UNSEALING TELL EDFU, EGYPT:

Who Was a Local Official and Who Was Not?

Figure 1. View of the excavation area

to the northeast with Ptolemaic temple
in the background.

Nadine Moeller

he ongoing excavations at the ancient Egyptian settlement site located at Tell Edfu in the south of Egypt
have provided new evidence for town administration during the transitional phase between the end of the
Middle Kingdom and the early Second Intermediate Period
(ca. 17701650 b.c.e.). The ancient town of Edfu functioned
as the capital of the second Upper Egyptian province during
that time and played an important role within its region. The
excavations have focused primarily on exposing the administrative quarter of this town that has been located along the
eastern side of the tell (fig. 1). The two principal structures
excavated thus far make up a large administrative building
complex, with at least two substantial columned halls dating
to the late Middle Kingdom, that was abandoned some time
during the early Second Intermediate Period, when political
power broke down and a group of foreign rulers called the
Hyksos installed themselves in the eastern Delta region. After
the abandonment of the administrative building, a large silo
court was built on top of the older structures. These silos
were used for grain storage and held the grain reserve of the
ancient settlement, thus being part of a major administrative
institution (fig. 2).

2 NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012)

he results from the recent excavation provide a new glimpse

of what administrative buildings looked like and how they
might have functioned. Most of our knowledge concerning
ancient Egyptian administration is based on the textual record,
but the case of Tell Edfu provides a good opportunity to link
the textual and archaeological data in a comprehensive way.

Archaeological Context of Late Middle Kingdom

Sealings at Tell Edfu
he architecture and associated inds of the late Middle
Kingdom administrative complex provide an excellent opportunity to investigate closely the functioning of such an institution within a larger urban settlement. he architectural
layout clearly indicates that we are dealing with a large oicial
building complex of palatial proportions that probably served
a variety of purposes, including both administrative and residential zones (ig. 3).
One of the most frequently discovered object categories from
within this building complex are clay sealings; more than 1,400
pieces have been excavated thus far. his discovery has led to
new evidence for what an administrative structure would have
looked like and what kinds of activities would have been carried out inside it. hese can be deduced especially from the

Figure 2. Excavation area, view to the south,

showing the grain silos of the Seventeenth
Dynasty overlying the earlier administrative
building complex of the TwelfthThirteenth
Dynasty.

W 324 =

370 =371

Silo
368

Silo
388

Ho 830

Ho 828

?
?

northern columned hall

Ho 851
Ho 724

Ho 725

Silo
316

Silo
323

threshold ?

bench

W 361

W 360

elongated roo
m

W 398

W 358

Co 355
Co 357
Co 455

Co 367

Ho 709

door ?

Ho 710

Ho 770
W 799

Ho 667

Silo
655

Ho 670
Ho 711

W 441

southern
columned
hall
Silo
654

Co 452

bench
Ho 721

Silo
653

W 451

W 533

Old K
indom
enclosu
re wall

Silo
303

Silo
405

W 501

accumulation of objects on the surface

of the last loor layer, which corresponds
to the inal phase of occupation (Moeller
2010, 98107). he archaeology concerning ancient Egyptian institutions and what
kinds of buildings were used is still very
fragmentary.
he irst traces of a columned hall in
the current excavation area were found
in 2005, when two sandstone column
bases were discovered in situ in its mud
loor. Already in the course of this initial
season of excavations several clay sealings
were found, indicating the presence of
an administrative building here (Moeller
2007). Over the past six years, the Tell Edfu
Project has focused on this structure and has
been able to complete the excavation of various elements belonging to this administrative complex that could be reached without
endangering any other mudbrick constructions in the vicinity (ig. 3).
he elements of the administrative complex that have been excavated to date consist of a southern columned hall that was
fronted by an elongated room on its western
side (ig. 3). his hall contained at least sixteen columns arranged in four rows. Several
round sandstone column bases have been
found in situ, while others can be reconstructed from the negatives let in the mud
loor when the column bases were ripped
out ater the abandonment of this structure
(ig. 4). None of the actual columns were
found; they had been dismantled and possibly were reused shortly ater the building
fell out of use.
In 2010 another large hall was discovered
that was accessed via a doorway on the north
side of the southern columned hall (ig. 3).
his second hall, which has been termed
northern columned hall, shows evidence
for at least two rows consisting of eight large
columns each; these can be reconstructed
according to the round holes let in the mud
loor where the column bases were removed
(see igs. 3 and 5). he large diameter of the
holes and the sand illing that was noted
inside each suggest that the column bases

5m

GM - TEP 2011

Figure 3. Plan of the column hall complex.

NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012) 3

Figure 5 (below). Northern columned hall

underneath later silos (view to the east).

Figure 4 (above). View of the southern columned hall

with sandstone column bases in situ, (southwest view).

and the columns would have been larger than those of the
southern columned hall. here is a strong possibility that the
northern hall was the central feature of this building complex.
Only the southern and western limits of the whole building have been clearly identiied during the excavation (see ig.
3, walls W 458 and W 398); the eastern and northern limits
remain buried under several meters of later settlement layers.
he currently exposed area of this building complex encompasses about 325 m2. he excellent preservation of the stratigraphy has allowed for a detailed analysis and identiication of the
various phases of construction, occupation, abandonment, and
postabandonment. he associated ceramic evidence links the
main period of use of this complex to the late Middle Kingdom
(end of Twelth to mid-hirteenth Dynasty), while there is evidence that the northern columned hall remained in use until
the early Second Intermediate Period (late hirteenth Dynasty).
A large corpus of more than 1,400 clay sealings has been
excavated in relation to this late Middle Kingdom administrative complex; they were found in several layers associated
with its use and gradual abandonment. he two largest accumulations of sealings come from the inal occupation layer of
the southern columned hall and a dense deposit related to the
abandonment of the northern columned hall. he following
discussion will investigate two examples of recurrent sealing
motifs, which open the debate on whether the owners of these
seals were local oicials at Edfu and or whether there are other
possible indications as to their identities.1

Sealings with the Motif of Symmetrically Arranged

Nefer and Ankh Signs
A large number of sealings found in the late Middle King-

4 NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012)

dom administrative building show the same decorative motif,

which is characterized by the symmetrical, mirror-image
arrangement of nefer signs in pairs lanking a larger central
sign that can be identiied as a stylized ankh (see ig. 6). he
seal impressions on the sealings were made using a scarab seal,
the most common type of seal during the late Middle Kingdom. he decorative motif can be assigned to the design group
3A3 varia, according to the recent classiication by Daphna
Ben-Tor, and it is typical for the late Twelth to hirteenth
Dynasties (Ben-Tor 2007, 1617, pl. 7).
At Tell Edfu, a total of 105 sealings showing this speciic
motif have been found; many of them were stamped multiple
times, and in one case the sealing shows a second seal impression with a diferent decorative pattern that countersealed the
former. he relatively large number of sealings showing this
particular image with the nefer and ankh signs suggests that the

Figure 6. Sealing with motif of symmetrically arranged ankh and nefer signs.

oicial who owned this

seal was a local inhabitant of Edfu.
Also noteworthy and
of importance in the
context of this discussion is the fact that the
identiiable back-types
(88 out of the 105 sealings) show a relatively
wide range of objects
being sealed with this
scarab (chart 1). here
are peg sealings with
round and square peg
impressions of diferent sizes (ig. 7) and
box sealings that can be
recognized by their lat
surface showing wood
iber and string imprints
(ig. 8); a few also have
basket impressions (ig.
9) as well as imprints of
cloth and string, which
fall under the category
of fabric sealings (ig.
10). he latter group
is problematic for its
precise identiication,
since the fragments are
quite small and show
mainly tissue impressions and string. None is
large enough to clearly
identify as having been
attached to storage jars

1cm

Figure 7. Back of a peg sealing

showing string and peg negatives.

Chart 1. The percentages of the encountered backtypes for the sealings with the ankh and nefer motif.

Figure 8. Back of box sealing showing the flat surface with wood grain
and string imprints.

(for good examples of jar sealings, see von Pilgrim 2001, pl.
18D). In several cases the folds of fabric are visible, which
makes them likely candidates for having been attached to bags.
Josef Wegner adopted the term fabric sealings, which include
any examples with fabric impressions on the back (Wegner
2007, 300302, ig. 135 no. 3). A few examples also show papyrus impressions (ig. 11). By far the largest percentage (71%)
consists of peg sealings (chart 1), of which the majority shows
square pegs (39 out of 62 identiied examples).
Since a concentration of these was found near the doorway
between the southern columned hall and the adjacent room to
the west, it is most likely that a larger number of them had been
used for sealing this door on a regular basis. Some of them
might also have sealed wooden boxes. Diferences between
peg sealings that had been attached to wooden pegs used for
closing boxes and for closing doors (this closing mechanism
is attested for both) are still diicult to identify, even ater a

NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012) 5

thorough analysis of peg imprints from

the Edfu sealings. hus far it is not possible to make a distinction between door
and box pegs based on the size or shape
(square versus round) of the peg imprints.
Wegner (2007, 302) also came to a similar
conclusion.
About 18 percent of sealings had been
attached to wooden boxes (chart 1).
hey can be clearly recognized by their
distinctive lat shape showing wood
Figure 9. Back of a basket sealing
Figure 10. Back of a fabric sealing
grain and string on the back. A total
showing basket fibres and string.
showing tissue negatives.
of seven papyrus seals (8%) were
noted in this group; these are usually
much less frequent in comparison to
peg sealings, for example. Only two
sealings can be identiied as having
been attached to baskets and fabrics.
Figure 11. Back of
a papyrus sealing
his distribution strongly suggests
showing papyrus
that the owner of the scarab with the
fiber impressions
nefer motif was a local oicial with
and string
wide-ranging duties in the administrative building complex at Edfu,
especially in the southern columned
hall. He sealed all sorts of commodities and
documents but also doors.
Another important observation is that the
seal impressions made by this scarab show considerable signs of use: the incised pattern of signs is
relatively worn, indicating a long and intensive utilization of this scarab as seal (see ig. 6). It was not unusual for
an oicial such as this to stay in his role over a considerhe oldest archaeological context in which these sealings
able amount of time. his can be further conirmed by the
were found is one of the numerous small holes in the mud loor
fact that these sealings were found in diferent archaeological
of the southern columned hall, which also contained several
contexts comprising almost all the various phases linked to
sealings showing the igure of a king who has been identiied
the use and last phase of occupation, with an overwhelming
as Amenemhat III (Moeller 2009). his hole had been used for
concentration in the southern columned hall (chart 2).
placing a round-based jar into the loor; later, when the jar was
removed, the now-empty hole was illed with some silt and
trash and was then covered by four phases of loor renewal.
he sealings were part of this trash illing.
In two cases sealings with the nefer and ankh motif were
also found in the ill layer around two storage vessels that
had been sunk deeply into the mud loor of the southern columned hall. Several further examples came from within the
last layer of the mud loor. hus, in total sixteen sealings have
been found in association with various later loor levels of
the southern columned hall, which correspond to its phase
of use (see chart 2). However, the largest number was found
within the inal occupation layer of this hall (83 examples; see
chart 2) especially near the doorway to the elongated room.
he inal occupation layer is deined as the last phase of use
that led to the accumulation of much trash on the mud loor,
Chart 2. Distribution of sealings with the nefer and
ankh motif according to the various archaeological
which was not cleaned up any longer and ater which the hall
phases of the administrative building complex.
was abandoned (ig. 12).

6 NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012)

In the northern columned hall, four sealings showing this

motif were discovered also in the last phase of occupation,
which accumulated on top of the corresponding mud loor and
which parallels the context in the southern hall. From other
sites we know that administrative buildings were cleaned on
a regular basis, and discarded sealings were removed from
the loors and usually dumped on the outside of the buildings
(Wegner 2001, 7880). At Edfu we have not found any of these
exterior trash deposits; they are likely to have been removed by
later constructions on the tell.
It is diicult to estimate the precise duration of the functioning of this administrative complex in terms of years. he phases
of loor renewal, for which we can distinguish between twentyive to thirty layers, might signal an annual event linked to the
end of each administrative cycle (ig. 13). If this hypothesis is
correct, it is entirely possible that one of the oicials could have
been in oice for most of the functioning of this administrative
institution. It is, however, impossible fully to discard the possibility of reuse by another person who succeeded him in this
oice. Nevertheless, the owner of the sealing with the nefer and
ankh motif was most likely a local oicial, which can be seen
both from the distribution of back-types and the archaeological context.

Sealings Showing a Standing Male Figure Holding a

Lotus Flower
he other most frequently encountered sealing motif is
another decorative type: a standing male igure holding a large
lotus lower (ig. 14). his motif depicts an interesting mix of
Egyptian and Near Eastern features, such as the man dressed
in an Egyptian style loincloth but also wearing crossed bands
on the chest, a typical Near Eastern feature (Mlinar 2004, 114).
Several hieroglyphic signs, such
as the anra-style hieroglyphs and
the degenerated nefer sign, can be
seen in front of him. According
to the available parallels, it is veryy
likely that the scarab was manufactured in Palestine, its date
coinciding with the beginning off
the Hyksos period (Mlinar 2004,
12229, Type IV; D. Ben-Tor,
personal communication). his
particular motif appears irst in
what has been termed the earlyy
Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007,
pl. 63, nos. 3, 5, 6), and it becomes
increasingly popular in the late
Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007,

pl. 107 no. 7; pl. 102; nos. 7, 15, 19, 34, 40, 41). According to
the analysis by Ben-Tor, the Edfu example dates to the latter
series, which is mostly contemporary to the Fiteenth Dynasty.
he irst appearance of scarabs from Canaanite workshops in
Egypt seem to occur at the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, when the settlement of foreign populations might
have facilitated trade relations between Egypt and southern
Palestine (Ben-Tor 2007, 11720).
Furthermore, scarabs of the early series (dated ca. 1700
1630 b.c.e.) are very rarely found in Egypt itself, in contrast to
the late series, for which more examples are known from many
Egyptian sites (Ben-Tor 2007, 186). Also interesting is the
fact that the Edfu sealings showing the man holding the lotus
lower were stamped by a scarab of good quality, with inely
incised lines showing much detail, which stands in contrast to
most of those depicted in the catalogue of Ben-Tors publication (2007, pls. 102103). A scarab with a similar motif was
also found in a tomb at Esna, a site that lies about 55 km north
of Edfu, dating to the Second Intermediate Period (Downes
1974, 61, 154, no. 2).
he motif of the standing igure with the lotus lower is one
of the most frequently encountered motifs on sealings from the
administrative building complex at Tell Edfu (123 in total). It
occurs mainly in the northern columned hall, and the largest
proportion was found in a layer linked to its abandonment (82
examples), where they occurred together with those naming
the Hyksos ruler Khayan (for details, see Moeller and Marouard 2012). Out of a total number of 333 sealings from this
context, almost 25 percent show the motif of the standing male
igure with the lotus.
Although a large percentage of the sealings was too small or
poorly preserved to identify their back-types with certainty (41

Figure 12. Final occupation layer

showing concentrations of discarded
objects in the southern columned hall.

NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012) 7

Figure 13. Superimposed phases of

floor renewal in the southern columned hall.

sealings, not included in the chart), about 44 percent belong to

the group of peg sealings, which mainly show round peg negatives (see chart 3). Roughly equal proportions are attested for
wooden boxes (18%), baskets (16%), and fabric sealings (22%).
None sealed a papyrus document. he much lower percentage of peg sealings and the absence of papyrus sealings is noteworthy in comparison with those showing the symmetric nefer
pattern described above. From the distribution of the various
back-types except for the peg sealings, which are diicult to
assign to doors or wooden boxes with complete certainty, the

emphasis on the sealings having

been attached to a variety of
commodities is clear.
his phenomenon needs
some explanation as to the location and operational base of the
owner of this scarab. If one takes
the northern origin of the seal
as accurate, several possibilities
need to be considered. he most
obvious interpretation is that the
owner was based in the north,
most probably in the Delta, possibly at Tell el-Daba, and had
been responsible for sealing a
large amount of commodities
that were sent to the town of Edfu. Another option to consider
is that the owner of the scarab was based in Edfu but had a
northern origin, using a seal he obtained there and brought
with him. A third possibility could be that he was a local Edfu
inhabitant who acquired a northern seal via trade or as a git.
In principle, all three options are possible, but there is some
evidence that makes the irst solution the most likely one.
Additionally, analysis of the sealing clay might be a possible
way to verify this hypothesis further.

Figure 14. Sealing showing a male figure holding a lotus flower.

1cm

8 NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012)

While the large number of sealings alone, which amounts to

a quantity that can be compared to the sealings showing the
nefer signs, allows for the possibility that we are dealing with
a local oicial who was attached to the administrative building complex and whose activities centered in the northern columned hall (per the distribution of the sealings), closer investigation of the back-types and the archaeological contexts cast
serious doubts on this interpretation (see chart 3).

recognizable by their lat shape showing wood grain and string

impressions. Several examples also showed the edge of the box
on their backs.

Chart 4. Distribution of back-types for the Khayan

sealings.

Chart 3. Distribution of back-types for the sealings

depicting the male figure holding a lotus flower.

he archaeological context for these sealings is also quite

diferent from the sealing motif with the nefer signs. In fact,
the largest concentration of the ones depicting the male igure
with the lotus was in the abandonment layer of the northern
columned hall, in a dense deposit along the western side of the
room and close to a mudbrick bench, with an occasional sealing found in postabandonment phases. he ind spots of these
sealings being considerably restricted to one particular corner
of the northern columned hall cannot be a coincidence. Additionally, not one was discovered in direct association with the
mud-loor levels of either columned hall. In three of these contexts from the northern hall, sealings with the standing igure
motif occur together with examples of the nefer sign, indicating
that they could have been contemporary, but the low number
of the latter (four sealings were found in the same contexts
as the one with the standing-igure motif, three of which are
clearly from secondary deposits and therefore residual) does
not support this hypothesis. However, the northern origin of
the sealing with the male holding the lotus lower its very well
with the fact that it was found in the largest quantity together
with several examples naming the Hyksos ruler Khayan (44
sealings total, only 29 showed identiiable back-types, which
are included in chart 4). As can be seen from the analysis of the
back-types of the Khayan sealings in chart 4, which resembles
the chart for the sealings displaying the male igure holding the
lotus, there is also clear evidence for a prominence of sealed
commodities, especially wooden boxes (52%). he majority of
identiied back-types belong to the latter category, which are

As far as the archaeological context is concerned, both the

Khayan sealings and those showing the man with the lotus are
less widely dispersed than the sealings with the nefer and ankh
signs, with the majority coming from the layer of abandonment at the western side of the northern columned hall.
Despite the diiculties of analyzing sealings with decorative
motifs that do not reveal the true identity of their respective
owners, in comparison with seals inscribed with the name and
title of the person to whom they belonged, it is nevertheless
possible to learn much more about the irst group of owners by
taking into account the archaeological data.
he two most frequently encountered sealing motifs at Tell
Edfu show clearly that their numbers alone do not necessarily help to identify the presence of a local oicial. he analysis of the back-types together with the archaeological context
is crucial for this evaluation. While the owner of the sealing
with the nefer signs was certainly a local oicial, the holder of
the seal that made the impressions showing the male igure
was probably not. He is closely linked via the archaeological
context to the Khayan sealings, which is not surprising, since
both of them are of northern origin. heir back-types can be
primarily related to sealed commodities, the majority having
been attached to wooden boxes, which is good evidence for
the reception of large amounts of goods from the Nile Delta
region, most likely from Tell el-Daba, the capital of the Hyksos
rulers. he back-types of the sealings with the nefer motif, however, show a much more dispersed pattern of sealing boxes and
doors, which can be witnessed by the majority of peg sealings
and by the fact that, while the percentage for securely identiiable wooden box sealings is comparable, none of the other
categories are.

NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012) 9

he analysis of the sealing clay for the origin sealings could,

of course, shed further light on this issue, but it might be
hampered if diferent clay sources were used within the same
region. he current results of this study emphasize this trade
contact between the early Hyksos and important provincial
capitals in the south. hey also provide some new information about the lower tier of oicials within the administrative
system, who oten remain invisible in the textual records but
who in reality played signiicant roles for the functioning of
an administrative institution (see also Smith 2001). A notable
exception to this is the large corpus of administrative ostraca
that have also been excavated at Tell Edfu dating to the end of
the Second Intermediate Period and the early New Kingdom
(slightly later than the sealings), which contain lists of people
that might fall exactly into this category.2

ogy in Relation to the Khayan Sealings Discovered at Tell Edfu.

gypten und Levante 21.
Pilgrim, C. von. 2001. The Practice of Sealing in the Administration of
the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom. Cahier de
Recherches de lInstitut de Papyrologie et dgyptologie 22:16172.
Smith, S. T. 2001. Sealing Practice, Literacy and Administration in the
Middle Kingdom. Cahier de Recherches de lInstitut de Papyrologie
et dgyptologie 22:17394.
Wegner, J. W. 2001. Institutions and Officials at South Abydos: An
Overview of the Sigillographic Evidence. Cahier de Recherches de
lInstitut de Papyrologie et dgyptologie 22:77106.
. 2007. The Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos. Publications of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition to Egypt 8. New Haven:
Peabody Museum of Natural History; Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank D. Ben-Tor and J. Johnson for their
comments and discussion of this topic. he drawings of the
sealings were made by G. Marouard, and the photographs were
taken by J. Schmied; without their work, this analysis would
not have been possible. I am also grateful for the extensive
work done by K. Bandy on the sealing catalogue and object
database as well as L. Miller for helping to register the sealings
in the ield. Last but not least I would like to thank the local
Edfu inspectorate, especially Mohamed Zenan (director) and
Ramadan Hassan Ahmed (director of the Elkab magazine) for
their help and collaboration. All illustrations are copyright Tell
Edfu Project.

Notes
1. Chronological issues that arise from the sealings are beyond the
scope of this article and are discussed elsewhere; see Moeller and
Marouard 2012.
2. This corpus of ostraca is currently being analyzed by K. Bandy
(NELC, University of Chicago) for her PhD dissertation.

References
Ben-Tor, D. 2007. Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and
Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period. Orbis Biblicus Orientalis 27. Fribourg: Academic Press.
Downes, D. 1974. The Excavations at Esna, 19051906. Warminster:
Aris & Phillips.
Mlinar, C. 2004. The Scarab Workshops of Tell el-Daba. Pp. 10740
in Scarabs of the Second Millennium BC from Egypt, Nubia, Crete
and the Levant: Chronological and Historical Implications, ed. M.
Bietak. Vienna: Verlag der sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Moeller, N. 2007. Tell Edfu: Uncovering a Provincial Capital. Egyptian
Archaeology 31:1417.
. 2009. A New Royal Name Sealing from Tell Edfu. Zeitschrift fr
gyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 136:15054.
. 2010. Tell Edfu: Preliminary Report on Seasons 20052009.
Journal of American Research Center in Egypt 46:81111.
Moeller, N., and G. Marouard. 2012. Discussion of Late Middle Kingdom and Early Second Intermediate Period History and Chronol-

10 NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 75:2 (2012)

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

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