Teaching Strategies

There are a variety of teaching strategies that instructors can use to improve student learning. The links below will
show you some ways to make your classes more engaging.

Active Learning - Active Learning is anything that students do in a classroom other than merely passively
listening to an instructor's lecture. Research shows that active learning improves students' understanding
and retention of information and can be very effective in developing higher order cognitive skills such as
problem solving and critical thinking.

Collaborative/Cooperative Learning - Cooperative and collaborative learning are instructional approaches

in which students work together in small groups to accomplish a common learning goal.They need to be
carefully planned and executed, but they don't require permanently formed groups.

Critical Thinking - Critical thinking is a collection of mental activities that include the ability to intuit, clarify,
reflect, connect, infer, and judge. It brings these activities together and enables the student to question what
knowledge exists.

Discussion Strategies - Engaging students in discussion deepens their learning and motivation by
propelling them to develop their own views and hear their own voices. A good environment for interaction is
the first step in encouraging students to talk.

Experiential Learning - Experiential learning is an approach to education that focuses on "learning by

doing," on the participant's subjective experience. The role of the educator is to design "direct experiences"
that include preparatory and reflective exercises.

Games/Experiments/Simulations - Games, experiments and simulations can be rich learning

environments for students. Students today have grown up playing games and using interactive tools such
as the Internet, phones, and other appliances. Games and simulations enable students to solve real-world
problems in a safe environment and enjoy themselves while doing so.

Humor in the Classroom - Using humor in the classroom can enhance student learning by improving
understanding and retention.

Inquiry-Guided Learning - With the inquiry method of instruction, students arrive at an understanding of
concepts by themselves and the responsibility for learning rests with them. This method encourages
students to build research skills that can be used throughout their educational experiences.

Interdisciplinary Teaching - Interdisciplinary teaching involves combining two different topics into one
class. Instructors who participate in interdisciplinary teaching find that students approach the material
differently, while faculty members also have a better appreciation of their own discipline content.

Learner-Centered Teaching - Learner-Centered teaching means the student is at the center of learning.
The student assumes the responsibility for learning while the instructor is responsible for facilitating the
learning. Thus, the power in the classroom shifts to the student.

Learning Communities - Communities bring people together for shared learning, discovery, and the
generation of knowledge. Within a learning community, all participants take responsibility for achieving the
learning goals. Most important, learning communities are the process by which individuals come together
to achieve learning goals.

Lecture Strategies - Lectures are the way most instructors today learned in classes. However, with todays
students, lecturing does not hold their attention for very long, even though they are a means of conveying
information to students.

Online/Hybrid Courses - Online and hybrid courses require careful planning and organization. However,
once the course is implemented, there are important considerations that are different from traditional
courses. Communication with students becomes extremely important.

Problem-Based Learning - Problem-based Learning (PBL) is an instructional method that challenges

students to "learn to learn," working in groups to seek solutions to real world problems. The process
replicates the commonly used systemic approach to resolving problems or meeting challenges that are
encountered in life, and will help prefer students for their careers.

Service Learning - Service learning is a type of teaching that combines academic content with civic
responsibility in some community project. The learning is structured and supervised and enables the
student to reflect on what has taken place.

Teaching Diverse Students - Instructors today encounter a diverse population in their courses and many
times need assistance in knowing how to deal with them.

Teaching with Cases - Case studies present students with real-life problems and enable them to apply
what they have learned in the classroom to real life situations. Cases also encourage students to develop
logical problem solving skills and, if used in teams, group interaction skills. Students define problems,
analyze possible alternative actions and provide solutions with a rationale for their choices.

Team-Based Learning - Team-based learning (TBL) is a fairly new approach to teaching in which students
rely on each other for their own learning and are held accountable for coming to class prepared. Research
has found that students are more responsible and more engaged when team-based learning is
implemented. The major difference in TBL and normal group activities is that the groups are permanent and
most of the class time is devoted to the group meeting.

Team Teaching - At its best, team teaching allows students and faculty to benefit from the healthy exchange
of ideas in a setting defined by mutual respect and a shared interest in a topic. In most cases both faculty
members are present during each class and can provide different styles of interaction as well as different
viewpoints.

Writing Assignments - Writing assignments for class can provide an opportunity for them to apply critical
thinking skills as well as help them to learn course content.

Source: http://pedagogy.merlot.org/TeachingStrategies.html

Teaching Writing Skills

Writing

By Kenneth Beare, About.com Guide

Teaching Writing: Strategies

The most important factor in writing exercises is that students need to be personally involved in order
to make the learning experience of lasting value. Encouraging student participation in the exercise,
while at the same time refining and expanding writing skills, requires a certain pragmatic approach.
The teacher should be clear on what skills he/she is trying to develop. Next, the teacher needs to
decide on which means (or type of exercise) can facilitate learning of the target area. Once the target
skill areas and means of implmentation are defined, the teacher can then proceed to focus on what
topic can be employed to ensure student participation. By pragmatically combing these objectives, the
teacher can expect both enthusiasm and effective learning.
Choosing the target area depends on many factors; What level are the students?, What is the average
age of the students, Why are the students learning English, Are there any specific future intentions for
the writing (i.e school tests or job application letters etc.). Other important questions to ask oneself
are: What should the students be able to produce at the end of this exercise? (a well written letter,

basic communication of ideas, etc.) What is the focus of the exercise? (structure, tense usage, creative
writing). Once these factors are clear in the mind of the teacher, the teacher can begin to focus on how
to involve the students in the activity thus promoting a positive, long-term learning experience.
Having decided on the target area, the teacher can focus on the means to achieve this type of
learning. As in correction, the teacher must choose the most appropriate manner for the specified
writing area. If formal business letter English is required, it is of little use to employ a free expression
type of exercise. Likewise, when working on descriptive language writing skills, a formal letter is
equally out of place.
With both the target area and means of production, clear in the teachers mind, the teacher can begin
to consider how to involve the students by considering what type of activities are interesting to the
students; Are they preparing for something specific such as a holiday or test?, Will they need any of
the skills pragmatically? What has been effective in the past? A good way to approach this is by class
feedback, or brainstorming sessions. By choosing a topic that involves the students the teacher is
providing a context within which effective learning on the target area can be understaken.
Finally, the question of which type of correction will facilitate a useful writing exercise is of utmost
importance. Here the teacher needs to once again think about the overall target area of the exercise. If
there is an immediate task at hand, such as taking a test, perhaps teacher guided correction is the
most effective solution. However, if the task is more general (for example developing informal letter
writing skills), maybe the best approach would be to have the students work in groups thereby learning
from each other. Most importantly, by choosing the correct means of correction the teacher can
encourage rather discourage students.

Source : http://esl.about.com/cs/teachingtechnique/a/a_twrite.htm

The English Teacher

Lesson Plans for a Creative Writing Course
*This page contains the complete lesson plans for a thirteen week course in creative
writing which I taught for Lane Community College for 22 years, most recently spring
quarter, 2002.
The longer units in this lesson plan are designed to develop specific skills in a certain
order during the class. The shorter units can occur in a different order in the class than
given here, according to the teacher's experience and preferences.
Some of these units are presented in more or less detail on individual pages on this
website.
When you view the students' writing samples, please use the -back button- on your
browser to return to your place in these lesson plans.

Writing 241
7/15/02
* Work on reading skills so that students can present their writings in the best manner.
All the assignments except the first one using Haiku's are presented orally by the
students before they turn them in. Therefore they need to have their assignments
completed by the due date. If the teacher lets the students volunteer, it causes a better
class spirit, but some students may put off finishing on time because they rely on
others to volunteer. All assignments are to be typed except those written in class and as
journals.
UNIT: HAIKUS
Haikus are underestimated in their challenge and value as a writing assignment. I
assign only two or three. When possible, I assign them the week before spring break so
the students can work on them over the vacation. Haikus are intended to convey a
Clear Picture [Mental Image], a Distinct Emotion, and a 'spiritual' Insight. I don't work
much on defining 'spiritual' but simply confine it to an 'aha!' or 'light goes on'
experience. This assignment requires very little writing but requires much thought and
focus and if done correctly, the benefits carry on to longer assignments.
Excellent sample haikus may be found in 'A Net of Fireflies' by Harold Tran Stewart.
[See the section on Teaching Haikus for some sample 'classic' haikus.] As Stewart
illustrates, the Japanese haikus translate better into English couplets than into the
traditional haiku form of three lines of 5, 7, 5, syllables. Stewart's haikus contain the
other more important elements of haikus and I use them in class to illustrate these
elements and use a few more conventional haikus to teach the haiku format of three
lines of 5, 7, 5, syllables.
I hand out two pages of Japanese haikus which we read and discuss in the same
manner as we will later discuss student haikus. I have the students take turns reading
these model haikus and discussing them in relation first to clear picture, then distinct
emotion, then spiritual insight.
This discussion helps students realize what qualities a haiku should possess, which is
image, emotion, and insight, and it also begins a right brain shift so students can write
more creatively. Since the focus of the class is on the short story, this is the only poetry
that they write, and the purpose is not actually to teach a poetry form. It is rather to
learn to use image, emotion, and insight in a creative way that avoids the beginning
writer's tendency to wordiness.
A discussion of students' works when read by the instructor also helps the students to
begin being involved in discussions without being as self-conscious as they might be
after reading their own writing. I read an 'anonymous' student haiku. Then I ask the
class what the 'mental image' is. As various people comment, the writer can see how

the writing is perceived. Next, we discuss the 'distinct emotion,' and then the 'insight.'
Sometimes the writers may anonymously want to state the purpose that they thought
that their haiku contained. When this unit is done with accuracy, tact, and
consideration, the students learn how to give and take feedback, and they do not mind
reading their own assignments next time. Note: creative writing classes work best
when the seating is in a circle.
To read samples of student writing click here: Haikus
UNIT: BLIND/DEAF EXPERIENCE
The students spend one hour either "blind" or "deaf" in a safe situation of their
choosing and then they write two typewritten pages, one narrative and one expository.
The first page consists of a narrative description of their experiences and the second
page consists of an explanation of what they learned from the experiment. Although
the assignment covers two different modes of writing, it should be written as a single
assignment. Note: This assignment should be done individually, and not as a group,
because the group experience lessens its value in strengthening perceptions.
Before turning the paper in to the instructor, they read it in class. This is a good first
assignment for students to read orally before the class because it requires writing skills
they already possess and therefore they should feel less uneasy about how their peers
may react . What does bring positive reactions from the class and one of the elements I
look for when grading, is involvement with the assignment. When the writer has been
involved, the class listens more intently and more actively develops their listening and
discussion skills.
To read samples of student writing click here: One Hour Blind and One Hour Deaf.
Teacher Focus: without making it yet a part of the students' assignments, begin to
point out writing which is notable for its "sound" and clarity.
UNIT: "THREE MINUTE" WRITING CYCLES'
'It was a dark and stormy night...'
This unit contains two exercises.
The first exercise causes an awareness of the existence of plot as an element of the
short story, and the second exercise- with the addition of a "theme" shows how plots
are shaped by a theme. [ The instructor may also wish to point out to students how
plot-orientation focus draws attention away from character development.]
1) Exercise one [without a theme]:

The students sit in a circle, each having sufficient writing paper and their names on the
first sheet. When the instructor says, 'Begin' they begin writing a story starting with the
phrase "It was a dark and stormy night." [The teacher should instruct the class not to
write about anyone in the class or in the school.] After 3 minutes, the teacher instructs
them to pass the story to the person on their right/left. The next student adds to the
story for 3+[?] minutes and passes it on, and so forth. The instructor keeps track of the
time periods, adjusting them for the "speed" of the class but 3 minutes is generally
best. *The instructor joins in the writing. As the time for a conclusion draws near, the
instructor announces that the next writer will begin to finish up the story and the one
after that will conclude the story. (The class may be told that this will happen so that
they can mentally prepare for finishing a story although they won't know which one.)
2) Exercise two [with a theme]
Previous to this exercise the instructor has asked each student to turn in 3 sayings,
preferably original, on a sheet of paper. The instructor chooses 1 of the 3 sayings from
each and puts one for each class member, and the instructor, on a slip of paper. When
everyone has drawn their sayings from a box, the instructor says "Begin." They unfold
their sayings, write them and their names at the top of their papers, and begin a story
aimed at using the saying they have drawn as a theme of their story. The procedure is
the same as the "without saying" cycle except the last two writers have the particular
challenge of ending the story to fit and/or support the saying. *Return the stories to
their originators so they can see what happened to their ideas.
These exercises are helpful in showing the function of "theme" by being absent and
then present. The students then see how theme shapes the evolution of a story. Plus, the
interaction between students as they guide or deflect each other's purposes, also shows
the power of intent and concept on the story at any given point. Note: besides the
educational value of these exercises, they build enjoyment for the class and an
appreciation of each other's cleverness, or problems, in dealing with the story in the
form that is handed to them.
Return to top.
UNIT: EXTERIOR/INTERIOR BOXES
*This assignment came from an elementary teacher. As one joins in doing the
assignment, its value and strength in teaching creative writing becomes apparent. It
develops inward and outward directed perceptions regarding real life people that can
be transferred to the development of more realistic characters.
The assignment was done when I had the option to have an evening class, 7-10 pm. It
may not be feasible to do in less than several hours, and I did not include it in my most

recent classes.
The procedure is as follows:
I.) The students choose a box [usually cardboard] that 'fits' their personality. They may
vary from shoe boxes and hat boxes to packing boxes. A few have made their boxes,
some from plywood.
A.) On the outside of the box they place a collage of pictures and words from
magazines, etc. that describes them as they think others see them.
B.) Then they cover the inside with pictures and words that describe them as they
really are. **They do not need to put anything that they feel uncomfortable with or
don't wish to disclose.
C.) Nowhere on the box should they put their name.
II.) They should turn the box in on the morning of the evening class. The box should
be in an opaque bag with a piece of paper with the student's name on it.
III.) For the evening class arrange the boxes in the room with an identifying number on
the desk which the box is on. When the students arrive for the evening class, have them
all meet in a room that doesn't contain the boxes, and go over the directions with them
first. Then let them into the room with the boxes. The procedure is as follows.
A.) With sufficient notebook paper, the students go from box to box writing first
their assessment of the external qualities of the box maker as portrayed by the exterior
of the boxes and then doing the same with the interior of the boxes. Then they are to
make a guess as to whose box it is. If they change their minds, they should draw a
single line through previous choices. Then when the sheets containing all the
comments on their individual box are typed up and given to them, they can see which
other students had similar boxes.
Sample form:
Interior:
Exterior:
Name:
B.) The students should not talk to each other during the writing and if they take a
break they should not stand around mutually guessing the identity of the creator of
each box.
C.) If you have the time, or access to a typist, you can have all the students'
individual comments combined into one group for each box number. Then at a later
class the students are given the typed copies of the collected comments for their

respective box numbers. They generally enjoy reading all of the comments. However
please take care that if some comments are inappropriate, they should be deleted
before the rest are handed out to the students.
This unit is valuable even if the students don't get the combined comments on their
boxes.
UNIT: EXTENDED FABLE
This unit again focuses on conciseness in writing and it is enjoyable for the students. It
builds further discussion skills and helps prepare the class for the more challenging
assignments ahead.
The fable animals should generally be consistent with the nature of the creature in the
fable. For instance, ants don't have 'mom and dad' families. No humans should be
involved. The animals can speak. The fables should be limited to 3/4 to one page in
length and should be read by the students in class.
To read samples of student writing click here: Fable #1 and Fable #2 .
UNIT: BULWER-LYTTON SENTENCES
This assignment helps students recognize a sense of style in writing, which most of
them have, but may not be aware of it. It focuses on four or more story genres.
First read the newspaper article on the "bad writing" contest to the class. [There is a
text version and a scanned version of the article available. See the web page Teaching
Style in the Creative Writing section. Teachers, write to me for this article if you want
a photocopy of the original article. ] Then have students write the "worst possible
opening sentence for a novel." Begin with a general genre such as adventure. Have the
students read these sentences, then go on to romance, science fiction, western, mystery,
etc. The students love this unit and you may be surprised at the sophistication of their
stylistically 'bad' sentences.
For some sample sentences, go to Bulwer-Lytton Sample Sentences
UNIT SIX SENTENCE PARAGRAPH
This little unit usually takes a full period for everyone to complete and focuses on
variety in writing.
The students write a 6 sentence paragraph without repeating -any- word twice,
including contractions such as is not, and isn't. The paragraph should make "sense" as
a complete paragraph and not be just a series of sentences. The teacher reads these

paragraphs without giving the writers' names since the students don't have time to
polish them, and most will not be close to their best writing. However, the entire class
and the teacher can be amused by the resourcefulness of the students in meeting this
challenge.
Click here for some sample paragraphs.
UNIT: FOUR VISITORS
As mentioned earlier the focus of the course is to develop the students' writing abilities
by focusing on different aspects of the short story. The purpose of this unit is to
improve the students' ability to write description. At first it may seem that beginning
writers don't need to focus on description because their stories contain too much of it
in proportion to the other elements of a story. Further study though, may show that
instead of reducing the amount of description, students may need to more consciously
control the location and quality of their descriptions.
This assignment then focuses on control in writing description.
The idea for this unit came from a humorous story that I heard on the radio: Two
young men living in the South dare each other to spend until midnight in a large old
deserted haunted house. One decides to do it and as he waits in an upstairs room with
shrimp cooking in a pot of oil in the fireplace, he has four visitors. They come at 9, 10,
11pm and midnight respectively. Each one is scarier, larger, and more awesome than
the preceding one with the description of each using the five senses.
From this story I gained the idea for the following assignment: The students should set
up the story with the barest of plots... generally one paragraph explaining why they are
having visitors. The description should comprise 85%-90% of the paper. The visitors
can range from good to best, or, bad to worst. The writing should be controlled so that
the gradations are evident. This gradation requires much more control in writing than a
simple writing of four descriptions. The class should be told that this is Not a fashion
commentary and also should be done with awareness not to bring a focus on anyone in
the class. The assignment is generally 2+ typewritten pages.
-Points for students: they can highlight their printed out descriptions with a
highlighting pen- yellow or orange on their rough draft. That way they can see how
much actual description went into the paper. Also the teacher can highlight the
description when grading the final draft so that the students can see what was focused
on, and perhaps the reason for the grade.
Some students may find this a challenging assignment. To help them begin, the
instructor might suggest that the students use 1 sheet for each of the 4 visitors. On 1
side of the paper draw circles to list the character's qualities in, remembering the 5

senses. The students should look for degrees of change and arrange the characters
appropriately. *They can use metaphors and similes to express the 'inexpressible' (but
not to the extreme.)
Note: as the first confident volunteers read their stories, others in the class may be
motivated to spend some time improving their stories before they read them.
To read samples of student writing click here: Descriptive Writing #1 and Descriptive
Writing #2 .
Return to top.
Unit:* One or two sentence response.
This unit is simply to lighten up the class with a fun unit. Students are given a list of
situations for which they write one or two sentence responses. I got the idea for this
unit from an article entitled 'Self-Starting Writing Exercise Flounders' in a March 1984
copy of Media and Methods. The author, Dick Saggio, gave fourteen situations that the
students were to respond to. A few of his situations were:
1) One sentence: You are an eight-year old child. Your new baby sister has just come
home from the hospital. How do you feel?
2) One sentence of dialogue: A fortune hunter declaring his love.
3) Relate rain to quiet secure happiness. One sentence.
4) You are a pretty young wife whose feet are slightly on the large side. Your husband
of six months has just presented you with a beautiful pair of bedroom slippers one size
too small. How do you feel? One sentence.
I have used some of these sentences, and used some of my own according to the
classes' needs and responses. This exercise may not take up a full period, but does
make a nice 'filler' at end of a long period or unit.
UNIT: VOICES IN THE DARK
The purpose of this unit is to develop skill in dialogue writing. [As a tip for new
teachers. Design assignments that require or necessitate the skills which you wish the
students to develop rather than just tell them to focus on a particular area. The
following unit is an example of this principle.]
In this unit the writer-narrator sets up the plot situation in a beginning paragraph-not
too lengthy. In this plot situation, the narrator -can not see- [either blind or blindfolded,
etc.], -but can hear- two speakers, one "for" and one "against" the narrator. The
dialogue should comprise 85% of the paper. The two characters discuss 'back and forth'
focusing mostly on the 'blind' narrator rather than on each other. [The speaking

characters may be 'developed' as well as the narrator through the dialogue.] The
dialogue may have a theme.
*Incidentally the 'for and against' part of the assignment builds a tension and interest in
the plot for both the reader and the listeners.
Note for the teacher: Writing dialogue is challenging and you might have an
assignment where students first listen to what others say, and write down their words
precisely in a dialogue journal. That way when they write dialogue, students won't
project onto the character dialogue that might not be fitting. The dialogue will be more
exact, precise and realistic. *Don't expect Mark Twain quality dialogue from beginning
writers.
To read samples of student writing click here: Dialogue #1 and Dialogue #2 .
UNIT: OBFUSCATORY SENTENCES
The purpose of this short unit is to help the students recognize lack of content. As the
students purposely write it, they later can better recognize it.
First write out a sentence as a sample for students, as long as possible, which appears
to have meaning, but does not. Have the students analyze the sentence and discuss its
meaning among themselves. [Don't make the sentence so difficult no student could
equal it.] Then explain to the class that the sentence doesn't mean anything, that it is
obfuscatory. Then have the students each write one of their own and have volunteers
write them on the chalkboard, etc.
Students enjoy the accomplishment of writing sentences like this, and it opens their
minds to another concept of writing.
To read samples of obfuscatory sentences click here: Sentences .
UNIT: CHARACTER CYCLE
Short stories are either 'plot driven' or 'character driven.' That is, some writers have
preconceived plots that their characters must follow. Many mystery and science fiction
authors use this technique. Other authors create the characters, and 'observe' how they
act when placed in a certain situation. Each technique serves a purpose, but unless a
writer is skilled, plot driven stories create shallow characters. This unit shows students
how characters can drive a story, as the -story cycle unit with a theme- showed how a
theme can drive a story.
The setting for this unit is similar to the story cycles. The students are told to describe a

character and are given 3+ minutes to do so, and then they pass the description on to
the next student, who adds to the description. This process helps everyone 'buy into'
the characters. After 5-6 turns of writing on the characters, the character sheets are
passed back to the first writer who sees what happened to the character. Then the class
is divided into groups of 5-6 students who are told to come up with a story plot and
outline using all of the characters that they have. *The story does not become plot
driven because by now the students have an idea of what the character is like as a
person and they know whether the character would act in a certain way or not.
After sufficient time has passed, the characters are traded with the other group/s and a
new story outline is written. Then during one class period, the various plots and
outlines are presented and the story lines are compared.
As an alternative unit, each student writes a 3/4 to one page description of a character
outside of class. They make two copies of the character description which they turn
into the instructor. The instructor keeps one copy of each for grading and gives the
other ones to students at random, making sure that the original writers don't receive
their characters.
Then each student takes the new character and adds two paragraphs to the description
and brings two copies of their additions to the next class. One copy they give to the
instructor and the other copy they keep with the original description.
Next, the teacher assigns 3-4 students to a group, with no student in the group placed
with a student that has their original character. Then the groups develop a story based
on how the characters would 'reasonably act' in the situation that they create. That
restriction means: no insane killers, no 'mad' people to justify inexplicable, irrational
actions. Likewise, there should be no inexplicable Hollywood style '24 hours to fall in
love' type of stories.
This exercise generates a lot of discussion about the characters' motivations,
background, tendencies, etc. which helps the students in developing characters in their
subsequent assignments.
UNIT: JOURNAL
This unit is one I used for extra credit when students were gone a week for a school
activity. It could be used at any time. I don't use journals often because in my opinion
to be done correctly, students need feedback regularly and journals can simply 'pile up'
without the attention that I feel they require.
The students divide their paper vertically with two columns. The left one is titled 'What
I Saw,' and the other one, 'What I Thought about what I Saw.' Generally they write a
page per day. The purpose of this unit is to develop some introspection and perhaps

show students some value in keeping their own journals.

UNIT: LETTER TO A GRANDCHILD
The concept for teachers is that growth in the writer is important as well as growth in
writing skills. However, this growth should not be prescribed but rather built into the
course so that the writers can discover themselves and the principles affecting their
lives. This unit causes young people who are sometimes inward focused to see others'
viewpoints. It helps them further empathize with characters in their final story and
perhaps create them with more depth.
In this unit the students write a letter to a grandchild to be opened on the grandchild's
16th birthday. It is to contain a description of themselves, their goals, the "world" they
live in , and advice or counsel for the future. They turn it in to me in an envelope
marked 'To My Grandchild' with their name as the return address. I grade this paper
generally with a light pencil grade on the envelope so that it can be erased and the
letter saved for real use.
I generally grade this paper with little criticism, the primary value being in completing
the assignment rather than in the grade.
UNIT: WRITING A SHORT STORY
This paper should demonstrate all the skills learned in the previous assignments:
narration, plot, theme, description, dialogue, and characterization. [Note: Since I taught
research writing to these students before this class, I had the students use the setting
and knowledge from the paper as a base for their stories.]
Other teachers may consider therefore that if the student has written a prior research
paper, the knowledge gained from the paper could be employed in the short story, since
one of the main shortcomings of 'first' short stories is their lack of depth. There is a
significant increase in the effectiveness of the story when it is tied to sufficient
background knowledge.
Even on a professional story writing level there is need of research, and asking
students to research the backgrounds of their stories might help build habits that would
be useful to them later. For instance, an aquaintance, while reading a mystery romance
book about the Oregon Coast remarked that the author had not done the necessary
research, because: the Oregon Coast does not have violent thunder and lightning
storms, the small towns do not have morgues, and they do not have sheriffs. Both of
the latter functions are on the county level.
The stories, as mentioned, should contain noticeable elements of previous assignments

and are 4+ pages long. Note: as this unit occurs near the end of the class, sufficient
time should be allowed for the students to read their stories and have some discussion.
This is an enjoyable time for everyone since all now can appreciate the qualities of
writing being displayed and the effort needed to write them. I use this assignment as
the 'final exam' and students should know that their short story is significant in
evaluating their progress in the class.
Comments on the actual reading process: 1.) Students generally should read louder and
with a little more feeling. 2.) Students draw 'name cards' for this last story. [This means
that all the students' names are put into a box and someone draws the names to be read.
This process insures that everyone will be ready on time, and not put this end of the
class assignment off, counting on others to volunteer.] 3.) The teacher can make
comments on the oral reading on each students' name card as it is drawn.
Note: One week was almost not enough time for reading the short stories for one class
of thirteen which read 4+ page stories, meeting three days per week.
For some sample short stories based on students' research papers, go to story
one and story two
That's the course. When time permitted, I used supplemental writings although I have
found that giving students samples of professional writers work was not as effective as
students doing more of their own writing with constant feedback from other students.
In every unit some student produced a sparkling gem of writing that others would
consider attainable whereas the samples from Hemingway, Twain, or Faulkner, etc.
might not be considered attainable. And the basic purpose for the teacher should be 'do
what produces desired results' in the student.
Return to: Teaching Creative Writing Page
Source: http://teacher2b.com/creative/creativp.htm

Making lectures more interactive

What happens when you try to engage students by floating a question during class?
Silence? The same eager student anxious to answer? Most of the students not thinking
about the question but just hoping that you won't call on them? What can we do to make
students more actively engaged with the material during lecture in order to improve student
learning? Clicking "more information" below will take you to a discussion, at the Starting
Point site, of strategies for making lecture more interactive.more information and examples
Below, you will also find links to useful material for making classes more interactive:

 Using Data in the Classroom: NSDL/DLESE/Cutting Edge resource site for

engaging students in using data to address scientific questions, with over 500
links to on-line or downloadable datasets and tools for visualizing or
manipulating data that can be used in the classroom. Both browsable and
searchable.
Using Data to Teach Earth Processes: Cutting Edge resource site for engaging
students with real world data.
Back-of-the-envelope calculations: short explanation of and rationale for using
back-of-the-envelope calculations, plus examples.
Teaching Quantitative Skills in the Geosciences: DLESE resource site for helping
students master quantitative skills with links to resources.

The jigsaw technique

Have you struggled with group work in class? The jigsaw technique can be a useful,
well-structured template for carrying out effective in-class group work. The class is
divided into several teams, with each team preparing separate but related
assignments. When all team members are prepared, the class is re-divided into
mixed groups, with one member from each team in each group. Each person in the
group teaches the rest of the group what he/she knows, and the group then tackles
an assignment together that pulls all of the pieces together to form the full picture
(hence the name "jigsaw").Jigsaw module from Pedagogy in Action

The gallery walk

The gallery walk is a cooperative learning strategy in which the instructor devises
several questions/problems and posts each question/problem at a different table or
at a different place on the walls (hence the name "gallery"). Students form as many
groups as there are questions, and each group moves from question to question
(hence the name "walk"). After writing the group's response to the first question, the
group rotates to the next position, adding to what is already there. At the last
question, it is the group's responsibility to summarize and report to the class. more
information and examples

Effective discussion
Discussion is an excellent way to engage students in thinking and analyzing or in
defending one side of an issue, rather than listening to lecture. Students must also
respond to one another, rather than interacting intellectually only with the instructor.
Good discussion can be difficult to generate, however. Clicking "more information"
below will take you to some tips for having a good discussion in class and a sample
template for class discussion. Download more information on effective discussions,
with a template example (Microsoft Word 35kB Jun16 05)

Concept sketches
Concept sketches (different from concept maps) are sketches or diagrams that are
concisely annotated with short statements that describe the processes, concepts,
and interrelationships shown in the sketch. Having students generate their own
concept sketches is a powerful way for students to process concepts and convey
them to others. Concept sketches can be used as preparation for class, as an in-class
activity, in the field or lab, or as an assessment tool. Download more information on
concept sketches, with examples (Microsoft Word 475kB Jun15 05) ::Download an example of
a final project involving concept sketches, with samples of student work (Microsoft Word
3.1MB Jun15 05)

Using case studies

Case studies have been used successfully for many years in business school and in
medical school for actively engaging students in problem-solving relevant to the
discipline. The primary hallmark of a case study is presentation of students with a
problem to solve that revolves around a story (the "case"). In medical school case
studies, the "story" typically involves a sick patient. In science case studies, "stories"
can range from public policy issues to science research questions. Good case studies
give the students considerable latitude in deciding how to solve the problem, rather
than leading them through the problem by the nose, and provide excellent
opportunities to engage students in the classroom. The National Center for Case
Study Teaching in Science has a collection of case studies in a number of different
science disciplines. Also, clicking "more information" below will take you to a
discussion, at the Starting Point site, of teaching with case studies.more information and
examples at the Starting Point site

Debates
Debates can be a very useful strategy for engaging students in their own learning.
Debates force students to deal with complexity and "gray areas", and they are rich in
imbedded content. Debates can also help provide relevancy of course material to
everyday issues, which can improve student learning. Debates also improve
student's oral communication skills. Download more information on debates,
including a rubric for grading debates (Microsoft Word 35kB Jun15 05).

Just-in-Time Teaching
Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT) was developed as a way of engaging students in course
material before class and preparing them to come to class and participate actively
during class. Clicking "more information" below will take you to a discussion, at the
Starting Point site, of using Just-in-Time teaching.More information and examples

Role playing
Role-playing and simulations in class can be an excellent way to engage students. A
well-constructed role-playing or simulation exercise can emphasize the real world
and require students to become deeply involved in a topic. Clicking "more
information" below will take you to a discussion, at the Starting Point site, of
teaching with role playing.More information and examples

Source:
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/coursedesign/tutorial/strategies.html

Donald R. Paulson

Jennifer L. Faust

Chemistry and Biochemistry

California State University, L.A.
5151 State University Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90032

Department of Philosophy
California State University, L.A.
5151 State University Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90032

dpaulso@calstatela.edu

jfaust@calstatela.edu

BACKGROUND & DEFINITIONS

The past decade has seen an explosion of interest among college faculty in the
teaching methods variously grouped under the terms 'active learning' and 'cooperative
learning'. However, even with this interest, there remains much misunderstanding of
and mistrust of the pedagogical "movement" behind the words. The majority of all
college faculty still teach their classes in the traditional lecture mode. Some of the
criticism and hesitation seems to originate in the idea that techniques of active and
cooperative learning are genuine alternatives to, rather than enhancements of,
professors' lectures. We provide below a survey of a wide variety of active learning
techniques which can be used to supplement rather than replace lectures. We are not
advocating complete abandonment of lecturing, as both of us still lecture about half of
the class period. The lecture is a very efficient way to present information but use of
the lecture as the only mode of instruction presents problems for both the instructor
and the students. There is a large amount of research attesting to the benefits of active
learning.
"Active Learning" is, in short, anything that students do in a classroom other than
merely passively listening to an instructor's lecture. This includes everything from
listening practices which help the students to absorb what they hear, to short writing
exercises in which students react to lecture material, to complex group exercises in

which students apply course material to "real life" situations and/or to new problems.
The term "cooperative learning" covers the subset of active learning activities which
students do as groups of three or more, rather than alone or in pairs; generally,
cooperative learning techniques employ more formally structured groups of students
assigned complex tasks, such as multiple-step exercises, research projects, or
presentations. Cooperative learning is to be distinguished from another now welldefined term of art, "collaborative learning", which refers to those classroom
strategies which have the instructor and the students placed on an equal footing
working together in, for example, designing assignments, choosing texts, and
presenting material to the class. Clearly, collaborative learning is a more radical
departure from tradition than merely utilizing techniques aimed at enhancing student
retention of material presented by the instructor; we will limit our examples to the
"less radical" active and cooperative learning techniques. "Techniques of active
learning", then, are those activities which an instructor incorporates into the classroom
to foster active learning.

TECHNIQUES OF ACTIVE LEARNING

Exercises for Individual Students
Because these techniques are aimed at individual students, they can very easily be
used without interrupting the flow of the class. These exercises are particularly useful
in providing the instructor with feedback concerning student understanding and
retention of material. Some (numbers 3 and 4, in particular) are especially designed to
encourage students' exploration of their own attitudes and values. Many (especially
numbers 4 - 6) are designed to increase retention of material presented in lectures and
texts.
1. The "One Minute Paper" - This is a highly effective technique for checking
student progress, both in understanding the material and in reacting to course
material. Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either
specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not many
more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: "How does John
Hospers define "free will"?", "What is "scientific realism"?", "What is the
activation energy for a chemical reaction?", "What is the difference between
replication and transcription?", and so on. Another good use of the minute
paper is to ask questions like "What was the main point of todays class
material?" This tells you whether or not the students are viewing the material in
the way you envisioned.

2. Muddiest (or Clearest) Point - This is a variation on the one-minute paper,

though you may wish to give students a slightly longer time period to answer
the question. Here you ask (at the end of a class period, or at a natural break in
the presentation), "What was the "muddiest point" in today's lecture?" or,
perhaps, you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if anything)
do you find unclear about the concept of 'personal identity' ('inertia', 'natural
selection', etc.)?".

3. Affective Response - Again, this is similar to the above exercises, but here you
are asking students to report their reactions to some facet of the course material
- i.e., to provide an emotional or valuative response to the material. Obviously,
this approach is limited to those subject areas in which such questions are
appropriate (one should not, for instance, inquire into students affective
responses to vertebrate taxonomy). However, it can be quite a useful starting
point for courses such as applied ethics, particularly as a precursor to
theoretical analysis. For example, you might ask students what they think of Dr.
Jack Kevorkian's activities, before presenting what various moral theorists
would make of them. By having several views "on the table" before theory is
presented, you can help students to see the material in context and to explore
their own beliefs. It is also a good way to begin a discussion of evolutionary
theory or any other scientific area where the general public often has views
contrary to current scientific thinking, such as paper vs. plastic packaging or
nuclear power generation.

4. Daily Journal - This combines the advantages of the above three techniques,
and allows for more in-depth discussion of or reaction to course material. You
may set aside class time for students to complete their journal entries, or assign
this as homework. The only disadvantage to this approach is that the feedback
will not be as "instant" as with the one-minute paper (and other assignments
which you collect the day of the relevant lecture). But with this approach
(particularly if entries are assigned for homework), you may ask more complex
questions, such as, "Do you think that determinism is correct, or that humans
have free will? Explain your answer.", or "Do you think that Dr. Kevorkian's

actions are morally right? What would John Stuart Mill say?" and so on. Or you
might have students find and discuss reports of scientific studies in popular
media on topics relevant to course material, such as global warming, the ozone
layer, and so forth.

5. Reading Quiz - Clearly, this is one way to coerce students to read assigned
material! Active learning depends upon students coming to class prepared. The
reading quiz can also be used as an effective measure of student comprehension
of the readings (so that you may gauge their level of sophistication as readers).
Further, by asking the same sorts of questions on several reading quizzes, you
will give students guidance as to what to look for when reading assigned text. If
you ask questions like "What color were Esmerelda's eyes?" (as my high school
literature teacher liked to do), you are telling the student that it is the details
that count, whereas questions like "What reason did Esmerelda give, for
murdering Sebastian?" highlight issues of justification. If your goal is to
instruct (and not merely to coerce), carefully choose questions which will both
identify who has read the material (for your sake) and identify what is
important in the reading (for their sake).

6. Clarification Pauses - This is a simple technique aimed at fostering "active

listening". Throughout a lecture, particularly after stating an important point or
defining a key concept, stop, let it sink in, and then (after waiting a bit!) ask if
anyone needs to have it clarified. You can also circulate around the room during
these pauses to look at student notes, answer questions, etc. Students who
would never ask a question in front of the whole class will ask questions during
a clarification pause as you move about the room.

7. Response to a demonstration or other teacher centered activity - The

students are asked to write a paragraph that begins with: I was surprised that ...
I learned that ... I wonder about ... This allows the students to reflect on what
they actually got out of the teachers presentation. It also helps students realize
that the activity was designed for more than just entertainment.

Questions and Answers

While most of us use questions as a way of prodding students and instantly
testing comprehension, there are simple ways of tweaking our questioning
techniques which increase student involvement and comprehension. Though
some of the techniques listed here are "obvious", we will proceed on the
principle that the obvious sometimes bears repeating (a useful pedagogical
principle, to be sure!).
The "Socratic Method"
Taking its namesake from the most famous gadfly in history, this technique in
its original format involved instructors "testing" student knowledge (of reading
assignments, lectures, or perhaps applications of course material to a wider
context) by asking questions during the course of a lecture. Typically, the
instructor chooses a particular student, presents her with a question, and
expects an answer forthwith; if the "chosen" student cannot answer the question
presented, the instructor chooses another (and another) until the desired answer
is received. This method has come under criticism, based on claims that it
singles out students (potentially embarrassing them), and/or that it favors only a
small segment of the class (i.e., that small percentage of the class who can
answer any question thrown at them). In addition, once a student has answered
a question they may not pay much attention as it will be a long time before the
teacher returns to them for a second question. In spite of these criticisms, we
feel that the Socratic method is an important and useful one; the following
techniques suggest variations which enhance this method, avoiding some of
these pitfalls.
8. Wait Time - Rather than choosing the student who will answer the question
presented, this variation has the instructor WAITING before calling on
someone to answer it. The wait time will generally be short (15 seconds or so) but it may seem interminable in the classroom. It is important to insist that no
one raise his hand (or shout out the answer) before you give the OK, in order to
discourage the typical scenario in which the five students in the front row all
immediately volunteer to answer the question, and everyone else sighs in relief.
Waiting forces every student to think about the question, rather than passively
relying on those students who are fastest out of the gate to answer every
question. When the wait time is up, the instructor asks for volunteers or
randomly picks a student to answer the question. Once students are in the habit
of waiting after questions are asked, more will get involved in the process.

9. Student Summary of Another Student's Answer - In order to promote

active listening, after one student has volunteered an answer to your question,
ask another student to summarize the first student's response. Many students
hear little of what their classmates have to say, waiting instead for the instructor
to either correct or repeat the answer. Having students summarize or repeat
each others' contributions to the course both fosters active participation by all
students and promotes the idea that learning is a shared enterprise. Given the
possibility of being asked to repeat a classmates' comments, most students will
listen more attentively to each other.

10.The Fish Bowl - Students are given index cards, and asked to write down one
question concerning the course material. They should be directed to ask a
question of clarification regarding some aspect of the material which they do
not fully understand; or, perhaps you may allow questions concerning the
application of course material to practical contexts. At the end of the class
period (or, at the beginning of the next class meeting if the question is assigned
for homework), students deposit their questions in a fish bowl. The instructor
then draws several questions out of the bowl and answers them for the class or
asks the class to answer them. This technique can be combined with others
(e.g., #8-9 above, and #2).

11. Quiz/Test Questions - Here students are asked to become actively involved in
creating quizzes and tests by constructing some (or all) of the questions for the
exams. This exercise may be assigned for homework and itself evaluated
(perhaps for extra credit points). In asking students to think up exam questions,
we encourage them to think more deeply about the course material and to
explore major themes, comparison of views presented, applications, and other
higher-order thinking skills. Once suggested questions are collected, the
instructor may use them as the basis of review sessions, and/or to model the
most effective questions. Further, you may ask students to discuss the merits of
a sample of questions submitted; in discussing questions, they will significantly
increase their engagement of the material to supply answers. Students might be
asked to discuss several aspects of two different questions on the same material

including degree of difficulty, effectiveness in assessing their learning, proper

scope of questions, and so forth.

Immediate Feedback
These techniques are designed to give the instructor some indication of student
understanding of the material presented during the lecture itself. These
activities provide formative assessment rather than summative assessment of
student understanding, Formative assessment is evaluation of the class as a
whole in order to provide information for the benefit of the students and the
instructor, but the information is not used as part of the course grade;
summative assessment is any evaluation of student performance which
becomes part of the course grade. For each feedback method, the instructor
stops at appropriate points to give quick tests of the material; in this way, she
can adjust the lecture mid-course, slowing down to spend more time on the
concepts students are having difficulty with or moving more quickly to
applications of concepts of which students have a good understanding.
12.Finger Signals - This method provides instructors with a means of testing
student comprehension without the waiting period or the grading time required
for written quizzes. Students are asked questions and instructed to signal their
answers by holding up the appropriate number of fingers immediately in front
of their torsos (this makes it impossible for students to "copy", thus committing
them to answer each question on their own). For example, the instructor might
say "one finger for 'yes', two for 'no'", and then ask questions such as "Do all
organic compounds contain carbon [hydrogen, etc.]?". Or, the instructor might
have multiple choice questions prepared for the overhead projector and have
the answers numbered (1) through (5), asking students to answer with finger
signals. In very large classes the students can use a set of large cardboard signs
with numbers written on them. This method allows instructors to assess student
knowledge literally at a glance.

13.Flash Cards - A variation of the Finger Signals approach, this method tests
students comprehension through their response to flash cards held by the
instructor. This is particularly useful in disciplines which utilize models or
other visual stimuli, such as chemistry, physics or biology. For example, the

instructor might flash the diagram of a chemical compound and ask "Does this
compound react with H2O?". This can be combined with finger signals.

14.Quotations - This is a particularly useful method of testing student

understanding when they are learning to read texts and identify an author's
viewpoint and arguments. After students have read a representative advocate of
each of several opposing theories or schools of thought, and the relevant
concepts have been defined and discussed in class, put on the overhead
projector a quotation by an author whom they have not read in the assigned
materials, and ask them to figure out what position that person advocates. In
addition to testing comprehension of the material presented in lecture, this
exercise develops critical thinking and analysis skills. This would be very
useful, for example, in discussing the various aspects of evolutionary theory.

Critical Thinking Motivators

Sometimes it is helpful to get students involved in discussion of or thinking
about course material either before any theory is presented in lecture or after
several conflicting theories have been presented. The idea in the first case is to
generate data or questions prior to mapping out the theoretical landscape; in the
second case, the students learn to assess the relative merits of several
approaches.
15.The Pre-Theoretic Intuitions Quiz - Students often dutifully record
everything the instructor says during a lecture and then ask at the end of the day
or the course "what use is any of this?", or "what good will philosophy [organic
chemistry, etc.] do for us?". To avoid such questions, and to get students
interested in a topic before lectures begin, an instructor can give a quiz aimed at
getting students to both identify and to assess their own views. An example of
this is a long "True or False" questionnaire designed to start students thinking
about moral theory (to be administered on the first or second day of an
introductory ethics course), which includes statements such as "There are really
no correct answers to moral questions" and "Whatever a society holds to be
morally right is in fact morally right". After students have responded to the
questions individually, have them compare answers in pairs or small groups and
discuss the ones on which they disagree. This technique may also be used to

assess student knowledge of the subject matter in a pre-/post-lecture

comparison. The well-known "Force Concept Inventory" developed by
Hestenes to measure understanding of force and motion is another good
example of this.

16.Puzzles/Paradoxes - One of the most useful means of ferreting out students'

intuitions on a given topic is to present them with a paradox or a puzzle
involving the concept(s) at issue, and to have them struggle towards a solution.
By forcing the students to "work it out" without some authority's solution, you
increase the likelihood that they will be able to critically assess theories when
they are presented later. For example, students in a course on theories of truth
might be asked to assess the infamous "Liar Paradox" (with instances such as
'This sentence is false'), and to suggest ways in which such paradoxes can be
avoided. Introductory logic students might be presented with complex logic
puzzles as a way of motivating truth tables, and so forth. In scientific fields you
can present experimental data which seems to contradict parts of the theory just
presented or use examples which seem to have features which support two
opposing theories.

Share/Pair
Grouping students in pairs allows many of the advantages of group work
students have the opportunity to state their own views, to hear from others, to
hone their argumentative skills, and so forth without the administrative "costs"
of group work (time spent assigning people to groups, class time used just for
"getting in groups", and so on). Further, pairs make it virtually impossible for
students to avoid participating thus making each person accountable.
17.Discussion - Students are asked to pair off and to respond to a question either
in turn or as a pair. This can easily be combined with other techniques such as
those under "Questions and Answers" or "Critical Thinking Motivators" above.
For example, after students have responded to statements, such as "Whatever a
society holds to be morally right is in fact morally right" with 'true' or 'false',
they can be asked to compare answers to a limited number of questions and to
discuss the statements on which they differed. In science classes students can
be asked to explain some experimental data that supports a theory just

discussed by the lecturer. Generally, this works best when students are given
explicit directions, such as "Tell each other why you chose the answer you did".

18.Note Comparison/Sharing - One reason that some students perform poorly in

classes is that they often do not have good note-taking skills. That is, while they
might listen attentively, students do not always know what to write down, or
they may have gaps in their notes which will leave them bewildered when they
go back to the notes to study or to write a paper. One way to avoid some of
these pitfalls and to have students model good note-taking is to have them
occasionally compare notes. The instructor might stop lecturing immediately
after covering a crucial concept and have students read each others' notes,
filling in the gaps in their own note-taking. This is especially useful in
introductory courses or in courses designed for non-majors or special
admissions students. Once students see the value of supplementing their own
note-taking with others', they are likely to continue the practice outside of class
time.

19.Evaluation of Another Student's Work - Students are asked to complete an

individual homework assignment or short paper. On the day the assignment is
due, students submit one copy to the instructor to be graded and one copy to
their partner. These may be assigned that day, or students may be assigned
partners to work with throughout the term. Each student then takes their
partner's work and depending on the nature of the assignment gives critical
feedback, standardizes or assesses the arguments, corrects mistakes in problemsolving or grammar, and so forth. This is a particularly effective way to
improve student writing.

Cooperative Learning Exercises

For more complex projects, where many heads are better than one or two, you
may want to have students work in groups of three or more. As the term
"cooperative learning" suggests, students working in groups will help each
other to learn. Generally, it is better to form heterogeneous groups (with regard
to gender, ethnicity, and academic performance), particularly when the groups

will be working together over time or on complex projects; however, some of

these techniques work well with spontaneously formed groups. Cooperative
groups encourage discussion of problem solving techniques ("Should we try
this?", etc.), and avoid the embarrassment of students who have not yet
mastered all of the skills required.
20.Cooperative Groups in Class - Pose a question to be worked on in each
cooperative group and then circulate around the room answering questions,
asking further questions, keeping the groups on task, and so forth.. After an
appropriate time for group discussion, students are asked to share their
discussion points with the rest of the class. (The ensuing discussion can be
guided according to the "Questions and Answers" techniques outlined above.)

21.Active Review Sessions - In the traditional class review session the students
ask questions and the instructor answers them. Students spend their time
copying down answers rather than thinking about the material. In an active
review session the instructor posses questions and the students work on them in
groups. Then students are asked to show their solutions to the whole group and
discuss any differences among solutions proposed.

22.Work at the Blackboard - In many problem solving courses (e.g., logic or

critical thinking), instructors tend to review homework or teach problem
solving techniques by solving the problems themselves. Because students learn
more by doing, rather than watching, this is probably not the optimal scenario.
Rather than illustrating problem solving, have students work out the problems
themselves, by asking them to go to the blackboard in small groups to solve
problems. If there is insufficient blackboard space, students can still work out
problems as a group, using paper and pencil or computers if appropriate
software is available.

23.Concept Mapping - A concept map is a way of illustrating the connections that

exist between terms or concepts covered in course material; students construct

concept maps by connecting individual terms by lines which indicate the

relationship between each set of connected terms. Most of the terms in a
concept map have multiple connections. Developing a concept map requires the
students to identify and organize information and to establish meaningful
relationships between the pieces of information.

24.Visual Lists - Here students are asked to make a list--on paper or on the
blackboard; by working in groups, students typically can generate more
comprehensive lists than they might if working alone. This method is
particularly effective when students are asked to compare views or to list pros
and cons of a position. One technique which works well with such comparisons
is to have students draw a "T" and to label the left- and right-hand sides of the
cross bar with the opposing positions (or 'Pro' and 'Con'). They then list
everything they can think of which supports these positions on the relevant side
of the vertical line. Once they have generated as thorough a list as they can, ask
them to analyze the lists with questions appropriate to the exercise. For
example, when discussing Utilitarianism (a theory which claims that an action
is morally right whenever it results in more benefits than harms) students can
use the "T" method to list all of the (potential) benefits and harms of an action,
and then discuss which side is more heavily "weighted". Often having the list
before them helps to determine the ultimate utility of the action, and the
requirement to fill in the "T" generally results in a more thorough accounting of
the consequences of the action in question. In science classes this would work
well with such topics as massive vaccination programs, nuclear power,
eliminating chlorofluorocarbons, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and so
forth.

25.Jigsaw Group Projects - In jigsaw projects, each member of a group is asked

to complete some discrete part of an assignment; when every member has
completed his assigned task, the pieces can be joined together to form a
finished project. For example, students in a course in African geography might
be grouped and each assigned a country; individual students in the group could
then be assigned to research the economy, political structure, ethnic makeup,
terrain and climate, or folklore of the assigned country. When each student has
completed his research, the group then reforms to complete a comprehensive
report. In a chemistry course each student group could research a different form

of power generation (nuclear, fossil fuel, hydroelectric, etc.). Then the groups
are reformed so that each group has an expert in one form of power generation.
They then tackle the difficult problem of how much emphasis should be placed
on each method.

26.Role Playing - Here students are asked to "act out" a part. In doing so, they get
a better idea of the concepts and theories being discussed. Role-playing
exercises can range from the simple (e.g., "What would you do if a Nazi came
to your door, and you were hiding a Jewish family in the attic?") to the
complex. Complex role playing might take the form of a play (depending on
time and resources); for example, students studying ancient philosophy might
be asked to recreate the trial of Socrates. Using various sources (e.g., Plato's
dialogues, Stone's The Trial of Socrates, and Aristophanes' The Clouds),
student teams can prepare the prosecution and defense of Socrates on the
charges of corruption of youth and treason; each team may present witnesses
(limited to characters which appear in the Dialogues, for instance) to construct
their case, and prepare questions for cross-examination.

27.Panel Discussions - Panel discussions are especially useful when students are
asked to give class presentations or reports as a way of including the entire
class in the presentation. Student groups are assigned a topic to research and
asked to prepare presentations (note that this may readily be combined with the
jigsaw method outlined above). Each panelist is then expected to make a very
short presentation, before the floor is opened to questions from "the audience".
The key to success is to choose topics carefully and to give students sufficient
direction to ensure that they are well-prepared for their presentations. You
might also want to prepare the "audience", by assigning them various roles. For
example, if students are presenting the results of their research into several
forms of energy, you might have some of the other students role play as
concerned environmentalists, transportation officials, commuters, and so forth.

28.Debates - Actually a variation of #27, formal debates provide an efficient

structure for class presentations when the subject matter easily divides into

opposing views or Pro/Con considerations. Students are assigned to debate

teams, given a position to defend, and then asked to present arguments in
support of their position on the presentation day. The opposing team should be
given an opportunity to rebut the argument(s) and, time permitting, the original
presenters asked to respond to the rebuttal. This format is particularly useful in
developing argumentation skills (in addition to teaching content).

29.Games - Many will scoff at the idea that one would literally play games in a
university setting, but occasionally there is no better instructional tool. In
particular, there are some concepts or theories which are more easily illustrated
than discussed and in these cases, a well-conceived game may convey the idea
more readily. For example, when students are introduced to the concepts of
"laws of nature" and "the scientific method", it is hard to convey through
lectures the nature of scientific work and the fallibility of inductive hypotheses.
Instead, students play a couple rounds of the Induction Game, in which playing
cards are turned up and either added to a running series or discarded according
to the dealers pre-conceived "law of nature". Students are asked to "discover"
the natural law, by formulating and testing hypotheses as the game proceeds.

REFERENCES ON ACTIVE AND COOPERATIVE

LEARNING
Angelo, T. A. and Cross, K. P. 1993. Classroom Assessment Techniques, A Handbook for
College Teachers, 2nd ed., Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco,.
Bonwell, C.C, and J. A. Eison. 1991. Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom.
(ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1, 1991) Washington, D.C.: George Washington
University Clearinghouse on Higher Education.
Brophy, J. 1987. Synthesis of research on strategies for motivating students to
learn. Educational Leadership 45: 40-48.
Clarke, J. 1994. "Pieces of the Puzzle: The Jigsaw Method", in Sharan, ed. Handbook of
Cooperative Learning Methods.
Davis, G. 1993.Tools for Teaching, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
Davis, T. M. and Murrell, P. H. 1993.Turning Teaching into Learning: The Role of Student
Responsibility in the Collegiate Experience, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Research Report,
No. 1, Washington, D.C.

Crow, L. W., Ed. 1989. Enhancing Critical Thinking in the Sciences, Society for College
Science Teachers, Washington, D. C.
Frederick, Peter J. 1987. "Student Involvement: Active Learning in Large Classes", in M.
Weimer, ed. Teaching Large Classes Well. pp. 45-56.
Goodsell, A., M. Maher and V. Tinto. 1992. Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher
Education. University Park: The National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and
Assessment.
Grasha, A. 1996.Teaching with Style, Alliance Publishers, Pittsburgh, PA.
Herron, D. 1996.The Chemistry Classroom, Formulas for Successful Teaching, American
Chemical Society, Washington, D. C.
Johnson, D. and R. Johnson. 1994. "Structuring Academic Controversy", in Sharan,
ed. Handbook of Cooperative Learning Methods.
Johnson, D., R. Johnson, and K. Smith. 1991. Active Learning: Cooperation in the College
Classroom. Edina, MI, Interaction Book Company.
----------. 1991. Cooperative Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional
Productivity. (ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 4, 1991) Washington, D.C.: George
Washington University Clearing House on Higher Education.
Kagan, S. 1992. Cooperative Learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers, Inc.
Kagan, S. and M. Kagan. 1994. "The Structural Approach: Six Keys to Cooperative Learning",
in Sharan, ed. Handbook of Cooperative Learning Methods.
Lowman. 1995.Mastering the Techniques of Teaching, 3rd. Ed. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Marcus, Russell. 1998. "Cooperative Learning on the First Day of Class", APA Newsletters,
97:2, Spring. [note: also forthcoming in Teaching Philosophy]
Mazur, E. 1996.Conceptests, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
Meyers, C. and T. Jones. 1993. Promoting Active Learning: Strategies for the College
Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
McKinney, K., and M. Graham-Buxton. 1993. "The Use of Collaborative Learning Groups in
the Large Class: Is It Possible?" Teaching Sociology, 21, 403-408.
Morrissey, T. J. 1982. The Five-Minute Entry: A Writing Exercise for Large Classes in All
Disciplines. Exercise Exchange, 27, 41-42. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 236
604)
National Research Council. 1997.Science Teaching Reconsidered, National Academy Press,
Washington, D. C.
Nelson, C. T. "Tools for Tampering with Teachings Taboos," in New Paradigms for College
Teaching, W. E. Campbell and K. A. Smith, Eds., Interaction Book Company, Edina, MI, 1997.

New Paradigms for College Teaching, Campbell, D. E.; Smith, K. A. Editors, Interaction Book
Co., Edina, MI, 1997
Siebert, E. D. ; Caprio, M. W.; Lyda C. M., Ed. 1997.Effective Teaching and Course
Management for University and College Teachers, Kendall-Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, Iowa.
Silberman, M. 1996.Active Learning, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Sharan, S., ed. 1994. Handbook of Cooperative Learning Methods. Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press.
Weimer, M. G., ed. 1987. Teaching Large Classes Well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

INTERNET REFERENCES
Los Angeles Collaborative for Teacher Excellence
Source: http://www.calstatela.edu/dept/chem/chem2/Active/main.htm

Lecture Practices:
Effective Ways to Present New Information Orally to Fit
Differences in Learning Styles
At times information must be transmitted orally to a passive listening
audience. But research has shown that after 10 to 20 minutes of continuous
lecture, assimilation falls off rapidly. If the teacher must rely on the oral
presentation of material, these techniques have been identified as enhancing
learner retention. Think about using one or more of these strategies in your
lectures.

Lecture / Rhetorical Questioning

o
Talk in 7 to 10 minute segments, pause, ask pre-planned
rhetorical questions; learners record their answers in their notes.
Surveys with Exemplifier
o
Pause, ask directly for a show of hands: Raise your hand if you
agree... disagree... etc. or Raise your hand if you have encountered
an example of that. Ask for a volunteer to speak for the response
group whose hands are raised.
Turn To Your Partner And ...
o
Pause, ask each to turn to the person next to them and share
examples of the point just made or complete a given phrase or
sentence.
Halting Time

Present complex material or directions and then stop so learners

have time to think or carry out directions. Visually check to see
whether the class appears to understand. If they do, continue.
Explication de Texte
By reading and analyzing passages from the text aloud, learners
can see higher-order thinking skills and that criticism is a
participatory intellectual exercise.
Guided Lecture
Students listen to 15-20 minutes of lecture without taking notes.
At the end, they spend five minutes recording all they can recall. The
next step involves learners in small discussion groups reconstructing
the lecture conceptually with supporting data, preparing complete
lecture notes, using the instructor to resolve questions that arise.
Immediate Mastery Quiz
When a regular immediate mastery test is included in the last
few minutes of the period, learners retain almost twice as much
material, both factual and conceptual.
Story Telling
Stories, metaphor, and myth catch people deeply within, so no
longer are listeners functioning as tape recorders subject to the above
information overload limits. What human beings have in common is
revealed in myth; stories allow the listener to seek an experience of
being alive in them and find clues to answers within themselves. The
10 to 20 minute limit no longer applies.

Source: http://teaching.uncc.edu/resources/best-practice-articles/largeclasses/lecture-practices