APPROVAL SHEET

This report entitled Evaluation of Engineering Cementitious Composites with different

percentage of fiber by Jaykrushna Patel, Bhaumik Merchant, Ajay Gelot, Aniket Raj is
recommended for the degree of ___________________

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STUDENT DECLARATION
I _______________________________ hereby declare that this written submission represents my
ideas in my own words and where others idea or words have been included, I have adequately cited
and referenced the original sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic
honestly and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea / data / fact /
source in my submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary
action by the PANDIT DEENDAYAL PETROLEUM UNIVERSITY and can also evoke penal action
from the sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whim proper permission has not
been taken when needed.

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Date: ________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are highly obliged by the university and the department of civil engineering at PDPU to give
us the suitable opportunity, infrastructure, resources and guidance for the final year major project
that holds a great importance in the development of any engineer. We also sincerely thank Ms.
Niragi Dave for believing in our abilities by taking up the responsibility of supervising our
project. The guidance provided by her starting from the literature review period to the
completion of this proposal was very much crucial. Her involvement, contribution and support is
highly appreciable and invaluable and would remain so throughout the project period and even
after it.

INDEX
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1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 POLYVINYL ALCOHOL FIBER.............................................................................. 3
1.1.1 STRENGTH..............................................................................................................................3
1.1.2 DURABILITY...........................................................................................................................3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................. 5
2.1 CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING..........................................................................5
2.2 AUTOGENOUS HEALING UNDER WET DRY CONDITION.......................................6
2.3 LONG TERM DURABILITY PERFORMANCE..........................................................7
2.4 SELF-HEALING IN NATURAL ENVIRONMENT......................................................8
2.5 BIO CONCRETE FOR STRUCTURAL REPAIR.......................................................10
2.6 DESIGN FOR WET-MIXTURE SHOTCRETING......................................................12
2.7 DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS UNDER REVERSED
CYCLIC LOADING CONDITION...............................................................................13
2.8 INTRINSIC RESPONSE CONTROL OF MOMENT-RESISTING FRAMES UTILIZING
ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS......................14
2.9 SIMULATION OF HIGHLY DUCTILE FIBRE-REINFORCED CEMENT BASED
COMPOSITES COMPONENTS UNDER CYCLIC LOADING..........................................14
2.10 CYCLIC RESPONSE OF HIGHLY DUCTILE FIBRE-REINFORCED CEMENT-BASED
COMPOSITES.......................................................................................................... 15
2.11 ENGINEERED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE......................................................16
3. OBJECTIVE............................................................................................................. 18
3.1 SCOPE................................................................................................................ 18
4. STUDY OF MATERIAL............................................................................................. 20
4.1 MATERIALS NEEDED AND THEIR PROCUREMENT.............................................20
4.2 PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIALS......................................................................20
4.2.1 ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT...................................................................................20
4.2.2 FLYASH...................................................................................................................................22
4.2.3 PVA FIBERS...........................................................................................................................23

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5. METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................... 25
5.1 MIX DESIGN....................................................................................................... 25
5.2 PROCEDURE...................................................................................................... 25
5.3 AMOUNT OF FIBERS........................................................................................... 26
5.3.1 PREPARATION OF SAMPLES............................................................................................26
5.3.2TESTS REQUIRED................................................................................................................29
6. TEST RESULTS........................................................................................................ 32
6.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY............................................................................................ 32
6.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS................................................................................................ 33
6.2.1 COARSE AGGREGATE.......................................................................................................34
6.2.2 FINE AGGREGATE..............................................................................................................34
6.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH.................................................................................35
6.3.1 CONTROL SPECIMEN TEST RESULT.............................................................................36
6.3.2 FIBER REINFORCED SPECIMEN TEST RESULT..........................................................36
6.3.3 TEST RESULTS FOR 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% AND 2% FIBERS FOR 7DAYS AND 28 DAYS
ARE GIVEN ACCORDINGLY......................................................................................................36
6.4 SPLIT TENSILE TEST.......................................................................................... 38
6.5 FLEXURAL TEST:-.............................................................................................. 40
7. CONCLUSION......................................................................................................... 45
8. REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 47

LIST OF TABLES

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Table 4.1: Properties of Fly ash (class F)

Table 4.2: Properties of PVA fibers
Table 4.3: Cement based fiber composite material constituents and their properties
Table 5.1: Mix proportion
Table 6.1: Specific Gravity of Materials
Table 6.2: Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate
Table 6.3: Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate
Table 6.4: Compressive strength for control specimen
Table 6.5: Compressive strength for 0.5% fibers
Table 6.6: Compressive strength for 1% fibers
Table 6.7: Compressive strength for 1.5% fibers
Table 6.8: Compressive strength for 2% fibers
Table 6.9: Split tensile strength for control specimen
Table 6.10: Split tensile strength for 0.5% fiber
Table 6.11: Split tensile strength for 1% fiber
Table 6.12: Split tensile strength for 1.5% fiber
Table 6.13: Split tensile strength for 2% fiber
Table 6.14: Flexural strength for control specimen
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Table 6.15: Flexural strength for 0.5% fiber

Table 6.16: Flexural strength for 1% fiber
Table 6.17: Flexural strength for 1.5% fiber
Table 6.18: Flexural strength for 2% fiber

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 5.1. Hand mixing

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Fig 5.2. Machine mixing

Fig 5.3. Fresh batch of concrete
Fig 5.4. Curing
Fig 5.5. Flexure strength test apparatus
Fig 6.1. Sieve analysis apparatus
Fig 6.2. Behaviour of control specimen
Fig 6.3. Behaviour of Fiber concrete
Fig 6.4. Internal look of the fiber concrete
Fig 6.5. Comparison of crack width with one rupee coin in fiber concrete
Fig 6.6. Failure in conventional concrete
Fig 6.7. Fibers stretched in split tensile test
Fig 6.8. Zoomed photo of crack width
Fig 6.9. Surface crack after failure

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ABBREVIATIONS
ASR Alkali-Silica Reaction
ASTM American Standards for Testing and Materials
FA Fly Ash
ECC Engineered Cementitious Composites
FRP Fiber Reinforced Polymer
PVA Polyvinyl Alcohol Fiber
HRWRA High Range Water Reducing Admixture
HPFRCC High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites
DRFCC Ductile Fibre-Reinforced Cement Based Composites

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1. INTRODUCTION
Development of cracks are unavoidable during the lifespan of concrete. Crack can be occurred
due to concrete shrinkage, excessive loading, severe environment, and poor construction
procedure or design error. Durability of the concrete is greatly affected by development of
cracks, and these cracks create pathway to harmful agents to penetrate into the concrete and this
can deteriorate the reinforcement in the concrete. Experimental investigation and practical
experience have demonstrated that cracks in cementitious material have the ability to seal
themselves, e.g. water flowing through cracked concrete slows over time. In extreme cases, these
cracks can be sealed completely [3].
Engineered cementitious composites are designed to produce a strong and flexible material that
can be used in numerous applications where fiber reinforced concrete may not be suitable. This
is a recent development, and further studies are still in progress. The material ingredients
of engineered cementitious composite are similar to that of fiber reinforced concrete, including
cement, sand, water, fiber, and a few chemical additives. Unlike the fiber reinforced concrete,
the engineered cementitious composites do not include large volume of fiber. The mixing
procedure of engineered cementitious composites is similar to that employed for the normal
concrete. The engineered cementitious composites are economical by a reduction in the usage of
fiber while maintaining the desired characteristics of strength and ductility. The basic difference
in the properties of engineered cementitious composite and fiber reinforced concrete is that after
cracking the engineered cementitious composite strain hardens while the fiber reinforced
concrete does not exhibit such a behaviour. In fiber reinforced concrete, the crack develops with

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the rupture of the fibers due to which the stress bearing capability is decreased. ECC has higher
amount of cement due to the absence of coarse aggregate in the mix proportion than fiber
reinforced concrete.
ECC can maintain very tight cracks width, shown to be on the order of 60 m to 80 m on
average [4]. Interaction between fiber and matrix lead to development of high tensile strength,
which can exceed 3%. Coarse aggregate is not used in ECC because it can increase the crack
widths which is contradictory to the property of ECC concrete.
ECC has many benefits when considering thin-bonded overlays besides increased strength and
reduced water penetration as described above. Overlays that are placed directly on existing
substrate form a bond with the old pavement which has already undergone shrinkage. When the
new overlay material experiences initial shrinkage it will be restrained by the bond with the
substrate and subjected to tensile stresses. Similar compressive and tensile stresses are also
caused by temperature changes. These stresses are most extreme around existing joints and
cracks. These stresses cause the formation of new cracks in the overlay at the joint location, a
behavior known as reflective cracking. Traffic loading over existing joints leads to bending
stresses in the overlay and variable deformation between the layers, another cause of reflective
cracking. The prevention of reflective cracking is one of the major challenges in bonded
overlays. However, study has shown increased load carrying capacity and deformability in
flexure in PVA-ECC when used as an overlay. Micro cracking and increased strength can
eliminate reflective cracking, reduce surface deterioration and extend the pavement service life.

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Tensile strength of the composite, related more to the stress at which matrix develops a macrocrack, will not differ much for most conventional fiber reinforced cementitious materials.
Several fiber materials in various sizes and shapes have been developed for use in FRC. Among
these fibers, the polyvinyl alcohol has been one of the most successful commercial applications.
The common forms of these fibers are smooth-monofilament and have triangular shape.
Polypropylene fibers have some unique properties that make them suitable for reinforcement in
concrete. The fibers have a low density, are chemically inert and non-corrosive [5].
1.1 POLYVINYL ALCOHOL FIBER

Used as raw materials by a special processing technology

Strong acid-resistant, alkali-resistant, low thermal conductivity, an extremely stable

chemical properties
Prevent the formation of cracks
Improve the Resistance of the concrete impermeability

1.1.1 STRENGTH

The most important contribution of fiber reinforcement in concrete is not to strength but

to the flexural toughness of the material.

When flexural strength is the main consideration, fiber reinforcement of concrete is not a

substitute for conventional reinforcement.

The greatest advantage of fiber reinforcement of concrete is the improvement in flexural
toughness.

1.1.2 DURABILITY

Fiber-reinforced concrete is generally made with a high cement content and low
water/cement ratio.

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When well compacted and cured, concretes containing steel fibers seem to possess

excellent durability as long as fibers remain protected by cement paste.

Ordinary glass fiber cannot be used in Portland cement mortars and concretes because of
chemical attack by the alkaline cement paste.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

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Various research papers have been reviewed for the determination of the research gap. Short
review of Some literatures is shown below:
2.1 CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING
YANG YINGZI, MICHAEL D. LEPECH, VICTOR C. LI
In this paper cement, aggregate, fly ash, water, high range water reducer (HRWR) and fibre
(PVC) is used for making of ECC with the help of Hobart mixture. The fresh ECC was then
covered with plastic sheets and de-moulded after 24 hours. The specimens were left to air cure
under uncontrolled condition of humidity and temperature for 6 months. The experiment
program consist of two cyclic wetting and drying regimes. One cyclic regime ECC specimen to
submersion in water at 20 C for 24 hours and drying in laboratory air at 211 C for 24 hours.
In second cyclic regime consisted of submersion in water at 20 C for 24 hours, oven drying at
55 C for 22 hours and cooling in laboratory air at 211 C for 24 hour. They have used uniaxial
testing setup for preloading of ECC. Tests were conducted under displacement control at a
loading rate of 0.005mm/s. Specimen dimensions were 230mm 76mm 12.5mm.
They have used resonant frequency for measurement of self-healing of ECC. The resonant
frequency has been normalized by that at zero strain. Due to stable formation of multiple steady
state cracks within ECC most of which exhibit similar crack widths, there exist a strong bi-linear
relationship between the resonant frequency and tensile strain deformation for number of cracks.
The conclusion is that the resonance frequency stabilize after 4 to 5 drying and wetting
conditions. These results demonstrate that roughly 4 to 5 wetting-drying cycle are adequate to
engage noticeable self-healing of crack ECC materials. Specimen subjected to higher tensile
strain exhibit a lower initial frequency after cracking, due to large numbers of cracks. The

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deliberate strategy rules to enhance self-healing through design of cementitious material with
inherently tight crack width is effective. Self-healing in specimens subject to a tensile strain of
0.3% brought the resonance frequencies back to 76% and 100% of initial values, respectively.
This exhibits the relation between the extent of self-healing within cracked ECC specimens, and
the level of strain to which they have been subjected. Effects of temperature may lead to damage
and micro cracks during the self-healing process, ultimately resulting in tower levels of selfhealing within the specimens.
2.2 AUTOGENOUS HEALING UNDER WET DRY CONDITION
YINGZI YANG, MICHAEL D. LEPECH, EN-HUA YANG, VICTOR C.
Self-healing of Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) subjected to two different cyclic
wetting and drying regimes was investigated in the paper. To quantify self-healing, resonant
frequency measurements were conducted throughout wetting-drying cycles followed by uniaxial
tensile testing of self-healing ECC specimens. The ECC material utilized for this study as a
tensile strain capacity of about 3% and an average steady state crack width of 60m. Through
self-healing, crack-damaged ECC recovered 76% to 100% of its initial resonant frequency value
and attained a distinct rebound in stiffness. Even for specimens deliberately pre-damaged with
micro cracks by loading up to 3% tensile strain, the tensile strain capacity after self-healing
recovered close to 100% that of virgin specimens without any preloading. Also, the effects of
temperature during wetting-drying cycles led to an increase in the ultimate strength but a slight
decrease in the tensile strain capacity of rehealed pre-damaged specimens. This paper describes
the experimental investigation and present the data that confirm reasonably robust autogenously
healing of ECC in commonly encountered environments for many types of infrastructure.

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One cyclic regime ECC specimen to submersion in water at 20 C for 24 hours and drying in
laboratory air at 211 C for 24 hours. This regime is use to stimulate cyclic outdoor
environment such as rainy days and unclouded days. In second cyclic regime consisted of
submersion in water at 20 C for 24 hours, oven drying at 55 C for 22 hours and cooling in
laboratory air at 211 C for 2 hour. This was used to stimulate cyclic outdoor environments
alternating between rainy days and days with sunshine and high temperature.
It concludes that the crack width within cement-base material must be controlled to below
150m, preferably below 50m in order to engage noticeable self-healing behaviour. Selfhealing in specimens subjected to tensile strain of 0.3% and 3% brought the resonance
frequencies back to 100% and 76% of initial values respectively. For ECC specimen subjected to
pre-load straining of a high level, even up to 2% or 3%, the material can still retain a tensile
strain capacity of 1.8% to 3.1% after self-healing.
2.3 LONG TERM DURABILITY PERFORMANCE
M.D.LEPECH, V.C. LI
The durability of concrete one of the most significant problems within the civil engineering
community. Through the careful design and use of high performance fibre reinforced
cementitious composites (HPFRCC) the durability and long term performance of many concrete
structures may be enhanced. However, before implanting these new materials in to construction
applications, their durability performance must be shown equal or superior to concrete over long
durations in harsh service environment. Within this article, the behaviour under various
environmental loads and the long term performance of a class of HPFRCCs called Engineered

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Cementitious Composites (ECC) are reviewed. ECC is shown to exhibit exceptional behaviour
under freeze-thaw cycles, hot-cold temperature cycles, carbonation exposure, fatigue loading,
and long term mechanical performance. Additionally, results are presented of an ongoing four
year comparison between ECC and concrete roadway patching applications on a Michigan
Department of Transportation bridge deck. The characteristics which best distinguishes ECC
from concrete is an ultimate strain capacity between 3% and 5%. In this paper, the estimated cost
of the ECC is $350 per m3. While cost of ordinary Portland cement concrete is roughly $100 per
m3, which suggest that cost of the ECC is 3.5 times of ordinary Portland cement concrete.
This paper concludes that the demonstrated ability of ECC to self-control crack width under
load, resist freeze thaw and hot-cold exposure, withstand loading, maintain mechanical
performance over the long term, and protect steel reinforcement from corrosion suggests this
material may be an effective solution to the problem of over concrete durability.
2.4 SELF-HEALING IN NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
EMILY N. HERBERT, VICTOR C. LI.
This paper builds on previous self-healing engineered cementitious composites (ECC) research
by allowing ECC to heal outdoors, in the natural environment, under random and sometimes
extreme environmental conditions. Determining to what extent current ECC materials self-heal
in the natural environment is the first step in the development of an ECC that can completely
heal itself when exposed to everyday environmental conditions. This study monitored outdoor
ECC specimens for one year using resonant frequency (RF) and mechanical reloading to
determine the rate and extent of self-healing in the natural environment. It was found that the
level of RF, stiffness, and first cracking strength recovery increased as the duration of natural

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environment exposure increased. However, RF, stiffness, and first cracking strength recovery
data for specimens that underwent multiple loading cycles suggest that self-healing functionality
can be maintained under multiple damage events.
After mixing, the fresh ECC mix was cast into moulds measuring 300 mm 76 mm 12.5 mm
and covered in plastic sheeting. Specimens were then air cured at room temperature
in the laboratory until testing. A total of 60 specimens were prepared, and these were then

separated into four sets of 15 specimens each. Each set contained 5 control specimens, 5
specimens that were preloaded to 0.5% tensile strain, and 5 specimens that were preloaded to
1.0%. All preloading was carried out 7 days after the specimens were casted using uniaxial
tensile loading. Loading was applied using a load frame with a 25 kN capacity under
displacement control and a loading rate of 0.5 mm/min. Two Linear Variable Displacement
Transducers (LVDTs) were mounted to the specimens during loading to measure the tensile
elongation. After preloading, specimens were placed outdoors in a location where they would be
fully exposed to natural environmental conditions. This study took place in Ann Arber in
Southeast Michigan over a 12-month period from September 2011 through September 2012, so
the specimens were exposed to a wide range of temperatures (11.7 to +32.8 C) and
precipitation events.
It concludes that Self-healing of micro cracks in ECC can occur in a natural environment despite
a high level of damage caused by preloading tensile deformations of 0.5% and 1.0% and wide
swings in temperature and precipitation in Michigan climate. Self-healing is not limited to a
controlled laboratory environment. All ECC specimens recovered 95%105% of the original RF

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values when exposed to a natural environment for various time periods (up to one year in this
study) subsequent to a damage (preloading) event; the observed fluctuations in RF readings
during the recording periods may be due to the washout and reformation of healing products
caused by large rainfall events.
2.5 BIO CONCRETE FOR STRUCTURAL REPAIR
MEGAT AZMI, MEGAT JOHARI, SYED FUAD SAIYDI HASHIM, NURDEEN M.
ALTWAIR
Concrete has specialty of being cast in any desirable shape but concrete however possesses low
tensile strength, limited ductility and little resistance to cracking. As an attempt in advancement
in concrete technology, it is now realized that strength of concrete alone is not sufficient,
therefore both strength and durability have to be considered to produce a more durable structure.
In recent development, a stronger and more durable concrete has been invented incorporating a
biological approach namely bacteria. This new approach is called a bio-concrete which utilizing
bacteria mineral precipitation to increase the strength and durability of concrete. Also, this
crossbreed leads to more durable concrete and last longer. Therefore, the maintenance cost can
be reduced.
Bacteria is a single cell organism. Cell Division in a high organism, usually occur by binary
fission or budding. In binary fission, a cell duplicates its components and divides into two cells.
In cell division two identical daughter cell are produced. The daughter cell become independent
when a partition grows between them. A bacteria population can be doubled as quickly as 9.8
min[].

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In concrete, the bacteria creates micro environment with the condition to allow carbonate
precipitation in the form of the calcite. Bacteria precipitate Calcium carbonate resulted from the
metabolic activities name as urea hydrolysis named as ureolyitic bacteria. They have ability to
precipitate carbonate under the desired optimum environment such as pH, Temperature, nutrient
and redox potential. The application of bacteria in concrete is more promising if the bacteria is
isolated from respected country.
The primary role of the bacteria in the precipitation process is to create alkaline environment
through physiological activities. Specific functional group of bacteria cell fevers binding with
divalent cations and making microorganism crystal nucleation site. Bacteria deposition of a layer
of calcite on the surface of the specimens resulted in a decrease of capillary water uptake and
permeability goes towards gas. Immobilization bacteria in concrete for crack healing through
metabolic process will increase the alkalinity and favouring the calcium carbonate precipitation.
These method pose several disadvantages such as degraded over time, need constant
maintenance, different thermal expansion coefficient of the treated layers and non-environmental
approach.
It is determined that by using the bacteria compressive strength of concrete is increased, gas
permeability is decreased, water absorption is increased and chloride ingression is decreased.
This paper has highlighted that bacteria is a potential method in structure repair.

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2.6 DESIGN FOR WET-MIXTURE SHOTCRETING

J.M. IRWAN, N. OTHMAN.
The objective of the study is to develop a sprayable ECC to exhibit fluid properties suitable for
wet-mixture shotcreting process with comparable ductility with ordinary ECC. Within the
predetermined matrix. Fiber, and interface properties based on micromechanical tailoring, the
focus is on modulating flocculation between cement particles under the hypothesis that adjusting
interaction between cement particles greatly alter the fluid properties of fresh ECC mixture. For
this purpose, the effect of organic and inorganic admixtures on the rheological properties of
cement pastes were investigated to determine the optimal dosages. Then the effectiveness of the
designed cement paste on realizing the desired fluid properties of fresh ECC mixture with
various fluid testes including deformability tests, fill-up test, and spray-on test were examined.
Uniaxial tensile test were also performed to demonstrate that the sprayed ECC using wet-mixture
shotcreting process retains strain-hardening behaviour comparable with ordinary ECC cast with
external consolidation, with the same mixture proportion.
In this paper two-stage rheological control mentioned. In the first stage, a highly deformable
ECC mixture is desirable for ease of pumpability for transporting the material from the mixer to
nozzle via a flexible hose. During this stage, low viscosity is necessary. In the second stage, the
viscosity should rise rapidity to facilitate the adhesion of fresh mixture sprayed onto a substrate.
Therefore, the focus is on adjusting the flocculation leading to low viscosity may be
advantageous for the transport of fresh mixture, while strong flocculation leading to high
viscosity provides good adhesion and cohesion. To achieve a moderate flocculation, a proper
concentration of chemical admixtures to disperse/stabilize the cement particles will first be

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determined. In this paper the small flow cone for conventional flow table test was used to
quantify the deformability of fresh mortar matrix mixture and to quantify the pumpability and
sprayability of fresh ECC mixture, a deformability test using a slump cone was conducted.
This paper conclude that fiber volume fractions ranging from 1.5 to 2.0% were selected to satisfy
both ductile performance in the hardened state and desirable pumpability during shotcreting
process.
2.7 DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS UNDER REVERSED
CYCLIC LOADING CONDITION
G. FISCHER, S.WANG, VICTOR C. LI
Besides strengthening and retrofitting existing structures with FRP sheets, most research
activities on Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced concrete have been substantiated by the
corrosion resistance of FRP reinforcement. This study investigates the response of Fiberreinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced engineered cementitious composite (ECC) members with
focus on their flexural load-deformation behaviour, residual deflection, damage evolution, and
failure mode. Also mainly focused on investigating the structural properties of FRP-reinforced
concrete, particularly flexural strength, ductility and failure mode, interfacial bond
characteristics, crack width, and the prediction of the moment-deflection relationship.
Directed at using FRP-reinforced ECC members in seismic resistant structures to reduce residual
deflections and prevent inelastic deformations at particular locations while providing relatively
large, elastic deflection capacity. These elastic members are expected to be beneficial in
controlling the response of structures particularly at large deformation. This study is aimed at

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investigating these composite deformation mechanisms and their effect on the response of
structural members.
2.8 INTRINSIC RESPONSE CONTROL OF MOMENT-RESISTING FRAMES
UTILIZING ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
GREGOR FISCHER, VICTOR C. LI
This paper reports on a research project aimed at investigating the response mechanism of a
composite moment-resisting frame system with self-centering and energy dissipation
capabilities. The combination of engineered cementitious composite (ECC) and fiber-reinforced
polymers (FRP) reinforcement results in column elements with relatively high flexural strength
and sufficient elastic deflection capacity to permit sway and prevent the formation of a collapse
mechanism due to lateral loading. In particular, moment resisting frames designed according to
the strong column/weak beam concept are expected to undergo inelastic deformation by
formation of plastic hinges in the beam members, while the columns remain elastic in order to
maintain vertical load-carrying capacity and prevent possible collapse. Properties of ECC are
required for the distribution of deformation along the flexural member to achieve a relatively
large elastic deflection capacity. It signification is that the load deformation response of
composite frame system under reversed cyclic loading condition is investigated and compared to
a conventional frame configuration exclusively using steel reinforcement.
2.9 SIMULATION OF HIGHLY DUCTILE FIBRE-REINFORCED CEMENT BASED
COMPOSITES COMPONENTS UNDER CYCLIC LOADING
GREGOR FISCHER, VICTOR C. LI

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Ductile Fibre-reinforced cement based composites (DFRCC) are types of high performance
material that exhibit multiple, fine cracks upon loading in tension as a result of steady-state
cracking. DFRCC materials are composed of Portland cement, water, silica fume or fly ash, fine
sand, and roughly 2% by volume of high-modulus, high-aspect-ratio polymeric fibres. DFRCC
displays a much higher tensile ductility, tensile (strain) hardening behaviour, and energy
dissipation than traditional concrete and many fibre-reinforced concrete materials. Other fibrereinforced composite materials exhibiting a similar strain hardening phenomenon. The primary
objective of the research presented herein is to develop a constitutive model that can be used to
simulate structural components with DFRCC under cyclic and seismic loading. Coaxial crack
models for finite element analysis have been successfully applied to reinforced concrete beams,
beam-column joints, and shear panels and walls. This paper also signifies that ductile fibrereinforced cement-based composites are being investigated for the design and retrofit of
structures under severe loading conditions. The material has significantly greater ductility than
plain concrete. In this paper, they have prepared a cantilever beam models to simulation of cyclic
experiments. This experiment is totally based on Finite Element Method.
2.10

CYCLIC RESPONSE OF HIGHLY DUCTILE FIBRE-REINFORCED CEMENT-

BASED COMPOSITES
TONG-SEOK HAN, PETER H. FEENSTRA, SARAH L. BILLINGTON
This paper is a continuation of the previous paper, which is based on how specimen reacts under
cyclic condition after simulation. The main objective of this research was to identify DFRCC
material response to various cyclic loading schemes. The results are being used to develop
constitutive models for nonlinear cyclic finite element analysis. The main variables in the

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experiments were different mixture designs, different specimen geometries, and different loading
schemes. The research is part of a larger project on the development of a seismic retrofit fibres.
The specimens were initially loaded in tension until the onset of tensile softening. Loading was
then reversed and the specimens were loaded in compression to failure. The effect of multiple
loading cycles was not examined. The shape of the monotonic uniaxial tensile and compressive
strength responsible of DFRCC has been well researched. The research presented herein focuses
on the effects of cyclic loading on the shape of the envelope and the unloading/reloading curves
in both tension and compression. This research is needed for the development and validation of
cyclic constitutive models for DFRCC. This research is also needed to develop structural
application of DFRCC that optimally use the materials desirable properties. The primary
difference in DFRCC response from conventional concrete is the tensile and cyclic tensile
response. The response of DFRCC materials to both uniaxial and cyclic uniaxial tensile and
compressive loading was evaluated. Different specimen geometries were observed to give
significantly different uniaxial tensile response of DFRCC materials. The variation in response is
attributed to differences in the number and sizes of internal flaws, fibre alignment, and
specimens end conditions.
2.11 ENGINEERED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE
KEITH E. KESNER, SARAH L. BILLINGTON, KYLE S. DOUGLAS
During the past decade, the effort to modify the brittle nature of ordinary concrete has resulted in
high-performance fibre-reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCC), which are characterised
by tensile strain-hardening after first cracking. Engineered cementitious composites, a special
type of HPFRCC, represent a new concrete material that offers significant potential to reduce the

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durability problem of concrete structures. Unlike ordinary concrete and FRCC materials, ECC
strain-hardness after first cracking, as do ductile metals, and it demonstrates a strain capacity 300
to 500 times greater than normal concrete. Even at large imposed deformation, crack widths of
ECC remain small, less than 80m. The most distinctive characteristic separating ECC from
conventional concrete and fibre-reinforced concrete is an ultimate tensile strain capacity between
3% to 5% depending on the specific ECC mixture. This strain capacity is realized through the
formation of many closely spaced micro cracks, allowing for a strain capacity over 300 times
that of normal concrete. In contrast to freeze-thaw tests, which are designed to simulate
temperature changes in winter conditions, hot water immersion tests were conducted to simulate
the long-term effects of hot and humid environments. Hot water immersion was performed on
individual fibers, single fibers embedded in ECC matrix, and composite ECC material specimen.
After 26 weeks in hot water immersion at 60C, little change was seen in fibre properties such as
fibre strength, fibre elastic modulus, and elongation. While accelerated hot weather testing does
result in lower strain capacity of ECC, the 2.75% strain capacity exhibited after 26 weeks
remains more than 250 times that of normal concrete.

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3. OBJECTIVE
Engineered Cementitious composites are as named, is designed to provide the required properties
that cannot be achieved by the conventional manner. Concrete is weak at tensile strength but the
engineered cementitious composites have higher tensile strength, up to 300 to 400 times to the
conventional one. To determine the effect of coarse aggregate on physical property of concrete as
well as on durability with different percentage of fibers.
3.1 SCOPE
While rapid progress has been made in ECC technological development over the last decade, it
may be expected that the coming decade will be even more exciting. As research advances, we
will continue to discover more favourable characteristics of ECC that lend themselves to new
infrastructure applications. It may be envisioned that a new generation of ECC material
embodying the advantages of both steel (ductility) and concrete will be developed. These new
materials will be:
Designable for achieving targeted structural performance levels
Sustainable with respect to social, economic and environmental dimensions
Self-healing when damaged
Functional to meet requirements beyond structural capacity.
Associated with this material, a new generation of infrastructure system that have one or more of
these characteristics will emerge
Safe with minimum repair needs even after subjected to severe loading conditions

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 Smart with self-adapting ability

Mega-scale but without size-effect drawback
Zero-maintenance even when exposed to severe environment
Constructible at high speed and with low waste.

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4. STUDY OF MATERIAL
4.1 MATERIALS NEEDED AND THEIR PROCUREMENT
The following materials will be needed during the research
1
2
3
4
5

Ordinary Portland cement

Flyash (class F)
PVA Fibers
High range water reducer
Fine aggregates

4.2 PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIALS

4.2.1 ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
The chief chemical components of ordinary Portland cement are Calcium, Silica, Alumina and
Iron. Approximate oxide composition limits are:

CaO

60-67%
17-25%

SiO2
3-8%
Al2O3
0.5-6.0%
Fe2O3
Alkalis

0.3-1.2%
2.0-3.5%

SO3
MgO

0.5-4.0%

The chief compound which form in process of mixing:

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Tricalcium Silicate (3CaO.SiO2)

Dicalcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2)

Tricalcium Aluminates (3CaO.Al2O3)

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)

When ordinary Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound constituents
undergo a series of chemical reactions that cause it to set. These chemical reactions all involve
the addition of water to the basic chemical compounds which is called hydration. The roles of
compounds in hardening of cement are as under:
1. Tricalcium silicate (C3S): Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial
set and early strength.
2. Dicalcium silicate (C2S): Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for strength
increases beyond one week.
3. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): Hydrates and hardens the quickest. It liberates a large amount of
heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added to
Ordinary Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause
ordinary Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.
4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF): Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength.
Most ordinary Portland cement colour effects are due to C4AF.

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4.2.2 FLYASH
The major constituents of most of the fly ashes are silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), ferric oxide
(Fe2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO). The other minor constituents of the fly ash are MgO, Na2O,
K2O, SO2, MnO, TiO2 and unburnt carbon. There is a wide range of variation in the principal
constituents silica (25-60%), alumina (10-30%), and ferric oxide (5-25%). When the sum of
these constituents is 70% or more and reactive calcium oxide is less than 10%, fly ash is
considered as siliceous or class F fly ash. But, if the sum of these 3 constituents is equal or more
than 50% and reactive calcium oxide is not less than 10%, fly ash will be considered as
calcareous or class C fly ash. Individual fly ash particles have a fineness ranging from 1 micron
to 1 mm size. The specific gravity varies over a wide range of 1.9 to 2.55.
Fly Ash properties in cement:
1. Improved workability
2. Improved long-term strength gains
3. Lowers heat of hydration
4. Decreases water demand
5. Less bleeding
6. Improved durability to Alkali-Silica reaction, Sulphate and Chlorides.

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Flyash
Type
Specific Gravity
Sio2 + Al2O3 +Fe2O3
SO3
Moisture content
Loss on ignition

Class F
2.23
70%
5%
3%
6%

Table 4.1: Properties of Fly ash (class F)

4.2.3 PVA FIBERS

PVA high - strength & high - modulus fiber taking polyvinyl alcohol as its major raw materials is
produced by a special process. It is of high strength, high modulus, acid-proof, alkali-proof,
abrasion resistance and sunlight resistance which are possessed by PVA fiber, thus it is much
better than the other products in general. With these excellent properties, it has a wide
application in industry fabric, building reinforcing materials, package materials, ropes and
meshes.

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Property

PVA fibers

Density (g/cm2)

1.26

Length (mm)

12

Modulus of elasticity

42.8

Reduction in water

<2

Breaking elongation

<7-1.5

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Nominal Strength (MPa)

1620

Apparent Strength (MPa)

1092

Table 4.2: Properties of PVA fibers

Constituents

Properties

Fiber

Elastic modulus, tensile strength, length, diameter,

volume fraction

Matrix

Fracture toughness, elastic modulus, initial flaw size

Interface

Bond properties, snubbing coefficient

Table 4.3: Cement based fiber composite material constituents and their properties

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5. METHODOLOGY
5.1 MIX DESIGN
ECC is the concrete having the PVA fibers so the design should be calculate according to it. As
the IS codes does not provides the calculations for concrete having fibers, so we calculated the
mix proportions according to IS 10262:2009, IS code for the concrete having mineral
admixtures. Although, the IS code permits up to 30% replacement of fly ash, we are preparing
the mix having more than 30% of fly ash in concrete.
Mix Ingredients
Cement
Fly ash
Sand
Grit (10mm to 4.75mm)
w/c
HRWRA

Quantity
296.13 kg/m3
147.22 kg/ m3
572.7 kg/ m3
1017 kg/ m3
0.43
1.25 lit/ m3

Table 5.1: Mix proportion

5.2 PROCEDURE
Basic ingredient of concrete mixed with the help of the rotating concrete mixer. Initially
materials are collected according to the quantity and the initially coarse aggregate followed by
sand is added into the drum of mixer. Then half quantity of water is added into the drum with the

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some quantity of HRWRA. After that, both cementitious material cement and fly-ash added into
the drum, meanwhile drum was rotating so that coarse aggregate, sand, water are uniformly get
mixed with the cement and fly-ash. Then Fiber was added into the drum. After the 15 minutes of
mixing, concrete was ready for the filling in the various types of mould.

5.3 AMOUNT OF FIBERS

As IS codes do not provides minimum amount of the fibers, so we decided to vary the
proportion of fiber in concrete with an increment of 0.5%, as 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%. The
maximum amount of the fibers 2% is determined from the standards of ASTM. [17] To determine
the optimum amount of the fibers required at which ECC shows excellent mechanical properties.
5.3.1

PREPARATION OF SAMPLES
Initially, for the trial studies, hand mixing was done for the homogeneous mix of all the
ingredient of concrete. Later on, mixing was done with the help of concrete drum mixture.
As a Control concrete M25 grade convention concrete was casted so that we could easily
compare properties of ECC with it. For this project we casted total 45 cubes for
determination of 7th day and 28th day compressive strength of ECC.

Also for the

determination of flexural strength total 15 were casted. Likewise, total 15 cylinders were
casted for determination of tensile strength.

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Fig 5.1. Hand mixing

Fig 5.2. Machine mixing

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Fig 5.3. Fresh batch of concrete

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Fig 5.4. Curing

5.3.2

TESTS REQUIRED
5.3.2.1 Split Tensile Test
Compressive test machine was used to determine the split tensile strength of the cylinder
on 28 day after casing. In this peak load taken by cylinder was recorded and then simply
using the following equation tensile strength can be determined.

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Tensile strength =

2P
dl

Where,
P= peak load
d= diameter of the cylinder
l= length of the cylinder
5.3.2.2 Flexural test:Test has been done based on the IS 516-1959-methods of tests for strength of concrete

Fig 5.5. Flexure strength test apparatus

The Flexural Strength is given by

Fb = PL/bd2
a >20.0 cm for 15.0 cm specimen or > 13.0 cm specimen.
Fb = 3Pa/ bd2
a < 20.0 cm but > 17.0 cm for < 13.3 cm but > 11.0 cm for 10.0 cm specimen
b = Width of specimen
d = Failure point depth

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l = Supported length
P = Maximum load

6. TEST RESULTS

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6.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density (mass of the same unit
volume) of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume
of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. By using the
following equation specific gravity can be determined
For cement:-

Specific Gravity =

(W 2W 1)
( W 2W 1 )( W 3W 4 ) 0.79

Where,
W1= weight of the empty flask
W2= Weight of flask+ cement
W3= Weight of flask+ cement + kerosene
W4=Weight of flask+ kerosene
0.79= Specific gravity of kerosene

CEMENT (OPC 53)

FLYASH (Class F)

CA (10mm)

SAND

3.17

2.23

2.69

2.67

Table 6.1: Specific Gravity of Materials

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6.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS

A sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a
granular material. The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material
performs in use.

Fig 6.1 Sieve analysis apparatus

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6.2.1 COARSE AGGREGATE

As per IS 383, test is done as below:
IS Sieve
Designation

Weight
Retained

% Weight
Retained

Cumulative
% Retained

Cumulative
% Passing

12.5mm
10mm
4.75mm
2.36mm
Pan

111
4480
301
108

2.22
89.60
6.02
2.16

2.22
91.82
97.84
100

100
97.78
8.18
2.16

% Passing
Limits as
per IS 383
100
85-100
0-20
0-5

Table 6.2: Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

6.2.2 FINE AGGREGATE

As per IS 383, test is done as below:
IS Sieve
Designation

Weight
Retained

10mm
4.75mm
2.36mm
1.18mm
600micron
300micron
150micron
Pan
FM

10
45
52
105
185
88
15
2.53

Cumulativ
e Weight
Retained
10
55
107
212
397
485
500

Cumulativ
e%
Retained
2
11
21.4
42.4
79.4
97

Cumulativ
e%
Passing
100
98
89
78.6
57.6
20.6
3

Table 6.3: Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

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% Passing Limits
as per IS 383
Zone-2
100
90-100
75-100
55-90
35-59
8-30
0-10

6.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compressive behaviour of the control specimen after 3 days and 7 days are as the
conventional concrete; no such difference are seen in it. But there is a drastic change in ECC
concrete after 3 day and 7 day. Results are shown below:

Fig 6.2 Behaviour of control specimen

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Fig 6.3 Behaviour of Fiber concrete

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Fig 6.4 Internal look of the fiber concrete

6.3.1 CONTROL SPECIMEN TEST RESULT

Tests are done only for 7 days and 28 days.
CONCRETE
M25
Allowable
Strength
Peak Result
Lab Result

7 days

28 days

12.5 MPa

25 MPa

287.3 KN
12.77 MPa

607.5 KN
27 MPa

Table 6.4: Compressive strength for control specimen

6.3.2 FIBER REINFORCED SPECIMEN TEST RESULT

Test results for 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2% fibers for 7days and 28 days are given accordingly
CONCRETE M25
(0.5%)
Peak Load
Result

7 days

14 days

28 days

418.5 KN
18.6 MPa

505.12 KN
22.45 MPa

697.5 KN
31 MPa

Table 6.5: Compressive strength for 0.5% fibers

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CONCRETE M25
(1%)
Peak Load
Result

7 days

14 days

28 days

456.75 KN
20.3 MPa

634.5 KN
28.2 MPa

822.6 KN
36.56 MPa

Table 6.6: Compressive strength for 1% fibers

CONCRETE M25
(1.5%)
Peak Load
Result

7 days

14 days

28 days

542.7 KN
24.12 MPa

598.5 KN
26.6 MPa

757.57 KN
33.67 MPa

Table 6.7: Compressive strength for 1.5% fibers

CONCRETE M25
(2%)
Peak Load
Result

7 days

14 days

28 days

215.5 KN
21.13 MPa

535.5 KN
23.8 MPa

722.2 KN
32.1 MPa

Table 6.8: Compressive strength for 2% fibers

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Compressive trength
40
35
30
control concrete

25

Compressive Strength (MPa)

0.5% conc.

20

1% conc.

15

1.5% conc.
2% conc.

10
5
0

7 days

14 days

28 days

Time (days)

Compressive strength at different fiber content

6.4 SPLIT TENSILE TEST

The splitting tests are well known indirect tests used for determining the tensile strength of
concrete sometimes referred to as split tensile strength of concrete. The test consists of applying
a compressive line load along the opposite generators of a concrete cylinder placed with its axis
horizontal between the compressive platens. Due to the compression loading a fairly uniform
tensile stress is developed over nearly 2/3 of the loaded diameter as obtained from an elastic
analysis. Tests are done on cylinders for 7 days, 14 days and 28 days.

CONCRETE M25
(0%)
Peak Load
Tensile Strength

7 days

28 days

118.69 KN
1.68

309.45 KN
4.38

Table 6.9: Split tensile strength for control specimen

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CONCRETE M25
(0.5%)
Peak Load
Tensile Strength

7 days

28 days

154.01 KN
2.18

452.16 KN
6.4

Table 6.10: Split tensile strength for 0.5% fiber

CONCRETE M25
(1%)
Peak Load
Tensile Strength

7 days

28 days

210.54 KN
2.98

493.14 KN
6.98

Table 6.11: Split tensile strength for 1% fiber

CONCRETE M25
(1.5%)
Peak Load
Tensile Strength

7 days

28 days

241.63 KN
3.42

479.7 KN
6.79

Table 6.12: Split tensile strength for 1.5% fiber

CONCRETE M25
(2%)
Peak Load
Tensile Strength

7 days

28 days

223.25 KN
3.16

473.35 KN
6.7

Table 6.13: Split tensile strength for 2% fiber

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Split Tensile Strength

8
7
6

control

Split Tensile strength (N/mm2)

conc (0.05%)

conc (1%)

conc (1.5%)

conc (2%)

1
0

7 days

28 days

Time (days)

Split tensile strength at different fiber content

6.5 FLEXURAL TEST:Test has been done based on the IS 516-1959-methods of tests for strength of concrete. The
flexural strength of the mix with the dosage of 0.5% and 2% are increased by 16% and 36%
respectively. Nominal increases remains for all dosage of fibers compared to normal mixes. The
enhancement in flexural strength is achieved due to the improvement in mechanical bond
between the cement paste and fiber. As amount of fiber increases in mix, it greatly helps to
reduce widening of crack more effectively, thus resulting in increase in flexural strength.

CONCRETE M25
(0%)
Peak Load
Flexure Strength

7 days

28 days

28 KN
3.2

40 KN
4.74

Table 6.14: Flexural strength for control specimen

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CONCRETE M25
(0.5%)
Peak Load
Flexure Strength

7 days

28 days

38.5 KN
4.4

48.1 KN
5.5

Table 6.15: Flexural strength for 0.5% fiber

CONCRETE M25
(1%)
Peak Load
Flexure Strength

7 days

28 days

42 KN
4.8

48.5 KN
5.55

Table 6.16: Flexural strength for 1% fiber

CONCRETE M25
(1.5%)
Peak Load
Flexure Strength

7 days

28 days

55.1 KN
6.3

59.1 KN
6.75

Table 6.17: Flexural strength for 1.5% fiber

CONCRETE M25
(2%)
Peak Load
Flexure Strength

7 days

28 days

53.4 KN
6.1

69.7 KN
7.97

Table 6.18: Flexural strength for 2% fiber

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Flexure Strength
9
8
7
6

control conc.
conc (0.5%)

Flexure Strength (N/mm2)

conc (1%)

conc (1.5%)
conc (2%)

3
2
1
0

7 days

28 days

Time (Days)

Flexural strength at different fiber content

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Fig 6.5 Comparison of crack width with one rupee coin

Fig 6.6 failure in conventional concrete

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Fig 6.7 Fibers stretched in split tensile test

Fig 6.8 Zoomed photo of crack width

Fig 6.9 Surface crack after failure

7. CONCLUSION
This work suggests the need for developing a new class of ECC which has the strain-hardening
property but which can be processed with conventional equipment. It is demonstrated that such a
material, termed engineered cementitious composites or ECCs, can be designed based on
micromechanical principles. The significant properties of ECC-Concrete are ductility, durability,
compressive strength, and self-consolidation. Polyvinyl Alcohol fibers dose not disperse properly
in the mixing water. Addition of fibers to dry mix was found to be more practical. It is found that
presence of fibers can decrease the alertness of the failure, which mainly occurs due to spalling
or brittleness of the conventional concrete. Where fiber concrete can be fail due to protruding at
the transverse direction. Compressive strength increases with increasing fiber content. But when
it reaches up to its optimum value, it starts decreasing with the increasing content of fiber. In

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split tensile strength, it escalate due to Polyvinyl Alcohol fibers at 28 days is approximately 50%
higher than 7 days strength. Flexural strength also increases as fiber content increases. During
the test, it was perceived that PVA-ECC specimen has greater crack control as demonstrated by
reduction in crack widths and crack spacing. Fibers reduces the w/c ratio which leads to the low
workability. It is difficult to justify the proper surface but appropriate amount of plasticizers can
increase workability so that geographic shapes can be determine easily. There is considerable
improvement in the post-cracking behavior of concretes containing fibers. Although in the fiberreinforced concrete the ultimate tensile strengths do not increase appreciably, the tensile strains
at rupture do.
Compared to plain concrete, fiber reinforced concrete is much tougher and more resistant to
impact. The cost of ECC is currently about three times that of normal concrete per cubic yard.
However initial construction cost saving can be achieved through smaller structural member size,
reduced or eliminated reinforcement elimination of other structural protective systems, and/or
faster construction offered by the unique fresh and hardened properties of ECC. When long term
cost and environmental impacts are accounted for, the advantages offered by ECC over
conventional concrete become even more compelling.

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8. REFERENCES
1. Kong, H.J., Bike, S.G., and Li, V.C., 2002, Constitutive rheological control to develop a
self-consolidating engineered cementitious composite reinforced with hydrophilic
(polyvinyl alcohol) fibers, in press, Cement and Concrete Comp
2. Dr. A. W. Dhawale, Mrs. V. P. Joshi, Engineered Cementitious Composites for Structural
Applications
3. Yingzi Yang, Michael D. Lepech, En-Hua Yang, Victor Li, autogeneous healing of
engineered cementitious composites under wet-dry cycles
4. Yingzi Yang, Michael D. Lepech, En-Hua Yang, Victor Li, Self-healing of engineered
cementitious composites under cycle wetting and drying
5. Priti A. Patel, Dr. Atul K. Desai and Dr. Jatin A. Desai, Evaluation of engineering
properties for polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete
6. M.D.Lepech and V.C. Li. Long term durability performance of engineered cementitious
composites. Restoration of Building and Monuments, 2006; 12:2:119-132.
7. Emily N. Herbert, Victor C. Li. Self-healing of micro cracks in engineered Cementitious
Composites under natural Environment. materials,2013;6:2831-2845.

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8. Megat Azmi, Megat Johari, Syed Fuad Saiydi Hashim, Nurdeen M. Altwair .Fracture and
tensile characteristics of engineered cementitious composites containing POFA. Advances
in Cement Research, 2013, 25(4), 189-199.
9. J.M. Irwan, N. Othman. An Overview of Bio concrete for Structural Repair. Applied
Mechanics and Materials, 2013; 389:36-39.
10. G. Fischer, S.Wang, Victor C. Li. Design Of Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC)
for Processing and workability Requirements. In Proceedings of International
Symposium of brittle Matrix composites, Warsaw, 2003.
11. Gregor Fischer, Victor C. Li. Deformation Behaviour of Fiber Reinforced Polymer
reinforced engineered cementitious composite (ECC) flexural Members under Reversed
Cyclic loading conditions. ACI Structural Journal, 2003;100:25-35.
12. Gregor Fischer, Victor C. Li. Intrinsic Response Control of Moment-Resisting Frames
Utilizing Advanced Composite Materials and Structural Elements. ACI Structural
Journal, 2003;100:166-176.
13. Tong-seok Han, Peter H. Feenstra, Sarah L. Billington. Simulation of Highly Ductile
Fibre-Reinforced Cement based Composites Components under cyclic loading. ACI
Structural Journal, 2003,100:749-757
14. Keith E. Kesner, Sarah L. Billington, Kyle S. Douglas. Cyclic response of Highly Ductile
Fibre-Reinforced Cement-Based Composites. ACI Materials Journal, 2003,100:381-390.
15. Mustafa Sahmaran, Victor C. Li. Engineered Cementitious Composite. Transportation
Research Record; 2164: 1-7.
16. ASTM C-215.Standard test method for fundamental Transverse, longitudinal and
torsional resonant frequencies of Concrete specimens.
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Designed with ductile engineered cementitious composites. ACI structural journal, 2004;
11 :792-801.

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