies as r
(i
<"
>
7,
>6
show
a repulsive
that
>
result versus r.
molecule in
dU(r)
dr
(c)
t/(r
).
What
is its
M,
Show
that
it is
molecule
and the
dissociation
\2nD
may
lattice
of alternatcly
be written
420
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
two adjacent
Make a graph
(a)
of U(r) versus
correctly,
r.
Making
stability
sure to identify r
e,
and
n,
is
minimized.)
Show
(c)
No =
= NolKro)
(d)
2.8
1.7 (dimensionless) if
esu (e
4.8
421
crystal,
10 23 mole
For NaCl
Problems
10
-10
is
is
esu).
-1
u in terms of r
about
10.
expressed in
Using
compare with
is
Avogadro's number
~6
Using the
mole of molecules
The constant A
centimeters and e
is
equal to
is
given in
clever trick, or a
it
expresses
truth.
sutton, Mathematics
in
Action (1954)
11
motion in space
motion
in
or
we
restriction,
10
n dynamics.
method of
To
analysis to
still
and
in the process
let
same
shall free
the energy
greater advantage.
levels in the
we
show
and B,
at different
small particle,
If the
at B.
Path2
Fig. 11-1
in
Path
vertical plane.
423
on the
particle
whatever changes
compel the
at
If it follows
Of course
if it
it
emerges
path
1, it
follows path 2,
it
does change as
force
is
and
velocities Vi
paths beginning at
How
does
A and ending
this
work
dW done on
dW =
where
|F| \ds\
it is
same for
all
given by
cos 6
F ds
a constant force
is
the
is
at B.
B is the angle
the force F
v 2 are quite
their
(i.e.,
But
ds.
Fx
F= -mg
The element of
Now
dW as
dW = Fx dx +
To
cos 6
|F| \ds\
dis-
defini-
we have
F dy
and
in
the
xy
plane,
making angles a and /3, respectively, with the x axis (Fig. 11-2).
Then if the angle between them is 6 we have, by a Standard
trigonometric theorem, that
cos 6
The
cos(/3
scalar product
S =
Fig. 11-2
a)
cos /3 cos a
5 (= A B)
cos
/3
is
sin/3sina
thus given by
sin/3sina)
work F
ds
in
A B
may be convenient
an arbilrary displace-
ment.
424
in
space
But
|A|
cosa = A x
and similarly
for the
generally,
sina
if
= A
+ A u By
A B = A X BX
More
|A|
A B = A X B X + A y B u + A,B,
Thus
in general
dW =
In
present
the
Fy = mg,
dW
Hence
less
ds
we
shall
= Fx dx
have
Fydy
F, dz
(11-1)
two-dimensional problem,
with
Fx =
and
us
this gives
= mgdy
change of
for a
vertical coordinate
from y\ to y 2, regard-
we have a change of
K2
-K
= /.
JdW= -mg(y 2 -
by
(11-2)
yi )
result that
we derived
in
Chapter 10
we have
so-called
its
energy.
Let us consider
its
some
motion, do nothing
specific
examples.
We
application of
The
425
and a 2
Fig. 1 1-3
masses
of energy-conseruation methods.
F = ma
will
not
Thus a
a.
single
suffice.
K= J(mi +m
and
its
Now
u dt
surface
slope
in a time dt is given
change
dK =
=
2 )v
+
+
(u
{m\
mi)odv
mi)oadt
the distance
is
on which
it
(y positive upward),
is
and
rides,
means a change dy
potential energy
by
for
in vertical
The
m2
parallel to the
the distance v dt
coordinate equal to
associated change
dU
down
the
v dt sin
in gravitational
thus
dU = -m2gvdtsin6
But, given conservation of total mechanical energy, assuming
friction to
dK
be absent, we have
+ dU
Thus
(mi
m)va
whence the
dt
m2go dt sin 6 =
familiar result
rri2
m\
OBJECT MOVING
IN
gsintf
/712
A VERTICAL CIRCLE
Suppose that a
particle
of mass
426
is
/,
'
/
/
I
I
Mo
Fig. 11-4
ion
ofa simple
^-
pendulum.
is
'r
"~
is
1-4).
=O
Then
at
the
B, or, if
its
we
prefer,
path from
by the displacement
be of invariable length).
angular displacement
If the
object
is
B,
the
y coordinate of
the
given by
is
y =
/(1
and hence
its
1/(0)
cos 0)
by
potential energy
mgl(\
(11-3)
cos 8)
Ki
K2 + U 2
t/i
\mui 2
mgl(l
cosfli)
= \mv 2 2
mgl(\
K in terms of m
cos 02)
Therefore,
V2 2
oi
Clearly,
if
82
>
2gl(cosB 2
6
If the object
velocity v
U then v 2
<
(11-4)
cos 0,)
V\,
we should have
427
this point.
Object moving
in a vertical circle
02*
P0*
What
initial
-COS0 2)
2^/(1
this result
velocity
questions as:
is
What
position does
it
reach
if
is
= ma
in this
The
problem.
velocity of
it
unknown push
on
or puli
the object
is
has
an
yet none of
(or y).
other things.
in
radially outward.
velocity
Fig.
it
is
more or
This
is
less rigid
now
it
cannot
Up
to
w.
of
(Photograph
(b)
(a)
428
Sup-
we had
a constraint that
rod
Conservalive
l'orccs
and molion
in
spacc
circle
(although
it
The breakaway
will fail
away
point
is
in
l-5(a)].
to zero
falls
The angular
fallen to zero.
Fig.
l-5(a)]
is
position,
at
defined by a statement of
Newton's law
mg cos(tt -
'
<L)
nv
assumes
<e,
< r
where
u*
vo 2
2*/(l
- cos 0)
COS0m =
oo
3gl
can thus deduce that a particle that starts out from O with
less than VJgl will fail to reach the top of the circle, whereas
We
o
it
an
initial
with the
AN EXPERIMENT BY GALILEO
It
was
(1638),
who
first
Two New
Sciences
He
down smooth
l-6(a),
He
which
is
plancs of different
based on a diagram
using inclined
429
An experiment by
Galileo
traveled, not
on the
slope.
on the
sliding
down a
verlica! disiance
(b) Galileo's
pendulum ex-
what he observed
scientific insight to
in this situation.
Here
is
modernity of
Imagine
own
Galileo's
his presentation
this
description;
quite striking:
is
it;
from four
own
sketch].
On
draw a horizontal
this wali
OB
Now
on Galileo's
OA
line
and
ABA'
till it
OB
it
with
will
be
almost reaches
the horizontal AA', a slight shortage being caused by the resistance of the air
and
momentum on
reaching
through a similar
the string.
B which was
arc BA'
Having repeated
From
this
we may
to the
this
same
cxperiment
AB
it
projects out
some
five
it
height.
many
times, let us
N, so that
rightly
acquired a
or
six
now
OB, say
at
finger-breadths in
order that the thread, again carrying the bullet through the arc
AB, may
strike
thus compel
430
it
upon
the nail
in
space
'
center
Now,
you would
at
see the
some lower
point.
if
.
.
In this
different path.
He
up through an
ficient to carry
AA', and
then added to
of the
motion along any given arc and could reach his main conclusion
that the speed attained by his suspended object must be the same
whether
it
on the
arc beginning
level
AB
A A' and
or the arc
with
its
C B,
or any other
lowest point at B.
result,
fail
down an
inclined
gsin
6!)
This per-
it
that he could
his
finger a
bril-
it
y = JCx2
where
is
(11-5)
a constant.
ferred to
U(y)
an arbitrary zero
at
O,
is
given by
= mgy
Quoted from
Sciences (H.
Crcw and A. de
Salvio, translators),
York.
431
free to slide
Its gravitational
Mass on a parabolic
track
Dover
Two New
l'ublications,
New
Fig.
11-7
Motion of a
particle
on a parabolic
track in
vertical plane.
where k
= \mgCx 2 = \kx 2
(11-6)
is
as a spring constant.
have
+ U= E
\mv 2
(=
const.)
%mv x 2
This has
by vx and
Imv,*
of the
and using
marked resemblance
(11-7)
to
energy-conservation
the
u,
= E
ikx 2
spoils things.
if
we
Common
is
sense
tells
us
more or
less
immediately that
vertical
motion
is
if the
track
Because of
the low friction, the oscillation can take place even if the curvature
is
extremely small.
To
is
a specification
at
1-ft
MKS):
'R. B.
432
Runk,
J.
L. Slull,
and O.
L.
Anderson, Am.
J.
X,
ft
&
1
4
ff
&
y,in.
Taking any pair of these values, one establishes the value of the
constant
C in
Eq. (11-5),
e.g.,
x = 4ft = 1.22 m
y - i in. = 6.35 X 10"
Thus
C =
2y/x 2
8.55
What would be
mass
K)- 3
For
= mgC.
m"
k,
Therefore,
11.9sec 2
2vTT9 21.6 sec
m/k =
(gC)"'
7"-
moving
object,
its
against x.
Chapter
physically distinct
in
in
10.
from
To
ll-8(a)]
resting
Fig.
is
a mass
on a smooth
table.
(b)
Same
mass on a smooth
parabolic track.
(c)
Arrangements
and
to
(b)
(a)
can be made
tions ofpotential
motions are
different.
433
Mass on
first
one
The second
The
a parabolic track
[Fig. ll-8(b)]
is
an equal
mass
free to slide
on a parabolic
track.
The
strength of the
spring and the curvature of the track are adjusted so that the
shown
Fig.
in
the
same magnitude of
If projccted horizontally
ll-8(c).
same speed v
velocity at
But
x.
If set
their periods
same
show a progressive
change of period with amplitude (which way do you think it
will
be
The mass on
different.
period at
all
will be?).
amplitudes
It is
become essentially
the same.
in
vertical circle.
This time,
it
As we saw
U=
mgl(l
cos 0)
= 2mg/sin 2
Fig.
11-9
"-
(11-8)
U as a funetion
of d,
we
Energy
The pendulum
trapped
in oseil/a-
= Oi/Eis/ess
than 2mgl.
434
In Fig.
1-9, 6
can take
values of
between
all
values from
pendulum
and
-\-k.
oo
to
+ cc
Howby
Any
range corresponds to one and only one angle 6 inside the range.
The
latter is
Two
is less
dulum bob).
If the total
energy
is sufficiently
no turning points
in the
motion;
E2
in the
8 increases
dulum bob
minimum
is
maximum
at 6
at
(or
The speed
of the pen-
etc.).
It is clear
from
Fig.
at least equal to
of the swing.
If
E<
2mgl, say
E y,
is
oscillatory
and the
6q
+6q
is
the motion
to
Fig.
11-9 by a parabola
statement
is
that
displacements.
Fig.
11-10
Another way
Potential-
energy diagram of a
simple pendulum.
435
is
is
small,
one can
set sin(0/2)
we have
U(8)
Imgie1
(11-9)
Applying
it
x2
(l
is
y)
origin at
O,
y =
2ly
/-(/ 2
x2 =
-* 2 )" 2
2\l/2
=
If
x2
<5C l
->('-i)
2
we can use
approximate
constant
result
[Compare
(11-10)
this with
was
like that
400ftlong!]
different
approxima-
its
motion
angular one.
way
it
varies.
Looking
at Fig. 11-10,
we can
l-y
Fig. 11-11
Geomelry ofilisplace-
436
pendulum
Compared
would hold
that
an
for
the motion
increases.
room
that
for doubt.
If the
exactly arrives at
pendulum
sit
would
practice this
is
energy
is
there
is
no restoring force
jr,
upside
down
indefinitely
at all; the
although
is
in
Even
If
drastic.
at
you
larger-amplitude motion.
But
we
first
shall
make
a detailed
pendulum bob
the
any point
at
5^/
(^) +
U{6)
= E
is
equal to
dd/dt,
is
(exact)
'(D'
for U(6)
have
iml
{^) +
$mgl0
= E
(approx.)
or
Tt)
(f)
const
'
(n-u)
this
-2r-*(i)'
[Caution:
It is
/2
(11-12)
itself that
undergoes
0(0
437
O sin(oo/ 4- v,,)
The pendulurrms
harmonic
(11-13)
oseiliator
pendulum
is
<p
dB/dt not
is
The
),
the
in (ut
<p
),
which serves
The behavior of
harmonic
tion to a
ment on
it
its
so important that
is
moment
we
shall
com-
to consider the
We
Newton's law.
to whether
oscillator
further.
derivation of
can do
we analyze
this in
two
displacements.
Linear motion
We
when
it
[Fig.
is
a horizontal distance
1 12(a)].
x from
its
pendulum bob
equilibrium position
suspending string
is
FT
we have
2
m =
-.
at*
If the vertical
small,
we
Ft
component of
bob
is
negligibly
SO that
FT mg
acceleration of the
cos 6
F = mg
a
6,
cos
/2
I,
Fig. 11-12
Basis for
of a simple pendulum
(a) in terms
of hori-
zontal displacements,
and
(b) in terms
of
angular displacements.
438
in
space
dJ x
mg
W~~T x
Angular motion
In
(=
this
l
We have, simply,
2
rf
w/- = Fsin0 = mg s'm 6
For small
0, sin
which leads
to
Eq.
(1
9,
and so we have
1-13) for
as a function of time.
It
can be
is
"cleaner" treatment than the other, involving only the one ap-
proximation
sin 9
9.
its
period
is
the simple
pendulum
the fact
provides a striking example of this remarkand unique property of systems governed by restoring
able
length 30
so that
ft,
about 5
to put
it
them
or so.
they
439
made
The pendulum
as a liarmonic oscillatoi
Fig.
11-13
(a)
instan/,
boltom
politis
of iheir swing.
approximation
is valid,
same
is
enough
large
t'Lx
Even
'
is
its
maximum
2gl{\
cos
pm
O)
the colliding masses will reach their lowest points at almost the
same
instant as long as
O is less
it
would have
The next
how
find
small-amplitude value,
its ideal
we
' +
where
w,,
2<oo (l
cos 0)
g/l and #o
>
tne
2coo (l
maximum
cos 8
(11-14)
the vertical.
The period of
7X0,,)
'You can
oscillation
thcn given by
is
dO
=
fs/2 J-t (co$8
wo"
(11-15)
cos<?o) 1/2
magnitude of
440
This section
may
in
space
Fig.
11-14
Precise
measuremenls on the
period of a simple
tained by
the top
damping
endofthe
tude increases.
as discussed
iri
The
equal to
integral of
which
gives, as a next
result:
1 +sin
7tyo) To ['+**>'(?)]
If
O is
(11-16)
T(A)
To
A (=
/sin 6 )
is
result, in
the formula
(11-17)
(+tf)
m, and the
values of 6
up to about
10
over-all
studied
is
was about
range of
O-
The graph
441
(11-17)
is
m, so that
less
It is
part in 10
5
,
and the
also
J. Pftys., 32,
T from
change of
0.5
shows the
632 (1964).
larger amplitude
be shaped
is
method of making an
the
almost
O >s
completely compensated.
(Incidentally,
as 6 increases, in
to increase with
exactly isochronous
HoroJogium Oscillatoriwn,
results
were
practical
first
first
in
we have
that
discussed so
far have involved only the familiar force of gravity near the
earth's
distance between
their centers.
limits).
is
But, as
we know,
two
It is
particles
line joining
class of
on the
We
shall
is,
radial distance
show
symmetric central forces are conservative, and shall then consider the special features of the l/r
tion
and
electrostaties.
If a partiele is
on
aeting
it
Fr
only:
We
is
(11-18)
=/(r)
shall
force
on a
Recall, howcvcr, that small local variations are in Tacl detectable by sensitive
gravity survey instruments, as deseribed in Chapter 8.
442
in
space
__M_______
___)
(a)
7%. 77-75
(a)
work
is
done.
(c)
Closed path
in
a conservative central
force field.
another point
changes
its
position
[Fig.
then
from a point
to
and
73,
it
will
went
from
path,
[Fig. ll-15(a)],
central force
F on
and consider
work
is
where a
r,
This
given by
dW =
of
it
is
ds
= F ds cos a
(11-19)
ds.
From
i.e.,
the direction
we
see
that
ds cos
where dr
a =
is
dr
from the
we have
dW =
443
Fdr
F on
(1
We
1-18).
/(/)]
depends only on r
moves from
it
=
A
work done by
to B,
r 'b
W=
>
Because
(11-20)
f(r)dr
/
'A
this integral
we can conclude
is
its limits
sym-
conservative.
built
ll-15(b).
at constant
r,
to
is
zero,
is
placement are
work F dr by
in the
same
dis-
amount of
the following
is
important proposition
is
also conservative
must be spherically
symmetric.
To show
this,
in Fig. ll-15(c).
short portions of
circular arcs
central,
from
it
around
two
radial lines
BC and DA.
at
any point.
ABCD,
it
Thus,
by very
Since,
ABCD, formed
if
we imagine
a particle carried
BC
and
DA.
The
opposite amounts of
are of equal length,
the
same on each.
If
we
we conclude
is
drawn.
is
independent of the
electric charge.]
may be
conservative
For example,
444
in
space
Given the
rcsult expressed
VB - Ua = If the kinetic
KA
KB
and
(11-21)
f(r)dr
f (r)
/
'A
respectivcly, then
(if
and
no work
is
we have
forces)
Kg
- Ka =
Ka
+ UA - KB +
and
Ub
-B
(11-22)
force,
for
we have
dl-23)
^2
UB - Ua
r" dr
J 'A
from which we
get
Ub- Ua-
Cl
-a)
Vb
(11-24)
far
and
convenient to set
U=
for r
ao,
i.e.,
at points infinitely
in colloquial
particle is of
ditions.
UA =
Ub =
0,
C/rji
or,
if
we drop
the
now redundant
subscript B,
there follows
445
= -
V(r)
(11-25)
a function of
its
position.
Equation (11-25)
is valid
and
(which
re-
mass
an attractive or a
for either
we
shall
F(r)=-^
(.1-26)
DW--2?
01-27)
Note
were points
two objects
i.e.,
their linear
As we saw
their separation.
most
two equations
action between
in
Chapter
8,
interesting
lems,
we saw
is
we presented a
frontal attack
on
this
Now we
shall
and
in the process
we
shall see
culations.
in
distance r
from
R and mass
M (Fig.
be placed at
some point P a
we
deal directly in
If
in the
of a point such as
can cxploit
446
its
in
space
is
Fig.
11-16
Diagram
ofa
spherical shell
thin
of
matter.
We
scalar guantity.
all
The
from the
F
tr
As
force
on
is
U from
relation
--
(11-28)
dr
in
marked
off
For
(Fig. 11-16).
area
2ir
this
and
dB
sin B dd
2wR 2 sm9d6
mass
zone we have
4jt/?2
i.e.,
dM =
iMsinddd
dU = The
...
GMm
2
energy of
GMm
2
447
at the
= -
This integral
is
dM
GmdM
total potential
U(r)
dM
that
is
to
f
J
sin 6
sin 6
dB
s
is
thus
dB
(11-29)
be evaluated, keeping
and
r constant,
by
from zero
to sweep
allowing
to
ir
is
made
(s
changing accordingly) so
parts of the shell.
The
AOP,
all
we have
2
s
= R2
2Rrcos0
and
(11-29),
0,
remembering that
wehave
2*^do
= 2Rrsin6
Thereforc,
sin 6
dd
ds^
Rr
But the left-hand
side of this
is
U(r)
= -
GMm
(11-30)
ds
2Rr 7-o
Equalion (11-30)
is
the
key
Fig.
11-17
(o) Gravi-
tational potential
energy of a point
parlicle as a function
of a
splierical shell
radius R.
tion
(b) Varia-
of F with
riaed from
thin
of
r,
de-
(a).
448
in
space
we must
Case
11-16).
The
7r
R, as in Fig.
(11-31)
(i.e.,
s,i n
giving smnx
giving
two cases:
>
on
limits
=
=
Point
1.
distinguish
R
+R
Hence
Smnx
Anln
2*1
U(j.)--2MH
Point
Ca.se 2.
(i.e.,
<
The
R).
limits
now become
8
giving s mi
/?
= x
giving smsx
/?
Hence
U(r)
These two
from them
= -
results
are,
^^
however, quite
Case
If
from O,
is
a constant.
It is
only
r,
the distance
Hence we have
1.
F =
Case
different.
of the mass
(11-32)
(11-33)
(11-34)
2.
Fr =
In Fig. 11-17
we show
The
discontinuities at r
mass
= R
m from
are easily
seen.
these results,
449
it is
a simple matter
A GRAVITATING SPHERE
Our primary assumption is that the sphere can be regarded as
made up of a whole succession of uniform spherical shells, even
though the density may vary with radial distance from the center.
Granted
this
Case
M and radius R.
mass
1.
shell acts as
though
(r
>
R). Since
whole mass
its
were at the center, the same can be said for the sphere as a
F(r)
we have
moon and
accelerations of the
discussing Newton's
Case
the apple.
2.
must be more
(11-35)
is
in
terial varies
This
way
Regardless of the
whole.
(r
<
Here we
R).
careful,
ments:
a.
For
all
For
all shells
byEq.
zero,
by Eq.
(1
mass
is
is
1-34).
by the ob-
(11-33).
we must know
drawn
Case
l',
(special)
The same
sphere
is
homogeneous.
In this case,
the
amount of mass
r is
i.e.,
equal to r
/R 3
because
to be considered
the
is the same for all r
we know that the fraction
a distance
is
equal to
Mr 3 /R 3
effec-
test
450
(P' nt inside
homogeneous sphere)
(11-36)
Fig.
11-18
(a) Force
on a poinl particle as
ofa uniform
solid
sphere of radius R.
{b) Variation
of
mutual polential
energy with
r,
obtained
The approxi-
The combined
in Fig. ll-18(a).
This
is
shown
in Fig.
ll-18(b).
One can
r for all
also con-
values of the
interior points (r
<
R) we
have
-w"j,"
GMm (R2 -
r2)
2R3
Thus we
in
- GMm
R
</(,)=
In particular, at r
= R
get
(r<R)
451
0,
-^(3K2-,2)
we have
gravitating sphere
(11-37)
3GMm
= -
1/(0)
If
2R
0, then, as Fig.
ll-18(b)
up to
= R
The
increase of
with r that
is
variations of F(f)
good, as wc
be homogeneous.
no requirement
is
On
it
in Fig.
1-18 hold
must be careful to
Thus
> R
remember
<
R, refer only
and
that a particle
"Show
in a tunnel
more powerful
objection.
Fig.
one
11-19
earth.
is
(a)
(I.
Iben and
Z. Abraham, M.I.T.).
452
spacc
U=
by the formula
mgh,
it
U(r)=-^
There
no
really
is
(r>R)
however, once one recognizes that
difficulty,
to reconcile this
by Eq. (11-31):
arbitrary
is
U(R
h)-U(R)=-^R + h + ^R
GMm
R2
G Mm/
Since, however,
on m,
is
mg
exerted
this gives us
U(R
h)
U(R)
By putting U(R) =
energy, we see that
mgh
U = mgh
is
an acceptable approximation
is
indicated
on
Fig. ll-18(b).
ESCAPE VELOCITIES
Suppose we have an object
sphere, such as a planet, and
This problem
At
is
it
at the surface of
a large gravitating
never returns.
= R)
off into
give it?
energy conservation.
is
given
by
U(R) =
At
co
^
R
U =
0.
launch
it
conservation equation
453
Escape
velocities
Therefore,
GMm
K(R)>
The
critical
R
condition
is
reached
if
we
The minimum
is
thus given by
GMm
Therefore,
*=
(11-38)
may
form
force
of
in
it
another
GMm
~R^ =mg
Therefore,
GM
and
so,
= VgR E ) v2
DO
Putting
10
in
the
(H-39)
familiar
values
g ~
9.8
m/sec 2
RE ~
6.4
m, we have
bo
11 .2
km/sec
servation.
is
anything
fired.
in
It
between
the
to all cases
[Fig. ll-20(a)].
It is interesting
is
454
in
space
from a
The
ofescape
gravitating
magnitude of the
velocity, not
direction.
on
(b)
its
The
escape speedfrom a
double-star system
would have
if
it
The preceding
Rj,;.
is
isolated
from
from
other objects.
all
and
of the two
stars.
But
the scalar
still
The
forward
sum
potential energy of a
And
arately.
mass
m at P
is
is
A
is,
particularly important
example of
11-21 (a).
schematically in Fig.
mass m,
its
If
we
This
shown
is
consider a partiele of
by the
type of system
this last
ll-21(b).
and moon
Mathematically
is
it is
shown
as
given by
the formula
U(r)
= -
GM.\ r m
GMf.iti
r
where
and
is
'
(11-40)
r
455
D-
Escape velocilies
is
simply the
and moon.
and moon
sum of
earth.
Effi
BBS
;[.-''- 'v
Moon
Fig.
11-21
(a)
Sche-
earth-moon system.
(b)
Form ofvariation
and moon.
where (dU/dr) rm
This
0.
is
at the point r
r,
moon
are equal
and op-
we can put
GMp.m
CMsttn
(.D
rm
This gives
Now
+ Wm/Mk) 11*
the value of
This represents a
center.
MM/ME
is
at this value of r
is
given, according to
Eq. (11-40), by
U(r,)
= -
GMK m
GM M m
0.923
0AD
G Me>
0.9D
1.
23GME m
D
If a spacecraft
456
is
to reach the
moon from
in
spacc
energy hump.
an
after
If,
initial
it
this potential
further, this
minimum
initial
GM^
Em
,
2
fwoo
Uh
...
l.23GMB m
U(rm )
2GMk (
l.23RK \
The
one
Putting
finds u
R E /D ~
g\y
11.1 km/sec.
in
At
results
for yourself.)
we have
is
that in one-dimen-
condition
is
of position.
how,
automatically met
We
shall
now
two dimensions,
in
if
this latter
condition
A force
is
Our example
in the
xy plane,
is
this:
finds itself
this
Suppose that a
not
sufficient.
y may
particle, at
never-
any point
Fx = -ky
F
= +kx
where k
is
'This section
457
may
More about
Fig.
11-22
(a)
force a parlicle tofollow the palit shown in (a), (c) Closed path
is conservalive, the
particle.
llte
net work
A and B.
giuen points
made
If the
is zero.
the particle.
on the
Fig.
in
else,
but (as
It
this
we
may
well be objected.
did in our
first
approach
10)
we can
is
exactly balanced
away from
it.
Now
Starting at O,
a to the point
by F during
W\
since
y =
the particle
by F along
458
this
We should
add the
also
by the
it
enough
let
with
motion
is
Fx dx = -ky
everywhere on
moves from
dx =
to
Q{x =
a,
y =
b).
Next,
this path is
w =
Fy dy = +ka
ly-0
Jv-0
and
W4
The
this
is
done as the
is
dx = +kab
zero, since
W\
force
round
in the
particle
x and hence
moves from
Fv
is
zero every-
given by Eq.
(1
1-41)
If
k were
traveled clockwise,
amount each
Ikab
is
of the particle
artificial
trip is therefore
+ W% + Ws + W =
circuit
work done
path
work done
W=
it
= kab
total
and the
work
to the origin
where on
to
Fx dx = -kb
finally, the
back
dy
Jo
its
kinetic energy
would be decreased by
This
time.
On
indeed
is
(1
same
this
very
this
non-
described by Eq.
energy
analytic forms as
especially in electromagnetism.
There
is
that
is
The
situation.
it
it
Fig.
is
Let us
ll-22(c)] in which a
We shall
F-ds+
Path
More about
not including
W=j
459
is
(i.e.,
we then have
F-ds =
Pth 2
It
F ds = - /
Path
But now,
Path 2
if
the force
if
change the
Hence,
cis
is
a function only of position, we can interon the right and reverse its sign.
is
conservative,
we must have
rB
Fds
'A
Path
Path 2
Pi
1
1
If this condition
is
satisfied
we can put
Wab=I Fds
(ll-42a)
And
same
from
to B,
we can conclude
if
WAB
the
is
is
Vb
-Ua--Ja
In evaluating
work
(ll-42b)
ds
integrals
such as that
W
If
F,dx+
one uses
(for a
this equation,
its
in
Eq. (ll-42a),
Fx and
components
into
its
components dx
two-dimensional problem)
Fdy
however, one should always remember
particle.
an
is.
One can
component of F
460
knows
is
for
in
is
y.
conservative,
^pace
In
y.
And
it
is
11-23
Fig.
Consideration of
the simpler
y\
along the
It is
that, in
Fx
from
by the
const.), followed
line
CB
(x
= x2 =
line
y>\
AC
to
y2
const.).
many
x 2 along the
integral of Fy from
to
jci
this discussion
situations,
For example, a
of the earth
field
may
satellite
moving
in the gravitational
This drag
is
Nevertheless, one
may
still
FIELDS
The
forces that
we have
labeled gravitational,
comes
No
into play.
To
electric,
and
apparent physical
For
most
is
this
useful.
it.
The
its
depends
location
We
can therefore
This
461
section
Fielcis
may
its
Thus we imagine a
which define
The
such vectors
totality of
field,
or intensities of the
In this
field
is
called
strengths
field.
field
strength g at a point
Pis
F
The magnitude of
2
(e.g., m/sec ) and
where
point
is
the
(11 _43)
mass of the
and
in the direction of r.
One can
of acceleration
in units
._ C E_ 6 e
measured
this field is
is
Equation (11-43)
is
which the
field
strength g as a func-
The
field is
then given by
This
field
on an object of mass
by
this
F = mg.
description of forces
The
is
electric field
produced by a
is
Z =
F
q,
is
charges at
rest,
As an
frequently
arbitrary
the situation
is
For
electric fields
field,
use
is
neighboring point
462
produced by
in the field,
we draw another
in
line
space
element
in
new
making
a smooth curve,
limit of
of a force
of such
and so on.
In the
we
line has no
point,
obtain
the direc-
is
the field
is
real existence,
field
lines.
line
We
shall there-
Besides
its utility in
The reason
fashion.
we can use
that
is
of force.
field
we know
of space;
i.e.,
we have a
Suppose
form
relation of the
=f(x,y,z),
where the single-valued function f(x, y, z) depends on the particular field of force under consideration. If we wish to know at
we
set
U = U
of the form
f(x, y, z)
This
is
const.
= Uo
the equation of
an energy eguipotenlial
a surface, and
surface.
There
exists
a whole family of
Since,
test particle
surface,
it
from
follows
We
quantities here.
Just as
we
we
define potential
463
section
may
To
(<p)
mass
tation,
force
we thus have
and gravitational
(mVsec 2 ).
The complete
(or, in
g (m/sec
array of
2
)
may
<p
field lincs
sets
(joules),
two
lines)
provides a graphic
we
In two dimensions
see
be, are
which
the field lines are radial lines and the equipotentials are a set of
ll-24(a)].
is far less
The
field
pattern
making drawings of
Fig.
1-24
the equipotentials,
(a) Equipotenlials
and field
lines
due
it is
1-26.)
often convenient
force law. (b) Eauipolenlials and field lines due lo a syslem oflwo nearby
spheres,
464
of masses 2
to
M and M.
in
space
to
draw them
makes
To
map which
in effect
it is
its
P and
at a point
point.
Its
let it
may
F*
we
Consider a
test particle
dU = -F-ds
This
field,
vector, as well
by an amount
F,ds
(11-44)
as
In words, the
component of
the force
in
any direction
The
hand
its
is
spatial derivative
on the
right-
is
chosen at the
(Strictly speaking,
dU/ds
will
maximum
its
dU/ds
maximum
this
value of
is
maximum
This
direction,
is
its
associated
it is
symbols,
we
write
F = -grad U
To
In
(11-45)
servative field in
two dimensions.
lines, rather
In Fig.
one for
U=
equipotential
465
l/
-f
AU.
U + M/
Starting at
P on U we
by any of an
infinite
can
move
to the
number of
dis-
_^\pyui*
Fig. 11-25
StAT^l^'
Different
>u.
IH^HHHHHH
placements. However, for a given change of potential energy
this
is
is
AU,
in the
change of po-
rate of
from
and
This
is
are shown.
that As
is
is
larger than
It is clear
IN
The
maximum
tential
indicated in Fig.
MOTION
change
AU/As
or
AU/As 2
CONSERVATIVE FIELDS
We now
We
have of course
on a particle
is
that
due to the
$mo 2
U(x,y,z)
where v 2
vx
whole
story.
It is
vu
+ v, 2
first
= E
2
field,
(H-46)
,
of
and v
at
of the problem
Our
is
provided.
n.
advantage of the
spacc
menting
it
may
may be
necessary.
Or
it
may,
shall see in
in suitable cir-
energy
in
momentum.
angular
particular,
The
ex-
is
of Chapter 13.
As
motion of a charged
field.
particle in a
we
combined
parallel
electric
between the
magnet
plates.
The
and magnetic
We
shall
exists
(= V/d)
in
in a direction
start
out with negligible energy and velocity from the lower plate.
This could, for example, be arranged by giving the lower plate a
photosensitive coating and shining light onto
it,
as in a
com-
mercial phototube.
= e
emitted at O.
It
path indicated
in the figure.
and
will
Adi
Motion
in
conservative fields
into
the page
Fig.
11-27
*U4-
Analysis ofthe
x and y components
0/7.
at
O,
is
negligible.
As
we need more
is
point of
some
its
parallel to the
is
axis
here,
component
Fx
given
by
for the
x component of motion
is
accordingly
evv
B=m^
(11-48)
Since v
eB dy =
m do x
or, integrated,
mv x = eBy
since vx
O when y
(\\-49)
0.
Now we
468
in
space
nwy2
This
is
TV
y =
(11-50)
eV
is
given by
e
= - -jy
U'(y)
+ hm
"
precisely of the
form of a harmonic
on a point at a certain
angular frequency
O)
co is
shown
in Fig. 11-28.
It
positive value of y)
and
its
characteristic
given by
eB
is
result.
maximum
maximum
0:
m V
y**
If this is less
eB2d
than the separation d between the plates (a con-
making B
y displacement of
equal to
.ymax .
Fig.
11-28
Effective
potential-energy curve
of motion in the
arrangement of Fig.
11-26.
469
Mol ion
in
conscrvativc
fields
Taking
we can put
at the
Fig.
11-29
Cycloidal
a magnetic
field.
/1(1
(ll-51a)
cosco/)
shown
in Fig. 11-29.
dx eB y
y
where w
is
the
(11-49),
oiy
dt
is
Specifically,
that
we introduced
earlier.
dx
a>/4(l
cos
tor)
dt
.v
A(ut
x = O
at
sinwr)
Equations (11-5 la) and (ll-51b), taken together, show that the
path of the electron
is in fact
a cycloidjust as
if it
were on the
axis.
mentioned
may be
earlier
useful
how
even
which dissipative
of the orbits of
artificial
We
all
know
470
in
hundred
spacc
Fig.
satellite spiraling
inward as
energy.
it
(b)
loses
Small
descent
is,
many thousands
is
as
shown
is
in Fig.
for simpiicity.
l-30(a), the
motion during a
we
single revolution
will take to
little
of revolutions.
at
be circular
any stage
is
error,
F=
GMm
_ mo
r
r*
Thus the
kinetic energy at
r is given
G Mm
K = %mu =
by
(11-52)
2r
speeds up.
This happens
the satellite
is
in spite
As
in other
words, the
satellite
If there
were no such force the orbital radius and the speed would
re-
main constant.
We
when we consider
satellite
U= - GMm
471
The
eflcct
must have
of dissipative forccs
lost energy,
The
total energy, E,
when
given by
is r, is
E-K+V--^
As
r decreases,
E becomes
(11-53)
more strongly
negative.
We may note
E= -K=\U
But
(11-54)
still
Why
does the
The
AB
line
of the
satellite.
We
negative).
sake of
it
We
path.
feels
component of the
of radius
GMm
r;
satellite travels
from
_
F=
circle
clarity.
to B,
its
satellite accelerate in
cos a
is
on
given by
R(v)
Thus, in the distance As, the gain of kinetic energy, equal to the
work
F As,
given by
is
AK = F As = ^^Ascosa In the
first
term on the
right,
R(v)As
we can
substitute
Ar
As cos a =
on the
right,
we can
substitute
As = v Al
If
we
also put
10
AK = mu Av, we arrivc
GMm
Ar
Ao =
However, by
Usingthisresult,
R(u)u At
nwAv = -
472
we have
GMm Ar
.
-2rT~
wecan
(GMm/r 2 )Ar
in the
nwAv = 2mv&o
we
get
R(v)vAt
Hence
Ao
=
At
R(v)
a most intriguing
The
This
is
The
magnitude of the
tional to the
motion!
an inward
GAUSS'S LAW
is
is
not an error.
directly propor-
is
resolved
opposes
its
when we recognize
by changing the
spiral, acts as
do
positioe
by the
positive sign
force to
result.
amount of
negative
work done
The
is
so important that
which
is
we
we
we
field acts at
M.
centered on
field.
As we have
We
seen, the
we use
by the
plied
is
problem in
GM
..
This
due to a
append here a
a compact and powerful
will
component of g multi-
<f>
defined as follows:
<t>
We
47rr
r = -4irGM
shall call
<t>
This
473
seetion
may
Gauss's law
Fig.
mass M. There
is
due to
M'
M.
is zero.
Now
a noteworthy property of
is
<j>
that
it
is
indcpcndent
of
on
flux literally as a
is
field
this
it
Multiplying
d<$,
= -
cos e
dS
Now dS cos 6
dicular to
r,
d<f>
The
M by dS.
= -GMcKl
total flux of g
in this
way,
But
this
Thus we have
-I
474
,','o
-GM
dtt
= -4irGM
M'
mass
If
we
quite different.
is
This
time a cone of small angle dti intersects the surface twice; the
contribution to the flux
d<t>
= -G M'
is
'dSi cos
given by
6i
dS2 cos
It is
r&
n*
not hard to verify that the two terms inside the parentheses
dQ
are equal to
which
and
it
One can
<f>
is
d<t>
0,
from
little
by representing
dS and
The element of
11-31.
Fig.
dS.
flux,
d<f>,
It is
is
mz,
inside a surface of
Their gravitational
tional field
The
gi
at
fields
=
J
and we see
g2
that this
an arbitrary
collec-
of masses inside a
given surface. (b) The
tion
addition
of external
it
will alter
475
combine to produce a
mu m 2<
1
l-32(a).
resultant gravita-
g3
-\
by
dS
of calculating the
to
kind, as in Fig.
any point P:
is
Fig.
some
<t>
in
11-31 (b), gi
shown
Gauss's law
simply the
sum
gi
dS
<t>
If,
how
it
= 4irG A/to
may
ti
g3
rfS
be distributed
(11-55)
ai
we suppose
as in Fig. ll-32(b),
m'2
H-
regardless of
g 2 dS
+ ntz +
= 4irG(mi
Thus
and
its
force
is
validity
it
total gravltational
Thus Eq. (11-55) emerges as a comis known as Gauss's law (or theorem),
An
theorem leads
We
at
once
to
law of
exact parallel to
fact,
it
first
field
shall consider
Fig. 1 1-33
133(a)].
If the
field at
a distance
Use of
field
of a
solid sphere
and
(b) at interior
points.
476
a point P,
r from its
mass distribution within the sphere
at
in
space
is
symmetrical i.c,
if
same
the
is
at all
points at the same distance from the center of the sphere then
the gravitational field g itself has the same strength at all points
on a spherical surface of radius r. Thus, if we draw a "Gaussian
# =
is
4irr
r,
given by
gr = -A-kGM
whence
gr =
The
is
GM
- -5-
at once
that,
we did
in
Chapter
8,
becomes unnecessary.
An
of the gravitational
distribution [Fig.
that, if
we
field
inside a spherically
11 33(b)].
symmetric mass
Gauss's theorem
tells
us at once
<
R, the
Thus,
m(r),
is
if
the
we can
at
Gm(r)
The assumption of
spherical
symmetry throughout
may be
r,
is,
the system,
however, essential.
still
on a
has no
contribution from exterior material, the field strength at individual points will be affected.
first
is
i.e.,
as in the
far
from
Suppose we have an
infinite sheet
tells
477
<r
Fig. 11-34
for this
(Fig. 11-34).
We
can construct a
Then
no
there
flux of
equal to the
field
is
AtrGaA.
strength
= -A-kGiA
Therefore,
2ttGV
g =
The
(11-56)
is
of unlimited extent.
In terms of gravitational systems, this example
But the
realistic.
is
not very
where
The
quently met.
parallel-plate capacitor
field at all
is
a prime example,
in the
PROBLEMS
11-1
particle
of mass
slides
can be described
in
lerms of
tion of
0,
The position
has
is
of the particle
s,
or by
fallen.
Consider the force that acts on the particle along the direcpath at any point, and show that the work done on the
its
particle as
it
it
dW = F
ds
= mgR
is
given by
sin d dd
(b)
that the
11-2
478
Two
blocks, of masses
and 2m,
rest
has descended.
on two
frictionless planes
inclined at angles of 60
an
string through
and
30, respectively,
and deduce
11-3
down
Show
that
a mass on the
if
in a circular
starts
(This result
book on pendulum
11-4
is
in the string
quoted by Huygens
at the
mass
end of
At
zontal surface.
The
What
What
What
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) In
collision
is
released.
velocity
is
mi and
m%
momentum"
is
sticks to
it,
that energy
is
not conserved.
experi-
you
and
after
The student
is
increases,
.)
mentum
pendulum
to the vertical
m? and
It strikes
assigned a "conservation of
is
strikes
Mass m\
/.
is
of length
bob
frictionless hori-
perfectly elastic.
student
on a
in
is
is
ment
of the
the
from
60 to the vertical.
11-5
when
zero.
objects that
It is
zero
The student
mo-
initially,
also claims
objections.
11-6
is
attached to a string of
an upright on a wooden board resting on a horizontal table (see the figure). The combined mass of the board and
upright is M. The friction coefficient between the board and the table
length
479
fastened to
Problems
The
is fi.
position.
How
(b)
What
the
11-7
M, which
An
minimum
lcft
object of
mass
on
slides
down? Assume
45.
a frictionless loop-the-loop
The
apparatus.
While
(a)
m <3C
rest
from
ball is released
It hits
(a)
What
the
is
the object by the track as the object passes through the point
(b)
Draw
A?
on
at that point.
Show
(c)
must
start
from h
>
r/2 to success-
<
For h
(d)
-|-
2h/r,
11-8
mass
ball of
hangs
at the
/.
It is
struck so as to start out horizontally from this position with a speed vo-
What must
(a)
Do be
if
the ball
is
height 2/
if
the vertical
(c)
no
l-o
rise
through the
when
away from
its
make with
circular
path?
losses of total
mechanical energy.
ground ?
480
11-10
dome
(see figure)
wearing
down
velocity to coast
roller
over thc
skates,
dome
and
(a)
starts
with negligible
surface.
surface?
(b) If
would he
he were to
leave the
start
R =
peg
figure.
A
is
break his
m, and
pendulum of length L
The pendulum
Ifa
is
60,/3
(b)
481
use
is
fail,
=*
far
in situation (a)?
10 m/sec
held at
Evaluate
2
.
<
Show
30,
is
the
maximum
(rcos/3
buckling oecur?
Problcms
from rest.
and r = Ly/3/4, what
bob will reach ?
released
this
what angle
(a)
when
(c)
with an
dome ?
r)/2.
At what angle
B does
(c)
apparatus.
In the game, L,
rest at
r,
and
are fixed
11-12
frictionless airtrack
y = \Cx 2
An
bob from
will be
won.
.)
is
x = 2 m
(b) If the
amplitude of oscillation
direction ?
how many
height of 20
T =
above
it
is
x = 0.5
proximately
is
m to x = +1.5 m traveling
(The description of SHM as a projection
the track at
is
= 0?
higher than at x
perfect time at
level.
Ap-
gain or lose at a
this level?
ground
it
6.4
10 m.
week
10 5 sec.)
11-14 Two identical, and equally charged, ping-pong balls are hung
from the same point by strings of length L (see the figure).
(a) Given that the mass of each is m and that the equilibrium
position is as shown in the figure, what is the charge on each? (Recall
that the electrostatic force between two charges at a separation r is
given by
F=
(b)
m.q
m,q
kqiq2/r'
.)
Make
toward each
of oscillations.
(c)
On
if
11-15
(a)
Show
same
would be achieved by a
482
from
free fail
from a height
H=
RB (=
radius of
Show
(b)
dropped from
|=
height,/;
RK
(2*A)i
i)
where co
is
t'o\/2,
is
object
given approximately by
) is
(/i
an
in circular orbit.
11-16
He knows
shaft.
the
(a)
What
is
is
twice
(This supposition
is
actually rather accurate.) How many seconds per day would a pendulum
km)
gain, if
it
11-17 The
figure shovvs
The
and mass M,
center.
(a)
in
What
is
mass
What
m when
is infinitely
it is
far
r:
<
can pass
what
at
<
R,
P? (Take
Problems
<
2R, r
on
> 2R?
when
speed when
it
from
rest
very far
shells.)
moon to be a sphere
km and mass 7.3 X 10 22 kg.
moon
smooth tunnel
483
R <
from P.)
is its
freely
is
spheres,
common
is
on
points
its
surface.
Show
(a)
Compare
(c)
moon
the
this
satellite traveling
radius
around
is
ve
= (2GM/R)
1 '2
;
the
mean speed
M and
v of gas molecules of
ycars)
10
24
kg,
RE =
M = Mu/Si, R =
R =
0.53*s , and
11-20
6.4
0.27Rn, and
T -
0.8TE
ME
moon; by Mars.
10 3 km,
center.
Draw a
M and
graph showing
position along a straight line that passes through the centers of both
stars.
infer
of mass
double-star system
M and
distance of 5R.
is
composed of two
and escapes
to
an
one
stars
about one
Assuming
one another
(like the
moon
same
face to
is
emitted.
How
would the
exis-
10
m.
moon
common
D =
center of
fields,
answer
of the
it
moon ?
(b) Calculate the diiTerence in potential energy for this
mass
484
It
initial
kinetic
11-23
Two
stars,
to
hill."
the potential
it.
M,
each of mass
planetoid of
common orbit is
mass m ( M) happens
system (the
line
The radius of
and compute
this hill
r (their separation
their
to
move along
is
2r).
shown
in the figure.
on the planetoid
if it is
and use
(c)
zy>
Show
(d)
and z
r.
TP
is
11-24
energy as a function of
it
frictionless
wire
is
7"o
point
at the
(a, b) if
The components of the force are Fx = k\x, Fy = kiyThe components of the force are Fx = kiy, F =
(a)
(b)
A:
2*
is
e. g.,
verify which
is
from
(0, 0) to (a, 0)
it
is
not.
By
which.
is
is greatcr than 1 F (1 F =
=
1.4
F
and X = 70 MeV-F.
(The
/-o
proposed by H. Yukawa and is named after him.)
when
= \e~ r/ro/r
10~ ls
the separation r
expression,
m).
In this
potential
was
(each of)
485
Coulomb
Problem s
1%
dropped to
of
value a t r
its
What
1.4 F.
is
the
Couiomb
force
at this separation?
The
(d)
why
the
Note
potential
is
not
is
important.
In contrast
Yukawa
Indicate
why such a
description
is
appropriate.
is shown a plot of gravitational equipotentia!s
two spheres of masses 2M and M. One way of
and
as follows.
is
P is given
any point
potential at
and
equipotential
r 2 are
An
defined
is
G(M)
G(2M)
where
We know
by
<pp
In order to construct
constant.
circles,
IA2 =
e.g.,
2M
1, 1.5, 2,
Then with
2.5, 3, 3.5
(2/n)
(IA2), the corresponding circles
P
and M. The
in each pair represent equal contributions to <p by
values of r 2
Since
<p
2M
two
sets
of circles have a
But
5.5.
and 10n =
<pp
circles as follows:
/2
have <pe ~
we
(2/1.0)
of
0.67,
10 units,
<fp.
value of (2/n)
0.50.
r2
n =
0.33,
intersection
0.80; r 2
(1/0.285)
=
=
of other pairs
0.40,
0.67;
same
and other equiOnce the equipo-
(1/ra) gives us
an
field lines
equipotential,
same way.
can be drawn as
lines
everywhere
was found
to be dismembered.
reached was that the strong gravity gradient (dg/dr) which the probe
had experienced had pulled the monkey apart. Given that the probe
had passed within 200 km of the surface of a neutron star of mass
10 33 g (about half the sun's mass) and radius 10 km, was this explanation reasonable? (The probe was in free fail at the time.)
11-28
horizontal distance
chosen.
486
in.
space
and
minimum.
velocity
the chute
is
what
tion
is
What
is
minimized?
is
is
m?
(c) If a
playground
slide
make
is
0.2,
and
if
the coefficient
slide
end of the
is
slide.)
problem of
(a) is
encountered and
if
curved chutcs are allowed, can you guess roughly what form the best
design would have?
(which
is
constant in time)
m
is
given by
in
arise
particle
is
FD
Show
speed
will
that
if
be given by
u(t)
vo
will
of a magnetic
(c)
an
Fnt/tn until
moo/kgB with
0,
t
thcn for
>
/huo/Fd, after
result.
initial velocity
a circular frequency
o = kgB/m. Show
circuits
it
makes
that a particle
it
spiral
comes
11-30
(a)
pel to
and density
field
due to a
p) at a distance
In calculating the
field,
h above
assume the
thickness a distance h beneath the test point. This will give an accurate
result
whenever h^>
d,
R * ,
Gauss's theorem, as
it
caleulation.
must.
487
Problcms
pendulum
clock gain
bob
the
cm above a
lead floor
cm
thick, if
it
M and
radius
is
equal to
-3GM 2 /5R.
You
can do
this
by calculating the potential energy of the sphere directly, integrating over the interactions between all possible pairs of thin spherical
either
more
shell is
counted
infinity.
Check where
this lies
on the
488
in
self-
scale of energies
space
Part III
Some
special topics
in this
and sett/edfor
existence
three
branch ofscience
all time.
is
simple, fundamental
ofan important
clue which
suspect the
no one noticedfor
is
connected with
that ofmass.
EINSTEIN
AND
L.
INFELD,
12
and
Inertial forces
noninertial frames
You
sitting in a car
The
car
is
sit.
Ali at once
you
dead
on you as
well.
it
is
as
is
if
not
in
contact with
it
still
with
respect to yourself and the car. If you did not restrain the package
it would in fact be pushed backward.
You notice
what happens to a mascot that has been hanging at
in this way,
that this
is
How
If
previous experience of such phenomena, you will have no hesitation in saying that they are associated with an increase of velocity
of the car
first
i.e.,
conclusion.
An
F =
by your hands.
Nonetheless,
itself is
if
somehow
it;
does
size
supplied
package
subjected to an extra
force a "force of
in-
493
that
ertia"
change the
effort is
made
to
state of
class.
They can be
phenomena as the motion of a Foucault
pendulum, the
effects in a
hemispheres.
some other
was possible
in the sense
physical system,
tional, electromagnctic,
Gravita-
and contact
have
another object.
is
Are these
their ap-
not?
That question, and the answer to it, is bound up with the choice
of reference frame with respect to which we are analyzing the
motion. Let us, therefore, begin this analysis with a feminder
of dynamics from the standpoint of an unaccelerated frame.
inertial.
We
and
We
inertia holds.
if
identified,
relative
forces aeting
To a good
first
in both.
So
also, therefore,
was the
first
does any
Galileo himself
faet,
dropped from the top of the mast of a ship, always lands just at
the foot of the mast, whether or not the ship is moving. Galileo
argued from
494
Inertial forces
is
stationary.
Fig. 12-1
(a) Para-
bolic trajectory
under
grauity, as observed
in the
eanh's reference
frame. The
velocily v o
zontal,
(b)
initial
is
hori-
Same
than vo.
(c)
Same
tive to a
shtp,
its
in the earth's
in the ship's
More generally, if we
some arbitrary velocity
frame.
but
all
lyzed,
all
celeration, g, resulting
gravity.
is
released
from
rest in a reference
frame
it
appears with respect to the earth and with respect to the accelerating frame.
We
x
up two
and
will set
and
S', fixed
Take
+v
(relative to 5)
s-
Fig.
12-2
ordinales
frames
Relationship
ofa particle
495
in
of coiwo
fP
+x
S at
The
x'
0,
= / =
What
undergoing
12-3(a)].
0,
and suppose
that
upward,
which x =
positive
from a point
for
h.
S and
observer in S,
is
released at
is
we already know
For an
the answer.
To
[Fig.
Thus we have
{x =
(As observed i n S)
vot
y- h-
i**
t,
in
S' we must
express the results n terms of the coordinates x' and y' as meai
To
sured in S'.
x = x
y =
where x s
is
and
vot
We know
at
.au
a-in S')
ca
(As observed
we
K=
W
find
Vot
"
= h -
("
'
2
%a,2) = ~% a '
\gi-
-"{h-
y')
Fig.
bolic trajectory
of a
^s
as observed in the
earlh's reference
frame
S.
(b)
frame
N
\
Same
motion observed
in
Seen
constant horizontal
acceleration.
in
(a)
496
Inertial forces
that
x'=
substitute
x,
we
This
shown
is
Fig.
in
12-3(b).
downward component
component of acceleration
a nonvertical
particle to follow
simple example
straight-line path.
[A similar
the
is
x direction
in the
Chapter 3
(p. 104).
we choose
in
self-evident
if
is
It is
free-fall
We
itself accelerated.
motion from
frame that
is
scribed by measurements
made
known.
However, a greater
interest
methods. That
is
it is
AU
it is
inertial
in the
motions are
comes what
There
in
significant.
is
called the
Out of
Newtonian
this
their relative
dynamical equivalence
principle of relativity:
is
inertial
tell
sense
As we have
two frames
is
It
will
between
in accelerating
follows at once,
Newton's law establishes a link between force and acceleration, that we have a quantitative basis for calculating the
magnitude of the inertial force associated with a measured
since
497
known
They
as accelerometers.
some
physical mass.
S and an
frame
x = X
y =
The
shown
in Fig. 12-2:
We then
an
inertial
+ x,
y'
velocity
components of P as measured
in the
thus given by
where vs
= dx
any particular
we can put d s = v
/dt at
acccleration a,
constant acceleration
is
not at
all
If
instant.
at,
where
=
=
a'x
+ a,
a'y
a,
is
it is
tion a' as
measured
in
terms
measured
in S' together
in S, to its accelera-
itself:
(12-1)
a'
hand
we
recognize the
measured
in an inertial frame.
That
cause of
is,
in the
its
is
left-
aeting on the
acceleration as
frame,
F = n
(12-2)
F =
ra'
We now come
(12-3)
ma,
to the crucial question:
How do we
interpret
498
Inertial forees
we
relationship at
all
When we observe an
times.
object accelerating,
= wa
Yes.
reference?
and
By
resultant F',
which
is
of the
left
a'
= F - ma, = ma'
F'
The
ma' to the
on m, and have a
correct magnitude to produce just
(12-4)
force equal to
ma
frame of reference
which has
s,
itself
Fx
is
particle, as
result expressed
matical trick.
From
ma
to
and a
parts: a
"fictitious"
An
important
is
by Eq. (12-4)
is
took steps
Fy
The
its
and
zero, in
made up of two
thus
is
actually present.
is
in S',
by tying
If
it
one
down
way
therefore
To
like to
have some
force"
is
oftcn used.
Even
this,
name,
who
"inertial force,"
which
is
free
is
actually in the
strictly
technical
situation
inertial frame,
is
m. In applying F =
499
ma from
the
12-4
Fig.
acting on
mass
Forces
a suspended
in (a)
a slation-
moving al consianl
velocity,
and
(c)
a car
imdergoing a posiliue
acceleration.
two
shown
in Fig. 12-4.
on the bob:
in the string.
Cases
(c),
the
bob undcrgoes
string hangs at
Vertical
component
F, the foree
(a)
and
= ma
(b)
do
is trivial.
Horizontal component:
for the
In each case,
in
its
tension (from
7"i
Ty cos 6
sin0
= ma
mg =
ma
in the
Figure
The bob
is
(because a'
Fig.
12-5
in equilibrium.
0):
Forces on
an object thai
resi relaliue lo
is
al
an
judged
in
an inerlial
frame, and
judged
(b)
as
in the acceler-
aled frame.
500
Inerlial forces
ma' gives
Ti
sin S
7"i
cos 8
- ma =
mg =
inclination of the
pendulum
is
defined by
the condition
tan 9
= -
(12-5)
ACCELEROMETERS
The
for
result expressed
a simple accelerometer.
vertical direction,
If
we have
representing e
0,
first
theoretical basis
tells
a = g tan
For example,
chain,
Ffe.
hanging
if
freely
Quantitatwe ac-
celerometer based on
Car-
immersed
in liquid
of
be used as an acceleromeler.
(d)
bubble
irapped in a curved
tube of liguid gices
direct readings
acceleralion.
his fingers
accelerated cehicle.
plumbline.
from
tie,
of
Tliis
form of accelerometer
was deuised by W. V.
Walton (Edueation
Research Center,
M.I.T.). Figure 12-7
shows an example of
its use.
501
Accelerometer*
or a key-
in equilib-
rium within an
(h)
hang
is
usually
from
run to the instant of takeoff, he can obtain
10
20
30
40
50
70
60
/,
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
sec
12-7 (a) Record obtaimd with the accelerometer ofFig. 12-6(rf) before
and afler takeoffofa commercial jet aircraft. The accelerometer was held seas to record the horizontal component of acceleration only. Not e the sharp
decrease in a at takeoff. (b) Graph ofvelocity versus time, obtained by
graphical integration of(a). (c) Graph of distance versus time, obtained by
Fig.
fairly
immersed
is
made
AH
is
completely
these devices
make
use
is
acceleration vector g
the frame
and
a of
itself.
A quite sensitive
and
filling
it
oscillation)
a circular
aircraft.
show
and the
the speed
made by
shows
is attached.
Figure 12-8
schematic form the design of such an instrument. If
in
is
mounted undergoes an
by the pendulum bob
begins to deflect
trical
two of
which
it.
is
pendulum.
Such an accelerometer unit may have a useful range from about
-5 "g"
10
to more than 10 g.
'A book
entitled Science
(Ballantine,
New
their travels.
503
Accelerometers
Integrating
circuit
Amplifier
Signal
generator
Bridge
Fig.
12-8
Electro-
unbalance
mechanical acceler-
signal
omeler system.
all
direction
we have done)
(as
mass of the
as a real force,
whose source
is
the gravitating
earth.
room with no access to the external surWhat can one then deduce about gravity and inertial
through dynamical experiments wholly within the room?
completely enclosed
roundings.
forces
We
shall
he
is
dropped from
rest
and hence
surface
is
is
downward
along a
is
an observer in a
is not isolated;
This observer
acceleration of a particle
He
frame
We are
S'.
Initially
it
is
known
504
We
is
slill
room
its
In subsequent mea-
hangs at an angle
and
vertical,
to
dropped from
that objects
floor, that is
now
exerted on
all particles
force in the
the
x direction
is
an
his
inertial
frame
in
+x direction.
2.
His frame
has been
set
is
down
in the
all
room,
masses in
his frame.
3.
tilted
(This
is
alternative 2.)
In supposing that
all
three hypotheses
work equally
well to
massive object,
uniform gravitational
effectively
field
Inertial
mass of the
The procedures
field) that
An
for detecting
and
and
identical.
benefit of
its
it
surroundings.
an
there
here.
In particular, the
505
no
inertial
Ihe earth.
is
inside
on
rests
limited region,
(a)
box t ha I
between a gravitational
field
He announced
1
this his famous principle of equivalence in 191 1. The proportionality of gravitational force to inertial mass now becomes an
It is
and
inevitably approximate
(b)
we pointed out
in
Chaptcr
relativity,
which
of gravitation.
Fig.
12-10
eauicalence ofgraviiy
an enclosure
reference frame.
'A. Einstein, Ann. Phys. (4) 35, 898 (1911), reprinted in translated form in
506
Inertial forces
Jeffery, translators),
Methuen,
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
We
now
shall
always appears
if
described and
is
the centrifugal
force
is
if we whirl
we shall consider
around
at the
end of a
string.
'
To
introduce
it,
is
We
motion of the
ball as seen
venience,
we
will
that rotates
be designated
The
and
z'
axes
(in rad/sec).
For con-
ball.
to
12-11).
two frames.
The
essential con-
From
The
force,
2.
r)
is
we must have
F,
From
= mo>-r
r,
is
zero.
in the rotating
We
frame
and opposite to
r,
and so
direeted radially
outward
^{-A
+ ft-O
=
[Fi
The
m<i> 2 r
hold a mass
The
name
fugere, to
507
Let him
"centrifugal"
ffee.
Centrifugal force
comes from
and
Procedure
A<&-*\^
*\gj
l
r
Pictorial sketch of
'
-S
problem
is observed to move with
speed u in a circle of radius
(angular speed u<)
Bali
Draw
ball
at rest
\>1
nng
T=
mg =
F,
tension in cord
force of gravity
= inertial
frame
T cos e
T cos e
For ease of calculation
we resolve forces into
components
sin $
F,
sin
in
mutually perpendicular
directions
\
'mg
Vertical Direction
Vertical Direction
We now
F
Because there
analyze the
problem
in
celeration,
terms of
= ma
is
no vertical ac-
we conclude
that
Because there
The object
The object
the
sum
is
of
all
left
column.
.
= m<u'r
= mv
2
,.
i
e-
and
is
di
is
directed outward.
rected radially
We
call F,
Fig. 12-11
508
= mg
circle,
Horizontal Direction
hence
This force
inward
no vertical
we conclude
T cos
- mg
Horizontal Direction
sin
is
that
the net vertical force must be
acceleration,
zero; hence;
hence
T cos
mg
Inertial forces
Fig. 12-12
Measurement of the
\^1>1)00000 t>~-
A-.
attaching
it
show
tional to
that
it is
m and
mass
is
at
r.
If the
observer in S'
is
informed that
frame
his
is
is
equal to
mwV. The
acceleration
we can apply
its
is
have an outward
in
force.
as
u2r
of
on the mass
inertial force is
source).
The magnitude of
seen, by the equation
given, as
is
we have
A
Fccntrifugai
nice
= mw 2 r
(radially
is
As
first
sitting
on
step
we
We
it,
is
under
provided
dry on the
it
inside.
And we do
(12-6)
nothing to balance
outward)
it
this,
in
as
a circular arc
we
[Fig.
way of
itself.
509
Assume
Centrifugal force
It
[Fig.
is sitting
on
Fig.
12-13
(a)
Shak-
ofa
of initial motion
in
lerms of centrifugal
forces.
tube
suddenly
is
set into
the tube at A,
means
that
BC =
it is
r sec
A0
Now
sec
AS = (cosA0)-'
[1
2 1
KAfl) ]"
KA<0 2
Therefore,
BC ~
We
r(A0) 2
A0
= u
A/.
in
Thus we have
BC = iw 2 r(Af) 2
This
in
is
>
"'W
u 2 r. Hence we can
and so
fcentrifuRal
510
inertial forces
2 /"
put
'
what
ment
is,
in fact,
no
The physical
moved outward along the tube is readily
terms of either description. (We should add, how-
drop
understood
in
it
initial
The term
"centrifugal force"
is
there
no
is
Newton's
net force to
law
first
straight line.
make
it
on
For
the satellite
if
it.
move
at
all.
it
is
must
and hence
travels in
described as moving in
also have an unbalanced
in
appears not to
Any
fail."
is
One
object
some arbitrary
itself.
rate different
and the
let
reference there
is
no such thing
The
as centrifugal force.
long-
good
"There
citizens.
is
They vote
Some of them
is
are
responsible
for the prosperity of the country; they belong to the only true
Red Cross
drive
but
they have
it."
CENTRIFUGES
The laboratory centrifuge represents an immensely important
and direct application of the dynamical principle of centrifugal
force. The basic arrangement of a simple type of centrifuge is
'W. F. Osgood, Mechanics, Macmillan,
511
C?cntrifuacs
New
York, 1937.
Fig.
12-14
lical section
(a) Ver-
through
a simple centrifuge.
(b) Analysis
of radial
sedimenlation in
terms of cenirifugal
forces.
shown
12-14(a).
in Fig.
When
made
the rotor
is
P in
in this
one of the
an
made
be
very
much
(co
2
about 4000m/sec or 400 g.
w 2 r,
For example,
greater than g.
magnitude
50* sec
-1
),
Small particles
which may
if r
15
the value of
in
cm
w 2r
suspension in
the liquid will be driven toward the outward (bottom) end of the
tube
of gravity alone.
The
we
met
first
and speed
in
Chapter
v, this force is
5.
For a spherical
is
particle of radius r
ro.
If the
is
R(v)
0.02rv
is
medium
is
given by
where
value of v
in
is
when
steady
buoyancy
the particle
force
is
effects
is
i.e.,
it
is
Archimedes' principle.
given by
F=y(p-p,)rV
512
Inertial forces
If
the density of
is
p ( the driving
,
mass
To
(=
of the particle
if
4irp p r /3), in
we
of about 5
water. If
F
We
w6
2
10
-15
10~ 12
we have an aqueous
p., each with a mass
1.1
times that of
we
calculated earlier,
find
X
a
^ 2X10-^10-
10~ 12
]n _4 m/S6C
'
,
field
of
The type of
machine he developed
the ultracenlrifuge,
for this
The
in
producing centri-
physicist
J.
W. Beams
development
his
The
it
at a
By
in a usable centrifuge
and
fields
fields as
tion
is set
mum
value of
The
field
g'
is
it
equal to
may
u 2 r,
limita-
this defines a
p.
maxi208).
l/r.
The techniquc of
Centrifuees
equivalcnt
high as 10 9
513
empty
ultracentrifuge
It
about
The
50.
possibitity of
in
amu and
analysis
normal
earlier)
(A
gravity.
Beams has
particularly impressive.
radius about 5 A,
we gave
1%
low as
to as
rate of descent of
340
is
down
be
would (according to
less
than
mm
the kind of
in
becomes
mean-
in fact
available,
process
is
day or
less,
possibility.
static or quasistatic
is
inertial force,
in
terms
CORIOLIS FORCES
We
on a
mass m in a frame rotating at a given angular
w, depends only on the distance r of the particle from
force, mo> r, exerted
particle of a givcn
velocity
This
is
We
way
for
its
and
it
position).
some
specific
motion,
we
centrifugal
shall
and Coriolis
forces in a
form valid
in three
dimensions
The need
comparing the
motion of a
is
easily
shown by
particle in an inertial
particle as seen in
a rotating
frame S'.
For
further reading
on
Svedberg
514
G. Coriolis,
J.
Inertial forces
is
z' axis
no
is
at rest in equilibrium
string
on the
and suppose
frietion.
in
the S'
foree.
(The
The same
partiele
(=
radius r
is
viewed from an
uniform speed
r' )
in the string.
inertial
frame S which
0.
ve
in
ov"
a cirele of constant
There
is,
of course,
no
inertial frame.
At
Fig. 12-15
an object
0.
As seen
0,
In
The
in
partiele
move
string breaks,
at
shownby(O),
515
Coriolis forees
y' axis.
it
begins to
radially
speed v
To
12-15(a).
motion
find the
in S',
u>r Q
shown
as
we compare
in the
in Fig.
stationary
axis
We
discover
moves
radially
outward, but also moves farther and farther to the right of the
To
we
cussion,
determine
shall
its
We
can
find the
This deflecting
is
v' in
motion
in these
it
is
it is
This result
axis.
in-
we make a
particle
v'r .
Hence we
particle.
some
We
moves.
which
How
purely radial.
is
Figure
curved line
velocity vg
AB
(=
as
ur)
shown
is
greater at
is
in the stationary
in Fig. 12-16(a).
In
frame
is
the transverse
greater at B.
What does
frame.
tion to balance
516
it.
Inertial forees
+6
direetion, he
is
This
is
diree-
_____^_____^_____________^__
Fig.
As seen
moves
as
it
As seen
the stationary
s frame
in
S'
the rotating
frame
radially out-
The mass
ward on a rotaling
table.
in
(b)
curved path
The motion
frorrr
radially
to 8.
appears in the
rotaling frame
itself.
To
determine
its
magnitude,
by
Let
A/.
OC
perpendicular to
Av e =
[co(r
let
same
OA
and
OB
in Fig. 12-17
The
velocity
Ar) cos(A0/2)
where
v T sin(A0/2)]
[tar
cos(A0/2)
v,
sin(A0/2)]
and the
sine
Avb
The
coAr
vr
A6
transverse acceleration ao
a6 =
ai(Ar/Al)
is
thus given by
u r (A0/Al)
But
Ar/Al
cr
and
A6/At
o>
Hence
at
co(r
Ft
8r)
Fig.
= 2uv,
= 2mwo r
12-17
particle
517
Coriolis forces
re-
This gives us the real force needed to cause the real acceleration
But as observed
as judged in S.
is
no
no
acceleration and
2mcov'
in the rotating
T,
is
frame
S', there
net force.
(Note that v T
inferred.
Vr.)
is
is
motion
of the particle
Fs'(Coriolis)
An
is
= -2mwo'r
that if we
had considered a
we would have
then
(12-7)
B' direction.
or to the
prove
shall
is
left if
rotating counterclockwise, as
later, that
It
if
we have assumed,
we
is
motion as observed
in the
rotating frame.
The
Coriolis force
is
round and
try
walking a radial
the
cautiously
that
it is
Coriolis force
line
is
DYNAMICS ON A MERRY-GO-ROUND
As we have
motion
It is
when
the object
is set
in
and
motion can
someone
at
(or
518
Inertial forccs
itself.
Howevcr,
it is
to be noted that
appear
to ob-
servers on a rotating
lable.
(b)
An
object
return to
its
can
starting
point.
is
is
mu 2 r and
Thus
if v' is
made much
that of
pro-
is
entirely
by the Coriolis
effects.
of a moving object
v'
rotating counterclockwise.
Thus
if
If
will
on a merry-go-round
the positions A and B in
back and
forth,
each will
a good throw.
An
extrcme case of
this
its
forces at
all.
it
is
it
back
in the
A dry-ice
[Fig. 12-18(b)],
A on
IN
A ROTATING FRAME 2
in a sta-
'"
Frames of Reference," by J. N. P. Humc and D. G. Ivey, Education Development Center, Newton, Mass., 1960.
2This section may be omitted by a reader who
is willing to take on trust its
final results
frame
is
the combination
formof Eq.
519
(12-7).
in
a rotating frame
Fig.
12-19
Use of
angular velocity as a
vector to define the
linear velocity
parlicle
lable: v
ofa
on a roiating
to
r.
tionary frame
S'
and
in
as a vector.
Consider
It
P on
a point
first
magnitude and
direction,
same convention
That
We
OP.
that
if
we
we
is
a direction at right
is
Thus with
direction
The
of
to
velocity of
to
direction.
from the
The
rotation
is
now
r:
(12-8
positive
of
to
4.
thumb extended
both
this velocity, in
in
is, if
v$,
can describe
is
is
axis of rotation, as
cirele in
to
cor sin 6, in
and
520
r.
That
is
precisely
Inertial forees
Fig.
12-20
(a)
Change
of a vector, analyzed
in terms ofits change
as measured on a
rotaling lable, togel/ier with the
change
analysisfor an
arbitrary veclor
sum of two
The change
that
would occur
The
if it
in the rotating
by
its
frame
S'.
In Fig. 12-20(a)
to a plane.
If it
at time
its
At
is
its
direction
= w At. Thus
DE, where
DE = A Ad = Au At.
frame S'
ever,
this
From
the
standpoint of
EF; we
line
shall
denote
this as
AA S
sum of
DE and EF, e., the line DF, then represents the true
of A as observed in 5. We therefore denote this as AX S
change
the change of
three dimensions.
direction
Since A<p
The vector
i.
In Fig.
its
as observed in S'.
is
The
length of
DE is now
equal to
= u At, we
sin 6 Aip;
w and
A.
can put
vector displacement
DE =
(u
A) A/
521
in
a rotating frame
AA S = AA S +
(w
'
We
A)Af
of change of
\drjs
This
we
this to
S and
S', respectively:
as observed in
+X
\ di J s-
(12-9)
is
please.
we
First,
(d\/dt)s
is
choose
shall
v,
as observed in S'.
v',
Then
r.
is
Thus we immediately
have
v'
+ X
(12-10)
Now
(dv/dt)s
in
to be the velocity v:
is
quantity (d\/dt) s
change
is,
sense of this
if
we
substitute for v
in S.
We
it is
The
the rate of
, -(& + *$
The two terms on
nizable; (d\'/dl)s(dr/dt)s>
is
(),
just
is
v'.
the acceleration,
now
quite recog-
as observed in S',
and
Thus we have
*- X
v'
a',
we thus
get
Xv
a'+Xv' +
side,
gives
us finally
a
A
522
a'
remark
2u
v'
is
in
Inerlial fbrees
u X (w X
(12-12)
r)
last
taken
answer
is
would
we
recognize the
the
nonzero
object,
to be
is
first,
of the
left
ma = F nct = m'
2m(w
v')
m[u
a'.
We may
this accelerated
(<o
r)]
m has the
accelera-
Fi*
(12-13a)
roa'
where
FL = Fnet - 2m( X
v')
m[u
force
(to
(12-13b)
r)]
centrifugal
force
Coriolis
force
"real"
inertial
forces
in
a direction
The
at
centrifugal
12-21.
The equation
also
u X (w X r), as shown in
shows that the Coriolis force
es
uxr
-
Fig.
12-21
x (u x
523
c X
(w
r).
in
a rotating frame
r)
would reverse
if
thc direction of u
The
on
made
and
itself.
centrifugal
r,
r'
instead of
r,
To summarize, we have
established
but
this,
because observers in
The
entirely
accelera-
moving
object
motion as observed
uniformly rotating
in a
This
is
sum
the
of
all the
"real" forces
on
"Real":
in strings,
Fnnt
and so
Only
on.
The
Coriolis force
is
mass
m.
no
If
velocity in the
Coriolis:
-2m(oi
frame
rotating
of reference,
v')
Coriolis force.
in a
< inertial
is
is
no
Note
on position
It is an
of reference.
(as
there
sign.
only and
an
minus
The
It is
m[o> X
We
(<>
stationary frame
it
sign.
we
shall consider
which the
curring on
it.
a partiele
is
524
Inertial forces
it is
Fig.
12-22
on an
(a) Forces
eart/i.
An
l/ie
from a frame
(c)
The fall-
and the
tional force F
centrifugal force
12-22(a).
F ccnt shown
latter is given,
in Fig.
according to
= mu R cosX
^cent
rnu>
is
where
sin 9
in
which
We
this centrifugal
in
F,
F$
Fcnt sin X
Fccnt
COS X
Fa
moi
Rcos X
(12-14)
= mu R sin X cos X
12-22(a),
it
525
The
from
rest at a point
begins to accelerate
such as
downward under
in Fig.
the action of a
As
soon as
it
= -2mn X
Fcorioiu
Now
the velocity
axis.
The
v' is
Coriolis force
(12-15)
v'
n the plane
PON
must be perpendicular to
eastward. Thus
by the
we
if
up a
set
local coordinate
and the
this plane,
u and
also expe-
it
by the equation
v'
system defined
AB
plumbline
and
ground
hits the
and
shows that
at a point C.
The
from a
effect is
very small but has been detected and measured in careful ex-
To
calculate
falling
h,
we
is
v'
where
gt
v' is
eastward direction as
fail
r-r-
x',
we
label the
if
we have
t,
we have
$gwt a cos X
(12-16)
For a
fail
equal to h,
we have
,_2V|C<|X
3,2
(121?)
= 2xday -1
10
-5
sec
x'
-1
),
one
5
It
(x'
50
and h
in
m)
at latitude 45,
one has
mm,
is
or about ? in.
perhaps worth reminding oneself that the
inertial forces
526
~7X
finds
Inertial forces
if
effects
of
exist.
how
us consider
For sim-
equator (X
0).
The
DO,
o>(R
After a time
horizontal
t it
Fx
initial
h)
nearly, by coRt.
the negative
object has an
by
velocity given
We
direction.
it
at
have, in fact,
jf( mgmt
Hence
A
we have
Integrating once,
dx
j ~ "o*- is
,
= w(R
h),
this
gives, as a
very
good approximation,
f=
co(
- iga 2
/o
we have
x - (*
h)i
\gut 3
O at the
earth's surface
is
00' = uRl.
Hence we have
x'
If
527
we
The
= O'C w
oj/>/
substitute h
i*cor 3
\gt
2
,
we
at
frame
Low
Fig. J 2-23
In the
V2h/g and
moving
arrive at
air masses.
[Or, of course,
0.
we can
substitute
Eq. (12-17)].
effect, air
This
The
may be
seen
in Fig.
zontal
deflect these
motions
31
^f^m
BJty.\~
^fl ^^^-*"
**-
Fig.
12-24
528
Inertial forces
^^^B^^
|$
.'
RJ
V'
C^K2l^
fl_
^frfp-1
toward the
Thus, as the
right.
air
For
air
If
we consider a
mph)
10 m/sec (about 22
1-kg
at
Fcorioii,
- 2mui/ sin
(2)(1)(2tt
lO" 5)
(10)(0.707)
10" 3
forces
The approximate
may be
this.)
obtained from
2
R
or
R = m
rCorioli.
As
air
-r^r-r.
10
10'
(about 60 miles)
in the Tiros
form huge
weather
satellite
vortices
as
photograph
is
dramatically
shown
in Fig. 12-24.
In
negligible
however,
most
formed, the
be demonstrated.
No
how
'See, for example, the film "Balhtub Vortex," an exccrpt from "Vorticity,"
by A. H. Shapiro, National Council on Fluid Mechanics, 1962.
529
The
Fig. 12-25
(a)
pendulum swinging
along a north-south
line at lalilude X.
(b)
Palh of pendulum
bob, as seenfrom
above.
(The change
however, grossly
exaggerated.)
own
rotation.
pended at the north or south pole. One can even press things a
12-25(a)]
little further and say that at a given latitude, X [see Fig.
w
sin
X along
component
the earth's angular velocity vector has a
the local vertical. This
that the plane of the
pendulum
HX) =
lir
24 esc X
by
hours
(12-18)
>sinX
But the pendulum is, after all, connected to the earth via its
suspending wire, and both the tension in the wire and the gravitathe
tional force on the bob lie in the vertical plane in which
pendulum
is first set
swinging.
if
that can be
this needs to be considered.) It is the Coriolis force
invoked to give a more cxplicit basis for the rotation. For a
pendulum swinging
in
force acts always to curve the path of the swinging bob to the
As
right, as indicatcd in exaggerated form in Fig. 12-25(b).
with the Coriolis force on moving air, the effect does not depend
on the direction of swing contrary to the intuition most of us
530
swings east-west.
Inertial forces
THE TIDES
As everyone knows,
is
basically
moon
and,
this as
inertial forces as
chapter.
one
The
first
places
on the earth's
is
two high
surface,
day rather
tides every
the general distribution of ocean levels around the earth has two
bulges.
On
the simple
would be highest
and
farthest
performs
its
model that we
on the
at the places
[Fig.
12-26(a)].
Thus,
if
by the almost
A better approximation
would
in
each revolution.
is
obtained by con-
from the
land and the ocean floor, so that their equilibrium positions with
respect to the
To
may
point out
that the bulges are, in fact, also being carried slowly eastward
all
would be
as
Double motion
it
if the earlh's
place
it.
the bulge
The
is
size
of
enor-
mously exaggerated.
(b)
Approximate true
orientation ofthe
tidal bulges, carried
531
The
earth.
This
tides
For example,
a high
day,
its
if
tide
is
12 hr (see
Problem 2-15).
4:50 p.m.
Now
The first
manner in which the earth as a whole
is being accelerated toward the moon by virtue of the gravitational attraction between them. With respect to the CM of the
earth-moon system (inside the earth, at about 3000 miles from
the earth's center), the earth's center of mass has an acceleration
us consider the dynamical situation.
let
point to appreciate
is
the
MrOc =
GMeM,
rm 2
i.e.,
ac
where
GMm
Mm and
(12-19)
r,
are the
Flg.
12-27
bital
motion ofthe
is
distance.
The or-
moon
AiBi
is
carried into
A2B2.
532
Inertial forces
What may
attraction.
If
which the
of time, one
is
in Fig. 12-27,
and the
earth's center
moon
It is
earth
itself
its axis,
every point on
it
size
center.
A 2B2
The
The
If the
C C2
AiBy would be
line
would follow a
X
superposed on
this
about
general displacement
its
axis is simply
acceleration.
This
is
picture.
terms of an
mass
inertial force,
wherever
then added to
it
all
may
mac,
be, in or
in
experienced by a particle of
on the
This force
earth.
may
is
be acting on the
particle.
we
are using
corresponding to what
the water around the
is
earth simply
moves
until
it
attains
an equilibrium configuration
the
moon.
Now
If,
Fig.
12-28
(a) Dif-
and
the
points nearest to
and
moon.
(b) Tide-
producing force at an
arbitrary point P,
showing existence of a
transverse component.
533
The
tides
an amount that we
on
moon
it is
shall
[point
in
call/
GMm m
rm (R E
RE
Since
GMm m
r m /60),
we can approximate
this expres-
sion as follows:
GMm m
/o
[(-r-]
i.e.,
/H^*,
By an
(12_20)
[point
we
midplane drawn
By going
C,
The
we can
tidal force
now
Consider
recognize
a
on
in the
it
= R E cos
with x
(x, y),
get a
much
better in-
a particle of water at an
[Fig. 12-28(b)].
has coordinates
it
we
arbitrary point
hence
direction
is
6,
y = RE
sin 6.
given by a calculation
m IGM^n
IGM^n
x _
(]2_ 21)
cqs g
we put d =
or
the line
center
tional force,
A and B
ir.
GMm m/r'
2
,
is
also,
axis,
x, given by
GMj
mm
sin a
.
Now we
wc can
534
...
r*)
have
tana =
Since
(with r
is
safely
(/?/.;//,),
which
Inertial forces
is
about
1]
Fig.
12-29
Pattern
of tide-producing
forces around the
earlh.
The circular
y_
_ R E sin
r-
rm
fv
GMm5
m
tidal force is
GMm5
m
Re sin
y =
it
is
then given by
is
(12-22)
greatest at d
maximum
value (/
ir/2, at
which
of fx
Using
the
manner already
added
535
redistribute itself in
qualitatively described.
How
and
If
you are
at the
it
may
have.
sial
is
The equilibrium
result.
We
ft.
by the
tential
would be a
rise
and
fail
of
less
than
moving a
tidal force in
12-29)
(Fig.
tide
is
particle of water
from
to
dW = f
=
dx
The
D.
distance h
Now,
is
using
we have
fdy
GMm m ,_
ir~ (2xdx - ydy)
,
r RE
GMm m r
Wda =
2x dx
Uo
rm3
3GMm m
ydy
Jr b
2
Setting this
potential
'
A and
_ 3GMm R B
(12 _23)
2grma
G =
Mm =
=
RE =
g =
rm
10~ n
7.34
X
X
3.84
10
6.37
10
6.67
10
22
9.80 m/sec
m 3 /kg-sec 2
kg
The
0.54
we
find
21 in.
factors of 10 or even
many
places (by
sun.
Its
narrow
estuaries,
536
Incrlial forces
M, =
r
If
we
1.99
10 30 kg
= 1.49X10" m
directly
compare the
moon on a
particle
MJr?
F,
Mm/rm2~
M.(rm \\
Mm
\r.)
What
2p
/=AF=-^Ar
Putting
M = Mm
rm ,
(,2-24)
and Ar
RE
we obtain
the forces
We now
to the sun
fy
Jm
0.465
moon
effects
vectorially,
moon and
exceeds that
of the two
depending on the
the sun.
When
they
on the same line through the earth (whether on the same side
or on opposite sides) there should be a maximum tide equal to
1.465 times that due to the moon alone. This should happen
are
tions
should
fail to
moon.
The
about
537
moon is new or
At intermediate times (half-moon) when the angular posiof sun and moon are separated by 90, the tidal amplitude
a
ratio
2.7.
Tidal heights;
efl'cct
of the sun
We
saw
inertial
If the
accelerated.
each point
laboratory
in it is accelerating
is
oi
R cos X
with
=
R =
01
27r/86,400sec- 1
6.4
10
This gives
a\
3.4
10- 2 cosXm/sec 2
we
much more
readily analyzed.
which we began
It
Newton
is,
The
phenomena
to his belief in
538
Fig.
12-30
axis
by
Inertial Corces
Bucket rotating
water stationary
Main features
Fig. 12-31
made
experiment that he
It is ari
experi-
ment that anyone may readily repeat for himself. The bucket is
hung on a strongly twisted rope and is then released. There are
three key observations, depicted in Fig. 12-31:
Bucket and
water rotating
together
At
1.
almost at
rotating.
was
first
rest,
is flat,
just as
it
it
released.
2.
the
The bucket
3.
is
Bucket stationary
water rotating
and
it
It
must be
its
the phenomenon.
for
relative
is
water surface.
space,
Newton, the
Clearly, said
the water
its
And
F=
is
at the
bottom of
quantitatively.
Newton's argument
is
a powerful one.
He
could point to
earth
by virtue of
itself
of the earth
in 300.
It
is
is
rotation.
culation
its
is
about
gt5 at
Newton
He
universal gravitation.
an
inertial
the sun.
For
this
system
a>
a2
R =
2
= o) /? =
Newton
represents
we have
2ir/(3.l6
X lO^sec-
1.49 X 10 n m
5.9 X 10- 3 m/sec 2
does not suggest that he actually performed this third step, but
a natural completion of the experiment as one might perform
for oneself.
539
The
it
it
If
we could
immune
to the gravita-
inertia
From
it
is
real
is
far as
Newton was
concerned. For him the system of the stars provided the arena in
brilliantly
it
come
about
2.5
about
in
10
2.5
10
from the
light-years
For
center.
this
motion
we would have
co~
2tt/(8
a3
It
2.4
10
10 20
15
)sec-'
10- 10 m/sec 2
for
if
we
all
we do on
But no
its orbit.
most
purposes, the revolution of the earth about the sun. (The rotation
of the earth on
sideration
its
own
axis
is,
gyroscopic navigation.)
rotating frames in which
Figure
we
in
such matters as
find ourselves
But we
still
we can
extend
this tantalizing
dence
There
is
some
of about
10 galaxies.
Our
evi-
groups
local
group
540
Inertial force*
Fig.
12-32
Accelera|
ofany laboratory
reference frame attions
group
this
is
believed to have a
more or
less
common motion
through space.
objects
to which
is
ap-
It
we
mean
that
it
are observed.
likely to remain.
541
Tho
is
frame
in
which motions
incomplete, and so
Ultimatcly, therefore,
we
rely
it
seems
on an operational
upon
definition based
We
tion.
an
define
inertial
frame to be one
and observa-
in which, experi-
The very
existence of the
lem, and we shall end the chapter with a few remarks about
most fundamental feature of dynamics.
this
phenomena
objects
of acceleration.
character
Berkeley,
rotating
with
associated
that the
first
person to argue
The
to other objects.
circling of
their center
otherwise empty.
About 150
Ernst
He
Mach
German philosopher
much more cogent form.
wrote:
viously
motions
exist
no
it
relative
can
and
and
translation.
see, in this
Ob-
if
round on its axis, or at rest while the fixed stars revolve around
of the earth at rest and the fixed stars
it
. But if we think
revolving around it, there is no flattening of the earth, no
.
on at
least
according to our
Now
difflculty in
of inertia
is
The law of
all
motion
inertia
is
must be so conceived
it
will
be evident that in
its
expression, regard
same
By
first.
must be paid
542
first
published in 1883.
Inertial forees
the profound
subsequently to
that the
property
as Mach's principle
inertial
of any given object depends upon the presence and the distribu-
took
and
it
method
the
we described
that
in
is
Chapter 9
two
For consider
involved.
(p.
This ratio
objects.
given
is
by
their
mutual interaction:
/Ml _
(22
W2
Oi
our
clear that
is
it
tions, as distinct
from the
depends
For
by other objects
this
which
in
purpose the
is essential.
Mach
some
attacked
He
motion.
we have
deep-
much more
we
is
related
When
amount of
rotation
is
out
if
may bc
competent
"No
to say
how
one,"
would
in fact
This
mass
though
the
until they
was
"is
When
he wrote,
still
that relative
fiat.
is
in the
dirTerent context.
We
know
generate
it,
even
accepted sense.
it
in
a slightly
an
/wa,
that
In
543
an
Mach's view we are equally
accept a description of the
attached to the object
a'
phenomenon
a frame always
in
itself.
(indeed, compelled) to
entitled
(= a) and
M,
at distance
object,
ma
and
relativity that
this
point
analogy
we
is
know
it
a mass
must
more
we know
is
be proportional to
M
A
speculative realm.
But at
also.
very suggestive
make
Since
we can argue on
entcr a
electric charges,
two
If
r,
we
fr?l<?2
where k
units.
is
it
proportional to m,
If
is
r,
is
If,
to a
and
,
ri2
where
kq x q 2 a
5
c2r
it
falls off
more slowly
magnetic radiation
This
field
is,
in fact,
force
gravitational interactions.
to be
GMm
The
on
be given by
force
Fl2
544
= GMma
.
n
(
~&T
Inertial forces
M would then
,,.,
}
On
this basis
relative
magnitudes of the
do
to
is
the
M/r
earth, the
Ali
we have
The
TABLE 12-1:
M, kg
Source
Earth
Sun
Our Galaxy
Universe
r,
M/ kg/m
M/r
'r,
(relative)
10 25
10 3O
10 7
10 18
10- 8
10 11
10 19
10*
10
10 20
io- 7
10-
10 2G
10 2e
52
pared to the
The
effect
itself,
of the universe
would be
negligible
com-
at large.
(12-26) over
_
"inertial
all
summing
= ma
^GM
_,
c*r
magnitude of the
itself:
what we know
by the value of
identity to hold:
Ef-1
universe u
02-27)
'
invoived with
is
If
we regard
it
p and radius
univerao
'
local
;
mass as
what we are
545
to be the
as a sphere, centered
R v (
'O
10
10
light-years
mean density
m), we would have
ourselves, of
10
26
'
The
mass
total
Mu =
however given by
is
pRu
Thus we have, on
(based on Euclidean
simple picture
this
geometry)
M=-
Mu
**
we
,-20 1 /
10
kg/m
universe
G m
10
-10
10
17
m 2 /sec 2
E^-io
f
"
universe c&r
ideas espoused
by Mach and
Einstein.
PROBLEMS
12-1
single-engine airplane
flies
v.
In the frame of the aircraft, each tip of the propeller sweeps out a
12-2
The merry-go-round
(of radius
R)
is
rotating
with angular velocity u, the distance of the post from the axis of the
merry-go-round is D, and at / = 0, the coordinates of P in 5' are
x'
= D - R,y' =
(equivalently,
r'
= D -
r'(i), 6'(t)
R,
d'
0).
For further reading on this fascinating topic, see, for example, R. H. Dicke,
"The Many Faces of Mach," in Gracitation and Relalicily (ed. H.-Y. Chin
and W. F. Hoffmann, eds.), W. A. Benjamin, New York, 1964; N. R. Hanson,
"Newton's First Law," and P. Morrison, "The Physics of the Large," both
in Beyond the Edge of Cenainly (R. G. Colodny, ed.), Prentice-Hall, Engle-
wood
New
Cliffs, N.J.,
York,
Doubleday,
546
1965; D.
New
W.
1961,
York, 1969.
Inertial forccs
Relalicily,
By
(b)
Make
(c)
and
12-4
on
20 m/sec begins
m.
sliding friction n
without
shift-
on
to
to a stop in 100
it
the car?
suitcase of
mass 10 kg having a
coefficient of
down
the aisle
What
is
What
is
toahalt?
(c)
The
When
has stopped.
original position
12-5
comes
it
on
to rest,
how
far is it displaced
which indicates
weight as
his
from
its
mg =
700 N.
What
will
manner?
and third floors the elevator
newtons
he read
first
if
he
to the
Belween the
first
accelerates at
2
.
Between the
third
and tenth
at the rate of 2
(d)
He
(e) If
m/sec 2
on another
12-6
truck
547
what
Problems
is
trip the
Which way
If the cocHicient
is /x,
the
is
down
again.
he moving?
maximum
climb a
hill,
slipping
on
12-7
in the figure.
platform begins to
2 m/sec.
As
move
whole system
is
N/m,
stationary, but at
as
t
It is
shown
the
of
to the platform.
2kg
8 N/m
2 m/sec 2
immfmr-
TJ
(a)
(b)
it
was
in
T?
its initial
longer than
unstretched condition?
-1
plane surface inclined 37 (sin
f) from the horizontal is
accelerated horizontally to the left (see the figure). The magnitude of
12-8
the acceleration
is
up the plane.
The
Draw
(a)
just before
it
block-plane surface
characterized by
is
slips, in
an
inertial
floor.
(b)
(c)
Repeat part
slip.
the block.
12-9
and
lets it
his fingers.
What
the vertical.
runway
12-10
is
is
N/m
= 7500 kg/m 3
rod (density
steel
tion of
its
away from
is
of length
the center of
allowable acceleration
if
is
is
ultimate tensile
What
the rod
not to break?
is
the
maximum
If this acceleration
12-11
(a)
train
liquid level of
horizontal ?
from the
hit the
a.
What
548
strength 5
10
tie
He
Under what
What
Tncrtial forces
As
(b)
a reward for
An
12-12
*/3
For fun,
the train
left
the
a'.
if
What
the elevator
is
tt
(a) Calculate
3m
relatice
to the elevator.
on
3^
joins
it
How
(c)
he him-
self
pendulum of length L:
(2)
horizontal.
(3)
a.
Assuming
about 2
before being
12-15
(a)
is
man
rides in
is
about 70 m.
let fly,
must be able
He
hammer
that the
to withstand.
an elevator with
vertical acceleration a.
With
must he swing the bucket so that no water spills?
(b) With what angular frequency must the bucket be swung if
the man is on a train with horizontal acceleration a? (The plane of
what angular
velocity
the circle
is
acceleration.)
Show
that
a>
i
is
to
have a constant
its
its
length.
stress
(tensile
from the
axis:
A = Aue
frr
where k
po>~/2S
mass
ends
549
is
AT =
Problem s
A(SA).]
What
(b)
5m ax, and
is
maximum
ihe
angular velocity
o)
max in terms of p,
A:?
The
(c)
maximum
Estimate the
number of rpm of
possible
about 10
is
m~ 2
100
(p
N/m 2
7500 kg/m 3 ).
12-17
10
-16
of rotation
10 3 rps.
is
virus particle
is 1.1
times that
of water.
From
(a)
(b)
what
centrifuge,
is
outward at
given by
on the
virus particle?
(c)
a small
Frcs =
speed
Jnrr\vd,
The motion
o.
where d
is
is
resisted
by a viscous force
and
What
t\
is
is
cl
inertial
and
(c),
effects.
Think
12-18
Show
(a)
its
surface
disappear.
and
will
It is instructive to
To
first
More
proportional to
m?
an orbiting spacecraft
spacecraft.
its
remain
will
in the
accurately, however,
same
it
from the small variations in both the gravitational force and the
centrifugal force due to the change of distance from the earth's center.
Obtain an expression for this force as a funetion of the mass, m, of the
object, its distance AR from the center of the spacecraft, the radius R
of the spacecraft's orbit around the earth, and the gravitational acceleration
550
gR
at the distance
Inertial forees
R from
12-20
velocity
w =
0.2 rad/sec.
velocity v'
A man
rotates with
an angular
At time
jumps off the edge
time
at
5 sec he
of the platform.
Draw a graph of
(a)
Draw a
(b)
to
felt
by the
man
as a
5 sec.
For both
Show on a
(c)
On
12-21
Assume
its legs
Does
is 0.1.
an
in.)
insect starts to
otherwise ?
(b)
What
What
(c)
Account for
(a)
its
center:
is
is
his acceleration?
this acceleration, as
acting
on
and
(p.
line
on a
particle
The
particle
from the
if
is initially
axis of rotation.
(a) Set
and y
t
origin
radially
at
0.
Show
= x cos 8 + y sin 8 +
y'
(b)
551
y cos 8
Suppose
Problcms
the co-
wt:
r sin 8
x sin 8
r(l
that, at /
cos 8)
the
subsequent motion
Its
Making
and
at a later time
y'
%a'r i
2
,
where
be along
Use
to O.
/.
will
tar relative
a'T
1,
co
show
2r
that
Tmvf
you
12-24 In an
an
article entitled
arbitrary direction.
"Do
Objects
fail
South?"
[Phys. Rev.,
in
23
m at Cambridge,
42 N).
Mass.
Comparc
(lat.
cm and a
He
Do
you think
flection
that
predominant easterly
an explanation of HalPs
results
deflection.
on southerly de-
satellite in
a circular
why
a similar force
on
it is
a satellite
an equatorial orbit?
and of radius R,
552
Is there
is fitted
Inertial forces
shape
puck
is
The
puck bounccs back and forth across the table at constant speed
because of the Coriolis force
it
puck gradually turns with respect to the table, and compare the
with that for a Foucault pendulum at the same latitude, X.
12-27 In the
text (p.
but
v,
result
is cal-
carrying a particle
By
work from
considering the
to
two
The
calculation involves
parts, as follows:
work
P(x =
D(x =
y = Re)
water of mass m.
0,
to
(b)
Re cos 0, y = Re sin d)
Equating
ference hp
of gravitational
an expression
from
for a particle of
ho-
The
total
volume of water
is
a constant.
Hence,
if
ho
we must havc
r/
Putting the results of (a) and (b) together, you should be able to
verify that the deviation of the water level
is
553
proportional to 3 cos 2
Problem s
from
its
undisturbed state
the sun ?
At
the time
of
answer
is
is
orbit.
As you
and
different direction
and
their
wings
push inwards.
R. P.
13
Motion under
central forces
we have already
how
the motion
of objects under the action of forces directed toward some welldefined center is one of the richest areas of study in mechanics.
Twice
in the history
macroscopic
scale,
particle scattering,
Up
subatomic world.
studies of alpha-
and
we have
it is
limited ourselves
remarkable
how much
in
Chapter
1 1
(p. 444),
important
fields in
is
also
is
reality
isotropic
is
and
spherically
closely linked to
is
the intuitively
We
single particle of
mass
w in
555
Fig. 13-1
(a) Unit
veciors associated
with radial
and
trans-
verse directions in a
(b) Radial
ele-
mentary vector
displacement Ar.
of force.
we
Initially, at least,
shall
so massive that
is
it
re-
can be regarded
The
first
thing to notice
This plane
particle
and the
defined by the
is
initial
plane of
and v
To
is
the motion
it,
vector v
of the
in this plane,
perpendicular to
initial velocity
vector position
moving par-
force.
is
it is
is
first
is
pick an
a function
clearly
(r, 0),
this
constant).
Now we
particular
shall
unit vectors e r
calcu-
Using the
we
and
and
0.
we have
r
V=
(13-1)
re,
dr
d,
dr
dt
C'
dd
r
is
(13-2)
di
by recognizing that a
Ar, is obtained by com-
readily constructed
556
forccs
A6
(at
constant
r),
as indicated
sides
d(e r)/dt
(13-2) with
2
r
dv
dt =
dT*
d
e +
+ dr
d d,
dl
'
<f$
+ r dT2 e
,
ee
d-t
'
dd d
+
,
dr dO
er
dtdt*
(d6/dt)ee ,
and
d(e$)/dt
= - (dd/dt)c T
the
ir.
er
dfi
^1+ 2
dfi
Cfl
(13-3)
di dt
It will
transverse
a'
components of the
= d\
dfid
(de\
r
+
,
dfi
(13-4)
\jt )
at=r-rT
total acceleration
, dr dB
2-r-r
(13-5)
dt dt
FT = m
d\
= m
(13-6)
dfi
d^
r
dfi
dr dd
(13-7)
dt dt
We
in a plane, referred to
shall,
any
an origin of polar
FT =
F(r) simply,
implies that as
557
and Fe =
0.
0.
The second of
we have
these immediately
areas
13-2
Fig.
r+2$-0
dt 2
03-8)
dt dt
by
rate.
2d
'
The
dfi
lr
may
we
2d2
r
di)
dt2
dd/dt:
drdd
' dt dt
we
Now
of the product
rf/s\
dt\
in
drdd =
Q
7iJi
left-hand side
respect to
If
this is to multiply
r:
therefore have
= const.
?
dt
in Fig.
(13-9)
3-2 we
a short time
Al.
show
It
the area
AA
the triangle
is
POQ
it is
(we take
PQ
to be
we have
+ Ar) sin A6
AA - iKr
The
rate at
limit of
Ar/r
for At
and
Ad
A=
d
dt
which area
AA/At
\
2
sin
*
>
0.
A0,
Since, as
we
we approach
is
the
this limit,
^l
(,3-10a)
dt
Thus we recognize
558
is
f'orces
A por-
Fig.
13-3
tion
of Newton'
(a)
manuscript,
(a)
De Motu,
(6)
En-
diagram.
J. Herivel,
(.Front
The Back-
ground to Newton's
Principia,
Oxford
University Press,
London, 1965.)
(Any
The
Kepler
It
was
therefore have
=s
central force)
result expressed
in his
we
dA
dt
2 dd
(13-10b)
const.
t/r
first
discovered by
stated by
him
in
what
is
known
more
later).
Newton understood it
on the samc dynamical grounds as we have discussed above,
it
i.e.,
chronologically).
559
first
is
areas
same
on by any
point.
He
He
applied infiuence.
set
13-3(a)
Figure
is
Newton imagines an
now
carry
and
to D, E,
it
BC
travels
instead of Bc.
To make
F.
AB
and then
As a
things quantitative,
BC as being, in effect,
result it
Similar impulses
Newton
the combination
of the displacement Bc, equal to AB, that the object would have
undergone
if it
BS
the line
and SBc
altitude.
The
triangles
and
(SB)
base
between
the
This at once
triangles
equal, having a
same
its
parallel to
lying
cC
parallels.
SAB
the same
common
Hence
ASAB = ASBC.
THE CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
We
give a
in
angular momentum.
particle at
If
slant to the
law
of areas by expressing
[Fig.
13-4(a)]
is
acted on
by a force F, we have
F =
/na
&
m-7dt
Let us
now form
rXF
The
rXm^at
left-hand side
is
(13-11)
the torque
M due to F about O.
many
560
forees
Fig.
13-4
(a) Vector
momentum,
We now
introduce the
moment of
the
momentum,
of the
I,
Thus
the
= rX/wv =
1
rXp
(13-12)
moment
of the force,
M, does
to F.
It is
momentum,
we
with respect to
d\
dt
ji
Jt
we have
i. e.,
p, as
a vector, as shown
by
and
v.
the derivative of
w
w dv
x m y+rxm,
\Xmv + rXm dt
dt
X mv
zero, because
is
the cross
the right
is
it
result
M=rXF=^dt
(13-13)
moment
particle
of
zero.
?=
dt
561
and
This, then,
is
momentum
for
under zero
force.
we look
If
(13-14)
const.
magnitude
of course,
at
scalar
or,
/ is
points
= mr2 de
rmo
its
given by
(13-15a)
dt
This means that the constant rate of sweeping out area, as expressed by Eqs. (13-10a) and (13-10b),
dA _\_
dt
The
d8
2
T
dt
(13-15b)
As we have
these
bccome powerful
which
problems.
is
is
a valu-
find quantities
"conserved"
given quantitatively by
=
~ J_
2m
result expressed
able one.
is
i.e.,
they are
is
It
momentum depends
is
inde-
nice
example of
compared to
at the
at each instant,
is
tension
one revolution
Fig.
is
13-5
562
mwi
length of which
is
Moiion under
is
small
is
very nearly
up of
almost perpendicular to r
The
equal to mur.
the speeding
If the decrease of r in
is
central forees
const.
In
or
V2
Thus,
r\
01
than n, there
if r 2 is less
K2 The work
Kt
is
JW (^ -
l)
In an equilibrium orbit
we
would have
T=
Substituting v
.2
T=
mvi
/wr 3
r\
r*
7" in
a change from r to r
is
given by
w
It
may
be seen that
Thus
dr
the total
+ dr T dr (since
is
work between
22/1
of the earth
satellite spiraling
deal in
K2
ENERGY CONSERVATION
If
we
IN
r2
ATi already
common
with that
momentum
and
l\
this
calculated.
rx
a nega-
on pp. 470-473).
we can
was not
write a statement
form:
a
I [Or + V,*}+
In addition,
563
we have
f/(r)
= E
Fnergy conservation
in
(13-16)
momen-
tum
mrvt
The
quantities
U(r)
is
and
m in
to the form of a
particle
the central
field.
moving
in
one dimension
is
the key to
From Eq.
the
method of handling
we
(13 15a)
There
follows
h
+
- B
(13-17)
^- +
U'(r)
is
of the form
= E
(13-18)
where
2
u'(r)
V(r)
Imr-i
The
additional term
is
motion
is
continuously changing
direction.
its
But
it
is
to be
its
The term
2
l
/2mr 2
is
in
Eq. (13-18).
rwntrifugnl
Putting
mr*
-\
is
co
Molion under
frame
of dO Idi.
564
given by
z
mr' (de/dl), this becomes
ftmttrtfugal
which
dr \2mr2/
is
central forees
It
potential energy"
is
due
componcnt of
its
motion transverse
The circum-
The
function of radius.
we
shall first
Subsequently we shall
r increases.
portional to
is
inversely pro-
r.
are,
use
its
First,
angular
momentum
In the central-field
field.
is
The
not enough.
of /.
tial
We
/.
motion by
with time, so
is 6.
The changes
in r are
565
depends on both.
Use of the
The
r,
particle,
is
we
changing
accompanied by a simul-
orbit of the
is
not
E define
the basic
E=
=
Since
we
a total
pletely.
each)
Fig.
at
an arbitrary time
=- +
LH.ro)
(13-19)
bf four
initial
and v
purpose.
we need
and several
566
and
by
mro(c t )o
fulfills this
13-6
forccs
(two components
Now
let
/2mr 2 against
momentum, and
from
U(r)
energy
> oo
curves U '(r)
as r
how
consider
0.
with r to be
is
it
less
Let us
.)
draw valuable
(To
now
qualitative
In Figure 13-7
drawn
we show an
value of
/,
We
/.
no physically meaningful
Em
less
minimum
value of U'(r).
At
no
radial
minimum
any
equal to the
possible value of E,
circular with a
of
(e.g.,
c)
but no upper
are
unbounded; there
limit.
If
momentum
from
permissible value of /;
is
this
down
Fig.
13-7
to zero
Effective
diagram from
wlrich
ofthe
energy can be
inferred.
567
Use ofthe
is
as
allowed,
circular orbit.
polential-energy
may be
maximum
it
BOUNDED ORBITS
With the hclp of the above preliminary analysis of the radial
component of the motion, one can then proceed to develop some
ideas about the appearance of the actual orbits in space. Suppose,
Eb
energy
in Fig. 13-7.
periodic with
certain
of
r.
It is
moves
always within the area between two circles as shown in Fig. 13-8.
is
it
and continuing
radial period
Tr
changing
eloekwise
through 2w
OA
until
On
its
or
line
on the
counterclockwise)
ratio of the
radial
which the
and angular
periods
differ.
effect is that
The
of an
approximately
elliptic
ing {precessing) in
own
its
plane.
568
the
con-
same sense
(i.e.,
will
have turned
some
instant,
Plan view
in
and
is
is
of an orbital motion
for a case
It is clear that
13-8
cirele at point
and the
Fig.
it
The time
at point B.
either
of the figure. It
trajectory
tinually
forees
Tg,
Tr
and
their ratio
(i.e., if
can
moving
particle
common
multiple
integers), the
is
in
it is
precisely
In Fig. 13-8
6.
lir
A and B would
coincide.
One
a thoroughly
it)
if
the force
Thus
we
show
r.
shortly.
and angular periods are comparable but defone has just the kind of situation shown in
If the radial
Fig. 13-8.
greater than
7",
somewhat
its
variation
is,
from rmax to
like this,
precession
orbital
is
rmin
near
The study of
is
is
is
precessing.
important in astronomical
systems.
If the radial
and
will eventually
fiil
UNBOUNDED ORBITS
We have already
This
is,
in fact, a rather
because
it
corresponds
to the fact that the particle has a positive kinetic energy at infinity.
If U(r) is a repulsive potential,
ing that
it
bounded motions
at all.
it
569
Unbonnded
orbits
would follow
in these
Fig.
13-9
and
in sign, that
responding to
tlie
in (a), indicating
situations.
travels
particle
(2/w)
1/2
in
straight
equal to
with a speed v
linc
offsct
is
from a
parallel line
= mv
momentum we
is
directly
have, in fact,
(13-20)
ar| d
E and
/ in Fig.
13-9
is
and
it is
The
distance b
is
unbounded
orbit,
orbital angular
It is
momentum,
unbounded
570
Motion
tituler
central forees
we have with
the
13-10
Fig.
(a) Plan
a center of attraction.
The angular momentum
is
defined
by
Ihe
"impact parameter"
(b)
b.
Corresponding
of
force.
shown
in Fig. 13-8.
The
situations
shown
in
We
shall return to
them
Certain potentials
Fig.
13-11
struction
Con-
of effective
potential-energy dia-
gram for an
attractive
571
Unbounded
orbits
later.
may
2
more rapidly than l/r with increasing r. An example is
shown in Fig. 13-11. As long as / is not zero, the combination
off
much
of Fig. 13-7.
maximum
of
For a positive
/'(/),
there are
total
like
an upside-down version
energy
now two
that
is
than the
less
distinct regions
of possible
motion:
ri
This
is
<
<
<
< w
bounded
r\
orbits
unbounded
orbits
The
effective potential-
us say, a
let
may
It is,
as
is
far
CIRCULAR ORBITS
As
IN
in
we
2
an attractive central foree varying as l/r
we have
There
is
already analyzed in
merit in
this,
because
it
some
enables
u(r)
where
=
is
-9Mm
the universal gravitational constant
572
(i3-2i)
Motion under
and
M the mass
central forees
this case
GMm
,2
2mr2
= E
(13-22)
U'(r)
GMm
2mr2
for
minimum
Now
dr
mr*
Putting dU'/dr
f
The
GMm
total
/.
r*
0,
we
const.
orbital radius
orbital angular
seen, to
GMm
= _ _T_
'
we have
di/
/.
is
(13-23)
momentum.
This
is
indicated qualitatively in
Fig. 13-12.
Let us
orbit
is
now
Thus
in
Eq. (13-22)
we can put
GMm
E=
(Circular orbit)
2/W/-2
From
Fig.
13-12
we have
Energy
angular
momentum
573
circular
Circular orbils
in
an inverse-square force
field
GMm
2
l
mr*
E= -
(Circular orbit)
-^-r =
(13-24)
is
inversely pro-
inversely proportional to
is
^^
ways:
2
.
The period of
in this
chapter
we estab-
dA _
J
2ra
dt
For a
is
irr
in
simply mvr.
2
/(ur/2)
more
putting
hardly
2irr/v
interesting terms
is
a surprising result!
we can make
To
express Tg
use of Eq.
(13-23),
= mvr:
(mvr)
mr
GMm
giving
1/2
-m
Using
uasa
function of
r,
we then
arrive once again at the equation that expresses Kepler's third law:
T9 _
.
2t
(G/uy*
312
(13-25)
Imagine that a
energy
574
and radius
satellitc
is
forces
Fig.
13-13
(a) Resull
FAGP.
The impulse
is the
is
at
diagram
is
applied at F,
almost-circular path
[Fig. 13 13(a)].
the point F,
is
ia).
satellite,
when
at
jets.
What happens
to the orbit?
diagram
in Fig.
13-13(b).
represented by the
minimum
M,
point,
firing,
but
it
satellite slightly.
Thus,
N in
Fig. 13-13(b);
it is still
at r
r o,
increment AE.
U '(r)
in the vicinity of
bolic,
its
this
minimum, M,
means!
is
The form of
approximatcly para-
Let us
We are assuming that the decrease of mass associated with the firing of the
jet
can bc ignored.
and the
gravita-
What
matters
is
575
Small perlurbalion of
is
a circular orbit
We
saw
is
how
Chapter 10
in
for oscillations
minimum
evaluated at the
and
point.
especially
d U'
is
r3
to be evaluated at r
2
r2
2GMm
3/
mr \
<jr2
now
+
.
mr 3
dr
This
GMm
dU'
3/
2GMm
n,3
= GMm;
/mr
using this
we
GMm
We
down
This
-,
2w
is
rn
_ 3/2
For Ar
27r,
as given
by
T6
this angular
satellite is just
about at
it is
at G, with r
its
in Fig. 13-13(a).
to P, where
once again,
it
radial oscillations
cirele
is,
maximum
it
is
at
its
for small
its
center
shifted
We
shown
576
is
What we
have
forees
Fig. 13-14
Stalionary, c/osed
liptic orbit
el-
The same
effect
-,
and
can
much
in fact lead to
rmax
it
would be
and
does hold.
far point
The
and
[e. g.,
the perigee
aphelion and
wc
shall
compounded
not
Mars.
astronomers for a very long time, because the apparent irregularities in its
in
circular motions.
'This seelion
question,
577
is
How do we know
has as
much
The
elliptic orbits
of the plancls
To
mind
in
though
was
it
Al-
from the earth, the precise data were only of angular positions.
Kepler began
his
whom
of Mars
it
in
he joined as an
Kepler
is
fully
now
he arrived at
familiar to us.
must be
on the
basis of observations
which was
made from
first
Kepler
itself.
He
corresponding
at
brilliant.
the earth
n several ways.
point
a laboratory
itself
was thcrefore
task
on a
astronomers
initially
Mars and
oppositiori).
is
at
ground of the
the point
stars
M,
the earth
Mars
is
at E\.
Thus a
at the
ends
could be constructed.
and the
578
a circle in
shape
is
is
indistin-
Molion under
ccnlral ibrces
\
M
K5))&
fi
S d
4/4
E,
(b)
Hl UI HHH
Fig.
13-15
Mars
(a) Principle
HHHI
of successioe Martian
years).
Ap-
(6)
Q)
motion, Kepler
QE {from
first
is
not constant.
To
Kepler
is
of radius
If
with center C.
CQ = SC =
d,
The sun
on the
SE (from
it
is
Its
earth's orbit
at S, a distance
line
SC
is
use by
a circle
d from
C.
The point
eguant, because
The
(i.e.,
its
QE
inclination d
was
called the
uniform) angular
change.
d/R
is
his analysis
figure of
of the year.
Figure
observations of the
same
effect.
579
The
elliptic orbits
of ihe planets
If
re-
Fig.
13-16
Evidence
of the change
10.8
in the
of
image
formed by a
telescope.
(After a graph in
Science in Secondary
Schools, Ministry of
Educalion Pamphlet
No. 38, H.
M.
///
Sta-
#/^##/
# / /
1960.)
famx
Tmin
The
= SA = R + d
= SP = R - d
any such
eccentricity, t, of
eccentricity (e)
fmax
is
can understand
orbit
is
''min
We
we have
(13-27)
''min
why
cireular but
= 0.018.
at the geometrical
tum about
Consider, in particular,
and A.
If the line
A we
QE
have
ve
Thus
in
dA
= \u(R 2
2
)
dt
At
Thus
for
struetion
580
d /R
is
is
equal to
d 2 ). (Check
this.)
Motion under
%o(R 2
central forees
d 2 /R 2
ratio
is
only about 3
now,
With
his
13-17(a)].
in a straightforward
circle
we can
Again he
Mars
as seen
an eccentric
with an equant, as
in Fig. 13-15(b).
But
[Fig.
this time
it
did
function of time.
arc,
The
1.
made
his ideas.
2.
insights:
worked
(or, indeed,
and accuracy of
reliability
as
just as well
even better).
ellipse
with the sun at one focus, as shown in Fig. 13-17(b), then (applying the law of areas to this
new
CA
The cireumstance
of the original
that
made
agreement between
orbit) the
The
distance
SN
is
circle.
the motion of
Mars
so hard to
explain (but without which Kepler would probably not have been
more than
Fig.
13-17
{a)
five
Kep-
ler' s triangulation
known.
an
ellipse,
of Mars
not an
eccentric circle.
own diagrams
New
in the
Astronomy.)
581
The
elliptic orbits
of the planets
It
should be
from a
Mars
PA
diameter,
full
than
part in 200.
the departure of
the
many
published in 1609.
It is
a classic of
scientific discovery.
Once
made
major planets.
(The inclination,
/,
is
relevant data,
is
made
the angle
had been
easy to infer
it
own
orbit
the four inner planets, projected onto the plane of the ecliptic.
this projection
all
does
look like
perfect circles.)
TABLE 13-1:
(a)
Eccentricily
AU
km
()
10 6
Period
Inclination
(D
Years
10 8 sec
7.00
0.241
0.076
3.39
0.615
0.194
1.000
0.316
0.594
(')>
deg
Mercury
Venus
0.387
57.9
0.723
108.2
0.206
0.007
Earth
1.000
149.6
0.017
Mars
1.523
227.9
0.093
1.85
1.881
Jupiter
5.203
778.3
0.048
1.31
11.862
Saturn
9.540
1427
0.056
2.50
2869
4498
5900
0.047
0.77
29.46
84.02
26.6
1.78
164.77
52.1
248
78.4
Uranus
Neptune
19.18
Pluto
39.44
30.07
The book
is
0.009
0.249
17.2
New
Astronomy.
3.75
9.31
New
582
Motion under
ccntral forccs
Fig.
13-18
orbiis
They are
from
ali indist'mguishable
circles in
concentric.
AU are,
in fact, el-
Newton
Locke.
earlier)
Could Newton
formidable explanation of
less
how
elliptic orbits
own
give
Newton
of the planets?
some of
him a
but found
which we
on a remark-
discussion. It rests
their geometrical
shall use
symmetry, which
Consider the
is
elliptic orbit
a center of force
There
at the focus, F.
A'
'V""
^^V'\
y'"-.
y
*
'
F'
\
Fig.
13-19
ofan
Geometrical symmetry
tion in ils
minor
axis,
NN'
'.
N'
583
ellipse
original model, as
The
focus.]
empty.
is
it
shown
ellipse
13-15(b),
was
F and
NN' drawn
F',
through C.
Yct, as
and
P2
much
second
at this
P2
than at
Pu
in
Pi
moves
e. g.,
faster at
we
areas.
its
Mark
13-20(a)].
[Fig.
perihelion point
p and
it
aphelion point a
its
planet's velocity
is
Hence
to a very
1*1*1
Now
T2*2
in the
passing
p would
attraction,
it
Because of the
is
indistinguishable
The
Fig.
to
(a) lllusirating
diagram),
584
his
own
and the
(=
d{),
which
is
di
where
much
in fact,
is,
less
than pT,
Remembering
we can put
that
Csi
is
But
is
Thus we can
perihelion, p.
also put
d2 = Cs2
where
C is
the
same constant
as before
and d 2
di
d2
It
is
the deviation of
rg_
ry 2
Since, however, the distances fallen in equal times are proportional to the accelerations
forces,
it
follows that
and
/>
and a
r2
applicability
this,
although
symmetry of the
orbit.
it
P u P 2,
and P% are
time
also drawn.
intervals.
The
The
radial dis-
:t
1
as the radial displacements are very small.
We
TREATMENT
The method has bcen nicely presented in the PSSC film "Elliptic Orbits,"
by Albert Baez, Education Dcvclopment Center, Newton, Mass., 1959. See
also the paper by Baez, Am. J. Phys., 28, 254 (1960).
585
Fig.
13-21
Basic geomet-
of an
rical features
elliplic
at Ihe focus F.
as
to
r'
(13-28)
2a
shown in Fig. 13-21, where the ellipse has a major axis equal
la and has its foci F and F' separated by a distance 2ea. First,
we need
little
radial
r'
From Eq.
r
'2
(2ea)
4tarcosd
we have
(13-28), however,
4a
4ar
4eV -
4ear cos d
4a
r'
2
,
we
get
4ar
Hence
r(l
cos 0)
a(l
e )
or
We can
simplify this a
aji
little
Using
!
r
586
this,
- Uaf =
(13-29)
the distance
is
FON we
e)
tcosO
(\
ON
in Fig. 13-21.
axis, b,
By
the
have
2
t
= iL(I2
(13-30)
ecostf)
forccs
With
momentum
tion of orbital
we
proportional to l/r
is
the radial
"
component of
2
.
The
acceleration.
%-->($)'
t,
get
dr
ta
dd
d
r*
4=C
(13-32)
di
where
this,
is
Using
Cta
dr
d,'--* 6
_=__
Cta
<fV
cosfl
we
get
dd
* =
^J
cose
b"
ri
dfi
To
quantity r(dd/dt)
(d6\
F
\di)
Combining
587
2
.
By Eq.
we must
subtract
from
this the
C2
"rl
this
if
we
we thus
we look back
see that
get
at the original
ea cos
b*
~r
parentheses
in
in
"'
is
and we have
= ~ ~bT
72
an
elliptic
It is
We can
as
at
ellipse,
Hence
is
no longer
in a
rigorous form.
The parameter
said,
A =
is?
is,
have
result
(But note
is
irab
the period
T of the
orbit
is
given by
T = 22^
C/2
i. e.,
C=
2-Kub
A
4t
a
we
find
1
1
7-2
(13-34)
r2
specific
and a mass
we
obtain
GMm
'
Therefore,
aT
588
= -
Motion under
(13-35)
central forees
Fig.
13-22
el-
.23
a
4ir
GM
T2
whence
-2 =
This
result,
Chapter
in
although identical
we
same period
If
Now we
identified
an important new
Previously
feature.
in
of the
is
for
'mu =
a(l
t)
a(l
t)
IN
precise
is
meaning;
it
distances of a
semimajor
axis, a,
rm in
ENERGY
mean
rmax ~r
''min
-z
AN ELLIPTIC ORBIT
The purpose of
this seetion is to
show
that, as
589
Energy
in
an elliptic orbit
energy
is
is
constant,
on
the
r
The
major axis
= /W* =
a(l
we
We
shall
it
which we have
t)
*W)
= -
-^r
+
a(l
The
kinetic energy
at a
is
is
little
%mvt = imr
harder to
come
we have
purely transverse,
K=
(13-37)
e)
(f)"
this
becomes
mC 2
Specifically,
*(r,)
mC 2
2fl2(l +
) 2
Now the constant C is twice the rate of sweeping out area, which
means, as we saw before, that C = 2irab/T. Hence
_
2 2,2
4ir
a b
.2 i,.
4w a (1
_
_
7^
Substituting
T2
now
T2
for
C2 = GMa(l Using
2
e
2
e
C2
we
find
that
Ifr
=
2a0
Combining the
(13 38)
e)
and (13-38) we
obtain the following formula for the total energy of the motion
E=
The
590
-G
Jp-
(13-39)
la
total energy of
Motion under
any
elliptic orbit is
central forccs
Fig.
A parlicle
13-23
in
an
what
elliptic orbit
it
at any poinl
would acguire
in falling
from
resi
ellipse.
is
may
is
positive
2
i
E = smu
The amount
GMm
GMm
=
nt-Am
(13-40)
2a
axis, 2a,
of the
ellipse.
To
is
from I
to
/ on the
circle
and has
fallen
from / to P.
steer the
without changing
as shown.
591
earth's surface
analysis
all
of
low-level
Fig.
13-24
a small pari of
an
more
distanl focus.
field,
The approximation of
trajectory
by a parabola
is
in fact excellent,
but
strictly
the
one should
very narrow
a point
i
an object
If
ellipse.
is
GMm =
p = _
2a
axis 2a
amount, say H.
by
GMm
Re
The major
is
Wc
by only a small
GMm
ReJ
Re \
Re
GMm
GMm
Re 2
Rp.
Hcnce
H-
2g
This distance
by
is
the
sum
vertically
upward,
point.
fictitious perigee
of the
is
fired
moves
and
2
becomes equal to H, i.e., to o /2g,
as wc would calculate directly from simple kinematics.
just
592
forccs
The most
another planet.
efncient
method
is
let it
To
We
to Venus.
at
common
13-25;
in Fig.
The
center.
starts
it
AU.
is
is
V.
thus the
The
sum
sun
would then be as
good approxi-
transfer orbit
1.72
in question.
shown
from
length
of the
total of
is
and
craft needs to
Thus
at
E and
(if it is
to
now make
this quantitative.
is
given by the
equation
GMsm
mvo
rB
where
Ms
is
GMS
the
mass of the
Therefore,
sun.
(13-41)
re
The
Fig.
13-25
(=
an
10
Interplanetary transfer
1.49
is
ellipse that
The
touches the
0.72AU
593
the
the
year,
TE (=
2t
3.16
10
Thus we have
sec).
8
1.49
..
.
296km sec
10
3.16X10^
The speed
E in
(13-40), by the
is
order to follow
condition
GM m
s
E" "
- *" Wl
TjiT
e
GMs m
7T
Therefore,
-^ == ^ = ^f(-i)
\
0.86/
0.92i;o
The necessary
GMs
0.84
ra
re
we have
27.2
km/sec
retardation
thus
is
quite
2.5 km/sec.
Once placed
in
Venus
is
at V.
Since,
proportional
3/2
TB =
\2.00/
0.807-b
imV2
GMsm
given by
GMsm
T72^
" "
"6772^
V is
Therefore,
V22
GMS (
02 * 1.27oo
The
\ _
- V536""W
-.2
37.7 km/sec
orbital speed of
Venus
is
Thus an im-
594
km/sec
will
forces
It
by about
may
be seen,
from
example,
this
how
make such
transfers with a
is
How
(Fig. 13-26).
do we deduce
from a
force,
and orientation
The
thing to
first
do
is
is
E=
%rrwo
GMm
GMm
(13-42)
2a
ro
Iro
At perigee
mvol
mvoro
= n) and
(r
mvir\
sin
apogee
(13-43)
<p
(r
r z ) the directions of v
we can put
mv2T2,
or
1
Fig.
13-26
T2
Elliptic
the launching
particle with
ofa
an
arbi-
trary velocity ?o at
vector distance
from
ro
the center
of
than zero).
595
momentum
uniquely defined
initial
conditions
and
We
can
GMm
\mvi
vi
= la
i>i
and
r2
at
n =
-e)
a(l
r2
fl(l
e)
the
vector
initial position
major
makes an angle
axis, relative to
,
is
which
determined through
ro
_
1
Thus the
orbit
<
2
)
COS 00
is
center
point,
it is
is
FP from
launched from
We
P in a
direction at right
Hyperbola
Parabola
Ellipse
Fig.
13-27
Family of orbits of
the focus
F {the
center offorce)
596
forces
If the launching
an almost straight
speed
line
is
toward F;
strictly, it
would be an
elliptical
path with an extremcly small width and a major axis only very
slightly longer
At a
than FP.
slightly higher
would be a perfect
is
F at the
with
would lead to
increase of energy
now P
circle
i.e.,
A still further
center.
elliptic orbits
now
represents
the nearer of the two foci with respect to the launching point.
precisely zero.
is
continually further
is
move
infinite distance
is
shows that
now approaches
One
sees
by
this
is
no
It
may,
This
hyperbola.
is
comet with a
total
indistinguishable
energy
from
the comet
if
than zero
is
almost
is visible
only when
An
less
after
it
is
in previous
third law
40
is,
in fact,
AU. The
in
Fig.
(~0.6
AU)
the
its
Neptune and
597
ellipse with a
shown
brightly; at
an
is
13-28.
At
its
is
sun
it
its
path.
Fig.
13-28
Orbit of
among
the orbits
of the planels.
We
motion
is
Newtonian law
m), but
(e.g.,
we have assumed
that one
We
two masses
the sun
and must
We
fail
seriously
if
(M
and
fixed.
true
planets), but
M and m are
it is
Mm
never rigorously
comparable.
in
is
M+m
598
Motion under
cenlral forces
in
r2
Fig.
13-29
Binary system,
in
opposite ends
of a
slraighl line
through C.
If the particles
which
is
fixed
it is
and
the vectors
of P with respect to
ari
C is
/d6\
M-+H,[d72-
\7t)\
for the radial
component
mM
M+ m [-()!
F is
(Note that
ticles.)
r2
F(r)
and
then given by
\d
The
a function of the
coordinate,
r,
total separation,
would
identical equation
(13-44a)
Q;
it
y.
r,
of the par-
arise
[=
mM/(M +
m)].
Thus
we can put
->[&-'(S)l
If
is
(13-44b)
G Mm/
'r
2
,
we
see
from Eq.
d\_
dfi
The
by
(de\ _
\dt)
total mass,
M alone
The
G(M + m)
M + m,
in the
r*
previous treatment.
599
(b)
(a)
Fig. 13-30
appear
in
(o) Paths
(b)
Same
CM
frame. (From the film "Force, Mass and Motion," by F. W. Sinden, Bell
Telephone Laboratories and Education Developmenl Center Film Studio,
Frank Sinden. Figure 13-30 shows two stills from the film; one
is of the motions as observed in a frame in which the center of
mass
is itself
refers the
motions to the
CM frame.
DEDUCING THE ORBIT FROM THE FORCE LAW
Earlier in this chapter
we showcd how
square law could be inferred from the observed faet that the orbit
of a planet
is
an
we pointed out
How
ellipse
that parabolic
and hyperbolic
The answer
orbits
were also
we said in
Chapter 7, that Newton's second law can be used in two main
ways. We can infer the forees from the motions, or we can infer
possible.
do we know
this?
is,
as
is
generality.
But
if
we
start out
is
at work.
we can
and we
600
Motion under
central forees
shall illustrate
the
The
in
such problems.
we have
F =
ma,
A%-m
m
dt
given,
in these
be interested
in
is
problems, by r as a function of
this
d.
Thus we
d 2 r/dt 2 and
dd/dt.
The
is
shall
doing
(13-45)
is
clue to
We
can
put
It
d6
= C
dt
r2
Calling this u
we have
= -1
(1M6 >
"
d8
dt
dr
first
we have
\_du
u* dt
dt
rule,
we can
dr _
}_dud$ "
dt
2 dd dt
"
du
dd
we
/,
Differentiating again,
get
Fr = ma T =
601
Deducing the
-mC 2 u (- +
2
orbit
uj
(13-48)
r.
GMm
motion
we have
,. 2
GMmu
simple equation:
where
is
If
we
form
-(uit is
A)
--tu-A)
where
- A = B cos d
we have
-
is
another constant.
Returning
now
to r as a variable,
= A
03-50)
Bcose
We
shall point at
6.
This
is
that as 8
we
r is
passing through
its
is
minimum
is
the perigee
value,
which
- = d=
ar
cos 6
= A/B.
If
we take
a line
FD
of length
602
Motion under
ccntral forees
Fig.
13-31
ticle at
(a) Par-
perigee in an
orbit under
an inverse-
show-
and
the
DN).
that
DN
its
multiple, a, of
its
distance (d
r cos 0)
is
a constant
To
of the constants
more
A and B
in
fully,
we must consider
Eq. (13-50).
The
the values
value of
is
GM
A =
Now C
is
dO/dt.
We
C=
ii0i
Hence
A =
Now
GM
r,2 Wl 2
Vi
- - GMm
K\ = \moi
A = -
as follows:
2r t Ki
itself:
-*-*-(' + a)
603
lavv
in
Eq.
Now
where
orbit.
This
and A
is
is
we can now
recognize
is
zero, negative,
or positive:
=0
(B
= A,<x=l):
>
(B
>
A,
< 1):
= A(a h
+ cos 6)
E<
(B
<
A,
>
1):
/1(1
A(a
cos
(?)
(13-51)
cos d)
The
first
two equations
them as
an).
of
The
r at
= x
and zero,
clearly permit r to
x, the
second as cos B
respectively.
and
the orbital
values
ellipse,
become
dynamical
i.e.,
momentum.
Many
and culminating
in
Eq. (13-48).
RUTHERFORD SCATTERING
As another example of motion in an inverse-square central field
of force, we shall consider the defiection of an electrically charged
particle in the electric field of a much more massive object carrying
an electrical charge of the same sign. The field is repulsive, obeys
Coulomb's law, and has the equivalcnt
U'(r)
*Sm +
J-
potcntial energy
(13-52)
shown plotted in Fig. 13-32(a). k is the proportionality conCoulomb's law and q and q 2 are the electrical charges
on the two particles.
as
stant in
604
Motion under
central forccs
__a^ngnggg
Wbi-^*:
'"min
Fig.
13-32
(a)Effec-
angular
in
momentum
a repuhive Coulomb
field.
(b)
i*
Plan view
(b)
symmetry
Axis of
r mln
i) in
the neighborhood
of
a massive nuclear
charge
(qz).
Motion
is
speed on the
way out
that
it
all
in,
will
its
distance
be symmetrical as shown in
Fig. 13-32(b).
Historically, the understanding of this type of
motion played
beam of alpha
particles
by thin metallic
foils.
is
Presumably
embedded.
605
Rutherford scattering
charge
in
Fig.
13-33
Scatter-
by the nuclei
in
a thin
metalik foil.
Figure 13-33
using a thin gold
is
foil
colli-
thickness.
foil,
particles
were observed
He 2+
is
that
nucleus. This
For a
606
is
Coulomb
how
results
such a calculation of
obtained.
thin
foil,
Molion under
an alpha
particle scattered
central forces
10
19
gold
atoms/mm 3
in the foil)
First, then,
processes.
we must
an alpha
Next, since
we must compute
alpha particle,
the
possible "aiming
all
errors."
present a
much
we
shall
Consider an
more nearly u
The
(p.
is
570) and
is
the impact
a measure
%mv
in
the field of q 2
particle regains
amount equal
<p
Geomelry
of a Rutherfordseatterlng event.
607
to the angle
This
initial
13-34
total energy is
Fig.
is
Ruthcrford scattering
in Fig. 13-34.
To
its
motion by an
down as
particle slows
regains
of
/ is
total
by
given
dt
= moob = mr
The
cess
it
original speed
its
momentum
momentum
/
it
change of
const.
(13-53)
momentum A(mv)
pro-
in the scattering
is
shown
and
in Fig. 13-35,
equal in magnitude to
10
2mvo sin -
A(mo)
is
(13-54)
F of
This impulse
the veetor
Ap
From
ponent
F dt
Fx
symmetry of
the
of
Fig.
3-34,
we
com-
dicular contributions
from Fy
the
Fx di =
is
parallel to
x as
Fcos
Ap =
axis.
Ap =
at points
6 dt
= A(nw) = 2mv
integral.
sin
kqiq2 cos 6
dt
r*
Ap m
kg \q 2 f
vob
Fig.
in
Hmv
13-35
J >,
cos Ode
Net dynamical
Ap
= -~^ (sin 62 -
result
lliat
vob
of a scattering event
608
momentum.
sin 0i)
(13-55)
di
we
Fig. 13-34
[(ir
*-+(^)
<p)/2]
to
toEq.
From
after scattering.
cos r
Ap =
Equating
and
see that
* (tp)
Since sin
8 before
(13-54),
we
of A(mv) according
find
tanf = ^i||
This
tells us,
(13-56)
alpha particles
is
essentially monoenergetic,
This
db and from
this
<p.
is
relative
numbers of
particles
The primary
incident beam.
To
by each
is
simply that
it is
thickness of the
and we
shall
depths
Now
is
foil
through the
no overlapping of
<r,
n,
square of edge
609
foil.
right
number,
n/ 2 Ax.
the
Fig. J 3-36
(a)
ofa
nueleus can be
impaet parameter, b.
/-
Ax
is
obstructed
071
is
given by
Ajc
/2
random
beam
foil at
completely
/ given
scattering foil
/=^-<rA*
n'
Hence from a measurement of
610
Motion under
(13-57)
central forees
Fig.
13-37
Relation
between scattering
angles and impact
parameters.
known
1
an individual nucleus can be deduced.
One
This concept
sections.
is
one
many
similar processes.
is
at the
db.
The
area of this
(13-58)
Fig.
is
in Fig. 13-36(b).
da = 2Tb db
Now
The
<p.
This
it
is
is
indicated in
completely
make
da
between
<p
and
number of alpha
ip
d<p.
Let us
this quantitative.
in the
form
s-cotmvo'
we have
,.
db
-kqiq 2r esc 2
2mvo 2
Vj
d(fi
2
radius).
611
Lam
LXI. The
AngUi*.
oa
tlio
only.
un a zinc-anlphido screen in vacuum, and the distribntion
o! the scintillations on the screcn wasobserved when dinVu-iu
metal foiU were placed in Ihe path of ihe a particles.
Frimi
the distribution obtained, tlie most probable anglo of seaitering could bo deduced, and it as sliown that the resuita
could be cxplained on the assiimption tbat tlu; dcttcxion oi
a single a pnrticle is tho resnltant of a large nunibor of wrv
small detlc\ions causcd by the passugc of the a partiebthrough the succcssive individual atoms of the scattering
sobstance.
Ct-iuimniicAL-i!
t ./.-. rf-iV.
,4i*rf,*/.
OnummImSmI by
WVm. Umk.
Pn.f. B. HullK-tford.F.U-S.
CioiKrr, Koy. Boe, l'roc. \ul. l\xxiii.
i. 402 (1910>;
I H,
p. S)ti(lUl-J).
*vl \xtxih
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
with angle.
with luieknera of scattering material.
with atomic weight of scattering matori:il.
with volocity of incidt-nt a particles.
The fraetion of particles M-uttcred through a dofinito
Variation
Variation
Variation
Variation
angle.
Tho main
difhcutty of Ihe experiments has arisan from tlminff n very intense and narrow sonreo or
a particlos owing to Uip mallncs* of tbe scattering effect.
Ali tbe meaureiiients have bcen carriod out by obforving
necessity of
the scintillntions due to tbe scattered a prticles'on a incaulpbide teroen, and during the coiirse of tho experimentr>
an evncanted
the
pati) of tlie
.\riqle.
obtiiin mettDtlruhlf
is rouuirod,
ll
pnrticles shoulil
in
Ih'
ehaiiib.'r to
the scatlering foil F, nnd a microseope al to which tho zincsnlpliido screen S was rigidly attaclicd.
Tlie bos was fastenod
down to n graduated eireiilnr |>latform A, which could bo
rotated by means nf B conical airtight joint
By rotating
ihe platform tho U>x and microseone nioved wilh it, whilst
tho sciittering foil and radiating sOurce remaincd in jiosition,
lK>ing attached to tho tube T, whieh was fastened to the
lnndard L. The \>ox B was elosed by the ground-glass
plato P, and could I* cslumsted tlirough tho tnltc 'f.
./'
-'"
'
whcre
it
H. Geigtr
the
number of *
ud
t E. Rulherfoid,
original pencil,
material,
and
PUL
Mag. toL
ssi. p.
vol.
the
lxxaiL p. 406
069 (1911).
2NrE
same law.
means of a diaphragm placed at D, a pencil of a parwas directed normally nn to tbe scattering foil F. By
Ity
ticles
vol. xvii. p.
281 (1909).
Table VTI.
Variation of Scattering with Velocity.
I.
IV.
R*UUto
XumbnKof
T.1.M Of
*-ilUilltlOTl
11.
BopUof
pM4klM
kMtaof
&
ft?r lOkTil.^
per miiiut..
5-5
4-76
io
247
1-21
290
2
S
406
ssa
1-60
33-4
2-51
2-84
1-84
432
1-04
9-23
V.
H*.
1-91
25
24
22
23
28
23
28
44
81
101
255
Table
1.
n.
Aiigl. of
d-C-;.OL.
IV.
III.
Ooi.
NaiiibroT
Uumb.r of
Klnlil-
ClDlil-
!ationt,S.
VI.
V.
tara.
'/B'
Summary.
Tho expcrimcnts deseribed in the foregoing paper were
Carrieu out to test a theory of the atom proposed by Prof.
Kutherford, the main fentnre of whicli is tbat there exi$t*
ut the cuntre of the atom an intense highly concentrated
jlectricol charge.
The verification is based o* the laws of
''il'Tiii;; which were deduced from
this tboory.
The
II.
.i,,-.,-2-
l.lions.
l'ollowing rrl:iiions
L.'**
N.
hm lcn
verified expcrimcntally
^~
....
135
12)
105
.....
1-38
1-79
2-53
7-25
75
60
43
136
320
999
1760
5390
20300
105400
16
46-6
....
57-5
957
225
090
445
30
22-5
13
30
22-5....
15
10
7-5
22-2
27-4
ai-o
47-3
1-15
5S
223
690
3445
17330
64650
276300
M
16-6
506
1710
288
314
20
273
19-3
33-1
108
43
18-4
18-7
18-8
:.!
Sll
20
477
29-8
21-2
1435
18
3300
7800
27300
132000
38
35
23-6
21N
30
695
291
35-0
3911
H
4
0024
0024
0O27
011
OOI2
0O14
482
OM
0031
0115
200
0011
ooia
1107
MO
iDWN
>
atomic weight.
'$'
7*
ji
U'
1/
oi
12
FACSIMILE EXCERPTS
't
FROM THE
iQui**tt*T ee rem.
is
PHILOSOPHICAL
MAGAZINE
VOLUME
25,
1913
(We have
Thus the
creases as b increases.)
tells
us that
ip
de-
a _
Now
is
actually
number of alpha
done by observing, as
is
2tt sin
is
<p
f d<? =
foil
direct
the
d<x divided
dQ =
is
This measure
Thus
and
<p
by the
d<p.
ip
4ir sin
Since
tp
- cos - d<p
we have
(kqm V
da
<Kl
4\"-o 2 /
(
K
59)'
com-
sin< (*>/2)
Coulomb
now
<p:
A/=*Ax(^jAn
nAx
(lt)
In Eq. (13-59), q\
(13-60)
is
the charge
on the alpha
particles,
2e,
where
is
One would
If the
fraction
impact parameter b
is
so large as to be a significant
is
partially
by Eq. (13-56).
614
is
Motion under
ccntral ibrces
If the
2.
impact parameter
is
one can no
longer expect the scattering to conform to that calculated according to Coulomb's law for a point charge.
become apparent
ward
From
this
in the back-
of higher energy.
back scattering
starts to depart
which
For
manner that the gold nucleus
-14
has a radius less than about 1.5 X 10
m (= 15 F). This
may be compared to the radius of the gold atom which is about
-10 m. The ratio of the radius of the atom to that of
1.5 X 10
4
so that the volume of the atom is
the nucleus is thus about 10
I2
of the order of 10
times that of its nucleus. The massive nucleus
limit for the size of the scattering nucleus.
in this
is
it
penetrating
electrostatic
provided
shield
by the atomic
electrons.
AN HISTORICAL NOTE
Lord Rutherford (1871-1937), born
Nobel
New
in
skill.
Zealand, was an
He
received the
first
experi-
The
own words:
will give
it
in
Geiger in
detail,
and
it
in detail.
He found,
in
615
An
hislorical notc
Now
you
since
in confidence that
we knew
so
too,
"Why
not
let
him
see
I
if
may
said,
effect
of a
number of small
chance of an a-particle's being scattered backwards was very small. Then I remembered two or three days
scatterings the
happened
fired
to
me
in
my
lifc.
It
was almost
tissue
if you
came back
as incredible as
paper and
it
minute nucleus.
was then
It
that
number of
foil,
the square
On
pp. 612-613
in
the
cxpected
It is
excerpts from
interesting to
maximum
deflection
However, "multiple
in
single
scattering*'
The
616
forees
For a gold
large.
foil
10
-4
cm thick
is
Thomson
theory pre-
greater than 90
is
and neutrons
electrons, protons,
all
the
of the observ-
80
able universe
astonished
number of
only about 10
is
was
PROBLEMS
The
13-1
circular orbits
to have the
all
same
rate of
13-2
moves
in
Coulomb
Determine
how F
r.
atom an
= ke 2 /r 2
force F(r)
electron (mass
m)
stationary proton,
effectively
.
function of r.
(b)
as a function of
orbit
is
(c)
theory,"
momentum
r.
now
momentum
in a circular
Obtain an
Planck's constant.
is
(d) Calculate
equation
= -
W)
Hence
F(r)dr
'00
find
total
state
as a function of n.
(e)
energy,
(k
measured
in
volts,
= 9 X 10 N-m 2 /C 2 e = 1.6 X
= h/2ir = 1.05 X 10 -34 J-sec.)
13-3
617
1) calculate the
mass
Problcms
is
10
_19
C;
m =
by a
9.1
X KT 31
string
kg;
of length
/.
uo along a straight
At
line.
its closest
is
final kinetic
kinetic energy.
Where did
its initial
the energy
go?
13-4
particle A, of
from a second
when A
is
particle,
mass m,
is
B (r =
oo),
Initially,
shown
the line
and
in the figure.
this line is
The
D.
particle
stant G.
Vo
r
D
.Trajectory
13-5
force
particle of
mass
is a
Am/r 3 where A
,
moves
constant.
At
Show
13-6
(b 2
comes
is b.
A/vo 2 ) 1 ' 2
distance that
it
V'tr)
(b) tangentially.
Draw
if it
by
GMm
verify
and thus
from the
impact parameter
M and radius R.
is fired
its
2
/
2mr2
your
result.
618
maximum
cenlral forccs
distance of
5R/2 from
the center
of the planet.
angular
momentum, show
vo
13-8
particle
force,
k/r 3
that
(5GA//4/?)" 2
moves under
At
it
Concomponent
has a nonzero velocity that does not point toward the center.
struct the effective potential-energy
of the motion. What conclusions can you draw about the dependence
on
r of the radial
13-9
(b)
satellite in
fires
rocket.
orbit
component of velocity?
is
backward;
(c)
is fired (a)
a small
how
the
forward
13-10
Two
around the
An astronaut in
How
can he do it?
13-11 The
on April
in
27, 1960.)
of an earth
elliptical orbit
(r2
= a
c).
satellite
2b.
Consider the
circular orbit
minor axis
same
earth, but
1'
the other
2
.
= a
and
velocity vector
its
and apogee
and its radius
c)
that
i mv\
GMm
GMm
+c
2
,
= *mv2
-f
(c)
Ua -
From
the
<0i
= Ha
above
_
= E
momentum
implies that
+ c)v2
T2 =
619
4rV/CM
13-12
When
the satellite
satellite
Problcins
of mass
is
at
E = -GMm/2a
and
its
is
in
an
elliptical orbit
perigee, a distance
Ro from
the center of
the earth,
much
it is
what
from
2V3
earth,
M,
is
Show
its
apogee (the
maximum
distance
M, and Rof
minor
13-13
is
(b)
is
greater than m.
satellite
of mass
is
traveling at speed
r>o
in a circular orbit
(a)
At a
(b)
certain point
of motion of the
What
B in
Its closest
is
at r
oo
show
that
J/mo2
of the vehcity.
the magnitude
elliptic orbit.
ro/5.
satellite is
is
As
distance of approach to
(at point
P)
is
now
ofuo?
Through what angle a
(c)
13-14
small satellite
is
was the
velocity of
B?
around the
13-15
An
experimental rocket
is fired
speed oo and angle d to the horizontal (see the figure). Neglecting air friction and the earth's rotational motion, calculate the maxi-
initial
mum
distance
of radius
satellite
620
satellite
Motion under
central forces
where vo
is
frame of the
satellite at
the
In terms of G,
(a)
angular
momentum
M, m, and
r,
ment?
(b)
Make
orbits of the
and the
two fragments.
is
inversely proportional
13-17
spaceship
in
is
an
around the
elliptical orbit
Do
this fuel
earth.
Where
similarity
between
this
down
is
is
has
and
It
in the orbit
its
engines
following a circular path that will lead directly into the cloud (see
He
the figure).
momentum
also deduces
from the
is
ship's
motion that
not changing.
its
What
angular
attractive
Spaceship
13-19 (a)
Make an
Assume
and 1.52
AU,
that
re-
spectively.
(b) In part (a),
and
be simply that of shifting from one orbit to another, not from the
surface of one planet to the surface of the other.)
621
Problems
is
At what
distance
sun? Similarly,
at
is
by that of the planet? Further, compare the work done against the sun's
gravity in the transfer with that
field
gravity,
and
of Mars.
13-20 The problem of dropping a spacecraft into the sun from the
earth's orbit with the application of
minimum
by
firing the
be a
Qtnr>
(1
Falls into
means of a
brief rocket
sun
is
orbit
whose
its
C4&
is
Boost
Sun
speeded up tangentially
it
assumes an
reduce
of radius r t
circle
Assume
At
elliptical
the aphelion
it
the sun. (As in the previous transfer problem, the effects of the earth's
gravity are neglected.)
(a)
(b)
and so
find the
sum
at first firing.
two
spacecraft in the
it
steps to
make
it
fail
sum
pro-
vides a measure of the total impulse that the rocket engine must be
able to supply.
its initial
Compare
Am.
J.
this
sum
r-z
10n.
What change
10
tons/sec.
have produced
within the span of recorded history (~5000 yr)? Note that the equation for circular
spirals
radius
of the system.
conservation of angular
(This problem
was given
lem 8-19.)
622
Motion under
central forces
momentum about
the
CM
13-22
particle of
mass
moves about
/(r)e
measured from C.
particle as
Xv,
retarding force
C, find
its
and
is
to a
momentum Lo about
has angular
initially
momentum
angular
where r
r,
as a function of time.
kr,
where
pendulum
Rarely
in the laboratory.
is
(a)
a force.
a constant.
is
A:
particle
of mass
is
moving under
up a Cartesian co-
Set
center.
ordinate system with the xy plane containing ro and vo, and find the
(Keep
What
Suppose the
(b)
What
radius R.
is its
a circular orbit of
particle is originally in
orbital speed ?
If at
maximum
some point
value of r in
velocity
its
is
subsequent
its
motion?
13-24 According to general
a mass
tential energy of
the speed of
is slightly
(a)
orbiting about a
GMmC 2 /c 2 r
where
C =
of this
i. e.,
Show
relativistic
correction
effect
if
of the
the effect
famous
You may
this question.
direction
and
an attenuation given by
dN(x)
623
arrive at the
medium
r3
A beam
To 2 ~
relativistic
passing through a
),
is
see
(12x 2 r 2 /c 2 7"o 2
Newtonian theory.
where
is
(b) Since,
suffers
r 2 dd/dt
13-25
po-
modified by
light.
smaller
7"o is
is
and e is
Thus the period of a circular orbit of radius r
than would be predicted by Newtonian theory.
,
where
mass
is
- AnN(x)
Problems
an atom
in the
beam by
x = 0, the number
Noe~Anx
still
if
the
traveling in the
up
(a) Set
a simple
(b)
tenuation of a
pressures
(the
the
is
whether the
(c) If the
and rA by
13-26
(a) In the
Verify that do
is
given by do
2kqiq2/mvo 2 .
(b)
10
-14
ticles
m,
The
is 2.3
N.
Use
this to
MeV
(charge 79e).
(c)
By
624
Motion undcr
central forces
f>
becomes
where n
is
the
dti
number of
foil.
Putting
volume and As
dQ =
2tt sin
/(>w) =
(d)
foil
of gold leaf 10
Problem s
-4
cm
>
is
the length
show
<po is
that the
given by
thick
is
MeV. Out of 1
how many would be deflected through 90 or
4
gold - 1.9 X 10 kg/m 3 atomic weight = 197.)
million alpha particles, incident
foil,
more? (Density of
625
d<p,
5'Wcot 2 ^
particles of energy 5
normally on the
<p
In nature
we have
to deal,
may
regard every
(1916)
14
Extended systems
and rotational
dynamics
About
has structure;
degree of
rigidity.
physical object
has a
it
The
must
full
finite size
In
many
lesser
motions.
and a greater or
its
instances one
rotation
may
motion of
and other
its
internal
In this chapter
in
common
more
shall
individual particles.
We
we
the system
is
efTectively rigid.
The
in
some
may
627
many
collection of arbitrarily
engaged
particles
any type of
in
motion whatsoever.
MOMENTUM AND
In Chapter 9
(CM) frame
unique center-of-mass
selves.
We
one to
We
makes
result that
any system of
of masses i,,
tions
n,
m2 m
,
r 2 , r 3,
t 2 , V3,
ities i%,
The
is
it
and
is
our
sizes.
made up of
particles
now show
for
We
shall
particles;
and
position
veloc-
Mt = min +
M\ = lTi +
c
+ "3r3 +
ffJ2*2 + W3V3 +
2r2
where
M = mi +
We can
"2
nti
more compactly as
follows:
(14-1)
where the
suffix
of particles
runs from
partiele,
now
i,
by symbols such as
628
to
N (N being the
the statement of
in the system.
total
number
in the system).
Consider
one
and also to
of the system.
f,*,
F = ma
In general
as
it
it
applies to
may
internal interaetions
We
shall
any
be subjected
denote these
on
from
latter
partiele
by
particle k.
particle
We
2 f = i (j**d
now
can
momentum
of the
as follows:
i is
F,
Then
'
is,
all
by Eq. (14-1),
center-of-mass velocity v c
sum
What about
part of
less
let
us call
the
it fj nt
(F ext ) of
all
M traveling
at the
The
is
this,
change
first
it is
When we do
up.
all
the interactions
fint
Now
that
if
2_< 2_< f*
summation
this
it
of the type
f,-*
specific case,
other words,
sum of
f*,.
N=
3,
(It
may
you
will see
of pairs of contributions
set
madc up of a
it is
entails,
set
all
In
is
the
Since, however,
it
all
is itself
(This
zero.
is,
of course,
"You
in the
up by your bootstraps.")
mass
M:
Ft =
| (Mv = M~f
di
at
(14-2)
c)
in
action.
The
The
total kinetic
'Earlier, in dealing
more convenient
on particle
also
amenable to a
Momentum and
we
shall be
2.
The
F )2
revised definition
629
under gravity.
is
lead to
K. E. of a many-particle system
any
Fig. 14-1
The center
a simple parabolic
path under the net
gravitational force.
Photograph by Prof.
Harold E. Edgerton,
of a drum
M. I. T.,
majorelte tossing a
balon.
flashes
Time between
was 1/60
Dashed
path
lines
sec.
show
ofCM before
and
after
it
was
caught again.
v 3>
*i> v 2>
Thus
we
In this case
simple analysis.
can be written as
v,-
vc
The
kinetic energy
Ki of
this particle
Ki = mtV{
wi(v.--v;)
v c)
v*)
i"*"
Thus we have
Ki
Let us
K',
now
(m,v<)
vc
+ \niiV2
summing
The
first
term on the right gives us the total kinetic energy, K', of all the
gives us
particles relative to the center of mass. The last term
630
Extended systems
anci rotational
dynamics
And
M, moving
mass we have
mic'i
and hence
23 mfliyvt
K=
A
particles,
we can put
+ \Mo?
K'
(14-3)
container
If the
tainer.
momentum
motion
TK.
zero
N molecules
The
a gas
Suppose we have
contains
It
is
in
a Con-
the laboratory
(i.e.,
large.
is
of mass
is
and vc
coincide
is
K' of
mole of gas
(N =
CM
frame
the internal
at temperature
motion
is
given by
2
K' =
Jjffo(i/i
2
2
i>'
+ tS)
Introducing the
where
is
From
of the gas,
if it
occupies a volume V,
given by
P = frmovl
(n
(14^t)
= number
with n
= N/V
(14-5)
N molecules in a volume
V.)
From Eq.
(14-5)
we have assumed
we have
PV = \Mol
and combining
K'
where
'R
631
this
= %PV = %RT
is
8.32 J/(mole-K)
Momentum and
'
We know
that
mole of
0.0821 Iiter-atm/(mole-K)
K. E. of a many-particle system
(=
K'
10
(1.013
10 )(2.24
a pressure of
at
liters
N/m 2 ) at 0C.
10~ 2 )
3.4
is
atm
Hence
This
in
1.013
10 3 J
a good thing
It is
random.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
we recognizcd
In Chapter 13
1,
You
dynamical quantity.
momentum")
is
an important
(the
"moment of
(mv)
C 4" 6 )
Thus
momentum,
is
measured.
If,
as in the situations
we
considered, there
is
is
well-
momentum
dividual
moving
particle
is
two
is
of an in-
or
more
To
and
specific situation.
Two
particles,
first
of masses
is
a very simple
w about an
angular
momentum of
the
two
are
The system
m2
m, and
axis through
We shall calculate
particles
about a
perpen-
the total
parallel axis
of the combined
is clockwise. To calculate the actual magnitude
angular momentum, we can draw a line OA parallel to the line
joining the masses.
this line
and
intersect
The
it
at the points
A and
Let
632
OD =
d.
Then the
total
angular
A
OA
B.
line
through
at a point
momentum
D.
of the two
14-2
Fig.
its
(a)
rigid
center of mass, C.
C or
to
cm arbitrary point, O.
in
an
arbi-
Lo =
m\Vi(ft
=
where
(rmvi
and
r[
common
r'i)
term
r'2 are
r'
2)
(lf i'"!
m2U2r'2 )
momentum, L c about
,
parentheses
in
miPs(d
maDsV +
center of mass.
total angular
first
is
is
from
in parentheses
their
is
the
The
faet that
the
vz
w/'a
Thus
in
momentum
case
we have L
v>
cor'
2,
= L c the
rotational angular
magnitude of
through C. Sinceoi
this
total
angular
(rrn/t
+ m2
r'2
)co
/.
mi
mi
Bfl
/772
633
A n.s u
ar
momen u m
I
Lc
and
momentum
given by
Lc =
cor ,'
gives
is
mim2
Lc =
r
+ m2
mi
is
called the
is
(We
Le =
moment of
shall
consider
inertia,
of a
I,
convenient to put
it is
(14-8)
we have
/2
i*r
+ m
/2
m\ri
2 r2
now
moving with
particles
Again we
Fig. 14-2(b).
arbitrary velocities,
and
mass
at rest
is
shown
in
momentum
we make no assumption
relative to O.
Instead we
time
this
it
as
to an arbitrary origin O,
assume that
p.r
more complex
h>
Let us
mo-
cases later.)
two
the reduccd
2 )] is
connected system.
(14-7)
an important
is
an example of what
rigidly
\ir
Equation (14-7)
mentum
u =
m \m 2 /{m + m
where /* [=
... _.
velocity v c
We
vc
total
angular
momentum
defined by the
ri
and
Lo =
Let us
shown
r 2 , as
n X
now
(wivi)
Vi
=
=
r2
separately.
i and
m2
with respect to
(/M2V2)
r'i
+r
v'i
of mass:
fz
Vc
V2
=
=
F2
*2
+ r*
+V
Then we have
L =
(ri
re)
.(v'i
Lo
(ri
miv\
vc)
+ r 2 X m 2v 2
re
(mi
+ w 2 )v
sum
+ ('"iri + >2r2) X v
+ r X (miv'i + m2v 2
634
are
we have
in the figure,
and
Let us
(6
r c)
X m2 (v2 +
ve)
c
)
Now
from the
follows
it
miy'i
+
+
m2T2 =
WJ2V2
L = Lc
rc
(miT'O
X M\c
(14-9)
where
Lc =
Thus
r'i
+ r2 X
momentum about
momentum
mentum associated
(m2 v 2)
is
If the particles
have a
rigid
in
good
angular
momentum
make
it
we have
explicit
Eq. (14-9).
many
particles;
in general.
momentum
14-3
The rotalional angular momentum of a bisame value about the axis P of the
635
Angular
it
has about
its
momentum
the
is
at
pedal wheel as
if
itself.
Lc
U=
and we
ri
(miv'i)
(ma V2 )
r'2
and
substitute for r J
first
t'
2 in terms of
r.
From
the
defining equations
mir'i
m2X>2 =
v'2
ri
we have
It
m2
ri
m\
mi
\2
mi
rri2
+ m2
mi
(-r
v'i
+rX
y'a)
ni2
i.e.,
U = Mf X
(v'2
v',)
(14-10)
(^v rel )
Vrcl
If
is
we can
= X
further put
is
slightly
more complicated.
established that
We have, in fact, L
applying to any
In
/tt
Lc =
636
li^oi
nr(w
triple vector
size,
(w
r).
product:
r)
one
momentum about
CM,
But
momentum took on a
angular
it
momentum =
/ir
=
This
1.054
is
implies enormously
it
size.
N2
such as
two
discussed
1.1
Eq. (14-8)]
[cf.
A (=
is
1.1
10
-10
m).
Nitrogen
10
-2C kg,
The moment of
thus given by
= 2/n(V2) 2
If
Let us con-
one example.
sider
2(2.3
1.4
1CT 26 )(5.5
10 _4C kg/m 2
10- n ) 2 kg-m 2
we put
/a.
then
we
1.054
find that
7.5
10 u sec-'
The frequency
about 10"
-1
sec
would be u/2t, or
may be noted
wavelength of 3 mm).
vibrational
is
usually a
at the
end of Chapter
fre-
10.
complex admixture of
latter
providing a kind
637
Angular momentum as
fundamental cjuamiU
in this
it
appears that
all
the elementary
particles
which
some
is
momentum
In
of what,
if
anything,
is
rotating
momentum
in
all
the interactions
momentum
particles.
in general is
century.
Publications,
638
New
York, 1955.
performed that
of a system of particles
Some of
absent.
familiar to
you
conserved
is
if
the
illustrate
momentum
no doubt
do
on a
freely
dumb-
(e.g.,
a professor) can
bells held at
similar tricks
if
he
sits
[Fig. 14-5(a)].
Some
shown
if
onc has
good flywheel
can
sit
on a pivoted
momentum L w
about a
is
as
e.g.,
it
Fig. 14-5
momentum:
if he pulls the
when he
(c)
The
man on
wheel.
639
can be
Conservation of angular
momentum
stool,
has the
total internal
vertcd
its
of mass
is
masses,
+ 2L K
[Fig.
momentum
wise rotation
14-5(c)].
handed to the
total
rotational angular
who
assistant,
momentum
angular
wheel
If the
inverts
raised to
is
in this
new
and hands
it
3Ltt
If the
..
and forth
such operations
in paekets in
is
back, the
it
person on the
raised to
of
orientation
M+m
is
be transferred back
although
here
we
momentum
are
in a
is
not
U=Z
fi
04-11)
(m.vO
Lc
with time.
Differentiating,
we have
^=E
where
first
a! is
v;
(m.*)
r'i
t><a',)
summation
idcntically zero.
CM. The
relative to the
vanishes,
v,-
v<
is
shall write a, as
i,
(= dsjdl) of the
a c may exist even
Thus we have
center of mass.
in
(It is
a frame in which v c
^=Er',Xm,(a,-a
is
c)
clt
r'
(m.a e )
Z mfij X
ac
all
foree aeting
on the
on any given
partiele.
640
partieles,
F,-
because
m&i
is
the net
and a
we put
thus
m <a, =
F,-
ta
dL c/dt we
therefore have
dL
7-2
''
F,
dt
Now,
EZ
ri
momentum
type
ri
If,
t*
ri
f*,
tween any two particles are equal, opposite forces along the
line
joining them [Fig. 14-6(a)], then each such pair of torques adds
up
Thus we
respect to C.
M,
where
(14-12)
spell
it
Zr;xF.
is
is
same
lever
CD
arm
LM;
(14-12)
CM.
Equation
out
in
with
we
shall
words:
CM
about the
Fig.
14-6
(a)
CM.
The
mass
is
if they are
(b) If
produce a toraue
which
is,
nullified
however,
by other
641
Conservation of angular
momentum
internal interactions
link.
This
the argument by
zero.
is
and
f,*
It is
ft,
and opposite
in direction, thus
having them act along the same line [see Fig. 14-6(b)].
In this
about
The vanishing
momentum
if
good
in general;
it
is
however a
matics at
all
can
It
first
isotropy of space.
Consider
runs as follows.
momentum
of a system of particles.
if
of any net
foree.
invariance of
less
axiomatic;
If
we know
U corresponds to
it
is
more or
in physics.
In an exactly similar
the absence
is
complctely
of the
a rotation through an arbitrary angle
Now just as we can evaluate a foree from
system as a whole.
dx
so
M, =
where
tion
is
-~
z is
(14-13)
imagined. Hencc,
if
U is independent
of
0,
therc can be
642
r.xtended svstcms
and
rotalional
dynamics
MOMENTS OF
momentum
angular
nX
Lc =
This
defined
is
particles,
by the equation
(14-14)
(mi\i)
is
we
now
are
symbols
r,-
and
v,'
and the
velocities
We
CM.
shall
now
that
is
we
well-defined geometrical
symmetry and
is
momentum
Lc =
""
mi(to
is
is
For each
given by
particle in
= u X
v*
r,-,
and
given by
(14-15)
r,)
In particular,
<o.
shall
L c from
a pair of par-
Particle
has a velocity u
/'
14-7
(a) Conlribulions
v,
rigid object.
(b)
Main
r,
down
is
given by
by two symmetrically
of a
of this velocity
spin axis
momentum
and two
otlter
symmetry.
MBaHnHUaHHB||HBMHnHBMM|
Rotation axis
I,
r,
x(m,v,)
)\,
643
Moments
0>
t,
u,-
where
cor, sin 0,
ojRi
/?; is
from the
axis.
|r,-
simply
/,
Now
m,co/?,r,
we
if
see that
it
momentum ly of particle j, we
h but points in a different
dircction, in such a
way
that the
components of
1,
and
per-
\j
parallel to
particle
is
to
lisindi
It is clear
muaRiTi sin B\
m {R, u
U = fe millA u
for
itself,
/u
momentum
is
then a
(14-16)
where
/
E mRi
(14-17)
we
com-
that
inertia of the
possesses.
If
it is
may
we
axis the
label this
normal rotational
axis as z,
sibility
we have presented above. Thus we recognize the posof defining, in addition to h, two other moments of
inertia,
analysis
to z
known
644
case illustrated,
It is
rotation, as defincd
Ju (*h)-
moment of
rotational angular
Ix
it is
momentum
Lc
vector
We
/co.
is
parallel to
shall,
itself
however, be con-
L and u
still
are parallel.
'
we can
effectively continuous,
write the
particles that
moment of
inertia
it
is
about
/
where
dm
distance r
dm
(14-18)
Special cases
1.
Uniform
(The axis
ring.
is
[Fig. 14-8(a)]
(Ring)
2.
Uniform
we have
M and
its
radius
(14-19)
14-8(b).
An
is
simply
MR 2
disk.
rings, as in Fig.
taken to be perpendicular to
If the
is
is
individual ring
dr.
wR 2
Its
area
is
is
made of
thus
2-wr dr,
the
and
given by
2vrdr
A/f
2M
(Disk)
2M
we have
r/l
/
/
.)
r dr
MR 2
(14-20)
2
'For a proof of this statement, see, for example, K. R. Symon, Mechanics,
cd., Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1960.
2nd
645
objects
Fig.
14-8
Geometrically
s impie objects
with exactly
(c)
bar
The same
3.
of disks.
pendicular to
its
length.)
to
is
is
The length of
L/2 on each
the bar
side.
is
If the
L, so the radial
bar
is
uniform,
wc have
dm =
dr
2
We
evaluate J r dm from r
take account of both ends:
result
to r
'--H
= L/2 and
double
ML*
inertia of a flat
to the
board of length
about an
it,
to
(14-21)
moment of
axis, perpendicular
CM
and
lies in
the
646
Sphere.
[Any
We
shall
may
= f MR 2
(14-22)
mass of the
moment of
inertia
is
the
a characteristic linear
moment
of inertia
It is quite
common
moment
1.
is
= Mk 2
(14-23)
Thus
we have
the following
Radius of gyration
Ring
Disk
/s/2
(=
0.707/?)
Bar (Iength L)
L/2y/l
(=
0.289Z.)
Ry/I/5
(= 0.632)
Sphcrc
calculation of
moments of
INERTIA
inertia
(k)
we
now
present.
is
The
applicable
When we
speak of "the
theorem that
CM.
moment
moment
make
use of a
647
Two
inertia
Fig. 14-9
gram
lo
(a) Dia-
show
ihe basis
of ihe parallel-axis
theorem. (b) Use of
Ihe paral/el-axis
moment of
hinge
A A'.
given axis
is
one
slice
we can
from
The contribution dl
axis
dlo
The
dm
through
h2
is
(h
2h-
dm
r'
to the
moment
(h
r')
last
to the
and
moment
r'
dm
from C.
at point
We
have
then given by
dm =
dm
dm
of
is,
r'
dm
dm
r')
Thus we have
dlo
h2
dm
+ 2hr'dm +
dlc
We
that build
up to the complete
h
J
By
2/i
r'
dm
This gives us
Ic
right
is
object
648
dm +
object.
zero.
the
(Parallel-axis
If
(14-24a)
M and
+ Mh 2
(14-24a)
we can
theorem)
= M(k 2 +
/o
h 2)
(14-24b)
may
than
write Eq.
in
(Parallcl-axis
It
we choose
of the mass
h=
theorem)
moment
its
Example.
A
A A'
shown
always greater
about an axis
axis, as
is
moment
cylinder of mass
lying in
its
and radius
CM.
hinged
is
in Fig. 14-9(b).
What
is
its
moment
its
of inertia
about AA"?
We know
MR
this case is
/2.
Ia A'
hMR 2 + MR 2 = %MR 2
flat
trary origin
dicular to
Consider
it.
from the
axis,
-P
= x2
Iz
of the
distance r
dm
However, since
r
in the
r lies in the
+y
xy plane, we have
h =
dm
(Flat objects)
649
Two
is
flat,
dm
however, the
moment
first
is
known
l.
/,
axis,
This
is
Iz . Thus we have
(14-25)
Its
usefulness
inertia
Fig.
14-10
(a)
Diagram
to
pendiatlar-axis theorem.
(b)
and
(d) Calculation
and
the
Exampk
An
1.
object
axis through
By Eq.
Ix
It
iri
the
is its
(14-21)
its
plane?
we have
_ Ma_
Ml/_
"
12
'
12
/;
650
_
~
its
is
What
M(a
2
)
12
What
and radius R.
uniform disk has mass
moment of inertia about an axis along one of its own
Example
is its
2.
We know,
moment
We
diameter.
/,
also
know, by Eq.
(14-20), the
moment
Thus we can
at
/,+ /,-
how-
of inertia
its
center.
a situation in which
we can
once put
2/x
/,
= -=-
Therefore,
MR
moment
the
above theorems.
of a cylindrical tank)
lid
we show
is
and
tangent to
is
its
A A'
moment
of inertia
parallel-axis
that the
is
DD'
is
MR
We
/4.
we
MR 2 /2
first
use
moment of
moment
Mr2 j.
4- +
,
Iaa
What
inertia
that lies
periphery.
wp
MR
is
given by
5Mr2
4
Such a
result
a powerful
for
is
way of extending
variety of
more complicated
situations.
rotation about
651
its
center of mass.
Thanks
by
virtue of
its
When
itself.
about an
it
Arot
i 2 v^
2> 2-1
Hence,
the
if
2
mr */'
CM
The
(14-26)
is
given by
K=
/co
For an object
ikfo. a
(14-27)
uR).
expressed in terms of
If
a round
its total
down
kinetic energy at
%MR and w =
2
for a wheel of
(e. g.,
(or v c) alone.
down
its
a slope,
we can apply
For example,
acceleration.
any instant
is
given by putting /
v c /R in Eq. (14-27):
= f Mv\
Let us, at this point, drop the suffrx c on v c and
represent what
is
let
the symbol v
translational speed of
of time
di,
the change
given by
dK = f Mu dv
7^\
M,
Fig. 14-11
(a)
Disk or cylinder
J'
fiywlieel.
(a)
652
(b)
However, there
is
CM
vertical coordinate
equal to
vdt sin
Hence
d.
= Mgvdt sin 6
dll
Putting
dK + dU =
we have
|A/0
<to
- Mgo di sin 6 =
whence
do
2
= g
sin
It is interesting
and
is
cylinder
important.
is
Ali solid
it
is
a solid
down such
a slope.
(What
it?)
It
may
always
have
lcss
slope.
The
the motion.
what
could simply
if it
slide,
without
friction,
down
the
same
on
by
is
mass
wound around
velocity
of the wheel
divided by R.
Thus the
is
whole system
is
given by
K=
\mi?
The change of
653
/co
potential energy of
in
descending a distance h
is,
A-m
therefore given
is
descend-
in
by
=mgh
+ H^)
or
Thus the
The
capacity.
sense
is
is
an important feature of
all
such systems a
changes of load.
use
Laboratory at M.I.T.
mass of 85
tons.
They are
steel,
is
in. in
diameter, with a
190
fields.
M=
/
01
R = 2.4 m
X 10 4 kg
= %MR 2 2 X 10 s kg-m 2
= 2tt X 390/60 40 rad/sec
7.7
Therefore,
K=
i/o> 2
When one
1.6
10
of these flywheels
is
means
that about
at the rate of
sponding to
40%
about
rpm
its
speed
in 5 sec.
This
8%
per second.
this is close to
15
M W enough,
while
it
corre-
lasts, to
654
rotational angular
momentum
has some
Fig.
displacements
accompanied by a change of
radial distance between the
objects.
(b)
(a)
that changes
shape or
its
To
size.
of mass
We
shall
is
of external forces
it
w about an
if
is
(with
m^i =
ISl
We
m^r-i),
Oi?i
l>2
from
are rj
Then
r z , respectively
we have
Uf2
total angular
and
momentum and
down
simplify
will
[=
mm
the
moment of
things
+m
/(mi
2 )],
inertia /
if
we
(= nr 2 ).
We
r{=
r,
r 2 ),
m
and
then have
L = ixr 2 w = /w (= const.)
K = yr 2 w 2 = i/ 2
e
Combining
K =
these
(14-28)
2 M r2
Consider
2/
together under
655
two equations, we
Angular
some mutual
momentum
if
the particles
interaction
draw
closer
The value of L c
w and
come from?
extra energy
must
Clearly,
increase.
it
the
re-
inertia / decrease;
gether.
One
I4-5(a)].
way of
very simplc
axis
[cf.
Fig.
itself is to
a small
we have
2
L
AK = --^Ar
Substituting
AK =
But
Lc =
fir
u, this becomes
fiw 2 rAr
nu> r is the
is
trying
apart.
to hold the
force equal
and opposite to
this
must be supplied
r,
and an amount
work equal to this force times the magnitude of the displacement Ar is needed to puli the masses toward one another. (Note
that, in the case we have assumed, Ar is negative and so AK is
of
positive.)
From
interaction, f 12
changing
and
f2
i,
AN
AK
in
Fig.
[Fig.
if
for
so that
work
is
done,
The
oecur at
all in
on the
internal
interaetions
a particular case.
would be
work that
may
656
and condensation of a
The mutual
star.
gravitational energy,
is
and the
(Remember that,
more so as the
particles of the
system come
for
a two-particle system,
closer together.
U = Gm^m^/r.)
Thus, qualitatively
AK and AU,
for a given
The
in the
them
relationship between
will
increase,
and
this
in the system.
total energy
AK
If
would be required to
AK
If
were
less
by developing random
AR
change
light
into space.
made
Suppose, in particular,
quantitative.
way
is
if
the linear
r.
r/n from
The moment of
inertia, /, is
teristic
means that
outer radius
e.g., its
if it
K (= L
/21) varies as
/R 2
l/R.
Under
the system
is
E(R) =
of
-f
is
(14-29)
mass.
n.
varies as
The constant A
total
Similarly,
is
proportional to
of a sphere of matter
is
L 2 /2M,
where
GM 2
is
where
the
is
of the order of
see
/R
Prob-
lem 11-31.)
657
Angular
momentum
Fig.
14-13
Depen-
and
total
energy on radiusfor a
rotating system held
The two
ically as functions of
in Fig. 14-13.
it is
clear that
we can
calculate a radius
Fig.
14-14
sioe stages
tion
minimum
Succes-
of contrac-
of a rotating gas
shaped galaxy.
658
Rm
that
energy:
Example
Fig. 14-15
of a rolaling galaxy,
seen almost edge on
(NGC 4565
in the
constellalion
Coma
Berenices). (Photo-
m + R2
dR
R
If
2A
- --
we put A
L 2 /2M and B
GM
2
,
we then have
Rm~ GM3
(14-30)
in
which the
linear
dimensions of
total angular
momentum.
Figure 14-14 indicates the more probable trend of a contracting rotating mass.
of
L c can
energy,
it
One can
certainly under-
result in the
(a), (b),
and
kind of galactic
659
rigicl
pcndulums
Fig.
14-16
Simple torsional
(o)
work done
in twist-
(b)
(a)
consists of a
elastic
14-16(a)].
deformation of the
suspension and, like the linear deformations discussed in connection with the linear harmonic oscillator problem
in
in
Chapter
7,
a restoring effect
manent magnet)
deflection that
to
The
importance.
veniently
made
But the
free
is also of interest
and
is
in
is
very con-
rotating system.
We shall
moment of
Then
6.
K is given
it
Let the
the z axis)
by
-Hi)
The
(14-31)
potential energy
is
the
work done
in twisting the
ends
proportional to
where
6, is
given by
= -c8
is
(14-32)
m-N/rad or
660
di-
It is
2
.
To make
this quantitative
torque
a.
rF =
-M.
Suppose that the angle of twist is increased by dd. Then the end
of the lever moves through a distancc r dO, and the work done
by
given by
is
dW =
Frdd = -M.dd
vw
Jo
cBdOm \ce
in
e, is
which
(14-33)
^ c
= E (=
is
me-
given by
(14_34)
const)
is
The period
T=
It is
given by
**(S)
will
be given by
'
(14-35)
2*(-J
z,
as
we
cited
earlicr
momentum
'
conservation:
dU
-le
represented
by
so-called
rigid
pendulum
661
an
arbitrary
shown
in Fig.
Fig.
14-17
ample ofa
(a)
rrl
Ex-
rigid pen-
ofa
pendulum as a funclion
r
Mg
'
rigid
.^
/ '
Ihe dislance h
of
belween the
CM and
/j
(b)
(a)
^^'B^tfi
14-17(a).
center of mass.
vertical distancc h
A(l
cos
below
is
\Mgh6
K = \Mo? +
is
given by
(14-36)
is
the systcm is
the
The
if
d); if d is
6,
h.
potential energy
U(d)
arc of radius
is
CM,
CM
^1
in this
matter.
One can
Any
line
drawn on
Returning
662
now
one of
the radii.]
wc can put
same
'- h
Tt
Thus we can
write
= l(Mh 2
K(0)
fc )
(jjfy
or
K(9)
where Io
($j
the
is
moment
we know
can be,
it
is
in
this axis.
this,
Mk 2
the form
in
where k
it
is
is
we have
Kifi)
iMC 2 +
(14-37)
P^J
%M(Ji
k )(-jj
is
2
\MghQ = E (=
in
a systematic
the axis:
T(h)
way on
2tt
-i-
The
period
that
CM
from
2V' 2
(14-39)
(14-38)
const.)
depends
results
thus
CM) and
over-all variation of
has a
with h
h,
minimum
is
as
value
shown
(rotational
Tm for h =
in Fig.
k.
14 17(b).
such that
,2
/
663
'
+
.
,2
this chapter
we developed
the
two
results
which, between them, provide the basis for analyzing the motion
of extended objects under any circumstances.
These
results are
as follows:
1.
The
rate of
equal to the
becomes
M = Ma
is
rfv c
F^ =
(14-40)
dt
where
2.
is
center of
CM
M = ^ (L)
dt
(14-41)
we
which
both the torque and the angular motion are about an axis parallel
to the axis of
Lc =
where a
is
Le
\\
/t
^=
Ica
(14-42)
dt
An
airplane
it
just touching
motion; therefore,
it is
bound
will
to skid at
forces
initial
After
on the wheel applied at its two conits axle and the place where the
world
first.
the
first
is
The
of the force of contact with the ground also passes through the
CM
664
furthermore, since
is
vertical,
it
forces to consider
motion.
axle,
and a
frictional
Fig. 14-18(a).
F-
We
rotational
its
shown
as
in
= Mac
ff
is
is
that a c
is
ve
constant,
vo
+a
(ae
ct
When we
we
ff.
where k
is
radius.
If
constant,
u =
14-18
(14-43)
0)
/CF
about
its
torque
= Mk 2
is in
We have,
= Mka
at
R
at
(b)
The
ofany point
on a wheel
is
the
superposilion of the
linear motion
center
of the
P and for
the
bottom points,
A and
B.
665
actual
is
(14-44)
landing wheel of an
velocity
its
the
by Eq. (14-42),
we assume
we have
is
down
Forces
(a)
we assume
frictional force
Fig.
<
If
we then have
forces
and torqucs
As long
and (14-44)
of the wheel.
At any
as
shown
C and
the veetor
is
sum
a velocity of magnitude
any point
of the horizontal
uR along the
tangent,
wheel that
is
frame for
this
it.
on the wheel
becomes
VB
Vc
wR
= uR
such that
vo
By
ac t
= aRt
of ac and a,
we can
To
oecurs at a
this
its initial
we would
by
air resistance
F due
to all the
wheels together.
is
it
does em-
On
tions.
it
ball (c.g., a
bowling
to well-defined calcula-
same type
is
represented by a
Furthermore, we can
acceleration.
magnitude of fr:
666
along the
frietion
itself
Fig.
14-19
(a) Forces
ball
dong a
(b) Circular
object accelerating
down a
slope.
It
may
liMg = Ma
,xMgR = Mk 2 a
Hence,
if
velocity v
vc
v,
Rolling (v c
starts
fXgt
= uR)
equation:
R2
=
M^'roll
**?
TJ
'roU
or
Vo
/roli
ngO
The
+ /m
D*oll
=
1
by
k2/R2
speed.
If
may
we can assume
rolling
from the
down
a slope, which
we solved
earlier
667
forces
it
explicitly in
and torcjucs
components,
and
maximum
Since there
S.
we have
no acceleration perpen-
is
= Mg
cos
we must check
sumption of rolling
begin with,
At some
B.
is
we proceed
tions of rotation,
This defines a
8.
ixMg cos
and of
linear acceleration
But to
The equa-
are as follows
5R =
Mg sin B
Mk 2a
S = Maa
we
if
slipping
is
not to occur:
ac
= aR
Solving the two dynamical equations with the help of this "equa-
we
tion of constraint,"
ac
g sin
=
1
at once find
+ k2/
of S set equal to
its
maximum
is
One could
easily multiply
examples of
this
kind of analysis,
but once one has clearly grasped the basic approach defined by
Eqs. (14-^iO) and (14-42) the solution to any particular problem
of
this
difficulties.
game
comes from
bat or racket
one
668
is
whcn
effort,
it
More
often, perhaps,
the hands,
when the
ball
point.
nomena
that occur
when
a rigid object
(e. g.,
a bat)
is
is
subjected
is
the ap-
way.
14-20(a), resting
on a
F for
jected to a foree
and sub-
As
have
FAt =
bFAt If
Mv
Mk 2
we denote
o>
the integral of
Fover
time, whatever
its
precise variation,
we have
Ap
w =
~
M
Mk*
in
the object.
The quantity b Ap
An
sudden impulse by a
foree passing through
the point A.
(b)
object recehes
The
an
in
now foreed
to pivot about O.
(c)
suspended base-
by
If the point
of impact
is
correclly
about
without pro-
669
is
the angular
C due
impulse about
And, just as a
dimensions of linear momentum, so an
angular impulse has the dimensions of angular momentum.
to the linear impulse Ap.
The
situation
changed considerably
is
if
the objcct
is
attached
CM
from the
[see Fig.
Ap due
impulse
to
is
We now
have
+ Ap'
= Mve
bAp - hAp' = Mk 2u
Ap
If
we take Ap and
M,
the values of
k,
v c u, and Ap'
and
so far only
O must
rcmain at
As
rest.
we must
have
vo
and
Vc
uh
= A
oc
If
bk
>
Clearly Ap'
*2
Ap' (do
it!)
one finds
may be
values of b, k, and
for
h.
And we
can
now
identify
a condition that
allows Ap' to be zero; this means that even though the pivot
present at O,
when
it is
the impulse
Ap
is
applied, or in other
automatically remains at
rest.
bh
2
A-
is
The
is
or
-*
This locates a point
A on
670
itsclf is
The
distance
of
A from
givcn by
k /h
the pivot
If
you
+ _____
refer
/ is
identical
if
axis through O.
We
good dynamical
making
the impact
with the ball occur at various distances on the far side of the
center of mass
normally be held.
kick to the
If
CA
is
If
left (if
CA
the ball
is
itself
2
proper value (k' /h) so that
If
CA
to
as shown).
left,
is
One could
pivot.
optimum
see
location of
how
things
first
work
in
practice.
is
behavior
somehow
and probably
the face of
flies in
knows
the
is
main source of
for
momentum
as a vector.
central quantity,
one must
And
the appreciation
is
full
the
phenomena
cffectivc,
fail far
Background
momentum
as the
in
more
671
and under-
An
and
awareness of angular
with angular
this,
bizarre,
their fascination.
momentum
momenta of sevcral
to gyroscopic
motion
is
to
show that
HHBDBBBBBB
Fig. 14-21
(a)
An array of ihree
motor-driven flywheels
momentum,
to gice zero.
be
made
to
flywheels
wheel has
add up
on a
its
to zero.
'
board
freely pivoted
own motor
drive
rate.
[Fig.
14-21
(a)].
We
shown,
Each
fly-
The system
is
ferred orientation
flywheels
easily
is
if
If
one of the
system acquires an
the
board tends to
But
if
now
the third flywheel is set spinning, one can suddenly reach a condition in which the gyroscopic stability vanishes; the board will
if it
is
achieved
it.
when
because
we have
identified contribution to
its
angular
momentum.
It is
672
basic to
we recognize
may have simultaneous con-
An
momentum.
its
itself
as a vector.
If
is
which we have
it is
to be possible to speak
of the angular velocity vector of a rotating object, then the instantaneous linear velocity,
w X
r,
To
how
see
rectangular board
about an axis
work
shown
these ideas do
made
is
in Fig.
14-22.
uniform
motion of a point
in question.
with
Consider the
The instantaneous
velocity of P, as given
by
(x, y) or
(r, 8).
w X
its
r,
is
magnitude
is
with the
Thus we
perpendicular distance
PN
from P
have
u
o>r sin (8
= wr
sin 8
S)
cos 5
However, by resolving
o> x
x =
Fig.
14-22
to
cos B
r cos 9
o)
wr cos 8 sin
u>
and
= w
y =
sin S
r sin 8
Angular velocity
673
We
oi z
o> u
superposition
the
angular velocites
two separate
of
rotational
Let us proceed
Since v
equal to
itself is
we
times PN,
momentum L u about
magnitude
the axis of
<o is
L =
/dm
f
Expanding
sin
cor
(6
8)
this
8) in
we have
full,
La =
03
cos
That
sin
dm
2w
sin 5 cos S
f r'-
S j r
sin
cos
dm
is,
2
La = w cos
Now
the
2w
first
&
sin 5
tw
of inertia, Ix and
And
for sin (0
dm + w sin 2
cos 5
x dm
8 I
xy dm
I'
/,
respectively,
inertia) vanishes, as
of
element of mass
moments
axes x and y.
dm
what
at (x, y) there is
is
called a produet
an equal element
at (x,
each
y).
Thus we have
La =
IxU cos 2 5
/^oj sin- 8
La =
Ix<x
cos 5
+ V> sin
674
u x and
co
momentum about
the axis of
to is
what we would
precisely
separate angular
get
momenta
h<s>x
combination of
Lu
momentum
angular
total vector
and the
with
of the board
We
other component.
this
is
the
shall
not
component
This
is
defined by
K=
Putting v
K=
We
2
/
dm
= r sin(0
w
r sin
5),
2
(0
this
S)
becomes
dm
same
L a and we
,
there-
fore have
K=
2
2
( cos &)IZ
Substituting
w cos
(<o
Sin
= w T w sin
,
S)IU
<o,
we thus
arrive at the
result
K=
We
W + *W
d 4"46)
above)
how
is
it
is
The
CM
or at
some other
is
that.
For
fixed point,
confined to the
Any given change in position can be produced by rotations about three chosen axes. It is, however,
surface of a sphere.
'See, for
675
cit.
(see p. 645).
finite
angular displacements as
we noted
in
on the order
Fig.
14-23
in
[Fig.
14-23(a) shows a
(a) Finite
angular displace-
to the
and E, depending
on the order
in
which
made.
The
(.b)
infini-
lesimal displacements
on which the
of angular
definition
velocity
is
ment
ofu asa
The small
ment
(co
vector.
displace-
r) St
can
be obtained as the
resultant
of small
rotations
of the posi-
of the T
vector.
676
exist a
unique
However, the
individual rotations.
like that
of linear velocity,
during a time
is
When one
Si
sum
is
unique, regardless of
sum of is
vector
jwj,,
and
sumed,
k<o2
wz =
(In
as-
we choose
any point
If
0.)
in
terms of
(iaix
+ iu +
It
kco.)
may
- u
i(o)z
2 y)
0,
this
j(&>iX
(i*
)y
kz)
= -j X
k,
and so on,
equation gives us
uz z) +
last
k(o*y
w^)
value of v that
board
(for
Oli
Uy
01,
gyroscope
is
is
mounted so that
itself ;
the other
two allow
this
tilt
in
Our concern
will
677
Gyroscope
in
steady precession
Fig.
the
in
One of
do with a gyroscope
axis
and then
set
is
most
to start
one end of
its
it
one can
down on a pivot,
The gyroscope then
axis
as
shown
begins to
its axis OA, instead of slumping downward, promove around so that the extreme end A scttles down
some initial irregularitics that we shall diseuss later) into
precess;
i.e.,
cecds to
(after
Wc
but by
way
of introduetion
let
us
first
torque
is
01
about
its
The
flywheel
axis [Fig.
same
is
spinning
14-25(b)] and a
Si.
Then
The general equation for the rate of change of angular momentum under the aetion of a torquc [Eq. (14-41)] is
M,
678
=!*>
[f
<^
Precession
Itu
CO
M<.8t
(b)
(a)
Fig. 14-25 (a) Gyro-
scope
in
cession.
of angular
to
momentum
Jt
of angular
momentum
to
a fly-
lo>
C:>
(C)
but
it
M, =
.dia
/
di
and we have
Si
= SL =
8w
Consider
The
now
vertical
downward
force F at
its
is
horizontal
momentum
c St
If
we denote by
St
= L hp
Gyroscope
v.
and
this
The
without changing
result of this
its
magnitude.
axis, is subjected to
at right angles to L.
is
ip
its
CM
[Fig. 14-25(c)].
angular
679
end of
we have
If the distance
where
mass
is /,
we have
L =
/w,
we then
to the center of
= Fg l = Mgl
mass of the
the
is
flywheel.
Putting
find that
where
9. is
(z) axis,
as shown in
Fig.
14-25(c).
is
make Iw
to
is
be
made
negligible
a practical
in
gyroscopic system.
The
we
(a condition that
is
also horizontal
cession
and
is
axis,
horizontal
is
The
always perpendicular to L.
is
along the z
perpendicular to both
momentum
spin angular
shall relax in a
Cl
pre-
directed
and M.
is
One
last
result in contcxt.
down
any
initial spin,
immediately,
vertical plane.
momentum
its
What we
If
we
without giving
mentum to which
it
is
is
horizontal.
gyroscope
set
680
down
with
its
axis at
we have
discussed.
an angle
down
Its
d to
into pre-
axis sweeps
(b) Vector
momentum
time St in
in
a short
(a).
Moreover, quantitative
as indicated.
B,
where
is
fi
w and
entirely reasonable
is
is
reduced to
Mg! sin
c St
is
0,
is
motion
cessional
is
momentum, and
this
is
of magnitude Qr sin
6,
we need
co2
'The
681
rest
to
do
is
downward
w2
its
to put
sin
Morc about
preccssional motion
that the
spin axis.
Fig.
14-27
(a)
precessing gyroscope
(b)
angular
vector
its
spin
The
total
momentum
ofa precessing
gyroscope
is
not par-
With
this value of
w 2 we can
Thus we can
of the fiywheel.
angular
momentum
in
in
the gyroscope.
However, the
inertia I\
and / 2
for rotation
oj
2,
about these
axes:
L =
/iWl
(14-48)
/ 2 2
Now we know
the
way
in
which
L is
in
Si
about the
important equation
r
dL
flxL
(14-49)
=
at
Now
SI.
/i(ii
is
rotating
wj)
/2 (J
co 2 )
given by
682
- hwl cos d
/iwifl sin 6
dt
/iwifi sin d
htf
fl
sin
0.
Thus we
find that
sin 6 cos 6
dt
momentum
same direction, we have
equal to the
Mgl sin
/iwiS2 sin d
or
Mgl =
/2 2 cos 9
particular case d
For the
produce
/iwiSJ
we
section.
(14-50)
re-
in general
we
it is
difficult to start
motion to achieve
it.
way with
a large value of
wu
is
the possibility
GYROSCOPES N NAVIGATION
I
We
and
To
control.
and
initially
If a
set spinning
about
is
rotated in a hori-
zontal plane [Fig. 14-28(a)], then the inner gimbal ring, carrying
the flywheel,
first lay,
and
tilts
up out of
after a
which
down along a
it,
too,
friction, the
vertical di-
rection.
if one recmounted can
is
supply torques about the vertical direction and about the spin
683
Gyroscopes
in
navigatton
HHHni
Flg.
14-28
force
ils
(a)
spin axis lo
(b) Reorienlation
lili.
ofa gyro-
(c) Principle
makes
and
ihe resulling
norlh-soulh direelion.
themselves.
This
momentum about
tilting begins.
last
The attempt
in a horizontal plane
of angular
faet,
momentum
would, by
along AA'.
itself,
The
introduce a
tilting
the
component
motion provides
momentum component
equal to zero.
684
why
A and
that
The
axis,
angular
will
momentum /w from
is fully
aligned with
were
which
it
in this
direction.
In order to
make
is
gyroscope
is
unbalanced.
is
14-28(c).
made
if
the
way
in-
U-tube containing
(The outer gimbal
ring.
gyroscope
lies
of this orientation
of levels results
axis,
in a net gravitational
original one.
This difference
manner alrcady
described, turning within the outer gimbal ring, until the plane
is
north-south meridian.
guidance systems make use of very similar phenomena. Once a gyroscope has been set spinning about a chosen
to deviate
from
axis,
calls
it
this direction
Somc
phcnomcna
685
of the
Gyroscopes
in
navigation
and a
gravitationally
all
the pilot
mentioned
that
is
"spin" angular
momentum
atomic nuclei and neutral atoms also have such angular mo-
mentum,
in
The
scopic stability.
ways accompanied by
spin angular
intrinsic
momentum
magnetism;
it is
is,
as
however,
if
the
al-
atom or
of
its
spin axis,
and
in the
presence of a magnetic
field this
leads
The
basic
phenomenon can be
magnet experience
parallel to B, as
shown.
magnetic
particle, the
field.
If
we
its
Fig.
14-29
686
in
a magnetic field.
An
we
magnet
picture the
by a distance
the torque
is
is
easily derived if
pole
is
equal to
separated
mB,
so that
= mBI sin 6
moment of
If
we
Thus we have
(14-51a)
/iBsinfl
veetors,
the partiele.
= M X B
as
the equation
(14-51b)
mentum
nB sin
2,
= QL sin d
or
Q = *
The
existcnce
(14-52)
and the
can be detected by
Of
placed nearby.
is
vast
magnetism
and was
in this
first
way
is
'
known
The
studied by F. Bloch
dently,
and by
Nobel
prizc in
different
methods)
and
in
E.
M.
1946.
Purcell (indepen-
They shared
the
We
shall not go inlo the special techniques used to observe the precession.
For an introduetory account one cannot do better than to read the Nobel
lectures by F. Bloch and E. M. Purcell in Nobel Lectures, Pliysics, 1942-1962.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1964.
687
Atoms and
nuelei
a<>
gyroscopes
remember,
our
in the winter of
first
experiments
it.
my
door-
field."
about 2500
in the earth's
rps.
field
IN
TERMS OF
were,
GYROSCOPIC MOTION
for
looking
ordinary
in all the
magnetic
field
and of
fi.)
= ma"
We
a primitive gyroscopc
madc
symmetrically at distances
Picture
mounted
thcir
CM
situation
'This section
2
(1939).
Am.
688
J. Phys., 33,
Am.
J. Phys., 28,
847 (1965).
J.
L. Snider,
Fig.
14-30
(a)
centrated masses.
(b)
v 3 in a shorl time
Si.
velocities
of masses
and
3,
cessional lorque.
see that the spokes must apply a net clockwise torque about C.
Masses 2 and 4 do not require any such forces and torques be-
we
oriented
We
stands
cause as
it
of Fig.
14-30(b) to
masses,
ai
it is
calculate
qualitative, be-
we used
the diagrams
we should have
Slv,
2(o
- M) =
a 3 = -88 = -&(
In both of these
fit
- G 2/
+ 00 = -Of -
we recognize a
do
O2/
not represent
/,
all
which
is
as
it
should be,
The
end of a
vertical
and
of
=fcfio
it
discussion below
if
you are
interested.)
= 2mQu - niSfil
Fz = -2mQv - rrl 2 l
Fi
689
Gyroscopic nioiion
in
tcrms of F
///a
We
4mSlur
CM
due to Fi and
Fa
= 4mr 2wtt
is
precisely the
moment of
inertia
Thus
we know,
we have
torque
this
=
is
/wfi, exactly as
needed.
Ultimately, as
on
all
four masses.
Formal analysis
Consider a particle of mass
14-31.
i', j',
Ok.
Set
and
The
v'
Within
velocity v' of
v cos 6V
this
at the position
up a system of axes
x', y',
and
P shown
in Fig.
is
given by
v sin dk'
particle
is
just
around the
circle
F'
= -mco 2 r
Fig. 14-31
Diagram
in
a pre-
cessing gyroscope.
690
state-
in
a sta-
tionary frame,
related to F'
is
[cf.
Eq. (12-13b)]:
F'
Ftrue
F cor iolig
+ Fcenttifugal
This gives us
Ftrae
'"^t +
2nglk
V'
",i]k
(fik
R)
where
r=
+r
/j'
/j'
r sin di'
r cos 0k'
Now we have
=
XR =
v'
v cos 0(k
i')
rsin0(k
/(k
j')
= -mu 2 r
Ftrue
we
v cos
0j'
i')
= -H'
rsinflj'
find
+ lit&o cos
0j'
wifik
0j'
mUHli'
(-Mi'
+ Grsinflj')
or
-muh +
2nlo cos
r sin i')
we then
(14-53)
recognize three
distinct cx>ntributions:
1.
The
around C.
force corresponding to the Coriolis acceleration.
the centripetal acceleration
force needed to give
The
The
2.
3.
ON (=
/j'
r sin 0i')
when
from that
it
is
at
any
radial distance
axis.
We
and w gives us two forces whose horizontal components are equal to Fi and F 3 , as quoted earlier.
putting
NUTATION
However convincing
seem, one
This
691
may
still
wonder how
Nutation
may
Fig.
14-32
0"0
scope.
gravity in the
immunity
is
way
that
it
about a horizontal
axis, with
(A)
is
removed
is
If a flywheel
both ends of
happens
if
is
is
that this
set
spinning
axle supported
its
is
and over,
is
repeated over
word for
a gyroscope
started
is
steady precession.
The
is
its
starting
point, and one can guess that the gravitational potential energy
is
precessional motion.
Formal analysis
We shall
of a flywheel
is
suddenly removed at
0.
Figure 14-33(a)
;i
(with
I-i
servation of angular
momentum about
a vertical
692
tilting
/ito 86;
this
/.j
The
component
Fig.
14-33
initially horizontal.
of
(6)
Re-
lation
(c)
h 89. =
hai 86
let
h
-
at $
0.)
change of 6
about a
is
vertical axis.
equal to
Mgl
hd.
The release of
Thus we put
dtp
*>($ H-Wli
MglSB = i
693
Nutation
we have
.<to
_,
M8l
T,
dd d e
,dd
.,
Mgl
dv>
2
<p
= h J,-dfi + h T,dfi
h7
d0d2 6
(huf.M
e
+ -ir
d7
dT2
dh _Mg[_ (ivA 2
dfi
This
is
of the form
g = -*
where k
<*
I\o>/Iz
e )
and
O (1
= MglIs /(Iico) 2
6 = 0o
<?o
The
solution
is
cos kt)
we
find that
<p
do(kl
sin kt)
<p is
tional
are
all
above
understandablc
in
analysis.
that
we should end
this
the explanation.
This
is
Newton
first
supplicd
The
their
who through
celestial
694
Fig.
14-34
Preces-
as described (a) in
of the
ecliptic
around
and
(6) in lerms
oflhe
14-34(a)].
equinoxes,
when
the sun
lies in
sphere (and of the earth) so that day and night are of equal
695
The
as a slow westward
It was
Greek astronomer Hipparchus, about 130 B.c, who discovered the phenomenon and reported its magnitude as about
drift or precession
the
is
He
close to 50").
also
either
the time
between spring equinoxes, bringing the sun back into the same
positional relationship to the earth, or the slightly longer time
and the
known
De
it
remained
until 1543,
when Copernicus,
it
that
the
is
number
excellent,
is
(The quoted
is
not constant.)
its
cause
It
has something in
common
is
with the
same
ratio
Eq. (12-25)].
Figure
nomenon
[cf.
moon
in
precession.
(&R/Re '
3ijo) is
696
as
we have
seen,
Now
immensely long;
from the standpoint of the earth, both the sun and the
moon go
in
is,
through very
many
This
Fig.
14-35
lalional attraction
means,
is
two
rings
moon
is
is
just like
indicated
in Fig. 14-35.
The
in the vicinity of
is
now
clear.
The
earth's bulge
left
of the
from the plane of the diagram. Since the earth's steady rotation
What about
It is
14-35
normal to
i.c.,
the celiptie.
If
we
F- -
GAMm AMK
(rm
697
- RH
cos 9)2
The precession of
CAM.AWb
+ R K cos OY
(r,
the equinoxes
AM
f.
moon
or
(14-55a)
Let us arbitrarily say that an approximation to the net precessional force can be obtained
amounts of the
earth's bulge
by using
We
14-36).
then have
AA/m =
Its thickness is
Mm
line (see
/4.
To
get
an estimate of
in the
length
its
i.e., tRe/2,
and now we must pick a value for its length from north to south.
Let us try the range from 22 south to 22 J north latitude;
this takes us almost exactly from the plane of the ecliptic to the
AVE
be given by
R e tRm *Rk
K KK
2400
AVR
Vb
2400
lm
is
10- 3
4tt
Fig.
14-36
Plan
moon
aeting on the
earth's eguatorial
bulge.
698
is
only
AMB
10~ 4 A&
That completes the most awkward (and most shaky) part of the
g in
m and
If we substitute our values of
calculation.
AM
AM
Eq. (14-55a),
we have
10
_4
GMm MB RB cos B
(i4-55b)
have
(MM
M,\
(14-56)
in
now
Let us turn
precessional velocity.
r.
= 2RE Fsin
The moment of
sphere,
is
inertia, if
2Me Re
/5,
we
= f MK R B2 uQ sin
2Rt;Fsin
and the
we have simply
is
or
MgRgta
with
10
-5
sec
-1
Substituting for
we thus have
2.5
1<T G<<
M,
rm !
-
2.5
699
The
10
M\
r?)
-Ol
Ffrom
Eq. (14-56),
Now
M=7X
10
22
kg,
30
M, 2 X
10
rJ'
kg,
r,
6X
25
m3
X 10 33 m 3
10
Hence
P.
(2.5
10-)(1.7
10" 3 )
10- 12 sec-'
and so
T=
We
1.5
10
12
sec
50,000 years
little
for example,
we have
be understood
Newton
in
got there
But
first!
PROBLEMS
14-1
(a)
on a system of two
particles.
dimensional system.
Use
is
this criterion
particle of
mass
is
on
path
= A
x{i)
The
+L+
M,
Vt
= B sin
(w/)
vt
follows
(b)
x(t)
where
700
(o>r)
X(t)
The
sin
Try
it
= A
on
sin (o;)
A and B are
mA = MB.
and
related as before,
A"(0
and
= B sin (o>/
<p
t 0.
<p)
14-2
particles,
The
particles interact
among them-
If the
always in a manner
in
the
given
times
as
various
positions
at
particles A, B, and C have
consistent with
selves,
table,
Time
(1,1)
(2,2)
(3,3)
(1,0)
(0,1)
(3,3)
(0, 1)
(1,2)
(2,0)
Two
14-3
skaters,
their
common
center of mass.
(a)
What
(b)
is
third skater
is
momentum?
From
two and 6
what is
his standpoint,
of the
momentum
molecule
is
momentum
equal to
distance in the
its
h (=
CO
molecule
14-5
in a gas of
is 1.1
CO
initial
The
J-sec).
A. Compare the
difficulty
molecules at
10- 34
internuclear
kinetic energy of
this result
motion
its
its
1.05
What does
room temperature?
M and radius R
angular velocity
o>
is
.
At what
and
the rotational
initial
value?
is
What
701
14-6
Two men,
itially
the turntable
make
l'roblems
2 sec.
means by which
the in-
axis of rotation
do
men
At what
from the
radial distance
make
their
the
way
to the center?
14-7
air as 1
kg/m 3
14-8
is
built
As an example,
if it
were
J^mr 2
M and
length
that
its
You
will
this is
a poor approximation.
made up of two
masses, each
(c)
e.g.,
14-9
(a)
shell,
^N
Consider the
\
/
moment of
Calculate the
of mass
JX
'
finer subdivisions
of a thin-walled spherical
d&
its
center.
formula
= 2MR 2 /5
for the
moment of inertia
You
its
center.
is
to be
14-10
an
(a)
Calculate the
axis through
its
moment
center perpendicular to
its
plane.
pendicular-axis theorem.)
(b)
Making appropriate
and
box about an axis passing through the centers of two opposite faces.
(c) Using the result of (a), deduce the moment of inertia of a
uniform, solid cube about an axis passing through the midpoints of
Ma 2 /6.
It is
M and cdge
a,
this
same value about any axis passing through the center of the cube.
See how far you can go toward verifying this result, perhaps by considering other special axes
e.g.,
an
702
Using
moment
of a sphere of the
its
this
moment
of inertia
You
a basic one,
occupying the whole volume of the earth, with the density of the outermost region (r > 0.54Re) and two other spheres with densities corresponding to the mean density differences between the successive regions.]
M and radius R
14-12 (a)
makes an
hoop of mass
linear velocity of
its
center
is
its
down
rolls
angular velocity
hoop
is
a slope that
Mv 2
v/R.
is
when the
Show that
is
who
has a can of bouillon and a can of beans, but the labels have come off,
so he lets them roli down a board to discover which is which. What
14-13
snow
skier
him.
By
is
when he suddenly
slope
huge snowball
notices a
traveling at 25 m/sec.
The
(=
g/2).
Does he
get
away? (Assume
down
at
away and
is
rolling
only 100
it is
a speed of 10 m/sec
down
it!)
the slope at
without slipping,
rolling,
inertia
down
the slope.
Assume
its
down a
it
way ? To
how
goes,
is
moment of
that the
center
is
If
2MR 2 /5.)
an
does
object
its
is
acceler-
consider, take the case of a cylinder, rather than a sphere, that grows
in size
the
as
way
radius. R,
14-15
Two
that passes
as
Make
it rolls.
shown
masses, of 9 kg and
kg,
the existing
in the diagram.
on
o.
The system
is
released
string
m (/ = \MR 2
from
rest
and the
What
is
Ulkg
(c)
703
What is
Probicms
m?
is
between
the pulley and the 9-kg mass? Between the pulley and the 1-kg mass?
what
is 0.2,
competitors ride
to prevent slipping?
An amusement
14-16
number of
the least
is
down
(Cf.
Problem
make
5-14.)
which the
in
a 30 slope
on
kg and diameter
Each
small carts.
1
cart
What
(a)
is
(Assume
50 kg?
O.SMR 2 where R
,
moment
that the
is its
rider has a
its
of inertia of a wheel
mass of
given by
is
radius.)
14-17
14-18
(a)
on which
table
is
it
can
2m and
is
The
radius R.
without slipping.
roli
is
(b)
period of
its
pendulum.
small-amplitude oscillations
nail
and
on a
Find the
wali.
pendulum.
and similar problems, use the equation of conservation of
lent simple
(In these
is
of Newton's law.)
14-19
a shaft but
is
your watch).
restrained
When
by a
the cylinder
is
c8.
its
to
T.
let
your
swing more or
legs
stridc.
Hence
How does
14-21
sists
is
20
sec,
and
momentum
aluminum
fiber, as
foil,
of electrons con-
10 by 2 by 0.005 cm,
the density of
aluminum
is
water.
704
from
it
wheel of
M equal
w/.*//.:,.
Electron-
beam spot
cm
cm
10 cm-
(a)
(b)
What
What
is
cm from
deflectionof 10?
(c)
strikes the
beam of
mA
is
vane perpendicularly
4 cm from the
at a point
axis.
What
given by c
is
in
N/m
is
given by
known
of E,
is
about 2.5
about 10
is
and of circular
is an
N/m 2
10
10
by
the ultimate
N/m 2
measured in
/,
2
cross-sectional area, ira , multiplied
its
tensile strength
N/m 2
For
glass
(a)
balance.
period
is
the practical
way
suspension.)
(c)
What
angular deflection of
this
system
produced by
is
What
would
arm
a spot of
light reflected
away? Compare
the
this result
in
14-23
is
this give in
to a scale 5
cm from
linear displacement
A wheel
driven by a
on
the
motor
motor through a
is
cm
in radius,
m-N.
Assuming that the
is
The
drive wheel
capable of delivering
a torque of 5
(a)
does
it
705
belt
does not
slip
on
the wheel,
Problems
up
how long
rpm?
to 100
is
'Drive wheel
Driven wheel
what are the tensions in the belt on the two sides of the wheel ?
(Assume that the belt touches the wheel over half its circumference.)
0.3,
14-24
possible
radius
is
of length
to
/,
let
Initially, the
their
the spacecraft.
moment
/ (the
of inertia
Apply the
result to
radius R.
(Put in
some numbers,
M and
too, maybe.)
its
in
order to
not
trivial.
>-*,
are assumed
-Path of
CM
effective length
momentum
figure).
pumping motions
increase of amplitude
can be achieved.
Note
more
706
amount of
increase
is
(b) Consider in
imperfect.
actual
how
AIso,
pumping method
may be found
suggested above
in
an
article
Two
gear wheels,
P. L. Tea, Jr.,
by
J. Phys., 36,
1165 (1968).]
on
angular velocity
is
moved
coo,
and
their shafts.
B is stationary.
Initially,
At a certain
is
rotating with
instant,
one shaft
wheels engage.
14-27
is
mounted
as
shown on a
flat-bed truck.
The
and
realizing that the pipe has not been lashed in place, starts
ward
is
up
the truck
As
falls
to the
m.
velocity
ground ?
ping,
(b)
What
is its
(c)
How
far
if
angular velocity at
does
it
this instant?
(d)
What is its
linear velocity
when its
and ground
is
0.3?
motion changes
to rolling
billiard ball or
pool ball
without slipping?
14-28 (a)
How
far
it
will
be
of
its
is/z.
14-29
A man
post which
707
is
Problem s
ft
of
it
and breaks
To
it
ground
enters the
why "unfortunately"
appreciate
is
the
its
and
the
method
momentum com-
ponent L' about an axis n the plane of the board and perpendicular to
i
<o is
direction;
14-31
i.e.,
L'
flywheel in the
Ixco x sin d
mounted on an
is
Iic u
The
cos 5
of diameter 12 cm.
gimbal ring
cm
is
fits
flywheel
is
set rotating at
1000
rpm and
the
it.
and
aft
its
The gyroscopic
this
gyroscopic property to
make
the front
a car with
its
when
What about
rise
or
fail
as
the corresponding
Try to make
some
sider
Con-
the greater risk of losing control over the steering of the car.
708
E.Ktcnded systcms
and
in the text,
of making
rolational
dynamics
Appendix
many practical
(as discussed in
Chapter
2).
and
accessibility.
Mass
The Standard kilogram,
Sevres, France,
is
this
kilogram.
primary Standard
Time
709
units
list
given below.
Multiple
Abbreviation
Prefix
tera-
10 12
giga-
10 9
mega-
10 6
kilo-
10 3
centi-
milli-
10- 2
10- 3
nano-
M
n
io- 6
10- 9
pico-
io- 12
femto-
10 -15
atto-
io- 18
micro-
In addition, special
to particularly useful
-15
10 _10
IO
IO
-6
=
=
=
1
1
1
fermi (F)
angstrom (A)
micron (jx)
CONVERSION FACTORS
The
significant figures.
Plane Angle
radian
=
1
steradian
Length
in
Appendix
57.3 (5720')
(1/2tt) revolution
0.159 revolution
Solid Angle
710
(l/4x) sphere
= 2.54 cm
=
ft
30.5 cm
m = 39.37 in.
km = 0.621 mile =
3281
f%
0.0796 sphere
5280
mile
(continued)
astronomical unit
light year
parsec
Mass, Weight,
ft
9.46
10
3.08
1609
Length
1.49
12
10
n km
10
km
km
and Force
dynes
newton
Ib object
10
0.225 Ib
Volume
1 liter is
volume of
the
maximum density
= 1000.028 cm 3
Time
(1 in )
cubic foot
gallon (U.S.)
gallon
mean
solar)
ft/sec
76
X 10
of Hg =
km/hr
mm
133
joule
(1
newton-meter)
10
18
0.239 calorie
electron volt
=
1
eauivalent
<
t0( = WC)
.,.
kilowatt-hour
0.738 ft-lb
electron volts
10
1.60
ergs
10
-19 joule
Mev
proton mass = 938.2 Mev
_ ,
neutron mass = 939.5 Mev
=931.1 Mev
lamu
= 3.6 X 10joules
f 1
Conversion factors
Hg
of
newtons/m 2
6.24
,_
cm
newtons/m 2
1.013
nCr8y
sec
=1.61 km/hr
0.447 m/sec
atmosphere
=
=
1
1.10
1.47 ft/sec
Work
0.305 m/sec
mile/hr
=
1
10
0.682 mile/hr
711
0.0283
Energy and
cm 3
16.4
Pressure
at its
atmosphere)
= 231 in 3
(U.K.) = 277 in 3
values are
(all
1
Speed
cubic inch
kg of water
(3.98C and
electron
mass = 0.511
GENERAL CONSTANTS
speed of light
gravitational constant
6.67
in
10
_u
=
Planck's constant
Planck's constant/2jr
electron charge
e
electron rest
mass
=
=
10
10
1.05
9.11
10
23
-34
6.63
1.60
6.02
10
_19
/mole
joule-sec
-34
joule-sec
coulomb
10~ 31 kg
masses
Mp/m,
10 8 m/sec
3.00
newton-meter 2 /kg 2
Avogadro's number
vacuum
differ slightly)
(proton/electron) mass
1
amu
1.66
1.67
ratio
(1
10
-27
kg
1836
= t^
of mass of
10" 27 kg
Note: For astronomical data, see pp. 34, 252, 290, 582.
712
Appendix
C 12
Bibliography
it
this bibliography to
some
extent,
although the divisions are not always clcarcut. In particular, the pro-
as well as to a
and
levels.
for this
is
is
course, a short
list
of books written
no claim
many
titles
that should
C,
Britannica, Inc., Great Books, Vol. 16, pp. 1-478, Chicago, 1952.
Copernicus, N.,
(trans.
On
the
Kepler,
J.,
Munich,
3,
C. H. Beck,
1937.
This book
is
713
orbit of Mars.
It contains the
statement of the
two of
first
Encyclopaedia
The
scientific
importancc of
this
book is that
For the most
it
contains the
part,
however,
it is
for
Galilei, G.,
(trans. Stillman
Drake), in
New
Doubleday Anchor,
York, 1957.
own account of
Galileo's
newly
moons of Jupiter.
.,
(trans. Stillman
(1632)
1953.
system.
.,
Two New
Dover,
New
York, 1952.
presents
some of
his ideas
on
the constitution
It also
and strength of
materials.
work ever
written.
it
must surely
the chapel of
his genius".
BIOGRAPHIES
Andrade, E. N. da
C,
Doubleday Anchor,
New
York, 1958.
Armitage, A., Copernicus, Yoseloff,
.,
714
Bibliography
New
New York
York, 1966.
and London,
1957.
and
De
New York,
London
1959.
Santillana, G.,
Chicago, 1955.
Fermi, L. and Bernardini, G., Galileo and the Scientific Revolution,
Basic Books,
New
York, 1961.
Doubleday Anchor,
New
York, 1960
New
Moore,
More,
North,
P.,
L. T., Isaac
Newton
(1934),
New
York, 1958.
Dover,
New York,
1962.
J.
W. W.
An
R.,
1893.
(ed.),
Englewood
Beyond
Cliffs,
New
the
Edge of
its
Certainty,
origins.
Prentice-Hall,
Jersey, 1965.
collection of essays,
many
of classical mechanics.
Dijksterhuis, E.
Dugas, R.,
J.
R. Maddox), Routledge
and
Infeld, L.,
Cambridge, 1938.
mechanical view
Gillispie,
in
Princeton,
New Jersey,
Subtitled
715
"An
Essay
1960.
in the
Historical or philosophical
graceful
development of mechanics.
Gold, T.
(ed.),
New
York, 1967.
scientists
number of
distinguished
The author,
how
Press,
Herivel, J. W.,
theories
Press,
Oxford, 1965.
Similar to
more
Rouse
Ball's
book
(v. sup.)
recent scholarship.
careful
distance."
New York,
New York, 1964.
New York, 1960.
Harper Torchbooks,
1962.
Con-
MIT
New York,
1957.
by
full
W.
Magie,
F.,
Source Book
in Physics,
(trans. T. J.
Illinois, 1960.
the bases of
McGraw-Hill,
New
York,
1935.
Conveniently
pioneers.
716
Bibliography
accessible
extracts
and Hypothesis
(1903), Dover,
New York,
1952.
New York,
1957.
Schlegel, R.,
An Account o/ the
Small, R.,
Univ. of Wisconsin
New
it
C,
Truesdell,
old,
1968.
Press,
reprint of a
Though
New York,
York, 1968.
collection of articles,
illustrated
comments.
Whitrow, G.
J.,
ASTRONOMICAL
Abell, G., Exploration of the Universe, Holt, Rinehart
New York,
1964.
of Astronomy
Schuman,
New
(trans. B.
Berry, A.,
B.
Abetti),
Abelard-
York, 1952.
and Winston,
Van Nostrand,
An
Princeton,
Introduction to Astronomy
New Jersey,
1968.
New
York,
1961.
An
Cohen,
I.
The Birth of a
New
Physics,
Doubleday Anchor,
New
York, 1960.
An
from
classical
observational
astronomy
to
the
development
Newtonian
synthesis.
Dreyer,
J.
L. E. (rev.
W.
to Kepler, Dover,
717
Astronomical
H. Stahl),
New York,
1953.
1955.
New
Duncan,
C, Astronomy
J.
York, 1962.
An elegant
E.,
The
King, H.
its
historical
development.
New York,
1958.
man who
the
fascinating documentation of
much
Hubble,
and
C,
did
most
by
New
York,
1964.
Kuhn,
M. and H. Seddon),
1961.
New
York,
1959.
Lodge, O.
J.,
Pannekoek, A.,
1961.
1904.
New
Academic
Press,
Feynman, R.
P.,
York, 1969.
York, 1965.
A Contemporary
New York, 1968.
New
View ofElementary
in Physics, Vol.
I,
Engineering, Vol.
I,
Wiley,
New
1959.
718
Bibliography
and
York, 1966.
Brace
Rogers, E. M., Physics for the Inguiring Mind, Princeton Univ. Press,
Princeton,
New Jersey,
1960.
Sears, F. W.,
I,
Weidner, R. T. and
MECHANICS TEXTS
Alonso,
M. and Finn,
Physics, Vol.
I),
E.
J.,
New York,
Winston,
1969.
New
York, 1954.
C,
Bradbury, T.
New
York, 1968.
Cambridge Univ.
Press,
Cambridge, 1965.
Waltham, Massachusetts,
ed.),
(trans.
S. P. Sutera),
1968.
ed.),
Butterworths
London, 1964.
Feather, N.,
An
New
York, 1939.
of Dynamics, Macmillan,
W.
New York,
L., Introduction to
1964.
Mechanics, Matter
W.
B., Classical
W.
D.,
Mechanics, McGraw-Hill,
Mechanics texts
New York,
1966.
McGraw-Hill,
New York,
719
1960.
1965.
(trans. J. B.
Sykes and
Van Nostrand,
New
Princeton,
Jersey, 1961.
Marion,
J. B., Classical
Maxwell,
J.
McCuskey,
(1877), Dover,
New
York, 1965.
New York,
1954.
S.
Osgood, W.
Mechanics, Macmillan,
F.,
New York,
1937.
and
Acousiics,
1932.
ed.),
and Boyd,
Oliver
C, and
Slater, J.
New
York,
1947.
Symon, K.
Mechanics (2nd
R.,
ed.),
Addison-Wesley,
Reading,
Massachusetts, 1960.
Taylor, E. F., Introductory Mechanics, Wiley,
New York,
1963.
New York,
1964.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Beer, F. P.,
(2 vols.),
Chorlton,
New
Christie,
and Johnston, E.
McGraw-Hill,
F.,
Texlbook
New York,
1962.
of Dynamics,
Van Nostrand,
Princeton,
Jersey, 1963.
D.
E., Vector
Mechanics (2nd
ed.),
McGraw-Hill,
New
York,
1964.
I,
Meriam,
720
J.
L.,
Dynamics, Wiley,
Bibliography
New York,
1966.
INDIVIDUAL TOPICS
Arnold, R. N., and Maunder, L., Gyrodynamics, Academic Press,
1961.
and Osborne, G.
Bali, K.. J.
New
F.,
reprint volume),
American
Danby,
M.
J.
New
Satellite Orbils
of Physics,
Institute
New
(AAPT
York, 1963.
London, 1963.
York, 1962.
Darwin, G. H., The Tides (1898), Freeman, San Francisco and London,
1962.
Gray, A.,
Dover,
New
Haven, Connec-
ticut, 1965.
New
Powles,
York, 1964.
B.,
J.
Parlicles
and Their
Interactions,
Addison-Wesley,
Roy, A.
E.,
J.
(trans.
G.
B.,
(Intersciencc),
Van
der
Kamp,
P.,
Elements of Astromechanics,
Freeman, San
and
721
New
of Astronautics,
York, 1965.
Individual topies
Elsevier,
Amsterdam, London
Answers to problems
CHAPTER
1-2
1-3
(a) 10
9
1-4
1-5
(a)
n -10 13 atoms;
50 atoms.
(b) 10
10 tons.
Probability of at least one 0.1.
1-6
1-7
10 10 molecules/cm 3 ; (b) 5
(a) 3
X
X
10" 4 cm.
H atoms/(m 3 -year);
10~ 9
CHAPTER
(a)
(a) 10
T=
10-'
300K.
2
2-1
2-3
x =
2-4
2-6
2-7
(b) (x,y,z)
(a)
/?e m
Ru =
a cos /3,
/?(cos
sin/3, sinarcos/3).
4000 miles.
(25,000/27r)
10 41 fundamental length units;
Tv
10 41 fundamental
time units.
2-10
2-11
(a)
t
r =
AD (x) =
Bti
[0>a
+ AB
+ *2
2 2
y, (b)
1/2
M1 +
B[l
2
(b-s
(2ABI) 2 ] 1 ' 2 .
2
2
(/ - x) Y' /v 2 }.
723
2-12
(a)
|v|
(b)
2
(b) The cutter reaches the ship a distance Do/(V
2
2
the coast from the port and a time DV/v(V - v )
leaving port.
2-14
down
-v 2
1
'2
1'2
after
About 4 minutes.
X 10 5 km.
= 87 implies / (=
2-15
(a)
2-17
(b) 3.8
150
CHAPTER
</<
1300.
3-1 (b) f o
(.21/ g)
until separation is /).
(a)
J-4
10 m.
J-5
(a) i>(25)
/+
(b)
x =
3-7
= 4 m/sec;
5
35 mph, u(45)
80 sec.
58 sec, /_
not dropped
(c) I
(2
u(65)
40 mph
V2).sec.
2.4 sec.
Distance to
2 m.
mph,
is
1523 f t
second object
ar(/
t/2);
2
10 m/sec, a = 4.17 m/sec , t
(c) u
(i.e.
/o
(c)
= -2 m/sec 2
3-3
i-6
'2
ft
minimum
approx;
distance
0.3 mile.
(assuming
10 6 km, vmia 620 km/sec
(a) y hMven w 1.9
hr of daylight, which is the length of the longest day of the year m
England, where Milton wrote).
(b) y
9 X 10" km, v ~ 10 km/sec.
3-8
7.5
3-9
(a)
(b)
3-10
fll
(b) u
mo 2 /2 (~T)
2(1
3-14
5-75
(a) r(r
a (/
r(/
4)
4)
(all
2.1 m/sec;
K in Fig.
13.8
m behind thrower.
84 mph.
10- 3 g;
-2.7 m/sec;
8)
=
=
(b) v(/
and
V33)
120 ft/sec
(a) 3
(d) 40
m/sec 2
380 m/sec.
where
3-16
= +30
as for Cs
3-/2
=
i>
(b) 6
10~* g;
(c) 8
10 21 g;
approx.).
+
+
(2r0
r&) sin 6,
r0 2 ) cos 9
r6) cos B;
rd 2 ) sin
(2r0
2
rd.
r - rS , a = 2r0
(b) a r
Each dot above a variable denotes a differentiation with respect to
2
2
time; e.g. r = dr/di, d = d 6/dt
3-17
(a)
ax
=
=
(r
(r
3-18
724
(a) v
(c) t
=
=
2
(\/3/8) m/sec, a = (5/8) m/sec ;
sec
1
sec.
cos '(4/5)]
f[7r
Ansvvers to problcms
CHAPTER 4
4-3
4-4
4-6
i
(a) (*, J)
(1/W0[<j(m> 2
w B ), *0v 3
w*)].
80(2.
(a)
H7(tan
(b) H',
4-7
cot
J*'
ip
e,
cos B
W esc
sin v);
e.
(a)
the distance
point
4-9
4-10
4-1
4-12
4-13
4-14
4-15
CHAPTER
about 7 in.
100 lb.
is
(a)
F=
-
l)/3
2(8V3
d
8.6
left
cos-'(r/J?).
M=
5
5-1
2.6
10 5
5-2
3.5
10
5-3
5-4
5-5
(a)
km
-4
X 10 6 km, slightly
earth to moon.
(b) 2.4
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-11
5-12
5-14
5-15
CHAPTER
ft.
(a) 5 lb;
(a)
distance
650 kg.
about 5%.
10 -18 approx.
/J 10- ,3 m.
Fvw
(a)
Fvw~ 4X 10- 2 Fc
4 X H)" 11 N; (b) 20
tons/in 2
(d)
350
lb,
(a)
0.4
lb,
1,230
lb,
4,330
(b)
15,200
10- 6 FC .
X 10" 11 N.
lb.
mm/sec.
6
6-2
6-3
6-4
Yesjust
(a) F,v g
x
vx
y
o,
6-5
6-6
725
(a)
(c)
(a)
(c)
barely.
1.96
10 4
N;
(b) h
= 0.5m.
= (5V2 - 7) m 0.07 m,
= (5V2 - 3) m/sec 4.07 m/sec,
= [11 - 5(2 V3 - V2)] m 0.75 m,
= [4 - 5(2V3" - V2)] m/sec -6.25 m/sec.
F*
0,F = -A;
Fx = -A, F, = 0.
F > 5 X 10~ 5 N;
W=
Answers
to
7.5
(b)
(b)
F, = -kx, Fy = -ky;
Ap =
10- 7 joules.
problems
10~ 5 N-sec;
from
= 0) = 5 N; (b) Fmax = 10 N.
=
F -5.6 X 10 8 N, F/ mg = f;
6-7
(a) F(t
6-8
(a)
(b) v
6-9
V 42 m/sec
= mAa 2
(b) F(t)
(i
mph.
15
sina/
(a)
(b)
CHAPTER
iw
iw
=
=
(7-///7i)
[(r
1/2
tl
(mg/T) 2 ] 1 ' 2 ;
mgV/m] 1 ".
7
7-1
TA = To + 2ma\ TB = Wo + ma.
a = 0.6 m/sec 2 (b) Fc = 3.2 N.
7-2
(a)
7-3
(c)
7-4
(b)
7-5
(a)
[P(cos0
lisin 6)/ m]
-1
m-
= a m (i) + an(t);
= (F/2m) - g; ay, = (F/2M) - g;
aP = -g + [(M + m)F/4Mm\.
TA = 2250 N; T = Tc = 1125 N; (c) Fc =
2ap(t)
is:
am
7-6
(a)
7-8
7-9
9 m/sec.
(a)
(b)
7-10
the relation
(c)
(a)
375 N.
2.466
1.75
10 11 coul/kg;
obtained
by 0.5%.
7-11
7-12
7-13
7-14
7-15
above
7-16
7-17
m =
7-19
ft.
0.09.
2800volts.
v max
Gr/0
1/2
/27r.
F = (0.98V2
1.4
in plane of
from rim.
line to center
300
ft
altitude.
44 m/sec ss 97 mph.
(mlT/F 2 ) 1 ' 2 ; (b) ai/2)
=
= 3IT/2F.
(F 2
7-25
7-24
7-25
vo'
7-2(5
50 cm/sec,
7-27
eo/4;
About
m' =
2i>i
jfo
726
w =
w =
Answers
(6g/5h) U2
(p g/pl)
to
(7/4)t>
sec.
7-28
7-29
millisec.
m
.
problems
in sec);
7-30
2(T/mL) 1/2 ;
(a)
/^
7-31
(a)
gT
7-32
(a)
About
2
;
pgl*/** 2
cm;
1.6
[TL/mD(L
(b)
(b)
No
(b)
D)] 1 ' 2
<
(a mBX
g).
CHAPTER 8
5-/
-2
8-3
5-4
8-5
5-6
8-7
2jhr.
4.0
R - Rb "
(a)
10- 4 7"b
2.88
5V10/4
1,700
km;
(b)
fi-^9XlO'ra
1.7
Ar/r
10 3 m/sec,
5.1
10
A* 10 -4
(b)f~ 1.35 X
Afj9X
S-/2
8-15
5-/6
(a)
Af
(a)
T=
No, Ag
T=
p 3U
-6
;
T'
or
10
5.2.
A hr
27 min
6.5
Ar
0.49 rev/hr.
A0 13a.
10" 2 mgal.
10 4 sec.
(7.4
Mtotal 10 n
A7
Af,un.
10" 3
2.5
sec.
9
9-4
9-5
V3
28uo/45; V2
o/15.
t>
9-12
(b) c 2
d6i
(d) pm
727
[ ,
"i
!n
[ rNl/2
9-/4
(a)
/i
9-/J
(a) ntj/nti
3; (b) vcm
(d) A(iii 8)-
9-/7
9-/5
9-/9
(c) /m
o/
[ riV
2; (b)
(1
F=
(a)
(a)
0.12mo, PB
= V/V;
(C)
'2
(1
r) j
.J-
2^p; 2
(e)
r) ]
2o
(c)
F=
wi/4;
2.8uo, /C/f
(c)
Answers
to
problems
20
sec.
hr 50 min.
210 m.
ss
rev/sec
10 3 sec
10 24 kg,
3.5
9/0/16.
0.1 mm;
m
_4
(a)
5-5
5-9
8-10
5-//
8-17
5-79
CHAPTER
7".
irr
pt;
2
.
K^/Mim 2);
0.95/CEo-
9-20
9-21
(a) i
%u, v 2
i; (b)
/8
/j
is lost.
9-2J
9-24
111.
7
finitiai - (3.1 =fc 0.4) X 10 m/sec.
Proton; (b) Yes, within experimental error.
(a) wN * = 12.7 X 10 6 m/sec, uC -i2* = 1.06 X
= 132; (c) n = 50.
(b) uw'-b = 10 7 m/sec,
(b)
9-25
9-26
(a)
9-27
9-28
(b)
=
=
9-29
(a)
- m) /(M + m)] 2
KEP < 8.98 Mev; (b)
Mev <
max
68.5,
KE(0 m )
Mev.
0.25
= mL/(M +
<7
O 6 m/sec;
1'
tan- 1 [(A/
(a) 2.01
m).
CHAPTER 10
10-1
F 2 T 2 /8m.
10-2
70-3
(a) 10
10-4
(a) *(/)
(b) *(/)
crank,
10-5
(b)
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
(a) 5
about 15
mu 2/2;
(a)
FuR.
N;
/w (m
(a) 1.95
(b) 118
min
a).
(b) 5
2
10 5 J; (c) 2.5
+ 2uv)/2, where 1
10 6 ftlbs(= 1.33
2 hr; (c) 7.80
X
X
(a) 2.4
10-13
(a)
10 5
J.
10 6 J);
10 6 ft lbs.
man-years.
'
+ 2(H
Ho
(c)
hy>
which
is
2(H
fi)
u2
.
10~ s eV.
10-14
10-15
10-17
(*i/*2)
1/2
[(l
10-18
GrL/2)" 2
(a) (mi +
10-19
(b) 4 J; (c)
10-20
10-22
About 39
l] 1 ' 2 .
m 2 )g.
x < Om, x >
m.
sec.
- (MSp/*);
AT = Gr/ ) +
(b) r
(c)
where
7"o
that
co
7"o
10-23
(b)
10-24
(a)
(d)
(a.
/2)
2 1/2
]
o = v k/ M.
when
o>
1,
70-2(5
10-27
(b)
70-J0
Answers
70-25
is
10-12
Note
when
in.
10*
(a)
(b)
728
7?/(Z>
/4
(-t/8/0
2
).
to
problem s
10-31
10-32
10-33
CHAPTER
(a) 5.4
eV; (b)
1/(m - 6>
= (/Hfl/6/D
ro = (nB/Ae 2) '*-;
u = 180 kcal/mole.
(b) r
(b)
(d)
10 13 Hz.
1.9
(c)
D=
(n
AT (n
accelerates
down
(c)
6)A/nr
l)Ae /nr
11
11-2
11-4
=
T=
- \Z3V6
g(2
mg(\
I/2
(a) fe/)
(d) cos fl
(b)
11-6
(a) (//V)[m/(Af
11-7
(a)
(b) g(3
11-8
11-9
11-10
11-11
11-12
11-13
11-14
11-16
11-17
(a) (5g/)
(3
mg(5
(2w
2mg;
(n
(c) 2<g!)
l)
/2(n
v*/(n +
l)
1);
= 3m/2M
Ih/r).
1/2
(b)
COS-H2/3).
V3)m.
(a) 6
(a)
(a)
= 2L sin
<
For
(a)
<
R, F(r)
(b)
For
0;
F(r)
11-18
the 30 slope);
V3)/3.
F(r)
(b) Ttuual
= (3t/ p C) 1/2 =
= TYunnel-
1 hr.
49 min;
(c) Tjatellilo
11-19
According to
iw
10 8 J; (b) 2.7
10 9 J; (c) 5.8 X 109 J;
"hilltop" is about 0.9D from the earth, the kinetic
energy needed at the earth 's surface to overcome it is about 6.1
10 9 J.
11-22
(a) 8.4
(d)
The
11-23
(d)
11-24
The
11-25
For
For z
(a)
(b)
r,
F(z)
F(z)
~ -2GMm/z 2
KE =
k ia 2 /2
z /2r )/r;
(straight line),
k 2 b 2 /2; (b)
is
KE -
= lO~ 2 FN(ro)
about 10
there.
Answers to problems
(ftj
k 2)ab/2.
-2GM/z;
U(z)
-2GMmz/r 3
(c) F/f(r)
729
r,
1 '
(b) U(z)
(c)
= -2GMmz/(r 2 + z 2 ) 3 2
= -2GMm/(r 2 + z 2) 2
'
(a) F(z)
/r)];
coulomb
force
11-28
(a)
11-30
(a)
(b)
(c)
0.08sec/yr.
CHAPTER 12
H+
/2-/ x = vt, y =
Rsin2nnt, z =
Rcos2imt, where the
observer's x axis has been taken along the direction of flight, where
is the (constant) altitude of the propeller hub, and where the sense of
the propeller rotation is clockwise (as viewed by the pilot).
The
coordinate and time origin have been chosen for maximum simplicity.
J2-2
(R 2 + D 2 - 2R D
= tan- 1 [/(/)/*'(/)],
(a) r'(t)
B' (t)
2
cos u/)" ;
(b) did/dt
/2-i
tan
12-4
(a)
(b)
12-5
(a)
(e)
-1
+5
The
determined.
= ngcosB.
m; (b) 0.25 m.
12-6
a m mx
12-7
(a) 0.5
12-8
(b) a..*
12-9
Speed
79 m/sec
is
31g/8.
(~
12-10
(S mi.).
a m = 6.7 X
12-12
(a)
12-13
(a) It is in
equilibrium at tan
downward;
T=
of runway
is
used
10 4 m/sec 2
-1
12-11 (a) tan
(a/g); the apple dropped in a straight line at an
-1
angletan
(a/g) forward of "straight down". Thus, if (h/d) < (a/g),
it hit the fioor; otherwise it hit the wali. (b) The balloon tilted forward
-1
at an angle tan
(a' /g) to the (upward) vertical.
a3m
g/'i
downward;
2*-[//(<j
FP =
(b)
-1
+ g2
1 '
2mg.
(a/g) back
2
1 '2
from
vertically
(b) It
is
T=
back from
< g;
2200 N.
vided that a
12-14
500 lbs
12-15
(a)
<o
(b)
aw
12-16
>
(c) ai m
12-17
(a)
(c)
+ g)/R]
15/irrpm.
12-19
F,
160,000
0.1
12-18
5.2
1 '
(b)
w >
a)]
1'
[(a
2.
y i2 /R] i/2
1 '2
;
-1
10 3 sec
or about 50,000 rpm.
,
X normal"g";(b)F -
9.5
10~ 9 dynes;
mm/sec.
= 3mgR (AR/R).
730
2r[l/(g
= (2kS m / P )
eft
[(a
T=
Answers to problems
in the direction
of
CHAPTER
13
l/r 3
13-1
13-2
(a) o
(c)
(d)
'
= -2irWm/n 2 h 2
X 10- 10 m 0.5 A; -i ~
thus (r)
(e)
0.5
14 eV.
13-13
(b) yF
13-14
13-15
[1
{.8/2(1
v
a
(a)
a = cos- 1
(c)
(3/5).
(V3/2)]n.
13-16
13-18
3u
a)} {1
[1
R/2GM.
= -3GMm/16r;
4a(l
l/r
5
.
=
13-19 (a) Using the notation of the text discussion, o\ = l.loo
3/2
1.47*, so that the time of flight is
TS
32.6km/sec; T = (1.26)
Note that 00 = 29.6
0.7 years, and v 2 = 0.72o ~ 21.3 km/sec.
s
km/sec and i; M ar. = 24.0 km/sec. (b) gE = gmn at about 2 X 10
3
10"
work
from
Mars;
=
at
about
AU from earth; g M . r . g.un
against sun 5 X work against earth -25 X work against Mars.
AU
13-20
(a)
rap
(Aoi/p )] 2 /{2 - [1
(r/r B) - [1
is the aphelion distance in AU, vo
+ (Aui/00)] 2 }, where
is
/5-2/
The
13-22
13-23
L(f)
= Loc- x "-.
coso> / + 0W&>o) sin r;
yo cos w / + (iWo) sin oi t, where </ = */.
The orbit is an ellipse; total energy and angular momentum
= x
(a) x(t)
v)
are conserved.
(b) ojo^; rm x
13-25
(b) 1.7
/5-26
(b)
14-3
(a)
/o
2R.
CHAPTER 14
(b)
the
skater travels in the opposite direction as the nearer one.
14-4
KErot
14-5
(a) doi/dt
0.01
KE
M
2
[Mr /o/(/o
14-6
MR
/2.
/0/Mr 2
(a) ojjinai
(c)
731
nr
]u
t)
fir
')
][/<xoo72], where
(M//*)(* 2 /2r 2 ).
3wo; rotational
R/Vl.
Answers to problems
KE increased
by factor
3.
14-7 10 171 J.
14-8 In the answers below, / represents the value obtained by approximating the bar as n equal mass points.
(a) /, = MZ.2/4; (b) / 2 = 5A/L 2 /16;
(c) Ia
/4-9
(a) /
14-10
(a) /
(b) /
(c) /
14-13
Yes.
/4-/5
(a)
14-16
(a) 0.35
14-17
14-18
x =
(a)
g =
3.4
m/sec 2 ;
T =
2ir(3/?/s)
1/2
length 3R.
(b) T = 2ir(2R/g) 1/2
length 2R.
14-19
T = 2wR(M/2c)
14-21
14-22
(a) 2.2
(a) 2.9
(c) 7.5
X
X
X
(a)
/4-24
14-26
w Af = W0 /[l
14-27
(a) 5
(b)
(t/3 0) sec
/?rVl
for /
pendulum has
pendulum has
A//? 2 /2;
m/sec
(I/2mR 2~)
14-31
732
in the direction
to
82 N;
r2
32 N.
m/sec)/r, where r
4.16 m; (d) 0.
(a)
Answers
1];
5/4M =
h = 2r/5.
108/t 2 11 rev/min.
(c)
(c) 7.7.
u = (5
14-28
m.
14-23
(b) 6.6
b.
problems
Index
orbital,
Abraham,
Z.,
Acceleration, 85
centripetal, 106,
200
total,
557
557
Adam, 13
Adams, J. C, 292
Air resistance, 153, 214, 218
and independence of motions, 225
Airy,
G.
B.,
294
Almagest, 76
633
Angular
radial, 108,
560
and centrifugal
quantum of, 637
452
velocity, 107
Animals
cruelty to, 104, 486
equality of, 21
Aphelion, 577
Apogee, 577
Apple, see Moon
Approximations,
10,
12
Astin, A. V., 64
Astronomical
Atomic mass
Atoms, 26
unit, 247,
279
unit (amu), 27
masses
of,
(table),
radii of,
27
27
28
733
Central-force motion
Baade, W., 35
Bagnold, R. A., 32
Balance, 117
570
Beams,
Centrifuges, 511
W., 513
J.
Bell, E. T., 61
Binary
stars,
296
uniform, 105
acceleration
Bounded
568
orbits,
Brahe, Tycho,
5, 14,
277, 578
Browne, C.
P.,
404
W. W., 404
Bullard, E.
C,
452
J.
106
CM
A. V., 29
in,
and
345, 349
kinetic energy in, 338, 339
Coe,
L.,
66
Collisions
definition of, 351
and
inelastic,
309
203
elastic
Caesar,
field,
frame, 335
Buechner,
in,
342
39
Cartesian coordinates, 49
explosive, 347
Catapult, 391
first
Cells, 31
and
CM
734
Index
442
inelastic,
346
invariance of
KE changes,
334
nuclear, 342
two-dimensional, 339
Dust, 31
Dyne
119
(def.),
Earth
as gyroscope, 694
mass of, 268, 302
mean
Coordinates
oblique, 51
radius
orthogonal, 51, 56
514
Coulomb
of,
on g, 524
and formation of cyclones, 528
and Foucault pendulum, 529
Earth satellites, 265
orbit decay of, 470
Earth-moon system
effect
Cross section
differential,
partial,
614
611
scattering, 609
Csikai,
J.,
357
Cyclotron, 204
sidereal, 64,
solar, 64,
De
467
magnetic
82
206, 467
geometry
of,
583
82
field,
Day
467
in
186
Energy, 367
Diatomic molecule
De
rotation of,
637
375
Epicycle, 76, 77
735
Index
259
of,
557
Equilibrium
395
stable,
static, 116,
463
119
translational, 120
Equinoxes, precession
of, 6,
694
momentum, 315
Equipotentials, 463
as rate of change of
Eros, 278
Forces
equilibrium
polygon
of,
116
of, 121
Eve, 13
ExpIosive collisions, 347
Exponentials, 222
Foucault,
Extrancous roots, 93
Frame of
J. B. L., 529
Foucault pendulum, 529
and
342
frame
Feather, N., 66
linearly accelerated,
495
Feenberg,
E.,
622
Fermat's principle, 81
Fermi, E., 26
Fermi (unit), 26
Feynman, R. P.,
rotating, 507
68,
554
Field(s), 461
467
flux of,
Free
476
477
473
J.,
field),
fail,
and
95, 102
air resistance,
214
of atoms, 98
of neutrons, 100
Flamsteed,
523
Fraser. J. T., 66
electric, 462,
of
525
473
Flywheels, 654
Force, 115
central (def.), 442
153,211
Newtonian theory
Frisch, D. H., 181
of,
360
conservativc, 381
criteria for,
457
468
electromagnetic, 139, 147
electric, 145, 149, 151,
of fluid
frictional,
736
324
152, 210
jet,
Index
8, 96,
279
altitude
dependence
of,
270
Gal
(unit),
272
Galaxies, 36
contracting, dynamics of, 657
Galaxy
mass
Harmonic motion,
motion
of,
Harmonic
299
Herivel,
Galle,
Herschel,
G., 294
J.
J.,
295
Gas
internal
KE of, 631
Gauss, K. F., 61
Gaussian surface, 474
Gauss's Law (or Theorem), 473
applications of, 476
Geodesic, 299
Gillispie,
C. G., 366
677
cluster, 143,
Hoyle, F., 36
Hubble, E., 36
Hyperbolic
rings,
Globular
Gimbal
J., 559
Herodotus, 414
orbits, 604,
607
Hysteresis, 389
144
Gold, T., 66
Gravimeter, 272
Gravitation
Einstein's theory
Iben,
I.,
452
299
Gravity
acceleration due to, see
Inelastic collisions,
Inertia
F = ma, 688
analyzed via
Hadron, 147
Hafner, E. M., 66
Haldane,J. B.
Hall, E., 552
S., 11
737
Index
lawof, 161,494,542
moment
of, see
Moments of inertia
and Mach's
Gyroscope, 677
346
principle, 545
494
dynamical equivalence of, 174, 497
fundamental, 538
Inertial mass, 166, 280, 319, 543
velocity dependence of, 169
Infeld, L., 492
Integrals of motion, 368
Inertial frame(s), 163,
Invariance
437
rotational,
translational,
Inverse-square law
electric,
and
Lagrange,
L.,
J.
290
145
710
J.
Jeffery,
H., 39
G.
B.,
Lever, law
506
LeVerrier, U.
J.,
Johnson, N.
B., 102
Jupiter (planet)
133
292
Locke,
J.,
583
Mach,
542
E., 331,
Kant, L, 36
Mach number,
Kepler,
J., 5,
Kepler's laws,
5, 7,
252
5,
559
CM
frame, 338
Many-particle system
angular
momentum
Mars
Knot
(unit),
67
643
(planet)
motion
of,
in collisions, 333
67
of,
74
581,582
738
Index
standards
of, 171,
709
543
in conservative fields,
motion
466
oscillatory, 395
Mercury
relativity of,
(planet)
Meter
63
(def.),
46
motion
Milky Way,
motion
22, 36
Milton,
J.,
Muybridge,
111
MKS system,
diatomic
of, 291,
294
Moliere, 4
see
638
Neptune, discovery
Neutrino, 356
Neutrons, 24
Molecules, 28
Moment,
E.,
24
Newman,
Torque
Newton,
J.
R., 11, 61
I., 3,
281, 559
principal, 644
Momentum,
conservation
rate
momentum
of change
318
2
deduces l/r law from
De Molu, 559
585
on
quotations,
Moon
and
ellipse, 583,
2, 7, 9,
Morrison,
P., 546
M., 409
Morse potential, 408
Motion, 3, 43
Morse,
and universal
under central
motion
of charged particles, 146, 195, 202, 205,
467
Index
255, 265
P.
739
694
Newton
and
relativity, 174
Parasnis,
D.
273
S.,
Particle, 21
properties of, 23
Pendulum
cycloidal,
442
energy conservation
Nuclei, 25
427, 429
in,
and Rutherford
Nucleons, 25
Numerical methods
in kinematics, 91
for
harmonic
oscillator,
229
Perihelion, 577
Nutation, 691
Perrett,
G.
342
Oil-drop experiment, 218, 240
Occhialini,
P. S.,
Orbits
bounded, 568
calculated
circular,
initial
conditions, 595
Pisa,
Tower
of,
240
572
Planetoids, 35
perturbed, 574
in,
from
energy
W., 506
Perturbation
583
589
Planets, 33
data on (table), 34
motions
from
246
parabolic, 604
velocity
592
Parallax
of Mars, 277
of Venus, 278
Parallel-axis theorem, 647
740
lndex
in,
556
motion, 564,
573, 576
and acceleration
Polya, G., 9
Pound
Precession
6,
694
of gyroscope, 678
of orbits, 569
of perihelion of Mercury, 300, 305, 623
Pressure of a gas, 354
Newton, Principia
Principia, see
Product of
inertia,
Proton-proton
674
collisions,
342
combined with
Royds, T., 39
Runk, R. B., 432
linear, 641
magnetic deflection
of,
664
146
246
Sand, 31
Pulleys, 130
Satellites
Ptolemy,
Protons, 24
C,
75, 78,
ofearth, 265
Saturn
Schrader, E.
Relative motion, 46
Schumacher, D. L., 66
Schwerdt, C. E., 30
Sciama, D. W., 546
Sears, F. W., 134,688
Second (def.), 64, 65
Sellschop, J. P. F., 358
Shankland, R. S., 169
Shapiro, A. H., 529
Sidereal day, 64
Sidereal period, 250
Sidereal year, 696
Simplc harmonic motion (SHM), 226, 231
by energy method, 389, 393, 432
Relative velocity, 72
Relativity
Einstein's general theory, 280, 299, 506
Einstein's special theory, 8, 45, 161, 169,
178
J.,
277
Rocket
synchronous, 268
rocket, 327
Schlegel, R., 66
F, 359
in parabolic potential,
741
J.,
428
Indcx
432
Small
oscillations, 395
M.
Smith,
K., 441
Solar day, 64
Solar year, 65
Space, 43
curvature of, 59
geometry
Tides, 531
59
of,
moment of inertia
647
of,
446
constant, 224
rcversal
and Newton's
law, 178
Time
Time
66
64
J.,
365
61,
units of,
Squire,
Time, 45,
Sphere
Sputnik
267
5
Standards
of length and time, 63, 709
of mass, 171,709
Stars
binary, 296
204
globular clusters
of, 143,
144
as particles, 22, 35
Static equilibrium, 115, 119, 124
and
effective,
579
Sun
Ultracentrifuge, 513
mass
of,
on
tides,
537
274
Svedberg,T., 513
Symon, K.
742
Index
Unbounded
604
Uranus
discovery of, 291
perturbations of, 292
6,
245, 256
Van
Van
Van
C,
Atta, L.
der Waals,
404
J.,
Vulcan, 111
149
Wallis,
J.,
Walton,
Vectors, 48
Watt
308
W.
U., 501
374
(unit),
addition of, 53
Weak
orthogonal, 57
resolution of, 56
Williams, R.
subtraction of, 54
Wilson,
vector product
of,
127
Wood,
Velocity, 67, 70
C,
C,
30
582
E. A., 503
instantaneous, 68
in polar coordinates, 107,
556
Year
relative, 72
sidereal,
unit of, 67
Venus
motion
696
solar, 65
tropical, 65,
of,
74
696
Yukawa,
H., 156,485
Yukawa
potential, 485
from
transfer orbit
transit of,
277
743
Index
Zacharias,
J.
R., 139
Zeno, 87
Virus, 30
earth, 593
CM
frame
See also
Zorn, J. C, 102
level
Special Relativity
\.
PRLNi H
Newtonian Mechanics
french
Waves
irimu
Vibrations and
nem
preparat ion:
Classical Electromagnetism
Ouantum
Physics
coooc
cccoo oc
ccocc oc
ooooooo oooc
OOOOOOOO
cooccooo
ococooooooo
oococoooo
JC
ooooooo