Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
J. Meierhenrich
IR2085, 2790085
2012
Undergraduate study in
Economics, Management,
Finance and the Social Sciences
This is an extract from a subject guide for an undergraduate course offered as part of the
University of London International Programmes in Economics, Management, Finance and
the Social Sciences. Materials for these programmes are developed by academics at the
London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE).
For more information, see: www.londoninternational.ac.uk
This guide was prepared for the University of London International Programmes by:
J. Meierhenrich, Senior Lecturer, Department of International Relations, The London School of
Economics and Political Science.
This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that due to
pressure of work the author is unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or arising
from, the guide. If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or unfavourable,
please use the form at the back of this guide.
Contents
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................. 1
Aims ............................................................................................................................. 1
Learning outcomes......................................................................................................... 1
How to use this guide..................................................................................................... 2
The purpose of the subject guide.................................................................................... 2
Reading......................................................................................................................... 3
Activities........................................................................................................................ 3
Online study resources.................................................................................................... 3
Syllabus.......................................................................................................................... 5
Examination................................................................................................................... 5
Recommended study time............................................................................................... 6
List of abbreviations....................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 1: The study of international organisations............................................... 9
Aims and learning outcomes........................................................................................... 9
Essential reading............................................................................................................ 9
Further reading............................................................................................................... 9
Introduction................................................................................................................. 10
Concepts...................................................................................................................... 10
Questions..................................................................................................................... 13
Theories....................................................................................................................... 16
Disciplines.................................................................................................................... 18
A reminder of your learning outcomes........................................................................... 19
Sample examination questions...................................................................................... 19
Part I: The theory of international organisations.................................................. 21
Chapter 2: Realism................................................................................................ 23
Aims and learning outcomes......................................................................................... 23
Essential reading.......................................................................................................... 23
Further reading............................................................................................................. 23
Introduction................................................................................................................. 24
Classical realism, or the tragic view of international politics........................................... 24
From classical realism to structural realism.................................................................... 25
The relative gains problem in international cooperation............................................... 25
The false promise of international institutions: John Mearsheimer.................................. 26
Conclusion................................................................................................................... 27
A reminder of your learning outcomes........................................................................... 27
Sample examination questions...................................................................................... 27
Chapter 3: Liberalism............................................................................................ 29
Aims and learning outcomes......................................................................................... 29
Essential reading ......................................................................................................... 29
Further reading............................................................................................................. 29
Introduction................................................................................................................. 30
Classical liberalism, or the idealistic view of international politics................................... 30
From idealism to pluralism............................................................................................ 31
From pluralism to neo-liberal institutionalism................................................................ 32
Game theory of international institutions: Robert Keohane............................................ 32
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85 International organisations
Contents
85 International organisations
iv
Introduction
Introduction
This study of international organisations, a 200 course, builds on the
foundations laid by 11 Introduction to international relations. It
offers a comprehensive introduction to the theory, history, and practice
of international organisations. Through an in-depth and interdisciplinary
examination of these frequently misunderstood international institutions,
the course introduces students to key themes in the field of international
relations. The international organisations we will discuss in this course
range from the League of Nations to the United Nations, from the World
Bank to the World Trade Organization, from the European Union to the
African Union, from the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and from the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to the International Criminal Court.
The course is designed to equip you with the analytical tools necessary
for making sense of the evolution of the international system from the
nineteenth century to the present, and for accurately and critically
assessing the role of international organisations therein. The subject
guides disciplinary ambit ranges from anthropology to economics, from
history to law and from political science to sociology.
Against the background of diverse disciplinary approaches, it acquaints
you with key themes and essential readings concerning the study of
international organisations. By tracing the changing forms and functions of
multilateralism across space and time, the guide provides students with an
accessible and comprehensive overview of one of the most important and
policy-relevant fields of study in international relations.
Aims
The course and this subject guide aim to give you an understanding of
the major theoretical and empirical aspects of the role of international
organisations in international politics, including, inter alia, their impact on:
the practice of international cooperation and conflict
the maintenance of international peace and security
the management of international economic relations
the promotion of international environmental standards
the prosecution of international crimes
related matters of concern to international society.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this course, and having completed the Essential reading and
activities, you should be able to:
demonstrate you have thoroughly understood the core literature on
international organisations
engage with this literature critically by developing your own
argumentation
explain the main theoretical approaches and empirical issues in the
study of international organisations
write clearly, effectively and critically about these issues.
1
85 International organisations
Introduction
Reading
Each chapter generally lists two categories of reading: Essential reading
and Further reading. All listings under the rubric of the former are
mandatory and indispensable for making sense of the topic in question.
They are listed in order of importance and should be read carefully and in
their entirety. All readings listed under the latter rubric are optional and
are listed alphabetically at the start of each chapter. Further readings are
resources for you to consult in order for you to further your interest or
deepen or broaden your knowledge of the topic in question. To help you
read extensively, you have free access to the VLE and University of London
Online Library (see below).
There is a full bibliography for this course in an appendix at the end of the
guide.
Essential reading
The following three introductory texts are recommended for purchase.
Hurd, Ian International Organizations: Politics, Law, Practice. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2011) [ISBN 9780521147378].
Armstrong, David, Lorna Lloyd and John Redmond International Organisation
in World Politics. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004) third edition [ISBN
9781403903037].
Karns, Margaret P. and Karen A. Mingst International Organizations: The Politics
and Processes of Global Governance. (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2010)
second edition [ISBN 9781588266989].
Detailed reading references in this subject guide refer to the editions of the
set textbooks listed above. New editions of one or more of these textbooks
may have been published by the time you study this course. You can use
a more recent edition of any of the books; use the detailed chapter and
section headings and the index to identify relevant readings. Also check
the virtual learning environment (VLE) regularly for updated guidance on
readings.
Activities
Each chapter of this subject guide contains several learning activities.
These activities are designed to aid you in the comprehension and
retention of the theoretical and empirical information. The nature of the
activities varies. Some of them highlight additional, particularly salient
resources; others demand independent study.
At the conclusion of each chapter, the guide summarises in the form of a
reminder the chief learning outcomes that you are expected to have reached.
The inclusion of Sample examination questions is intended to facilitate
appropriate preparation for the written examination. As part of your studies,
you are strongly encouraged to attempt to answer at least one of the
questions per chapter under timed examination conditions. Answers should
be around 1,500 words in length, and you should strive for originality,
soundness and clarity of argument and evidence, as discussed below.
85 International organisations
You can access the VLE, the Online Library and your University of London email
account via the Student Portal at: http://my.londoninternational.ac.uk
You should have received your login details for the Student Portal with
your official offer, which was emailed to the address that you gave on your
application form. You have probably already logged in to the Student Portal in
order to register. As soon as you registered, you will automatically have been
granted access to the VLE, Online Library and your fully functional University
of London email account.
If you forget your login details at any point, please email uolia.support@
london.ac.uk quoting your student number.
The VLE
The VLE, which complements this subject guide, has been designed to
enhance your learning experience, providing additional support and a sense
of community. It forms an important part of your study experience with the
University of London and you should access it regularly.
The VLE provides a range of resources for EMFSS courses.
Self-testing activities. Doing these allows you to test your own
understanding of subject material.
Electronic study materials. The printed materials that you receive from
the University of London are available to download, including updated
reading lists and references.
Past examination papers and Examiners commentaries. These provide
advice on how each examination question might best be answered.
A student discussion forum. This is an open space for you to discuss
interests and experiences, seek support from your peers, work
collaboratively to solve problems and discuss subject material.
Videos. There are recorded academic introductions to the subject,
interviews and debates and, for some courses, audio-visual tutorials and
conclusions.
Recorded lectures. For some courses, where appropriate, the sessions from
previous years study weekends have been recorded and made available.
Study skills. Expert advice on preparing for examinations and developing
your digital literacy skills.
Feedback forms.
Some of these resources are available for certain courses only, but we are
expanding our provision all the time and you should check the VLE regularly
for updates.
Introduction
For further advice, please see the online help pages: www.external.shl.lon.
ac.uk/summon/about.php
Syllabus
As stated in the Regulations, the course seeks to give students an
understanding of the major theoretical and empirical aspects of the role
of international organisations in international politics, including, inter
alia, their impact on the practice of international cooperation and conflict,
the maintenance of international peace and security, the management
of international economic relations, the promotion of international
environmental standards, the prosecution of international crimes, and
related matters of concern to international society.
Origins of international organisations: why do IOs such as the
Organization of American States emerge?
Development of international organisations: what goes on within IOs
such as the United Nations?
Effects of international organisations: what difference do IOs such as
the International Monetary Fund make?
Pathologies of international organisations: when do IOs such as the
European Union go wrong?
Examination
Important: the information and advice given here are based on the
examination structure used at the time this guide was written. Please
note that subject guides may be used for several years. Because of this we
strongly advise you to always check both the current Regulations for relevant
information about the examination, and the VLE where you should be advised
of any forthcoming changes. You should also carefully check the rubric/
instructions on the paper you actually sit and follow those instructions.
This course is assessed by a three-hour unseen written examination. As
part of the examination, which accounts for 100 per cent of the grade,
students are required to answer four out of 12 questions. The appendix
contains a Sample examination paper. In order to test for deep acquisition
of knowledge, you are expected to integrate theory and history and bring
empirical evidence to bear on the examination questions you choose.
Several criteria are applied in the evaluation of examination answers. Firstclass essays will excel in terms of all of the following criteria:
1. Originality of argument: How unexpected is the claim advanced?
2. Use of literature: Has relevant scholarship been digested and put to
good use?
3. Soundness of analysis: Is the inquiry comprehensive and logically
consistent and addressing the posed question?
4. Organisation of evidence: Have argument and evidence been
introduced and presented in a compelling manner?
5. Validity of findings: Does the argument remain valid when applied
empirically?
6. Clarity of presentation: Are grammar, punctuation and references
flawless?
You are strongly advised to consult past examination papers as well as
Examiners commentaries as part of your examination preparation. The
5
85 International organisations
List of abbreviations
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AU
African Union
CEDAW
CIS
COE
Council of Europe
CSCE
DPA
DPKO
EC
European Community
ECCC
ECOWAS
ECHR
E-10
FAO
GATT
G-7
G-8
G-77
G-20
IAEA
ICC
ICJ
ICRC
Introduction
ICTR
ICTY
IFAD
ILO
IMF
IMO
IPCC
ITU
Non-aligned Movement
NATO
OAS
OAU
OHCHR
OPEC
OSCE
P-5
R2P
SADC
SCSL
UNDP
UNEP
UNGA
UNHCR
UNICEF
UNODC
UNSC
UPU
WEU
WFP
WHO
WIPO
WMO
WTO
85 International organisations
Notes
Essential reading
Hurd, Ian, International Organizations: Politics, Law, Practice. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp.114.
Ruggie, John Gerard Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an Institution,
International Organization, 46(3) (Summer 1992), pp.56198.
Hollis, Martin and Steve Smith Explaining and Understanding International
Relations. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp.4591.
Further reading
Archer, Clive International Organizations. (London: Routledge, 2001) third
edition.
Armstrong, David, Lorna Lloyd and John Redmond International Organisation
in World Politics. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004) third edition.
Avant, Deborah D., Martha Finnemore and Susan K. Sell (eds) Who Governs the
Globe? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
Barnett, Michael and Raymond Duvall (eds) Power in Global Governance.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
Claude, Inis Swords into Plowshares: The Progress and Problems of International
Organization. (New York: Random House, [1956] 1971) fourth edition.
Duffield, John What Are International Institutions? International Studies
Review, 9(1) (Spring 2007), pp.122.
Fawcett, Louise and Andrew Hurrell (eds) Regionalism in World Politics:
Regional Organization and International Order. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1996).
Karns, Margaret P. and Karen A. Mingst International Organizations: The Politics
and Processes of Global Governance. (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2010)
second edition.
Kratochwil, Friedrich V. and John G. Ruggie International Organization: A
State of the Art on an Art of the State, International Organization, 40(4)
Autumn 1986), pp.75375.
Martin, Lisa and Beth Simmons (eds) International Institutions: An International
Organization Reader. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001).
Mattli, Walter and Ngaire Woods (eds) The Politics of Global Regulation.
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2009).
9
85 International organisations
Rittberger, Volker, Bernhard Zangl and Andreas Kruck International
Organization. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2012) second edition.
Rochester, J. Martin The Rise and Fall of International Organization as a
Field of Study, International Organization, 40(4) (September 1986),
pp.777813.
Ruggie, John Gerard (ed.) Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Practice of
an Institutional Form. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
Zartman, I. William and Saadia Touval (eds) International Cooperation: The
Extents and Limits of Multilateralism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2010).
Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the rise and fall and rebirth
of international organisations as a sub-field of study in the field of
international relations. The discussion proceeds under four separate
headings:
1. concepts
2. questions
3. theories
4. disciplines.
It will quickly become apparent that the meaning of international
organisations is in the eye of the beholder, for scholars of different
persuasions and disciplines have contending and even irreconcilable
views of whether international organisations matter in international
politics, and of the conditions under which they might. In passing, the
chapter introduces a working definition of international organisations,
distinguishing the concept from that of international institutions.
Related concepts to be discussed include unilateralism, bilateralism and
multilateralism, as well as cooperation.
In response to the complexity of the subject matter, this chapter makes a
case for the triangulation of insights from the theory, history and practice
of international organisations. This notwithstanding, the principal basis of
this intellectual endeavour is the social sciences.
Concepts
For those not familiar with them, the notion of the social sciences frequently
is awe-inspiring. In this context an anecdote comes to mind that involves
National Public Radio or NPR, the influential US non-profit radio network
(Hechter and Horne, 2003: 3). At one point, a journalist at this American
equivalent of the BBC was wondering how rocket scientists expressed the
idea that something may be difficult but It isnt rocket science. In order to
find out, the NPR journalist did what journalists do best: he asked around.
The first stop, naturally, were the rocket scientists. How did they convey that
something was demanding but not beyond their natural grasp? The rocket
scientists that the NPR reporter interviewed responded that they often said
that something may be difficult, but it isnt theoretical physics. Naturally,
the reporter proceeded to interview a theoretical physicist. The theoretical
physicist responded that he and his colleagues often said that something may
be difficult, but it isnt social science.
The purpose of this anecdote is to drive home the point that social
phenomena are usually staggeringly complex complex enough to
intimidate a theoretical physicist. And international organisations are
10
Already 14 years earlier, in 1956, Inis Claude, arguably the founding father
of the systematic study of international organisations, had introduced this
conceptualisation:
International organization [in the singular] is a process;
international organizations [in the plural] are representative
aspects of the phase of that process which has been reached at a
given time.
85 International organisations
[Multilateralism] is the practice of co-ordinating national policies
in groups of three or more states.
Questions
Having established that concepts matter in the study of international
organisations, it is useful to elaborate further on how exactly they
matter. In a most basic sense, it is impossible to ask real-world questions
about social phenomena without putting a label on them. What kinds
of questions are pressing when it comes to international organisations?
Why should we care about them in the first place? Three answers come to
mind: ubiquity, centrality and pathology.
First, international organisations make for an important subject of
study because they simply are everywhere. Take the allegations over
corruption in the higher ranks of FIFA, the world football association,
that came to a head in 2011. FIFA is an international organisation. As is
the International Olympic Committee, the IOC, which every four years
organises the Olympic Games. Both FIFA and IOC are private international
organisations, better known as non-intergovernmental organisations
(INGOs), of which more in Chapter 8, when the subject guide turns to the
classification of international organisations. The point is that international
organisations exist above and beyond the handful of public international
organisations (IGOs) that regularly make the news, such as the UN,
the IMF, the World Bank or the WTO. There are far more international
organisations than there are sovereign states in the international system.
The Union of International Associations (UIA), publisher of the Yearbook of
International Organizations, in 2010 came up with a total figure of 63,397,
of which it classified 7,554 as IGOs.1 According to the UIA, all of the
international organisations on its roster combined convened a staggering
316,534 international meetings in the reporting period 200910.2 In short,
international organisations are ubiquitous not an insignificant reason
to study them.
Second, international organisations make for an important subject of
study because they are central to many facets of international life. Talking
about sovereign states, for example, it is difficult to get by as a polity in
the international system without being accredited by the UN. For what
some have called juridical statehood (Jackson and Rosberg, 1982) is
Union of International
Associations, Yearbook
of International
Organizations 2010
2011, Volume 5 (Leiden:
Martinus Nijhoff, 2010),
p.35, Figure 2.9. The
figure breaks down as
follows: 7,544 IGOs and
55,853 INGOs. Needless
to say, the precise
number of international
associations depends
on the method of
classification and
counting used. The UIA
is working with a rather
broad definition.
1
Joel Fischer,
International Meeting
Statistics for the
Year 2010, Union
of International
Associations, Press
Release, June 2011,
available at www.uia.
be/sites/uia.be/files/
documents/statistics/
press/press11.pdf
2
13
85 International organisations
85 International organisations
Theories
Now that we have a better sense of the kinds of questions worth asking
in the study of international organisations, it is opportune to illustrate the
role of theories in answering them. A key part of studying international
organisations academically (as opposed to journalistically) is thinking about
them in terms of explanations in which certain concepts become variables.
The objective of many scholars in the social sciences, albeit not all, is to
combine select variables into theories. Such theories are usually tested
by deriving hypotheses from them and by measuring the validity of these
hypotheses against empirical evidence. Since, as mentioned, this course
is committed to theoretical reasoning as well as empirical reasoning, it is
important to unpack these fundamental terms of the trade, what we might
call the nature of explanation. Here is a simple visual representation of the
relationships among several key terms. See Figure 1.1.
[A] Theory
Conjecture
Independent variable
(as abstract concept)
Dependent variable
(as abstract concept)
[B] Operationalisation
Hypothesis
Independent variable
(as measurable concept)
Dependent variable
(as measurable concept)
[C] Measurement
Figure 1.1: The nature of explanation
Explanation
Understanding
Positivism
Interpretivism
Concern Causality
Constitution
Method
Deduction
Induction
Goal
Generalisation
Particularisation
Ideal
Objectivity
Subjectivity
85 International organisations
that of Sverine Autesserre (2010), who delved deep into the culture of
peacekeeping of MONUC, the problematic UN Mission in the Democratic
Republic of Congo. Explanations of international organisations have
very different ambitions. They are generally aimed at saying something
that holds true above and beyond the context in which the research was
carried out. A prominent example of this mode of proceeding is the work
of many scholars developing what became known as regime theory of
international institutions (e.g. Krasner, 1985). More recent examples
include the work by Andrew Moravcsik on European integration (1998),
and writings on delegation and agency in international organisations
(Hawkins et al., 2006).
Such are the methodological differences between explanation and
understanding in the study of international organisations. Martin Hollis
and Steve Smith (1990: 87) summarise the principal difference neatly:
To understand is to reproduce the order in the minds of the actors; to
explain is to find causes in the scientific manner. As subsequent chapters
demonstrate, scholarship that unites explanation and understanding often
has a great deal more to offer to the study of international organisations
than scholarship that favours one over the other. Often, the impetus for
crossing theoretical and methodological boundaries comes from disciplines
other than political science.
Activity
Read Stephen Van Evera, Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1997) [ISBN 9780801484575], pp.748. Think about the
promise and limits of different methodological approaches to the study of international
organisations.
Disciplines
The study of international organisations was at first chiefly the province
of international lawyers. Leading perspectives from international law,
as Clive Archer (2001: 128) writes, give particular consideration to the
constitutions of international organizations, their legal personalities
and institutional problems. Indeed, it was probably the Professor of
Law at Edinburgh University, J. Lorimer, who first coined the expression
international organization in 1867. Yet in the decades following the
creation, in the mid-1940s, of the post-Second World War international
order, the study of international organisations quickly became a staple of
political science. Although scholarly interest has waxed and waned over
the years, with international organisations as a topic moving to and from
the cutting edge of international relations research, recent years have
seen the emergence of sophisticated, empirically driven analyses never
seen before. Even economists and sociologists have discovered formal
international institutions, and an increasing number of anthropologists,
too, are beginning to take seriously international organisations. The
remainder will elucidate any and all of these contributions. But as
encouraging as these developments are for the theory and practice
of international organisations alike, it is important to be mindful of
intellectual blindspots in the study of international organisations.
Activity
Generally speaking, how do the disciplines of anthropology, economics, history, law,
political science and sociology differ?
18
19
85 International organisations
Notes
20
21
85 International organisations
Notes
22
Chapter 2: Realism
Chapter 2: Realism
Aims and learning outcomes
The aim of this chapter is to elaborate what it means to study international
organisations from a realist perspective. It explores the paradigm of
realism in all its guises and explains why realists are sceptical about the
significance of international organisations.
By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings
and activities, you should be able to:
describe the key tenets of classical realism and structural realism
(commonly known as neo-realism)
explain the sources of realisms lack of faith in the power of
international organisations
outline the evolution of realist thinking about international
organisations (IOs) over time.
Essential reading
Grieco, Joseph M., Anarchy and the Limits of Cooperation: A Realist Critique
of the Newest Liberal Institutionalism, International Organization, 42(3)
(Summer 1988), pp.485507.
Mearsheimer, John J. The False Promise of International Institutions,
International Security, 19(3) (Winter 1994/95), pp.7391.
Further reading
Baldwin, David A. (ed.) Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary
Debate. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
Bull, Hedley The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics.
(Basingstoke: Palgrave, [1977] 2002) third edition.
Buzan, Barry, Charles Jones and Richard Little The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism
to Structural Realism. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
Carr, E.H. The Twenty Years Crisis, 19191939: An Introduction to the Study of
International Relations. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, [1939] 2001) new edition.
Doyle, Michael W. Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism.
(New York: Norton, 1997).
Elman, Colin (ed.) Realism Reader. (London: Routledge, 2011).
Gilpin, Robert War and Change in World Politics. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983).
Gruber, Lloyd Ruling the World: Power Politics and the Rise of Supranational
Institutions. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000).
Little, Richard The Balance of Power in International Relations: Metaphors,
Myths, and Models. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Keohane, Robert O. (ed.) Neorealism and its Critics. (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1985).
May, Ernest R., Richard Rosecrance and Zara Steiner (eds) History and
Neorealism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. (New York: Norton,
2002).
Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace.
(Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill, [1948] 2005) seventh edition.
Norrlof, Carla Americas Global Advantage: US Hegemony and International
Cooperation. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
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85 International organisations
Vasquez, John A. The Power of Power Politics: From Classical Realism to
Neotraditionalism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
Walt, Stephen M. The Origins of Alliances. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Press, 1987).
Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. (Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill,
2010).
Introduction
Realist approaches to international relations come in a variety of guises.
What all of them have in common is the belief that international politics
revolves in important ways around the acquisition and exercise of power.
In what follows, I compare and contrast what the two major strands
of the realist paradigm classical realism and structural realism (more
frequently known as neo-realism) have to say about the nature and role
of international organisations in the international system.
Chapter 2: Realism
85 International organisations
26
Chapter 2: Realism
Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview of leading realist perspectives on
international organisations. In addition to tracing the evolution of realist
thought from classical realism to structural realism, it has highlighted the
central role that the relative gains problem has played in international
relations theory.
27
85 International organisations
Notes
28
Chapter 3: Liberalism
Chapter 3: Liberalism
Aims and learning outcomes
The aim of this chapter is to elaborate what it means to study international
organisations from a liberal perspective. It explores the paradigm of
liberalism in all its guises and explains why liberals are optimistic about
the significance of international organisations.
By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings
and activities, you should be able to:
describe the key tenets of classical liberalism and neo-liberal
institutionalism
explain the sources of liberalisms faith in the power of international
organisations
describe the evolution of liberal thinking about international
organisations over time.
Essential reading
Simmons, Beth A. and Lisa L. Martin International Organizations and
Institutions, in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons (eds)
Handbook of International Relations. (London: Sage, 2002), pp.192211.
Pevehouse, Jon and Bruce Russett Democratic International Governmental
Organizations Promote Peace, International Organization, 60(4) (Fall
2006), pp.9691000.
Further reading
Abbott, Kenneth W. and Duncan Snidal Why States Act through Formal
International Organizations, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42(1) (February
1998), pp.332.
Alter, Karen J. and Sophie Meunier The Politics of International Regime
Complexity, Perspectives on Politics, 7(1) (March 2009), pp.1324.
Baldwin, David A. (ed.) Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary
Debate. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
Doyle, Michael W. Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism.
(New York: Norton, 1997).
Haas, Ernst B. When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in
International Organizations. (Berkeley, Cal.: University of California Press,
1990).
Haftel, Yoram Z. and Alexander Thompson The Independence of International
Organizations, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50(2) (April 2006),
pp.25375.
Hasenclever, Andreas, Peter Mayer and Volker Rittberger Theories of
International Regimes. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
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Introduction
Liberal approaches to international relations (IR) also come in a variety of
guises. What all of them have in common is the belief that international
politics is about more than the maximisation of power, wealth or security.
Unlike realists, liberals are convinced that individuals as well as states
are capable of cooperating despite the fact that the international system
is anarchic. In what follows, I compare and contrast what the two
major strands of the liberal paradigm classical liberalism and neoliberal institutionalism (NI) have to say about the nature and role of
international organisations in the international system. Seeing that NI is
generally more optimistic about the role of international organisations
than are realists, I shall further distinguish among three modern variants
thereof, what I call:
game theory of international institutions
regime theory of international institutions
peace theory of international institutions.
Chapter 3: Liberalism
causes of war (jus ad bellum) as well as just conduct in war (jus in bello).
This so-called just-war doctrine continues to influence the theory and
practice of international politics in the twenty-first century. More generally
speaking, the Grotian tradition of liberal IR theory assumes that states,
like individuals, are ultimately sociable. By this is meant that (most) states
have a deeply rooted sense of obligation to creating and respecting rules
of international society. This sense of obligation, according to Grotian IR
scholars, stems from mans nature as a rational and social creature. It gives
rise to a commitment to reciprocity in international dealings. Of similar
significance to the Grotian worldview is the belief, rooted in natural law
theory, that there exists one universal standard of morality against which
the behaviour of states could be measured.
Kant, too, believed that the behaviour of states was not inevitably subject
to the Hobbesian dynamic to which realists subscribe. According to Kant,
one of the principal thinkers of the Enlightenment, it was conceivable
that states, despite the anarchic environment of the international system,
could bring about a state of perpetual peace. The key ingredients, said
Kant, were a republican constitution, conditions of universal hospitality,
a federation of free states. Translated into todays parlance, Kant believed
that democracy, economic interdependence and international organisations
were institutional requisites of what he called a pacific union.
What all liberals have in common is a belief that the distribution of power
in the international system (namely, the structure of this system) is far
less determinative of international outcomes than realists suggest. Unlike
realists, liberal theorists of IR have a more benign view of human nature
and also think that domestic politics sometimes matters. Most important
for our purposes, liberals of all persuasions think that international
institutions matter, whether they come in the form of international law
(think of Grotius) or in the form of international organisations (think
of Kant). Liberals believe that internationalism, on balance, is a force
for good. Consequently, as we shall see in subsequent chapters, classical
liberalism had a major influence on the practice of multilateralism in the
aftermath of the First World War as well as the Second World War. But let
us now turn from the origins of liberal international relations theory to its
contemporary manifestations.
Activity
In what ways are modern liberal theories of international politics influenced by the views
of Kant and Grotius?
85 International organisations
32
Chapter 3: Liberalism
33
85 International organisations
Chapter 3: Liberalism
Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview of leading liberal perspectives on
international organisations. In addition to tracing the evolution of liberal
thought from classical liberalism to neo-liberal institutionalism, it has
highlighted the distinct contributions of three varieties of the latter.
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Notes
36