THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

I.

Classification of Muscles
Muscles develop form the elongation of mesenchyme cells to form
myoblasts.
Myoblasts divide and elongate to form actin and myosin.
Cessation and differentiation of myoblasts are regulated by
myoblast regulatory genes.
Actin and myosin together with other proteins organize into
myofilaments.
Myoblasts matures as myocytes, which are termed as muscle
fibers.
A. According to Microscopic Appearance
1. Skeletal Muscles
Appears to have cross bands or striations
Associated with bones and cartilages
About < 5cm long
Under voluntary control
Contraction is initiated by nerve impulse
(neurogenic).
Multinucleate
Develops from the myoblasts that cease to multiply
and adhere one to another forming a longitudinal
line that finally fuse.
Composed of myofibril that forms sarcomere
Sarcomere basic unit for contraction
Thin filament: actin, troponin, and tropomyosin
Thick filament: myosin
Cell individually innervated by one branch of single nerve
cell at the motor end plate
Transverse tubules spread the electrical excitation along
the sarcolemma.
2. Cardiac Muscles
Occurs only in the heart
Characterized by banding patterns
Involuntary
Contraction is myogenic, initiated by the sinoatrial
node or SAN.
Shorter compared to skeletal muscles
Mononucleate and branched
Develops from a single myoblast
Cells joined by intercalated disks
Electrical impulses spread thru cells and intercalated disks

3. Smooth Muscles
Lack striations
Actin and myosin myofilaments are present in the
cytoplasm but do form line as in striated muscles.
Length varies from 15m in the walls of arteries to 500 m
in the wall of uterus
Associated with visceral organs digestive tract,
blood vessels, lungs
Involuntary
Contractions slow and sustained
Unitary smooth muscles found in the walls of the
digestive tract, uterus, and urinary tracts;
contractions are spontaneous
Mononucleate
Short and fusiform in shape
B. According to Location
1. Somatic Muscles
Orient the body (soma)
Striated attached to ligaments, tendons, and bones of the
axial and appendicular skeleton
Innervated by spinal nerves
Derivatives of myotomes of mesodermal somites
2. Visceral Muscles
Smooth muscles of hollow organs, vessels, tubes, and
ducts
Intrinsic musculature of the eyeball, and erector muscles of
feathers and hairs
Innervated by autonomic nervous system
Derived from splanchnic mesoderm
C. According to Color
1. Red Muscles
Highly vascularized
Rich in myoglobin, a dark macromolecule that stores
Oxygen
Resistant to fatigue
2. White Muscles
Less vascularized
Less myoglobin
Contract rapidly

II. Skeletal Muscles

A. Organization of Skeletal Muscles
*Muscle fiber used to refer to a muscle cell.
**Muscle/s used to refer to the organ.
1. Parts of Muscles
Belly/gaster fleshy part
A muscle may have 2 bellies.
Attachments ends
Origin fix point of attachment
o Head origin of a muscle
o Some muscles have 3 or 4 heads.
Insertion movable point of attachment
o Slip insertion of a muscle
2. Organization of a Muscle Organ
Endomysium wraps each muscle cell
Perimysium wraps a group of muscle cells or fascicles
Epimysium surrounds the whole muscle organ
3. Tendons establish a cordlike attachment to bone
Aponeuroses drawn into thin, flat sheets of tough
connective tissues
Raphes long, seamlike tendons
Fascia sheets of fibrous connective tissues that wrap and
bind parts of the body together
B. Muscle Action
1. Motor pattern any repetitive movement activated by the
nervous system
Synergists muscles that act together to produce motion in
the same direction
Antagonists muscles that produces opposing motions
2. Prime motion primary action of muscles
Flexors bend a part of the limb.
Extensors straighten a part of the limb.
Adductors draw the limb toward the body
Abductors move the limb away from the body.
Levators raise a part.
Depressors lower a part.
Protractors project or thrust a part.
Retractors return or pull the parts projected back.
Rotators cause rotation on an axis.
Supinators rotate the palm or sole up.
Pronators rotate the palm or sole down.

Constrictors compress internal parts

Sphincters are constrictors that close openings.
Dilators open orifices.

C. Naming Skeletal Muscles

1. Direction of muscle fiber oblique, rectus
2. Location or position thoracis, supraspinous, superficialis
3. Number of subdivisions quadriceps, digastric
4. Shape deltoid, teres, serratus
5. Origin and insertion xiphihumeralis, stapedius
6. Action levator scapulae, risorius
7. Size major, longissimus
D. Muscle Architecture/Form
Differ in the length and arrangement of the muscle fibers
within them
Strap-shaped muscles
Contain long, parallel fibers
With relatively broad attachments
E.g. teres major
Fusiform muscles
Fibers lead into narrow tendons at the ends of a
muscle
Force of contraction is concentrated on a smaller
area
E.g. biceps
Pennate muscles
Contain short, diagonally arranged fibers that insert
on a tendon on one side of the muscle (unipennate)
or on one or more tendons more centrally located
(bipennate or multipennate muscles)
E.g. subscapularis (multipennate)
Strap and fusiform muscles
Contain longer fibers than pinnate ones of the
same mass
Contract a longer distance and can induce a
more extensive movement
Contract faster because the rate of contraction
or shortening is a function of the number of
sarcomere series
Sarcomere contracts at the same rate and more
sarcomeres come in series, muscle contraction
as a whole is faster.
Used when movement are extensive or rapid
Pinnate muscles

Develop greater force than strap or fusiform

muscles of the same mass
Contain a great deal of elastic material
Force produced is a function of the number of
myosin-actin connection or cross bridges made
at one time
Force depends on the number of myofilament
and number of muscle fibers
Generate more force per unit of muscle (due to
many short fibers)
Force along the resultant is lost as heat
Adapted for forceful isotonic contractions for
short extent and for isometric contractions

E. Muscle Homologies
During the course of evolution, muscles have fused with one
another, others have numerous split into distinct new
muscles, some have become reduced I prominence, and
others have changed their position.
Criteria for muscle homology
o Similarity in attachment
Sites of attachment of the same muscles
may vary e.g. gastrocnemius (inserted onto
the calcaneus of the heel of mammals and
onto the tendon of Achilles that spreads
across the bottom of the foot in frogs)
o Similarity in function
o Nervous innervations
III. Embryonic Origin of Muscles
Muscles arise from three embryonic sources: mesenchyme,
hypomere, and paraxial mesoderm.
Mesenchyme smooth muscles within blood vessels and
some viscera
Hypomere cardiac muscle of the tubular heart
Splanchnic hypomere smooth muscle layer of
alimentary canal and its derivatives
Paraxial mesoderm most skeletal muscles
Somites (trunk) dermatome, sclerotome,
myotome
Trunk somites muscles of the head, extrinsic
ocular muscles
Somitomeres (head) head and pharyngeal
muscles
A. Appendicular Musculature

Fishes:
1. Ventral tips of adjacent myotomes grow downward into the emerging
bud.
2. Myotomes directly differentiate into fin musculature.
Tetrapods:
1. Epimere of mesoderm becomes segmented giving rise to somites
that in turn give rise to dermatome, sclerotome, and myotome.
2. Ventral tips of myotomes grow downward to become limb muscles.
3. Mesenchyme cells shed from the ventral tips of embryonic
myotomes.
4. The mesenchyme cells migrate into the limb bud to differentiate into
appendicular muscles.
5. Adjacent lateral mesoderm gives rise to bone or cartilage of the limb
along with tendons, ligaments, and vasculature.
Limb Development:
Two regions are recognizable:
Mesodermal core
An ectoderm thickening, the Apical Ectodermal Ridge (AER)
These two interacts to promote limb development.
The mesodermal core determined whether the limb
produced is a forelimb or hindlimb.
The AER promotes outgrowth of the limb.
Hox genes control the expression of AER.
B. Axial Musculature
1. Myotomes differentiate from somites.
2. Myotomes grow and expand along sides of the body.
3. This growth and expansion give rise to muscles associated with the
vertebral column, ribs, and lateral body wall.
4. Horizontal myoseptum divides the myotomes into dorsal and ventral
region, the epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively.
C. Cranial Musculature
Hypobranchial muscles arise from the myotomes of trunk somites.
Ventral tips of myotomes grow downward and forward into
the throat along the ventral side of the branchial arches.
Hypobranchial myotomes are accompanied by nerves
emanating from the cervical region of vertebral column.
Hypobranchial muscles run between ventral elements of the
branchial arches and between the branchial arches and
pectoral girdle. Also, they contribute to the tongue.
Branchiomeric muscles arise from somitomeres in the head, and are
supplied by cranial nerves.
Extrinsic muscles of the eye arise from three different sources:

Most anterior somitomere gives rise to the superior, inferior,

medial rectus, and inferior oblique, that are supplied by third
cranial nerve.
The next somitomere gives rise to the superior oblique,
supplied by the fourth cranial nerve.
The third somitomere gives rise to the lateral rectus,
supplied by the sixth cranial nerve.

IV. Comparative Anatomy

A. Axial Musculature
Fishes:
Axial skeleton constitutes the bulk of the bodys musculature.
Anteriorly, it is attached to the skull and pectoral girdle.
Posteriorly, it continues from the trunk into the tail.
Blocks of myotomes retain their segmentation, now termed as
myomeres.
Myosepta divide successive myomeres, and extend
inward to become attached to the axial column.
Horizontal septum divides the epaxial and hypaxial muscles,
which supplied by the dorsal and ventral ramus, respectively.
Horizontal myoseptum is absent in cyclostomes but
present in all gnathostomes.
Dorsal ribs, when present, develop at the intersection of
the horizontal septum with successive myosepta.
Axial musculature provides major propulsive forces for
locomotion.
Myomeres are folded into zigzag blocks (V- or Wshaped).
Myomeres extends throughout the length of the body.
o Contraction spreads within the axial musculature
and alternates from side to side, developing
lateral undulation.
o Powerful bends of the axial musculature creates
lateral thrusts against the water, driving the fish
forward.
o The axial skeleton receives the attachments of
myomeres and act as compression girder that
resist body telescoping.
o Propulsive force of the lateral undulation is
perpendicular to the surface of the section of fish
generating the force.
o The body increasingly bends at the tail and the
direction of the force relative to the line of travel
becomes posteriorly inclined.

Acceleration of the tail is greater than that of the

body sections near the head, thus, force at the
tail is greater.
Reaction or normal force coming from the water is equal
to the propulsive force exerted by the fish.

Tetrapods:
Axial musculature tends to be reduced.
Epaxial muscles
In salamanders, it is present as one muscle mass,
dorsalis trunci.
o The axial muscles of salamanders reflect
continued role in locomotion.
In reptiles, it splits into three layers transversospinalis,
longissimus, and iliocostalis.
In mammals, numerous split yield additional muscles:
intervertebrals, longissimus, spinales, iliocostales
o Intervertebrals deepest epaxial muscles that
retain their primitive metamerism and maintain
appropriate posture
Intertransversarii in b/w transverse
processes
Interspinales in b/w neural spines
Interarcuales in b/w neural arches
Interarticulares in b/w zygapophyses
o Lonigissimus and spinales occupy, respectively,
lateral and medial positions above the
transverse process, and are divided into
bundles:
Capitis bundles inserted into the skull
and assist in head movements
Cervicis bundles found in the neck
region
Dorsi bundles found in the trunk
o Spinales includes long and medial bundles that
connect neural spine or transverse processes
with several neural spines cephalad.
Transversospinales connect
transverse processes with the neural
spine of the second vertebra
Multifidus spinales spinales grouped
together with intervertebrals
In mammals, spinales are chiefly
involved in maintaining stability of the
column when extension or flexon is
imposed by other vertebral muscles.

Iliocostales are lateral to the longissimus.

Usually thin originating from the ilium
and inserts forward to the ribs and
uncinate processes
Dominant in reptiles that provide
leverage for the lateral undulation.
Lateral undulation in crocodiles
rotates the pectoral girdle and to
a lesser degree, the pelvic girdle
on a vertical axis to increase the
stride length in both paired
limbs.
In turtles and birds, the epaxials are prominent only in
the neck.
o Ribs are immobilized by fusion with the
synsacrum in birds, or the carapace of turtles.
Birds have cervical epaxials; one of which is the
complexus that provides power for cracking the eggshell
with the beak during hatching.
o Complexus inserts into the interparietal bone.
The epaxial muscles become increasingly hidden by the
expansion dorsad of the appendicular muscles and
associated lumbodorsal aponeurosis.
Epaxial muscles in amniotes lost its metamerism (left as
vestiges in deepest bundles).
Hypaxial muscles differentiates from three embryonic precursors
Dorsomedial musculatures subvertebralis and longus
collis
o Subvertebralis longitudinal bundles beneath
the transverse process in the roof of the coelom,
from atlas to pelvis
Fairly powerful flexors
Neck portion in birds and mammals is
known as longus collis
Meager in the thorax region
Dominant in the lumbar region
Quadratus lumborum (psoas
minor in mammals, which
known as the tenderloin)
Quadratus lumborum of
mammals originates from the
centra of the last thoracic
vertebrae and the bases of their
ribs and on the transverse
processes of the lumbar
vertebrae and inserts on the

ventral angle of the ilium wing,

having variations depending on
species
Longus collis extends anteriorly, aiding in neck
movement
Medial musculature transversus abdominis and
internal obliques
o It is distributed along the inside of the rib cage.
o Internal oblique is sometimes missing in the
anurans.
o In turtles, internal oblique is vestigial.
o In birds, the internal oblique is thin.
o Cremaster muscle slips at the inferior border of
the internal oblique and sometimes from the
transversus abdominis.
Cremator muscle loops around the
spermatic cord commencing at the
inguinal ring and inserts into the fibrous
tissue in wall of the scrotum below the
testes.
It retracts the testes into the open
inguinal canal.
It is best develop in mammals having a
permanently open inguinal canal such
as the rabbit.
Lateral musculature external obliques and external
intercostals
o It span outside the rib cage.
o The intercostals are supported by subdivisions
of supracostal muscles that differentiate on the
surface of the rib cage, chiefly as scalenous,
serratus dorsalis, levatores costarum, and
transversus costarum.
Ventral musculature
o Found along the belly, divided midventrally by
the linea alba and is crossed regularly by the
connective tissue inscription
o Includes rectus abdominis that extends from the
sternum and ribs to the pelvis
The rectus abdominis of urodeles is
strictly segmental.
It exhibits irregular transverse
tendonous inscriptions.
o Receives contributions from the medial and
lateral musculature derivatives

The oblique and transverse muscles together with the rectus

support the abdominal viscera in a muscular sling.
These muscles compress the viscera during egg laying,
delivery of mammalian young, emptying the digestive tract.
Metameric history of oblique and transverse muscles is seen
in their embryonic origin from successive somites and by
their innervations via the ventral rami of successive spinal
nerves.
Same divisions of axial musculature are present in birds but
tend to be reduced in areas where the vertebrae are fused.
In mammals, the same divisions of reptilian muscle are
present but numerous splits yield additional muscles.
Absence of ribs results in the abdominal region changes the
segmental intercostals into continuous sheet of obliques.
In snakes, the axial muscles are prominent.

Muscles of the Tail

Tail muscles are continuation of the epaxial and hypaxial
muscles.
More evident in urodeles and generalized reptiles.
Continuity of the epaxial and hypaxial muscle towards the tail is
disrupted at some degree at the level of the pelvis of both birds
and mammals due to enlarged pelvis.
Volume of caudal muscles varies.
In snakes, the epaxial and hypaxial muscles are well
developed extending towards the tail.
Intervertebrals, and short spinales (multifidus spinae)
and longissimus continue towards the tail as medial and
lateral extensors, respectively.
Tail section of the longissimus, the extensor
caudae lateralis, arises from the sacral and
caudal vertebrae and inserts on distal caudal
vertebrae by many long slender tendons.
Long hypaxial bundles similar to the epaxial arise from
the medial surface and caudal border of the wing of the
ilium, from the transverse processes of the lumbar
vertebrae, or from the sacrum and pass into the tail as
long bundles paralleling the vertebral column.
Hypaxial muscles are supplemented by long and
short flexors that arose within the tail and inserts
along long or short tendons,
Hypaxial muscles bend the tail laterad or
downward.
Caudofemoralis, in urodeles and reptiles, contributes to
the fleshy part of the tail.

Caudofemoralis connects several caudal

vertebrae at the base of the femur.
It exerts powerful backward pull on the
limbs on the hind limb during locomotion
of lizards and crocodilians.
Caudal centra, arches, and processes become
increasingly vestigial distally, especially in
mammals.
Proximal part of mammalian tail is
fleshy.
The distal part is mostly skin, string-like
tendons and cylindrical bones united by
interosseus ligaments.

B. Cranial Musculature
1. Branchiomeric musculature
Associated with the branchial arches
Function as pumping device to move water across the gills,
replacing the ciliary system of protochordates
As the anterior branchial arch evolved into the jaws, the
associated muscles became part of the jaw-closing and
opening of gnathostome fishes
Each branchial arch is endowed with branchial muscles,
enlarged or reduced as function of particular arch changes.
Constrictors extend laterally from each branchial arch within
the gill core and may continue to the body surface under the
skin.
They squeeze water thru the pharynx.
Adductor is the most medial part of the constrictors
o Adductor bends the arch.
Dorsal and ventral muscles are deep muscles attached to
the dorsal and ventral tips of the branchial arches.
They are involved in moving the elements of the
branchial arches
Mandibular arch
Mandibular constrictor and adductor lie at the body
surface.
o Levator palatoquadrate is a derivative of the
mandibular constrictor in sharks and runs from
chondrocranium to palatoquadrate.
Absent in chimaera and tetrapods, in which
palatoquadrate is fused with the braincase.
o Adductor mandibulae largest jaw muscles
It is located at the angle of the jaw.
It provides powerful closing force.

In bony fishes, the adductor is composed of

several derivative muscles that act on
selected parts of highly kinetic skull.
It persists in tetrapods as strong jaw
adductor.
Spiracularis of elasmobranchs control the opening and
closing of the spiracle.
Preorbitalis an oral muscle
o It arises near the orbit and tapers posteriorly to
its insertion on the adductor mandibulae or lower
jaw.
In mammals, the masseter and temporalis are jawclosing muscles with different lines of action.
o Both masseter and temporalis are derived from
the adductor mandibulae.
o Temporalis lies in the temporal fossa.
o One or more pterygoideus originate from the
pterygoid process on the underside of the skull.
o Masseter originates from the zygomatic arch.
Intermandibularis ventral transverse muscles
extending between the ventral edges of paired
mandibles.
o It persists in mammals as the mylohyoid.
o Digastric is involved in opening of the jaw, also a
derivative of the intermandibularis.
o Tensor tympani may have arisen from one slip
of the intermandibularis that was attached to the
articular bone of the therapsids and had
remained attached as the bone became the
malleus.
It tenses the mammalian eardrum.

Hyoid arch
The hyoid arch begins as a separate gill arch in primitive
fishes but elements of the hyoid arch become secondarily
involved in the suspension of the mandibles in some
vertebrates (jawed fishes) and as a separate hyoid
apparatus (tetrapods).
Hyoidean constrictor muscles prominent in fishes
forming the main muscles of the water-breathing pump
but are lost in tetrapods.
o Levator hyomandibulae largest hyoidean
constrictor in sharks that reaches from the
chondocranium to hyomandibular cartilage
o Epihyoidean the second one, inserted on the
connective tissue behind the angle of the jaw

Levator operculi is the equivalent of

epihyodean, which is inserted onto the
operculum.
Depressor mandibulae (tetrapods) opens the jaws,
homologue of the levator operculi and epihyoidean
o In mammals, the depressor mandibulae evolved
as the stapedius protects the ear from loud
sounds.
o Digastrics functions in opening the jaw.
Posterior section of the digastrics is
derived from the ventral hyoid
musculature, the interhyoideus.
Interhyoideus ventral part of the hyoidean constrictor
o Runs transversely between the lower tips of the
paired hyoid bars
o Forms additional sheets of muscles, the
constrictor colli (sphincter colli) that become the
extensive layers of facial muscles
Sphincter colli adheres to the skin of the
neck of lower tetrapods.
In reptiles, the sphincter colli spreads
upward around the skull and inserts on
the skin of the head as the platysma.
Platysma is a thin subcutaneous muscle
layer spanning the throat, fastening skin
in the neck.
The platysma of mammals spreads
forward onto the face becoming facial
muscles for expression.
Other muscles derived from the hyoid
arch are specialized in control of facial
expression and lips during feeding.
o Stapedius muscle originates on the posterior
wall of the middle ear cavity of mammals and
inserts on the stapes, a homologue of the
hyomandibular cartilage.
It contracts reflexly to impede extra loud
airborne sounds that might injure the
delicate hair cells of the cochlea.
Facial control during feeding is important among
herbivores to help grasp and break off plant parts.
o Levator labii superioris, and levator nasolabialis
(rhinoceros) move the upper lip
o Depressor labii nandibularies (rhinoceros)
lowers the lips
o Zygomaticus controls the corner of the mouth

o
o
o

Orbiticularis oris closes the lips

Caninus contraction flares the nostrils
Buccinators flattens the cheeks, thus, pressing
food between the tooth rows

Branchial arches
Additional short dorsal and ventral branchial muscles lie on
tops and bottoms.
These muscles act together with adductors to control local
movements of the arches during gill ventilation.
Cucullaris runs from the dorsal body surface down to
the last branchial arch and to the scapula
o It is formed from the fusion of slips from several
successive branchial muscles.
o Cucullaris of tetrapods extends from axial
musculature to the scapula forming muscle
complexes, trapezius and mastoid groups.
Branchial arches are important structural components in
the pumping and feeding apparatus in fishes.
Branchial arches became reduced in tetrapods
contributing to the larynx and other parts of the throat.
o Associated constrictor muscles contributed to
laryngeal muscles.
o Some levators took enlarged roles contributing
to trapezius and mastoid muscles to the
muscular sling supporting the shoulder girdle.
Small adductor and interarcual muscles interconnect
segment of the branchial arches.
2. Hypobranchial musculature
Arose embryonically from cervical somites, whose ventral
ends migrate to the floor of the pharynx
Supplied with spinal nerves
Runs below the lower ends of the branchial arches in an
anterioposterior course
In fishes, it originates from the coracoid region of the
shoulder girdle.
Coracoarcuals originates from the coracoid and
extends forward to the pectoral girdle
Coracomandibularis orginates from the coracoid and
inserts to the Meckels cartilage.
Coracohyoideus originates from the coracoid and
inserts to the basihyal.
Coracobranchials originate from the coracoid and
insert into the gill cartilages.

These muscles help in respiration and feeding

movements by expanding the pharynx and gill
pouches, moving parts of the hyoid skeleton, and
depressing the lower jaw.
Rectus cervicis in urodeles is a hypobranchial
muscle.
Consists of the coracomandibularis and sternohyoideus
Sternohyoideus of sharks is divided into anterior
coracohyoideus and posterior coracoarcualis
These are prominent jaw openers and expanders of
the buccal cavity.
In tetrapods, they accompany the branchial arches
contributing muscles associated with the throat, hyoid
appartatus, larynx, and the tongue.
Hypobranchial muscles became longer and
straplike.
They stabilize the hyoid apparatus and larynx and
draw these cephalad or caudad.
o Sternohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid,
omohyoid, and geniohyoid
o Remaining from arch III are stylopharyngeus
muscle, which are used in swallowing, and
in some mammals, a posterior belly of the
stylohyoideus.
o Remaining from arch IV are intrinsic
muscles of the mammalian larynx
cricothyroideus, cricoartenoideus, and
thyroarytenoideus.
The tongue is a mucosal sac anchored to the hyoid
skeleton and stuffed with hypobranchial muscles.
o Premuscle mesenchyme migrates into the
developing tongue from anterior
hypobranchial muscle blastemas.
o Chief intrinsic muscle of the mammalian
tongue: hypoglossus, styloglossus, and
genioglossus
o Lingualis is an intrinsic muscle that develops
in mammals and in some reptiles.

Integumentary Muscles
In fishes or amphibians, slips of the branchiomeric or axial somatic
muscles insert on the dermis at one or another, attaching the skin
underlying muscle at these locations.

Costocutaneous muscles of snakes are hypaxial Integumentary

muscles used in locomotion.
Panniculus carnosus (cutaneous maximus) in some mammals wraps
the trunk, enabling armadillos to roll into ball when in danger, forms
sphincter around the entrance to the abdominal pouch of marsupials,
and vigorously shake flies off horses.
It is poorly developed in monkeys and is absent in humans.
Cutaneous pectoris maintains its original attachment to the chest
wall in anurans.
Patagial muscles in bats are slips of pectoral muscles inserted on the
skin of the wing membranes.

C. Appendicular Musculature
Fishes:
Consists of two opposing muscles extending onto dorsal and ventral
surfaces
Dorsal muscles elevate the fin
Ventral muscles depress or adduct the fin
These two muscles produce distinct muscle slip that aid in fin
rotation.
Fin musculature of fishes is relatively thin compared to tetrapods.
Tetrapods:
Dorsal and ventral appendicular muscles tend to more prominent as
the limbs assumed the task of producing locomotor forces.
Both dorsal and ventral appendicular muscles tend to split and divide
into many distinct muscles.
Extrinsic appendicular muscles arise from the axial skeleton or fascia
of the trunk and insert on the girdle of the limb.
Levator scapulae, serratus ventralis, rhomboideus,
trapezius, sternomastoideus, and cleidomastoideus
Intrinsic appendicular muscles arise from the girdle or limb and insert
more distally in the limb.
Tetrapod Limb
Tetrapod limb receives contribution from the other regions.
The axial and the branchial muscles contributed to the
shoulder muscles.
Both shoulder and hip muscles transmitted locomotor forces
to the vertebral column differently.
The pectoral girdle of tetrapod is hung by muscular sling.
o The muscular sling is a set of muscles that run from
the thorax to the shoulder to suspend the anterior
part of the body thru muscular ties from the blades
of pectoral girdle.

The pelvic girdle is directly attached to the sacral region of

the vertebral column.
Specialized tetrapods depart from the generalized trend.
o Frogs, specialized for leaping, have complicated
hindlimb musculature.
o Birds are specialized for flight and the limb
musculature serve the special demand of aerial
locomotion.

Pectoral Girdle
Muscles of the pectoral girdles arose from the contributions of
four sources: branchiomeric, axial, dorsal, and ventral muscles.
1. Branchiomeric muscles trapezius and mastoid groups
Trapezius and mastoid groups arise from the cucullaris
of primitive fishes such as the chondrichtyes
Trapezius is a superficial muscle of the shoulder region.
o Eventually subdivided into cleidotrapezius
(cleidocervical), acromiotrapezius (cervical
trapezius), and spinotrapezius (thoracic
trapezius)
Receives motor nerves from
branchiomeric nerves
o The other two are the cleidomastoideus and
cleido-occipitalis
Acquired attachment to the clavicle
Do not function as appendicular muscle
Moves the head when they contract
In mammals
o Trapezius group includes the following:
clavotrapezius, acromiotrapezius, spinotrapezius
o Mastoid group includes the cleidomastoids and
the sternomastoid.
2. Axial muscles levator scapulae, rhomboideus complex,
serratus muscles
Deep to the latissimus of amniotes are three muscles
two levators of the scapula, rhomboideus group (found
only in crocodiles among living reptiles), and the serratus
ventralis (serratus anterior).
These muscles are found on the dorsal side (deep).
o Mammalian levators originate from the
transverse processs of the atlas or bassioccipital
bone (levator scapulae ventralis or
omotransversarius) and on the transverse
processs of the posterior cervical vertebrae.

Rhomboideus originates from the occiput and

neural spines of a series of cervical and anterior
thoracic vertebrae.
o Serratus ventralis arises by many separate
prominent tendonous slips from series of ribs
near their junction with the costal cartilages, and
in some mammals, from a series of posterior
cervical vertebrae.
o All inserts to the dorsal border of the scapulae
except for the levator scapulae ventralis that
inserts on a process of the scapular spine near
the glenoid fossa.
The levator scapulae dorsalis
sometimes is considered part of the
serratus ventralis.
These axial derivatives together with the branchiomeric
muscles form the muscular sling that suspends the body
between two scapular blades.
In turtles, the pectoral girdle is attached to the shell.
In birds, the pectoral girdle rests on the sternum.
In bony fishes, the pectoral girdle is attached to the back
of the skull.
As the pectoral girdle is freed, the branchiomeric and
axial muscles were pressed into serving the as part of
the muscular ring.
3. Dorsal muscles are inserted on the humerus and functions to
oscillate it.
Latissimus dorsi originates outside the limbs.
o It is triangular in urodeles, arising from the
superficial fascia that overlies the epaxial
myomeres of the shoulder region.
o It is stronger in reptiles that spreads dorsad to
acquire firm attachment to the tough fascia
anchored to neural spines and broadens by
spreading further caudad.
o It trends toward a broader dorsal anchorage in
mammals that originates from the neural spines
of the thoracic vertebrae caudal to the first few
and from the lumbar vertebrae, and extends to
the base of the tail.
o The dorsocaudad expansion provided a
continuing increment in the force the muscle
exerts on the forelimb.
o It separates as the teres major within the
scapula

Other muscles are teres minor, subscapularis,

deltoideus.
o Teres minor is probably homologous to the
reptilian scapulohumeralis anterior.
o Deltoideus is divided into two spinodeltoideus
and acromiodeltoideus.
o Mammalian deltoid is probably homologous to
the dorsalis scapulae or scapular deltoid in other
tetrapods.
Triceps is derivative of dorsal muscles that act to extend
the forearm.
o Long head of the triceps branchii arise from the
humerus and insets on the olecranon process of
the ulna; exerts powerfull pull extending the
forearm.
Two supinators of the manus connect the humerus with
the radius.
Extensors of the hand and digits, with long distal
tendons, insert on the skeleton of the wrist and digits,
some far distad as the terminal phalanx.
4. Ventral muscles
Pectoralis prominent ventral muscle group of the chest
o Pectoralis originates along the sternum and its
fibers converge on the humerus.
o In birds, pectoralis depress the wings.
o Pectoralis splits into four muscles:
pectoantebranchialis, pectoralis major,
pectoralis minor, xiphihumeralis
Supracoracoideus is ventrally positioned.
o Supracoracoideus of reptiles extends from its
origin on the procoracoid laterally and inserts
into the humerus.
o Supracoracoideus is deep to the pectoralis of
birds lining underlying the procoracoid bone and
is used to elevate the wings.
o Supracoracoideus of therian mammals
originates dorsally from the lateral surface of the
scapula
The scapular spine divides the
supracoracoideus into supraspinatus
and infraspinatus muscles, which are
inserted on the humerus.
Supraspinatus and infraspinatus are
homologues of the reptilian muscle,
supracoracoid.

Coracobrachialis from the coracoid runs along the

underside of the humerus.
o In mammals, it arises from the coracoid process
of the scapula and it is very small.
Biceps brachii and brachialis are the major flexors of the
forearm of reptiles and mammals.
o Bicep brachii of mammals has two heads
representing apparent fusion of two muscles that
have their insertions on the forearm.
Anconeus, a deep muscle however not homologous to
the anconeus of frog, extends between the distal end of
the humerus and the proximal end of the ulna.
Epitrocheoanconeus, a small transverse muscle,
partially encircles the elbow joint medially.
Pronators of the manus insert on and rotate the radius.
Forearm flexors from ventral muscles act thru tendons
on the digits, with origins from the humerus and
insertions by long tendons on the carpals, metacarpals,
and phalanges.
Other muscles
o Cleidobrachialis, in some mammals, extends
from the clavicle to the humerus or ulna.
o In cats and rabbits, clavicle becomes vestigial
and the cleidobrachialis appears to be a
continuation of the basioclavicularis (cleidooccipital) of rabbits and cleidotrapezius of cats.
Muscles of birds are basically reptilian.
o Intrinsic muscles of the wing have been
reduced.
o Epaxial muscles of the trunk are vestigial.
o Parietal muscles are thin.

Pelvic Girdle and Hindlimb

Pelvic girdle is fused to the vertebral column.
Consequently, few extrinsic muscles control the hindlimb.
1. Dorsal muscles
Puboischiofemoralis internus (lower tetrapods) runs from
the lumbar region and girdle to the femur; important limb
rotator
o Puboischiofemoralis internus differentiate into
three muscles in mammals psoas, iliacus,
pectineus.
o All three muscles originate from the lumbar
region.

Iliofemoralis (lower tetrapods) extends from ilium to the

femur and functions to extend the limb
o Iliofemoralis of mammals divides into three
muscles tensor fascia latae, pyriformis, and
gluteus complex.
Gluteus is the most powerful of the
three.
All three muscles adduct the thigh and
rotate the femur to turn the foot outward.
Collectively, the muscles arise from
sacral and caudal vertebrae and from
ilium and ischium, and insert on the
greater trochanter.
Quadriceps (quadratus femoris) collective term for the
rectus femoris and three heads of vastus (lateralis,
medialis, and intermedius)
o These muscle lie along the anterior margin of
the femur and are quite prominent.
o They commonly arise from the ilium and from
the greater and lesser trochanter of the femur,
and insert into the patella.
o They act as powerful extensors of the shank.
The vasti and rectus femoris adducts
the thigh, rotating the foot inward.
Sartorius originates from the ilium but crosses two joints,
hip and knee, and inserts into the tibia
o Ambiens of reptiles and iliotibiales of amphibians
are homologous to sartorius.
Dorsal muscles of the shank and tibiales anterior
shank extensor
2. Ventral muscles
Puboischiofemoralis externus (lower tetrapods)
extends from the pubis and ischium to the femur
o Obturator externus and quadrates femoris are
derivatives of puboischiofemoralis externus in
mammals.
Caudofemoralis (lower tetrapods) extends from the
base of the tail to the femur; act to retract the limb
o It is not a locomotor in urodeles.
It pulls the tail.
o When the hindlimb is fixed, the caudofemoralis
has the opposite action of swinging the tail.
o Caudofemoralis reduced in prominence in
mammals

Part of the caudofemoralis, the

pyriformis, has become a locomotor
muscle in mammals.
Obstructor internus and gemelli muscles in mammals
are reduced compared to their homologue, the
ischiotrochantericus in reptiles.
Adductor femoris are enlarge in tetrapods and extends
to the thigh.
Hamstring collectively refers to the semimembranosus,
semitendinosus, and biceps femoris.
o These three arises from the pelvis, rounds along
the posterior margin of the femur, and inserts on
the shank or near the distal end of the femur.
o These muscles flex the shank.
Puboischiotibialis (lower tetrapods) covers the thigh and
retracts it
o Gracilis is the mammalian homologue of
puboischiotibialis.
Gastrocnemius is the most prominent muscle of the
shank.
o Also known as the calf muscles
o It has two heads resulting from two different
phylogenetic predecessors: gastrocnemius
medealis and gastrocnemius lateralis
Gastrocnemius medealis and flexor
hallucis longus arise from the reptilian
gastrocnemius internus.
Gastrocnemius lateralis, soleus, and
plantaris arise from the reptilian
gastrocnemius externus

Reference:
KARDONG, Kenneth. 2002. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function,
and Evolution. McGraw-Hill Book-Co Singapore (Reprinted in the
Philippines)
KENT, George and Robert Carr. 2004. Comparative Anatomy of the
Vertebrates. Philippines: McGraw-Hill Book Companies, Inc.
LIEM, Karel et al. 2001. Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An
Evolutionary Perspective. USA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning