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BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR

STRUCTURES AND VOCABULARY

TECHNICAL ENGLISH COURSE

M.Sc. Rosa Elena Cabrera Toapanta

LATACUNGA - ECUADOR

AERONAUTICAL CAREER

This content has been prepared as a teaching guide for students of the
aeronautical career, who need to master the English grammatical
structures to develop an understanding of the technical information
regarding various aircraft, all this through a collaborative and personal
work.

M.Sc. Rosa E. Cabrera T.


ENGLISH TEACHER AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATOR AT ECUADORIAN AIR
FORCE

Email: rosehelenct@gmail.com

Methodological Suggestions

1.

Read, study and comprehend the grammatical rules included in the


different units.

2. Solve the exercises.


3. Check, verify and correct the answers.
4. Study and comprehend the lists of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs,
prepositions, etc.), which appear at the end of each unit.

UNI 1

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLES


A. A/AN have the same meaning, and are used before singular nouns.
A repair has the necessary structural strength.
An airplane is delivered for repair.
B. The indefinite articles a, an depends on the pronunciation of the
words that follow the articles, not their spelling.
AN is used before a consonant sound (a, e, I, o, u) and a before
consonants (all the other letters i.e., b, c, d, f, g).
C. When u is pronounce as /ju:/, use a.
a unit
Use an before h, when h is not pronounced.
an hour
an HEPA (High Efficiency Particle Arrestor)
D. Do not use a or an before plural nouns.
There could be some cracks.
Corrosion inhibitors are materials.
E.

Weak forms of one are: a / an. We use the full form one when we
emphasize the number one, not two, three, four, etc.
One plane arrived late, not two.
Apply one layer of paint not two.
PLURAL COUNT FORMS

-es to words
ending in: ch; ; s
; z ; sh ; x

-es changing
y to i to words
ending
in a consonant + y

-s to other
words

Irregular
plurals have
different
forms:

Nouns ending in
f or fe, delete
the f/fe and add
ves

boxes
switches
classes

capabilities
responsibilities
impurities

drills
coils
tables

children
feet
men

Shelf=shelves
Life=lives

inches
brushes

libraries
discrepancies

tires
plugs

DEMONSTRATIVES
SPEAKER
Close to
Farther from

SINGULAR
This
That

PLURAL
These
Those

A. We can use this, that, these and those:


Before a noun
(Adjective)

Without a following noun


(Pronoun)

This report is for you.


That connector is rated for the
specified operation.
These inserts shall be retained
within the shell.
Those
contacts
eliminate
damage from abuse.

This is for you.


That is circular threaded.
These are of a void
construction.
These help to
misaligned pins
engagement.

correct
during

less
any
the

SOME, ANY, NO
A. Some and any are used to talk about an indefinite quantity.
This section gives some data about the types of mechanical
fasteners.
Do not cut into any surrounding structures.
B. Some and any are used before uncountable nouns (oil, fuel,
grease) and plural nouns (clamps, blades, nuts).
C. Some is generally used in affirmative sentences and any in
negative sentences.
Q
Q

There are some blisters or evidence of scaling and flaking.


Cracks or holes are not allowed in any web of bulkhead
stations 294.50 and 1156.

D. Any is used in affirmative sentences that really have a negative


meaning; for instance, with words like never, without, hardly.
Q
Q
Q

It never gives any good results.


The plane got there without any trouble.
Theres hardly any oil left.

E. Any can also mean it doesnt matter which. (Affirmative


sentence)
Q
Q

Scratches may be oriented in any direction.


Damage is defined as any visible change to the surface of an
airplane part.

F. No is used before a noun while not is used after the auxiliary verb.
No means not a / not any.
Q
Q

There are no scratches or missing primer on the fuselage.


There are not any scratches or missing primer on the fuselage.
THE POSSESSIVE CASE (S AND S)

A. This possessive case is used to show ownership.


Q
Q

The pilots bag = the bag of the pilot (singular)


The passengers passports = the passports of the passengers
(plural)

B. Normally of is used for things.


Q
Q

Preparation for removal and installation of transformerrectifier


Apply a light coat of lubricant to both sides of gasket
ONE, ONES

A. Use one instead of repeating a singular noun.


A: The mechanic is removing the old fastener.
B: Did you order the new one? (= the new fastener)
B. Use ones instead of repeating a plural noun.

A: Do you need large bolts or small ones. (= small bolts)


B: Large ones. (= large bolts)
C. Only use one and ones in place of countable nouns.
ANTICIPATORY IT
In some sentences the pronoun it comes before, or anticipates, the
subject of a sentence. It does not refer to a particular person or thing; it
only takes the position before the verb usually filled by the subject.
I
T
I
T
I
T

VERB (BE) ADJECTIVE


is

anticipated

was

essential

THAT NOUN CLAUSE


the circuit can be affected by
another circuit.
all turnbuckle terminals be
(that)
screwed into the barrel.
(that)

CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS


A. Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two
equal parts of a sentence.
B. A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it
depends for its full meaning.
C. Correlative conjunctions appear in pairs.
Either...or

Neither...nor

both...and

Not only...but also

And is used as a conjunction when the words or phrases are of equal


importance and both conditions exist. It shows addition,
complementary (+) and
furthermore
moreover
in addition
also
Each seat back is
you can manually fold
as well as
hydraulically reclining,
the back forward.
besides
in fact
similarly
likewise
The conjunction 'but' is used to show contrast, contradiction or
concession between two phrases. The first phrase leads you to expect a

certain event and the second phrase tells you quite a contradictory
outcome.
Difference, comparison, incompatibility
(-) But

The system was


inoperative;

however,
whereas,
whilst,
although,
despite,
in spite of,
nevertheless
even though,
in contrast,
nonetheless,
on the contrary,
on the other
hand,
regardless of

the aircraft took off.

Notice the punctuation. If the word(s) begin the sentence, a comma


follows the dependent clause.
However, if all AC generators are lost, the aircraft battery will continue
to supply DC electrical power to operate vital systems.
Condition ()
These terms are used to introduce a conditional clause of provisionality.
This clause states a requirement, a demand, or an essential condition.

The back jaw can be used


as an anvil
All dimensions are in
inches,

DO not return the cylinder to

if,
unless,
provided (that),
providing (that),
only if,
whether or not,
should,
while

Time ()
until
after

the work being done is


light.
otherwise specified.

the test has been


accomplished.

before
since
when
whenever
while
as soon
as
as long as

service

Used to introduce clauses that state the purpose for which something is
done.
Consequence, result: ()So
The flame should be kept
moving;
Small openings are created at
the edges of the tape;
The skins are so thin;

so that,
therefore,
consequently,
thus,
as a result,
hence,
accordingly,

the metal does not


overheat.
air can escape.
they do not block the
radar signals.

Reason, explanation
( ) As
Blades that have been heated
for any repair must be
rejected;

since,
because,
because of
due to,

only cold straightening


is authorized.

Objective ()
I'll use a digital clock
Hydraulic pressure must be
regulated

so as to,
to,
in order to

not be confused the


hours.
use it to perform the
desired tasks.

A summation is a brief summary of main points or a restatement of the


main idea. It can also be a statement which combines effect or results
with a summary. Most summations begin with an adverbial phrase.
Consequently,
longeron repair is similar to stringer repair.

In brief,
All in all,
In all,
In conclusion,
To conclude,
To put it briefly,
In short,
To summarize,
In other words,
In summary,

light can produce electricity using a solar cell.

RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES THAT-WHICH


Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns.
That/which/who and relate to the subject of the clauses. In this type of
structure, the clauses are linked to part or all the main clauses.
WHICH/ THAT/
Adjective clauses may be introduce by the relative pronouns which/that
and relate to the object of the clause. The relative pronouns may be
omitted.
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q

A paint booth may be a small room in which components of an


aircraft are painted.
The aircrafts voltage depends on which battery is selected for that
aircraft.
These conditions can cause arcing, which may result in a fire or
system failures.
Terminal strips should be mounted in such a manner that loose
metallic objects cannot fall across the terminals or studs.
Some aircraft have nacelles that are designed to house the landing
gear when retracted.
WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.

Someone adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverbs.


Where/ when are relative to the place or time.
Q
Q

A specifically designed switch should be used in all circuits where a


switch malfunction would be hazardous.
Contact burning or welding may occur when the switch is closed.

Q
Q

The speed brake control in the cockpit can deploy all spoiler and
speed brake surfaces fully when operated.
Fixtures and/ or jigs should be used where possible.
EMPHATIC DO

When we want to stress or emphasize an action, we can use do, does, or


did before the verb.
Schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components.
The rib lacks a cap strip, but does have a flange around the entire piece.
The oxidizing flame does have some specific uses.
IMPERATIVE
A. Use the imperative form in:
Q
Q
Q

Instructions
Warnings
Invitations

Q
Q
Q

Offers
Advice
Requests

Do not perform wire repair while using explosive solvent/paint


products on the aircraft.
Remove 12 mounting nuts (3) (and washers, if installed) and discard.
B. To make imperative more polite, we can use the word please.
Tighten the nut, please.
C. The imperative has exactly the same form as the infinitive without
TO: it is used for giving orders, making suggestions, and encouraging
people to do thing.
Sand off any excess and prepare the area for refinishing.
D. An imperative can be made more emphatic by putting do before it.
Do protect the interiors of structural steel and aluminum tubing
against corrosion.
E. Negative imperatives are constructed with do not (or dont)

Dont worry.
Do not lean out of the window.
TENSES
Present Tense of the Verb Be
A. There are three basic completions for sentences that begin with a
subject + the verb be:
Q

A noun, as in:

The manager is an Air Force officer. The technicians are airmen.

Q An adjective, as in:
The inspection of rib upper chord is applicable
Q

An expression of place, as in:

The manager is in the hangar. The airmen are in the hangar too.
Present Simple
A. The present tense is the fundamental tense of technical English and
is the basic tense of all technical documentation. It is mostly used in
the 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they).
The fuselage acts as a pendulum suspended from the rotor.
Hand tools include rivet cutters, bucking bars, hand riveters,
countersinks, and dimpling tools.
B. The present simple is used to describe all generalities, systems,
processes, recurring phenomena, laws, etc.
A transformer changes electrical energy.
Connector backshells come in a wide variety of types depending on
the application.
C. The present simple is used to talk about things that happen
repeatedly for example, every day, usually, often or
sometimes.

The rivet head often breaks away and climbs the drill, which is a
signal to withdraw the drill.
D. The present simple is also used to talk about facts that are generally
true.
Atmospheric temperature changes cause the humidity in the air to
condense on the inside of aircraft surfaces and pool in all low areas.
E. After he/she/it, verbs end in s or es, e.g. he works; she goes.
-es after s/ch/-sh:

passpasses
finishfinishes
do does
study studies

watch watches
go goes
carry carries

A light illuminates inside the button to indicate that it is pressed.


F. Use do/does + not for negative sentences.
Aluminum alloys do not possess the corrosion resistance of pure
aluminum.
The neutral flame is used for most welding because it does not alter
the composition of the base metal.
Present Continuous
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The present continuous is used to talk about something that is
happening at the moment we speak.
Examples:
The use of structural adhesives is becoming widespread within the
aircraft field, both for repair and for initial fabrication.
C. Spelling:
work working
remove removing

run running
be being

lie lying

Past Tense of the Verb Be


A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The past tense of the verb be (was/were) is used to talk about a
definite time in the past e.g., last week, yesterday, in 1980, two years
ago etc.
Examples:
The damage became readily apparent when the cable was removed
and bent.
When the spark plugs are removed from the engine, identify them to
coincide with the cylinder and location from which they were
removed.
Take care to ensure the electrolyte is returned to the cell from which
it was extracted.
Were any malfunctions reported in-flight involving true airspeed?
Past Simple
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The past simple is used to talk about a definite time in the past, e.g.,
last year, yesterday, in 1980, two years ago etc.
C. Many verbs are regular. The past simple of regular verbs ends in
ed, e.g., work worked.
Example:
The color code and contact size corresponded to the information
contained on the data plate.
GTC (Gas Turbine Compressor) did not sustain rotation when GTC
control switch was released to RUN.
D. Some verbs have irregular past simple forms e.g., go went. See
page 238.

Past Continuous
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The past continuous is used for something that was in the middle of
happening at a past time or to indicate that a longer action in the past
was interrupted.
C. Spelling:
work working
remove removing

run running
be being

lie lying

Present Perfect
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The present perfect is used to talk about something that started in the
past and continuous up to the present.
I have worked in CEMA for three years. (I work in CEMA now)
C. The past simple is used for something that started and finished in the
past.
I worked in CEMA for three years. (I do not work in CEMA now)
D. The present perfect is also used to talk about experiences in our lives,
up to now.
E. The present perfect is also used to talk about a past action, when we
can see the result of the action now.
The pilot has damaged the plane. (The plane is damaged now)
Q

have/has + past participle.

The past participle of regular verbs ends in ed e.g., work


worked

Some verbs have irregular past participle forms, e.g., be (been)

Going To
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. We use going to talk about something that we have already decided
to do in the future.
C. We also use going to when we can see a future action coming
because of the present situation.
A thorough review of the aircraft manufacturers service instructions is
going to provide many helpful suggestions on
inspections.
Modals
WILL - SHALL
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The modal auxiliary verb will is used to express a mandatory
declaration of purpose or when it is necessary to express a future
event.
The modal auxiliary verb shall is used to express a provision that is
compulsory.
Maintenance personnel shall refer to specific aircraft maintenance
technical order for special instructions for use of these bolts.
Overheating will cancel the memory and melt the filaments.
Coatings other than dope will not increase fabric tension after aging.
CAN
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The modal auxiliary verb Can is used to express ability.
C. Can is also used to physical or technical capacity.
Examples:

These dimensional changes can have detrimental effects upon a


wood structure, particularly when two parts are bonded together
with grains in different directions.
Over tightening of fittings can also cause crushing of the underlying
wood member and possible bending of the metal fitting.
COULD
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
The modal auxiliary verb Could is used to express possibility.
Consult the local fire department for authority to use specific
equipment. Noncompliance could cause personnel injury.
If the water touches molten magnesium, a steam explosion could
occur.
B. Could is also used as the past form of can:
A
man
fell
into
the
technicians couldn't save him.

fuel

tank

yesterday.

The

MUST
A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) are mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. The modal auxiliary verb Must
something is necessary.

is used when we think that

Shop procedures must follow the manufacturers recommendations.


C. Must is also used to talk about the present, e.g., I must change the
tire now, or the future e.g., I must change the tire tomorrow.
D. To talk about the past, we use had to : Example:
I had to change the tire yesterday.
E. Must not is used to tell someone not to do something.

F. In technical and legal English, shall does not indicate the future, but
an idea of necessity. Shall = must.
G. Must, shall and have to are commonly used to express necessity.
The repair parts must not cause a blockage of any floor beam holes.
Remove maximum depth of a scratch or gouge must not exceed that
given for pressurized fuselage skins.
MAY, MIGHT
A. The modal auxiliary verbs May and Might express probability
and are used to indicate that an action or event could happen.
B. In a technical context, these apply more to natural phenomena,
unplanned technical incident, malfunction, etc., and also indicate an
acceptable or suggested means of accomplishment.
Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons,
wing rib, and trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe
structure.
The surface might be difficult to wet due to the presence of wax.
SHOULD
A. The modal auxiliary verb Should is used to express a
recommendation or advice rather than a necessity, about the present
or the future. Should also indicates a non-mandatory but
preferred method of accomplishment.
Electrical junctions should be mechanically and electrically secure.
B. If "should" comes at the beginning of a sentence, and the sentence is
not a question, then it can be replaced with "if". There is no difference
at all.
Should freezing or seizing occur, a sharp twist of the operators wrist
usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal.
If freezing or seizing occurs, a sharp twist of the operators wrist
usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal.
VERB TENSES

We can find few tenses in technical documents, and the verb forms are
variants of the infinitive form.
Verbal Forms

Infinitive
To repair
To cut
To write

Present
repair repairs
cut - cuts
write - writes

Present
participle

Past

Past
participle

repaired

repaired

repairing

cut
wrote

cut
written

cutting
writing

A. The infinitive form in technical language is used to express an action


that is a purpose of something. Example:
The purpose is to prevent back-flow through the pressure relief
valves.
B. The present form in technical English is used in the present simple
tense with the 3rd person singular (it) or 3rd person plural (they). It
describes generalizations, systems, processes, etc. Example:
The performance of the system depends on the quality of the design.
C. The past form of technical information is used to express the idea that
an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Example:
The mechanic followed manufacturers instructions wherever
applicable to prevent injury
D. The past participle form is used in perfect tenses, in both present and
past tense, and they are also used for passive voice. Examples:
Tear is a discontinuity which has progressed through the full
thickness of the material.
In areas where minor amounts of oil or grease have penetrated the
wood surface, removal may be accomplished by use of an absorbent
type of cleaner
Many of the illustrations have been provided by the manufacturers.
E. The present participle form is used with the progressive tenses and
also as adjective or noun. Examples:

This is essential in order to clearly see the parts you are


inspecting.
Burnishing is the polishing of a surface by sliding contact with
another smooth, harder metallic surface.
A cable cutting blade has no teeth.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
A. The passive voice is used in writing much more often than in speech.
It can be found in newspapers and magazine articles, and it is very
common in scientific and technical writing.
B. In the active voice the subject does the action.
C. In the passive voice the subject receives the action.
Passive Verb-Forms
A. Passive verb-forms are made with the different tenses of to be,
followed by a past participle.
TENSE
Present simple
Present progressive
Past simple
Past progressive
Present perfect
Present perfect progressive
Past perfect
Past perfect progressive
Future
Future progressive
Future perfect
Future perfect progressive
Going to
Modal structure
Modal structure

Passive voice:
Q

PASSIVE VOICE
English is taught here.
The aircraft is being painted.
I was not informed.
I felt as if I was being watched.
The rudder has been repaired.
The scan has been being started.
I knew why I had been chosen.
I have known how long the aircraft had been
being inspected.
Youll be told in advance.
Youll be being nominated in the near future.
Everything will have been done by the 20th.
By next year, the new hangar will have been
being built.
Who is going to be trained?
He ought to be careful.
He should be careful.

Maximum paint thickness was determined by lightning testing.

Perfect tenses:

Wipe off MEK before it has evaporated with a clean cloth.

As an adjective form:

Q Today, scientists are also interested in how the atmosphere affects


the performance of the aircraft and its equipment.
PARTICIPLES
There are two kinds of participles in English: present participle and past
participle.
A.
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q

Present Participle:
The present participle is the ing-form.
Progressive / continuous tenses: I am speaking.
As an adjective form: The film is interesting.
As a gerund: He is afraid of flying.
As a noun: Improper functioning of brakes could cause serious
consequences.

B. Spelling rules for the formation of the Present Participle.


RULE
Base form of the verb + '-ing ':
If a one or two syllable verb ends in consonant + vowel +
consonant, double the final consonant and add '-ing ':
When a verb ends in '-l ' the '-l' is doubled and '-ing' is
added (in British English):
When a verb ends in silent '-e ', the silent '-e' is dropped
and '-ing' is added:
When a verb ends in an '-e ' which is not silent, the final 'e' is not dropped and the ending '-ing ' is added:
When a verb ends in '-ie ', the '-ie ' is changed to '-y' and
the ending '-ing ' is added:
Q

I use a knife for cutting leather.

EXAMPLE
working
fixing
running
stopping
occurring
beginning
travelling
cancelling
closing
moving
being
agreeing
seeing
tie tying
lie - lying

Q
Q

After completing a few inspections you will be surprised at how


familiar you will be with your aircraft.
Oxidation is called rusting when talking about ferrous materials.
Participles used as adjectives

A. Many adjectives can be identified by their endings. Another major


subclass of adjectives can also be formally distinguished by endings,
this time by -ed or -ing endings:
-ed form
-ing form

computerized, determined, placed, deleted, cracked,


misunderstood, unknown
annoying, exasperating, gratifying, misleading,
worrying

Remember that some -ed forms, such as misunderstood and


unknown, do not end in -ed at all.

B. We use the -ed participle as a subject adjective; it describes how the


subject of a sentence feels or how we feel about something:
Q
Q

He was interested in the program.


The technician is exhausted.

C. We use the -ing participle as an object adjective; it describes the


object of the sentence or talks about the person or thing that makes
us feel interested:
Q
Q
Q
Q

The program was interesting (for him).


If a story is exciting, you are excited when you read it.
After a tiring day, you feel tired.
You may be worried if you have a worrying problem.

D. When we put participles before a noun, it usually expresses some


more permanent characteristic: it is more like an adjective than
a verb: a broken window, an interesting handbook.
E. Finally, most participial adjectives can be used both attributively and
predicatively:
Attributive

Predicative

That's an irritating noise


This is an exciting film

That noise is irritating


This film is exciting

When participial adjectives are used predicatively, it may sometimes be


difficult to distinguish between the adjectival and verbal uses:
Consider the following pair:
[1] The noise is annoying
[2] The noise is annoying the employees
In [1], we can modify annoying using very:
[1a] the noise is (very) annoying
But we cannot modify it in the same way in [2]:
[2a] *the noise is (very) annoying the employees
Q

We can also identify -ing forms as verbal if it is possible to change the


-ing form into a non-progressive verb:
Progressive

Non-progressive

The inspectors are working


The paint is drying
Q

The inspector work


The paint dries

The presence of a by-agent phrase (by the manufacturers manual,


by the schematic diagram) indicates that the -ed form is verbal.
Conversely, the presence of a complement, such as a that-clause,
indicates that it is adjectival.
-ing form

A. -ing form after verb.- The most common verbs usually


B. followed by the ING form in technical contents are:
advise allow anticipate appreciate admit attempt avoid
begin carry on - complete - cant help - can't stand - consider
continue defer - delay - deny detest dislike -discuss endure enjoy escape - excuse face - feel like finish forbid forget -

get through - give up - go on - have help imagine intend


involve - keep like leave off - mention - mind miss permit
postpone practice - prefer-propose - put off quit recall
recommend remember regret resent - remember report

resist - resume - risk - see spend (time) - start stop suggest


tolerate try understand - waste (time) - watch
To lower potential fire hazards, avoid using electric sanders around
dope, paints, and adhesives.
C. -In form after a preposition. - The ing form is used after all
prepositions.
You should check the oil before starting.
D. -ing form special cases.- Use the ing form after: as, like, than,
any/some/no.
Q
Q

Any binding or malfunctioning of an engine control system


should be traced to its source and corrected.
Why dont you do something useful, like cleaning the hangar?

E. -ing form or infinitive.- Some verbs can be followed by either an


ing form or an infinitive. The most important are:
attempt- can afford cant bear begin cease commence
continue dislike dread hate intend like loathe love
neglect prefer propose remember (cant) stand start try
undertake
Some people hate working/to work in the early morning.
F. When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle.
It is important to understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a
gerund:
Q

Gathering and distributing various air pressures for flight


instrumentation is the function of the pitot-static system.

Heating the probe must not affect the resistance of the sensor
element.

ADJECTIVES
A. An adjective always has the same form to talk about singular, plural,
masculine, feminine.
B. Adjectives say what something is or seem like. They can be used in
two ways:
1.

Before nouns. This is called attributive position

typical

repair

When we use more than one adjective in a phrase, this order is usually
followed:

Age

Color

Origin

Material

Purpose

Noun

new

black

Swiss

plastic

army

knife

2. In the complement of a sentence This is called predicative


position. This happens when we are really describing the subject
of the sentence, not the action of the verb.
the old unit

the unit is old

the faulty panel


the panel is faulty
the electrical wiring
the wiring is electrical
C. Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun,
especially in certain institutionalized expressions:
The Director General
Times past
D. We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is
obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun:

something

useful

everyone

present

those

responsible

COMPARISONS
Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs
A. The comparative form is used to compare two thing or people.
These fasteners have a shank diameter larger than hex-drive bolts.
B. The superlative is use to compare three or more things or people.
The depth of rework is the largest.
C. The word than is used after the comparative and the before the
superlative
larger than

the largest

D. Form of comparative and superlative adjectives: Short adjectives


(adjectives of one syllable), add er / -est

thick
loose

COMPARATIVE
thicker
looser

SUPERLATIVE
thickest
loosest

E. Longer adjectives (adjectives of three or more syllables), need more /


most.

important
(im por tant)
expensive
(ex pen

COMPARATIVE
more important

SUPERLATIVE
the most important

more expensive

the most expensive

sive)

F. Adjectives of two syllables ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take out


the y and add ier / - iest.

dirty
(dir ty)

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

dirtier

the dirtiest

G. Most other adjectives of two syllables use more / most.

modern
(mo dern)
careful
(care ful)

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

more modern

the most modern

more careful

the most careful

H. Some words have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

good
bad
far
I.

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

better
worse
further/farther

the best
the worst
the furthest/farthest

The correlative construction as ... as is an excellent method of


indicating similarity, or dissimilarity:
The ferritic steels are not as tough at cryogenic temperature as at
room temperature.

J.

Double comparative
Q

There is a method of comparison with the idiomatic construction


of: the .., the:

Two comparatives are used to express two parallel progressions,


states, etc.
The larger the contact, the larger the difference
The lower the temperature, the more brittle the steel becomes.
The socket inside diameter will be from 0.002 to 0.005 inch
larger than the pin outside diameter. The larger the contact,
the larger the difference
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

The mechanic is careful.

All personnel must observe the danger


areas carefully.

It is a bad opinion.

It functions badly.

A. Compare:
He is a very slow worker.
He is working very slowly.
B. An adjective (slow, clear, heavy etc.) describes the qualities of people
or things; used before nouns or after the verb be (is, are).
He is a very cautious technician.
The nozzle is very large.
It is very old.
C. Adjectives always have the same form for singular, plural, masculine
or feminine. Examples:
a new cylinder
a new valve

two new cylinders


two new valves

D. An adverb of manner (carefully, periodically, directly) describes how


something happens.
He submits information carefully.
They must be inspected periodically.
Place a short sleeve directly over the spray nozzle.
Formal Characteristics of Adverbs

E.

Adjective

slow
quick
soft
sudden
gradual
slowl
quickl
Adverb
softly suddenly gradually
y
y
adverbs of manner are formed by adding ly to the adjective.

ADJECTIVE
slow
careful

M
o
st

ADVERB
slowly
carefully

F. Words ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take away y and add -ily.

ADJECTIVE
greasy
steady

ADVERB
greasily
steadily

G. Words ending in le, change the le to ly.

ADJECTIVE
adjustable
comfortable

ADVERB
adjustably
comfortably

H. Some words are also used as both adjectives and adverbs.


You are a fast worker.
You are a hard worker.
I.

You work fast.


You work hard.

The following verbs can only be used with adjectives:


Q

Be, become, get, grow, keep, remain, seem, sound, stay, turn.
ADVERBS

A. Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb:


[1] The pilot flies carefully
[2] The mechanics are extremely clever
[3] This plane goes incredibly fast
In [1], the adverb carefully tells us how the pilot flies. In [2],
extremely tells us the degree to which the mechanic is clever.

Finally, in [3], the adverb incredibly tells us how fast the plane
goes.
B. With verbs, we use adverbs to give more information about the
action to say how, where or when it is done:
Carefully inspect the entire air system periodically.
The engine is very quiet. It runs very quietly.
C. Other words that end in ly can be both adjectives and adverbs
(daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early).
A daily report is published daily.
We get up early to catch an early plane.
D. But some words that end in ly are adjectives, not adverbs. For
example: costly, timely, kindly, oily, orderly, quarterly. These words
cannot be used as adverbs.
He works in a very orderly way.
NOUN ADJUNCTS
Adjectives usually modify or describe
A loose bolt
A heavy aircraft
Nouns can also modify nouns. They are called noun adjuncts. They are
always singular.
A hangar that repairs aircraft is a repair station.
My brother drives trucks. He is a truck driver.
1. A tank for fuel.
A fuel tank
2. Maintenance for an aircraft.
Aircraft maintenance
3. A tank that has oil in it.
Oil tank
The Noun as Adjective Structure
A. The word order in technical English is very important. Aeronautical
technical terms use a lot compound words. They have a head word

and the words before it are a qualifier that is a chain of words (they
function as adjectives).
NOUN AS
ADJECTIVE
Fuel

HEAD
WORD
control

control of the fuel

Flight

plan

plan for flight

Empennage

structure

structure of the empennage

Aviation
Safety

mechanic
clips

mechanic of aviation
clips for safety

MEANING

B. The exact relationship between the first word and the second depends
on the particular expression. For instance:
Q

Place. - The first noun gives the place that the second comes
from, or is found in, or is used in, or happens in.
the office party
the skin crack
a traffic jam

Time. - The first gives the time when the second happens, or
the time when the second is meant to be used.
day vision
night glasses
night watch

Material. - The first noun says what the second consists of.
aluminum fuselage
magnesium surface
paint film

Functional relationship. - The first noun says something


about the function, job, or role of the second: what it is used for.
hinge support
control tower
maintenance technician

Direct object. - The second refers to an activity. The first noun


is the direct object of the verb that describes that activity.
traffic control (somebody controls traffic)
damage repair ( somebody repairs damages)
hardness tester (somebody tests hardness)

Complement.- If the second noun was the subject of a clause,


the first noun would be the complement (after be)
a man driver ( the driver is a man)

Part.- The second noun refers to a part or section of the first.


a table leg
the plane door
a panel button

Measurement.- we usually use the noun as adjective


structure.
a ten-pound box
a five-liter can
two 20-liter tanks

C. The basic principle in a compound word is that one word is the key
word or the head word, the smallest item in the chain, and the other
words are the qualifiers (nouns or adjectives) used to identify it.
QUALIFIER

Lower

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

QUALIFIER

HEAD WORD

Aircraft

Maintenance

Manual

Forward

Fuselage

Windshield

Sealing

Horizontal

Stabilizer

Training

Edge

Panels

Main

Landing

Gear

Door

Allowable

Damage

Aft

Nacelle

Access

Door

Latch

Adjustment

D. The sense of compound words depends on the word order; the head
word is the last word. The interpretation must be logical, avoid
translating literally.

COMPOUND WORDS
Stall warning
transmitter
Superchrgae control
system
Thread ring gage
Carburetor air
temperature
Cold tank system

MEANING
a device which produces a signal to warn
the system of controlling the supercharger
a ring-type gage used for checking external
threads
the temperature of the induction air before it
enters the carburetor
a lubrication system wherein the oil cooler is
located in the scavenge oil subsystem
PREPOSITIONS

A. They are used to show the relationship of a noun or the object of the
preposition to some other word in the sentence.
B. Prepositions typically come before a noun:
across hangar
after work
at home
before Tuesday
by Shakespeare

for lunch
in Latacunga
on fire
to school
with pleasure

C. The prepositions which we have looked at so far have all consisted of


a single word, such as in, of, at, and to. We refer to these as SIMPLE
PREPOSITIONS.
D. COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word
combinations acting as a single unit. Here are some examples:
according to
along with
apart from
because of
contrary to

due to
except for
instead of
prior to
regardless of

Like simple prepositions, these two-word combinations come before a


noun:

according to the FAR


contrary to my advice
due to complaint
E. Three-word combinations often have the following pattern:

Simple Preposition

Noun

Simple Preposition

We can see this pattern in the following examples:


in aid of
on behalf of
in front of
in accordance with
in line with

in line with
in relation to
with reference to
with respect to
by means of

Again, these combinations come before a noun:


in aid of contributions
in front of the window
in line with inflation

PREPOSITIONS: WHERE?
Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

at

in

on

under

opposite

1 above, 2 below

44
33
11

beside, next to

between

11
22

1 behind, 2 in front of

1 among, 2 in the middle

22

1 by,
2 near
3 not far from
4 a long way

of of

PREPOSITIONS: WHERE TO?


Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

past

up

down

11

round, around

1 over, 2 under
22

22

along

1 onto, 2 off

back to

through

11

33

11
22

1 into, 2 out of

1 to, 2 towards, 3 from

across

SUFFIXES & PREFIXES


Many words in English are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to base
forms. A base form, or stem, is the most basic form of a word. To this
base form, we may add a prefix at the beginning or a suffix at the end.
Base form:

rely

Suffix -able:

reliable

Prefix un-:

unreliable

SUFFIXES FUL AND LESS


We can add the suffixes ful and less to some nouns to make adjectives.
The suffixes ful and less have opposite meanings:
Useful full or having; and
Useless without or not having
SUFFIX LY
Adjectives are changed into adverbs adding LY.
correct
careful
easy

correctly
Carefully
easily

slow
immediate
reasonable

slowly
immediately
reasonably

SUFFIX-ER
The suffix-er and or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to
express the meaning of one who or that which
He teaches students to read.
Hes a teacher
She operates radios.
She is a radio operator.
*Collector, visitor, educator, and instructor are spelled with or.

SUFFIX -WARD

The suffix -ward (s) is used to form adjectives and adverbs which indicate
a direction in time or space.
EXAMPLES: northward, southward, eastward, westward, upward (s),
downward (s), backward (s).
SUFFIXES ENT / - ANT
We can add the suffixes ent / - ant to some verbs to make adjectives.
They express that has, shows or does
absorb
insist

absorbent
insistent

differ
assist

different
assistant

ADJECTIVES SUFFIXES
The following suffixes can be added to nouns to form adjectives:
-y
-ly
-ful
-less
-ern
-al
-ary

silk/silky
friend/friendly
use/useful
home/homeless
north/northern
monument/monumental
station/stationary

-ous
-ic
-ical
-ish
-like
-ar

danger/dangerous
hero/heroic
mechanic / mechanical
style/stylish
child/childlike
family/familiar

NOUN SUFFIXES
The suffixes ion, -ation, -tion, and sion are added to verb to make noun
which name an action, condition, quality, or result
instruct
observe
intend
decide

+ ion
+ ation
+ tion
+ sion

instruction
observation
intention
decision

THE SUFFIX -ERN


The suffix -ern indicates that something occurs in or is situated in a
certain direction. It is added to nouns to form adjectives:
northern, southern, eastern, western.
-EN SUFFIX (ADJ---VERB)

strength
short
wide
deep
tight
sharp
length
loose
sad

-en

strengthen
shorten
widen
deepen
tighten
sharpen
lengthen
loosen
sadden

(to make stronger)


(to make shorter)
(to make wider)
(to make deeper)
(to make tighter)
(to make sharper)
(to make longer)
(to make looser)
(to make sadder)

SUFFIXES: -ABLE/-IBLE
The following suffixes may be added to nouns and / or verbs to form
adjectives:
-able
-ible
-ive

accept
force
protect

acceptable
-tive
produce
forcible
-ative
talk
protective
SUFFIXES Y, TY, HY

productive
talkative

The suffixes Y, TY, HY, form adjectives into abstract nouns.

-Y
-TY
-ITY
-ITY
-ILITY

ADJECTIVE

NOUN

honest
certain
electric
secure
responsible

honesty
certainty
electricity
security
responsibility

SUFFIX NESS
We can add the suffix ness to some adjectives to make nouns.
dark
darkness
great
greatness
ready
readiness
quick
quickness
friendly
friendliness
NOUN SUFFIXES

The suffixes AL; -ANCE; -ENCE; MENT and Y are added to verbs to
make nouns which name an act, condition, quality or result.
VERB

SUFFIX

Approve

+ - al

Allow
Refer
Employ
Recover

+ - ance
+ - ence
+ - ment
+-y

NOUN
approval
allowance
reference
employment
recovery

SUFFIX -FY / -IFY


The suffixes fy and ify can also be added to some adjectives and nouns
to make verbs. They have the meaning of to make, become, or cause to
become.
clear
electric
just

clarify
electrify
justify

liquid
solid

liquefy
solidify
SUFFIX IST

The noun suffix ist can be added to some nouns to express the meaning
one who or that which.
Violin
Type
Biology

+ -ist
+ - ist
+ - ist

violinist
typist
biologist

The PREFIX COCo- is a prefix which has the meaning of Joint and Together with.
Cooperate, coordinate, coworker, coauthor, coexist.
SUFFIX -AL

We can form nouns by adding the suffix al to certain verbs. When we


add this suffix, it has the meaning of the act of or the process of .
approve
arrive
deny
disapprove

approval
arrival
denial
disapproval

dismiss
refuse
remove
withdraw

dismissal
refusal
removal
withdrawal

SUFFIX Y
The meaning of certain verbs may be changed to express an act or action
of by adding the suffix y to the verb, changing the verb into a noun.
discover
recover

discovery
recovery

deliver
inquire

delivery
inquiry

SUFFIX - IZE
The suffix - ize can be added to various nouns and adjectives to make
verbs that mean make or cause to be.
equal
familiar
modern
item

+ - ize

equalize ( make equal)


familiarize ( cause to be/ become familiar)
modernize = ( make modern)
itemize (to make a list of items)
SUFFIX LIKE

We can add the suffix like to some nouns to make adjectives. The suffix
like, expresses the idea of resembling or having the characteristic of
something.
Cuplike (resembling a cup/ having the characteristics of a cup)
Fencelike
Fanlike
When-like is added to words ending in double L the words are
hyphenated.
Gel-like
SUFFIXES AL AND -IAL

The suffixes al and ial can be added to some nouns to form adjectives.
They have the meaning of, like, or suitable for.
accident
commerce

accidental
commercial

addition
manager

additional
managerial

NEGATIVE PREFIXES
un-

The opposite of

Unable, unbelievable, undo, unfair, unreliable,

de

The opposite of

deactivate, decode, decompose, deconstruct, decontaminate, decrease, deflate, deform

non-

Not

Non-smoker, nonconformist, non-essential, non-fiction

in-

The opposite of

Inaccessible, incomplete, incorrect, inevitable, insane

il-

The opposite of (before


l)

Illegal, illegitimate, illicit, illiterate, illogical

im (before m or p)

The opposite f

Immature, impatient, imperfect, impolite, impossible

ir (before r)

The opposite of

Irrational, irregular, irrelevant, irresistible, irresponsible

The opposite of

Incomplete, intolerable, incorrect, instability, inability, inaccessible, inadequate

dis

The opposite of

Disconnect, dishonest, dislike, disloyalty, disobedient, disobey, dissatisfied

mis-

Wrong, bad

Misbehave, misconception, misunderstand

anti-

against

Antibody, anticlimax, anti-nuclear, anti- racist, antisocial

a-

The opposite of

Atypical, atonal

re-

Again, back

React. Re-apply, rebuild, recycle, re- use

inter-

Between, among

Interactive, intercontinental, international

super-

More than, very special

Superimpose, supermarket, supernatural, supersonic, superstar

over-

Too much

Overconfident, overeat, overestimate, overpopulated, overreact, overwork

under-

Too little

Undercharge, undercook,

pre-

before

Pre-Christmas, pre- Raphaelite, prewar

post-

after

Postgraduate, postmodern, post- war

extra-

Exceptionally, outside

Extracurricular, extraordinary, extraterrestrial

one

mono-, uni-,

monopropellant, unidirectional

two

bi-, du-

biaxial, duplex

ten

deci-

decimal

many

poly-, multi-

polyphase, multifunctional

in + other
consonants or vowel

PREFIXES OF POSITION

PREFIXES OF NUMBER

CONTENTS
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLES--------------------------------------1
PLURAL COUNT FORMS-------------------------------------------1
DEMONSTRATIVES-------------------------------------------------2

SOME, ANY, NO------------------------------------------------------2


THE POSSESSIVE CASE (S AND S)----------------------------3
ONE, ONES------------------------------------------------------------3
ANTICIPATORY IT---------------------------------------------------4
CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS------------4
RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES THAT-WHICH------7
WHICH/ THAT/............................................................7
WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.................................7
EMPHATIC DO-------------------------------------------------------8
IMPERATIVE---------------------------------------------------------8
TENSES----------------------------------------------------------------9
Present Tense of the Verb Be---------------------------------------9
Present Simple--------------------------------------------------------9
Present Continuous-------------------------------------------------10
Past Tense of the Verb Be------------------------------------------11
Past Simple----------------------------------------------------------11
Past Continuous-----------------------------------------------------12
Present Perfect------------------------------------------------------12
Going To--------------------------------------------------------------13
Modals----------------------------------------------------------------13
WILL - SHALL.............................................................13
CAN...........................................................................13
COULD.......................................................................14
MUST.........................................................................14
MAY, MIGHT...............................................................15
SHOULD.....................................................................15

VERB TENSES------------------------------------------------------16
Verbal Forms--------------------------------------------------------16
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE-----------------------------------17
Passive Verb-Forms------------------------------------------------17
PARTICIPLES-------------------------------------------------------18
Participles used as adjectives-------------------------------------19
-ing form-------------------------------------------------------------20
ADJECTIVES--------------------------------------------------------22
COMPARISONS-----------------------------------------------------23
Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs-------------------------23
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS------------------------------------25
Formal Characteristics of Adverbs------------------------------26
ADVERBS------------------------------------------------------------26
NOUN ADJUNCTS-------------------------------------------------27
The Noun as Adjective Structure-------------------------------28
PREPOSITIONS-----------------------------------------------------30
SUFFIXES & PREFIXES-------------------------------------------34

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