Visual inspection of arc welds - a

guide to best practice

Section 3. Practical application of visual
inspection

Inspection details
Parent materials and edge preparations
Welding consumables

Inspection details
Introduction
There is some flexibility in applying the 'rules' for assessing weld details because
much depends on the type of product being examined. It appears to be a human
trait that we tend to find fault with items under scrutiny. In my many years as a
trainer of inspectors, I have found that most people are likely to assess initially
only the negative features evident on a particular weld or product, i.e. they only
look for, and assess, visible DEFECTS.
Frequently, there are many positive features to assess initially. By carrying out a
general assessment beforehand, an inspector, with experience, can very often
judge the acceptability of the weld or product - based on these facts alone.
As there are many ways of applying the techniques of visual inspection, a code
of practice exists related to visual inspection practice. EN 970 provides guidance
and also details the main principles of how to carry out visual inspection, as well
as providing information on the tools that can be used and illumination
requirements. This document provides a good first step before embarking on
visual inspection practices.
Details of the weld features to be considered during visual examination are given
below.

1. Size - butt welds

Consider:
a) excess weld metal height
b) root penetration
c) weld width
d) root bead width

2. Size - fillet welds

Consider:
a) z minimum (and maximum) leg length size
b) a minimum design throat thickness

3. Shape - butt welds

Consider:

Ideally, (a) is the most desirable but very often it may be difficult to achieve.
Because of this, one should assess the excess weld height in conjunction with
the weld profile and perhaps the toe blending.

4. Shape - fillet welds

Consider:

In normal practice, (a) is the most desirable but, again, in many instances it is
difficult to achieve. Acceptance levels, therefore, allow tolerances on weld shape.

5. Toe blend
Depending on the service conditions of the product, the toe blend may be of
greater importance than the size and shape of the weld. A poor toe blend may
reduce service life by a considerable margin if the product is under a cyclic load.
For butt welds, consider:

For fillet welds, consider:

6. Weld width and consistency of weld width

For butt welds and fillet welds, consider:

Imperfections have not been addressed in this section of the best practice guide.
These are considered in Section 4, Imperfections - identification and
interpretation but before determining specific imperfections, assess the main
features of the weld.
Other factors may be of equal importance, but the more information you have
available, the better.
A simple inspection procedure can be implemented which should help to ensure
that the inspector follows the same method each time. The quality control
department may implement such a procedure, depending on the nature of the
product and specific company procedures.
For guidance, typical examples of visual inspection and defect assessment forms
are shown below. These are of the type which could be used within a
standardised procedure.

Visual inspection assessment form

Visual Inspection of the Completed Weld. Reference No. of Weld .....

= Acceptable

X = Non-Acceptable

Dimensions mm ________ l ________ w ________ t

Side 1

Side 2

Excess weld metal/Penetration bead ______________ mm

______________ mm

Weld width

______________ mm

______________ mm

Toe blend

______________

______________

Weld consistency

______________

______________

Arc strikes

______________

______________

Spatter

______________

______________

Grinding marks

______________

______________

Mechanical damage

______________

______________

Surface colour

______________

______________

Misalignment

______________ mm

______________

Angular distortion

______________ mm in ______________ mm

Longitudinal distortion

______________ mm in ______________ mm

Other comments:

Defect assessment form

Defects

Weld face Weld root

Mark 'A' for acceptable

Mark 'R' for rejectable
Cracks
Incomplete side fusion
Incomplete interun fusion
Incomplete root fusion
Incomplete root penetration
Undercut depth
Undercut blend
Undercut length
Excess penetration
Root concavity
Overlap

Weld face Weld root

Solid inclusions:
Slag
Silica
Tungsten
Copper
Gas inclusions
Porosity
Wormholes

Isolated pores
Crater pipes
Others:

The weld, Ref. No. ...... is/is not ...... to the standard ......

Date .......... Signature ..........

Parent materials and edge preparations

Introduction
It should be kept in mind that many problems associated with weld quality are
due to poor edge preparation of the parent materials. Before any welding is
carried out, inspection and conformance to the welding procedure requirements
at this point can prevent the formation of imperfections during manufacture.
Furthermore, it is equally important that correct welding consumables are used to
ensure that the required mechanical properties are met.
Parent materials
To ensure that the correct material grade or composition is used on the project, it
is necessary for the inspector to check 3 main areas:

Size
o
o
o
o
o

number of components for welding/to be joined (number off)

thickness (abbreviated to 't')
length (abbreviated to 'l')
width (abbreviated to 'w')
diameter (abbreviated to '' for pipes)

Type
composition of material
or
o grade of material
or
o tradename of material
o

If the material is known, it is possible to assess the risk of cracking or

other types of defect common to a particular material type. For example,
the likelihood of, and susceptibility to, porosity in aluminium alloys.

Condition
o surface condition: freedom from contaminants which may affect
welding or in-service operation, including - mill-scale remaining from material manufacture
- protective coatings to inhibit corrosion during storage
- oil, grease or paints
o

distortion, due to poor storage or transportation of the material

inherent defects, including metallurgical imperfections such as

segregation bands or surface-breaking imperfections such as laps
The heat treatment condition is also important. For example, some
steels can be supplied in the normalised or quenched and
tempered condition. This can have an implication for the material's
mechanical properties and its weldability.

A summary of the inspection points for parent materials is shown below.

Edge preparations
Many defects and/or imperfections may be caused by poor joint preparation
which can be attributed to:

method of edge preparation

finish of edge preparation
details of edge preparation

1. Method of edge preparation - and potential problems

thermal cutting
o increased hardness
o oxidation
o poor shape
o distortion

machined edges
o evolution of harmful gases during welding
o poor shape
o poor finish

sheared edges
o evolution of harmful gases during welding
o poor shape
o work-hardening

grinding
o poor shape
o poor surface finish
o inaccurate features

2. Finish of edge preparation

In some cases it is necessary to specify a particular level of finish on edge
preparations, otherwise weld defects may arise. For example, TIG welding of
flame-cut edges can result in serious porosity and inclusions. This is because the
inherent roughness of the surface can readily trap contamination which is not
removed during welding since the TIG process does not utilise a flux or slag. The
same may be true for ground edges which are not sufficiently smooth, and in
such cases chemical cleaning (e.g. degreasing) and mechanical cleaning will be
required - although this may be impractical in some situations.

3. Details of edge preparation

As the first weld (the root run) is often the most difficult, the edge preparation
details must conform to the specified requirements (welding procedure
specification).

Butt welds
Gap size too large:
a) excess penetration
b) burnthrough
c) shrinkage grooves
d) gas entrapment

Gap size too small:

1) incomplete penetration
2) incomplete root fusion
3) incomplete side wall
fusion
4) slag inclusions
5) root concavity

Root face too large:

a) incomplete root
penetration
b) incomplete root fusion

Root face too small:

1) excessive penetration
2) burnthrough
3) root concavity
4) root undercut

Included angle too

large:
a) excess penetration
b) incomplete filled groove

Included angle too

small:
1) incomplete root
penetration
2) incomplete interun fusion
3) incomplete root fusion
4) incomplete sidewall fusion
5) excessive cap
6) poor toe blend
7) slag inclusions

Fillet welds

Gap size too large:

1) reduced root penetration
2) slag inclusions
3) gas inclusions
4) reduced vertical leg length size
5) cracking

Poor fit-up and poor joint preparations very often account for a large proportion of
weld imperfections. (The above causes and effects are for guidance only but it
should be remembered that there is no such thing as a perfect weld.)

Welding consumables
Introduction
The mechanical properties of a welded joint are greatly affected by the welding
consumable used. It is, therefore, essential that the inspector confirms the
correct consumables are to be used, or have been used.
Each welding process utilises different consumables and these are given specific
terms

welding electrode (MMA)

welding wire

(MIG/MAG & SAW)

welding rod

(TIG & gas welding)

welding flux

(SAW & gas welding)

shielding gas

(TIG & MIG)

Type and size also have a particular meaning -

size electrodes:
wires:
rods:
flux:
shielding gas:
type electrodes:

diameter & length

diameter & weight
diameter & weight
(SAW) diameter/size of flux particles
cylinder size & pressure
tradename, brand name, specification & grade of
flux covering
tradename, brand name, specification & grade

gases/fluxes/rods &
wires:
Note: in many instances, it may also be necessary to check batch numbers of
consumables

Condition of consumables
It is essential that every consumable is in first-class condition. To achieve (and
maintain) this, the following may be necessary:

good storage

consideration should be given to humidity, temperature, stacking,

issue and return, date of purchase, etc

packaging

the inspector should ensure 'good housekeeping' procedures, e.g.

unused consumables must be returned to their original packaging

baking/drying moisture content of MMA electrodes and SAW fluxes must be

kept low to avoid weld cracking: it may be necessary to bake/dry
these types of consumable in a purpose-made oven

Instructions provided by the consumables manufacturer should be adhered to.

An in-house consumables control procedure should be used on high integrity
applications.

Visual inspection of arc welds - a

guide to best practice
Section 2. Getting to grips with the basics

What is visual inspection?

Terminology and definitions
Visual inspection - key principles
The welding inspector

What is visual inspection?

Introduction
Every day of our lives we rely on the practice of visual inspection - outside the
workplace as well as within it. One of the best ways of explaining the principles of
visual inspection is to make a comparison with an everyday situation that most of
us are either familiar with, or can easily identify with.

Inspection of a motor car - an analogy

If we were to purchase a car, second-hand or new, we would apply similar visual
inspection principles to those used for examining welded products - probably
without even realising.

Examining a car before

purchase provides a useful
analogy for studying the
principles of visual
inspection of welds

The first stage of buying a car is to identify which make and model we want. Our
decision may be based on performance in relation to top speed, acceleration,
braking ability, or possibly fuel economy. Other factors considered may include
the number of passengers it can carry or, for example, its manoeuvrability for
parking.
Design. We would most certainly look at the design or styling of the vehicle: will
it be a sports car or coup; an estate car; a four-wheel drive for off-road use; or a
handmade, specialist car, rather than a mass-produced vehicle?
Materials. Thought would also be given to the materials used. For example, are
all car body materials suitable for our intended use of the vehicle; are the interior
trim and fittings sufficiently durable; will the materials used in the engine allow it
to run on unleaded petrol?
Workmanship. How well the vehicle has been made would also be important
and this would be judged against some form of workmanship standard. Are all
the body panels a good fit; is the underside suitably protected against corrosion;
have all the engine ancillaries been fitted correctly and carefully to give long and
trouble-free service?
Full inspection. It may be important to have optional extras, such as tinted glass
or electrically heated rear-view mirrors. Is the vehicle's paperwork authentic and
complete? These and other 'characteristics' would be assessed as part of the full
inspection, before purchase of the vehicle.
Testing. Before driving the vehicle for the first time, we would make sure we
tested the brakes and steering and that they were both satisfactory.
Acceptance criteria. We would apply our own acceptance criteria to the vehicle
as a whole before committing to the purchase.
Specification. All the key points above can be regarded as a specification. The
car manufacturer initially provides a specification for its vehicles and this gives
details of technical requirements.

Visual characteristics
There are similar assessments to be established for a welded construction, and
before visual inspection can take place, it is important that the specification is
known and understood. It should, therefore, be noted that assessment of all
visual characteristics should be taken on-board, so that the product (or weldment)
is overall at an acceptable level of quality.

Service conditions
In addition, it is equally important that the product's service conditions are known
so that specific characteristics are achieved, ensuring reliability and structural
integrity in relation to service life and performance. After all, you would not expect
a sports car to function reliably in off-road conditions, or a family car to perform
well in a motor race!

Quality characteristics
Many products are, therefore, manufactured to specific codes of practice or
specifications and, in general, specific rules are provided in the following areas:

design
materials
workmanship
inspection and testing
acceptance levels

It should be appreciated that a car manufacturer will impose similar rules before
production of a new vehicle.
For products not encompassed by a specification or code of practice, it may be
necessary for the company's quality assurance/quality control function to specify
appropriate rules in the form of a specification, procedures and acceptance levels.
Having established the overall design specification, the next step is to consider at
which stages visual inspection can be applied.
For many product-types or applications, it might only be necessary to apply
visual inspection on completion of the manufacturing process. This, of course,
would normally be the case with visual inspection of either a new or second-hand
car: we have to rely on the manufacturer to complete the before- and duringmanufacture inspections.
It must be appreciated that visual inspection is not just a non-destructive
examination method applied after welding. It can be used throughout the
manufacturing process as a means of preventing quality problems, rather than
having to cure problems after completion.
To be effective at applying these principles in practice, it is important that those
given the inspection task are aware of specific items within the welding quality
requirements, in relation to a whole range of different aspects. Much of this
philosophy is dependent on the experience, training and qualifications of the
inspector.

Summary
In summing-up, it will be helpful to review briefly the various aspects specified in
codes of practice.
Design aspects and the importance of meeting the design criterion have been
mentioned earlier. In relation to parent material requirements, you would not
expect to find the car's exhaust system made from carbon steel if the
specification for design stated stainless steel. Visually inspecting and checking
materials before construction can prevent such situations arising. Equally, you
would be extremely disappointed to find that due to poor workmanship, a door
would not close properly, or that the upholstery was damaged during
manufacture.
The above examples of production problem - and the fact that the car
manufacturer wants to sell all vehicles produced and ultimately make a profit dictate that it is essential to have a formal inspection and testing regime which is
rigorously applied throughout the manufacturing process. You may have heard
the phrase from design to delivery!
Finally, it is important to appreciate that assessing how good something looks
can be a rather subjective matter: some people like certain things which may not
appeal to others. This is one of the reasons why we must have acceptance levels
which allow everyone to apply the same standards (although no specification
allows for different interpretations of the information).

Terminology and definitions

Introduction
It is essential that inspectors report their findings using correct terminology,
otherwise there may be lack of clarity, leading to misunderstanding and
inefficiency.
The welding industry has a language of its own and, like any language, it takes
time to become fluent. To complicate matters, the language may be flawed by
slang or dialect. It is important, therefore, that conventional welding language is
adopted (and adhered to) and this can be found by reference to appropriate
national or international standards.
Furthermore, if the joint design is correct and the features (such as root gap, root
face and included angle) are correct it will improve the overall quality of the
weldment and, ultimately, the product.
Below are examples of joint designs, features and weldments. Please note the
appropriate terminology, which is based on British standards (where specified).

Butt joints

Fillet joints

Completed welds show various features, which include the following -

Butt weld features

1 = Excess weld metal height

6 = Width (w)

2 = Weld toe

7 = Length (l)

3 = Fusion boundary

8 = Weld width

4 = Heat affected zone

9 = Ripple shape

5 = Thickness (t)

10 = Weld contour

The terminology below is consistent with British Standards. However, different

standards and countries use variants of these terms, for example:

1. Excess weld metal

Also termed 'reinforcement' in some codes and standards (including some
British standards). Reinforcement is a non-preferred term because it
implies that weld strength increases with increased excess weld metal
height. This is not always the case, since the weld toe angle is also
increased and may cause a continuous stress concentration at the weld
toe.
Some people often refer to excess weld metal as the 'cap height'. This is
regarded as a slang term and should be avoided in inspection reports.

2. Weld toe
Other terms are rare in this case. It should, however, be noted that toe
blending is the main aspect of assessment during visual inspection.

3. Fusion boundary
Also termed 'fusion line', which is acceptable. Many codes and standards
use 'sidewall' as a term to report incomplete sidewall fusion. Whilst this
may appear to have little relevance to surface inspection, it is possible to
find incomplete fusion at the surface of the weld.
4. Heat affected zone
This is also abbreviated to 'HAZ'. It is rarely visible on steel welds, but can
often be seen on welds made in stainless steel and titanium. With titanium,
it is frequently the first assessment made during visual inspection because
the colours demonstrate different levels of contamination of the weld,
which affects overall acceptance of the completed weld.
5. Thickness
The abbreviation 't' is used in many codes and standards. It is important
that the inspector checks the thickness of the material to ensure
compliance. This dimension is also referred to as the 'short transverse' in
the context of mechanical properties.
6. Width
The inspector must ensure dimensional accuracy of the component being
welded. Also, the inspector may report 'angular misalignment' if the
components have distorted during welding. This is also termed the
'transverse direction' and in many cases the inspector should report
transverse distortion, when evident.
7. Length
Similarly, the inspector must check the length of the component to ensure
accuracy. This is also referred to as the 'longitudinal direction'. It may be
necessary for the inspector to report longitudinal distortion, especially in
thin sheet materials.
8. Weld width
The weld width is an important feature that is often overlooked during
visual inspection. Many standards require welds to have a minimum and
maximum weld width based on the original width of the fit-up of the joint.
9. Weld ripples
The ripples of the weld are influenced by the travel speed used during the
welding operation. Ripples which are excessively vee-shaped can lead to
solidification problems within the weld metal, causing centreline cracking
in some instances.

10. Weld contour

Most standards related to welding inspection require specific shape details
which should be regular and consistent. The inspector should assess this
at an early stage of final inspection to evaluate the degree of control over
the welding operation. Some standards also term this as the 'weld crown'.
The above is for guidance only; other terms are also relevant but are not
included because this guide is not intended to be exhaustive.

Fillet welds
Fillet welds are probably the most common connection used in general
fabrication. Similar to the butt weld mentioned previously, a fillet weld has
specific features and terminology.
Fillet weld shapes
Many specifications require fillet welds to have a certain shape, which often
translates to a mitre appearance. Achieving this shape consistently can be
difficult, especially with manual welding. Specifications will often allow some
tolerance on the weld shape or profile, but it may be dictated by the application.

The three types of fillet weld shape shown above have advantages and
limitations. Many specifications call for a mitre shape, since this is a compromise
between the convex and concave types.
The convex profile has the advantage of an increased throat thickness, however,
the resultant toe angle is much smaller, giving rise to a higher risk of failure at the
weld toe(s). Conversely, the concave fillet weld has a much smoother transition
at the weld toe but the weld strength may be reduced due to a decrease in the
design throat thickness.

Fillet weld features

1 = Leg length (horizontal)

6 = Width (w)

2 = Leg length (vertical)

7 = Height (h)

3 = Thickness (t)

8 = Actual throat thickness

4 = Weld width

9 = Heat affected zone

5 = Length (l)

10 = Weld toe (blend)

Please note that the drawing above shows the 'actual' throat thickness (feature 8).
This must not be confused with the design throat thickness, which would not
normally show penetration into the parent materials.

Visual inspection - key principles

Introduction
The methodology adopted for visual inspection is very much product-dependent.
In many cases, visual inspection will be required before, during and after welding.
This would be appropriate if the integrity of the product demanded that inspection
is applied throughout the entire manufacturing process. It could be that the
product is regarded as safety-critical and therefore visual inspection is a key
activity in ensuring that the required overall quality and integrity are met.

Products with less demanding service requirements may only need visual
inspection when welding is completed. In these cases, reliance is placed on the
production team to apply good working practices throughout the manufacturing
process. This approach has become more common in recent years, partly due to
the fact that inspectors are often seen as a 'roving police force'. This perception
promotes a negative attitude in the workplace with production and inspection
functions regularly in conflict and the implication that production decreases and
repairs to welds become more common.
The general procedure for carrying out visual inspection is in 4 basic parts 1. Fact-finding
Establish as many facts about the product and welding criteria as possible.
Documentation pertinent to the product is usually a important source of
information and should always be carefully reviewed.

Review relevant documentation . . .

Documents which relate to a particular component under construction can
provide useful facts on the characteristics of the product and help with the
inspection process. For example

If the inspector checks the welding procedure specification before

construction, it should be possible to establish the parent material's
weldability. This will tell the inspector that preheating the component is
critical or that checking of amperage, voltage and travel-speed is
necessary to ensure welding quality requirements are met.

In addition, the welding procedure specification should state the joint type,
welding process and other essential variables. All this information allows
the inspector to think about the types of imperfection that are likely to
occur during manufacture and greatly assists the visual inspection process.

Also, a review of the material's 'mill sheet' could provide evidence of the
crack sensitivity of a particular material type, so that adequate precautions
can be taken to avoid cracking.

A review of the quality plan can provide the necessary information on how,
when and where visual inspection is required.

The inspector may see from Welder Approval Certificates that a certain
welder is not approved on the type of work to be undertaken.

These are all examples of the type of information that the product documentation
can provide to help prevent problems before welding starts.
. . . and provide documentation
Documents play an important role in achieving overall integrity of the product.
The inspector has to ensure that appropriate documentation is available on the
job where necessary and that all relevant documents are collected and collated
after the manufacturing process is complete.
To help fabricators manage their welding information more efficiently, TWI has
produced Welding Co-ordinator This is a software package which computerises
paperwork related to welding procedures, welder approval records, NDE reports
and weld datasheets.
2. Analysis of the facts
Analyse details in relation to

service performance of the product

drawings
code of practice
QA/QC requirements
other relevant information

3. Planning
Plan the inspection sequence, identifying the critical areas and 'hold-points'
related to the product (e.g. inspector signs-off acceptance of the joint fit-up
details BEFORE production welding is allowed to continue).
4. Implementation
Implementation is the most difficult part, often due to the fact that the inspection
team cannot check every inspection detail all of the time. Some reliance must,
therefore, be placed on the production personnel and production supervision.

Key questions
Here are some important questions which should always be answered before
carrying out visual inspection:
What is the nature of the product?
If the product is regarded as 'safety-critical' it will be necessary to perform certain
tasks at certain stages.
What operating conditions will be present?
If the product is operating at low temperature, a risk of brittle fracture may exist.
Therefore, some types of weld defect may increase the likelihood of failure.
Alternatively, if the product is under dynamic loading, it may be important to
assess the weld toe blends more critically.
What is the required quality of welding?
This is an essential requirement if efficient and effective visual inspection is to be
performed. What is - and what is not - an acceptable imperfection needs to be
known in advance of the inspection.
Is there a code that relates to the product, or a standard, against which the welds
may be inspected?
The inspector must have a full understanding of the code of practice being used,
and fully appreciate the technical details specified.
Is visual inspection required before during and after welding?
In certain situations, it may be only necessary to carry out inspection after
welding. This however, relies on the skill and knowledge of the welding
supervisor or sometimes the welders involved and their ability to follow written
procedures.
By finding answers to these questions, and possibly others, the Inspector will
have a good idea of the requirements and be better placed to determine which
points of inspection require the most emphasis.
In summary, the inspector must find out as much as possible about

the product
materials, welding process and consumable being used
operating conditions of the product
allowable defects (reference to the applicable code or standard)
types of joint being welded

The product

Materials, welding process and

consumable being used

Operating conditions of the product

Allowable defects (reference to the

applicable code or standard)

Types of joint being welded

The welding inspector

The diagram below gives a profile of a welding inspector. It outlines
responsibilities and duties and the general sequences of inspection. It also
indicates some of the important personal attributes of an effective inspector.

Checklist
Although the checklist below is not exhaustive, it provides a useful starting point
and covers inspection before, during and after welding.

Before welding
a) Documentation

code of practice
quality plan
welding procedure approvals (to code)
welder approvals (to code)
weld map or drawing, i.e. where the welds are, sizes etc, weld
identification
inspection procedures
NDE procedures
pre/post weld heat treatment procedures - methods, temperatures, times,
etc

b) Materials

consumables
o correct specification
o correct storage and baking
o controlled issue and return
o batch identification

parent material
o correct specification
o identification - transference of cast marks

forming activity procedures

o rolling, pressing

c) Weld preparations

correct for the job - check against documentation

machined or flame cut - note any grinding requirements
sheared - thin sheet - work-hardened - any further preparation?
accurate and within tolerance
forming activity procedures

d) Fit-up for welding

accuracy of fit-up - misalignment

preheat and its maintenance/monitoring
tack welding - incorporated in weld?
safety
manipulators

e) Welding equipment

maintenance and calibration

condition - in relation to safety and performance
correct consumables (wire, flux, gas) - check against welding procedure
flux re-circulation system (SAW)

During welding
a) correct parameters and monitoring equipment
b) welding procedure specification (WPS) at the work-place
c) inter-run cleanliness
d) inter-run quality
e) inter-pass temperature
f) consumable control
g) maintenance of preheat?
h) process control NDE regime
i) welding records and maintenance of weld maps
After welding
a) visual inspection and records
b) NDE

working to procedure
calibrated equipment
records

c) PWHT (if required)

furnace or local (temp gradients)

compliance with code
recording of times and temperatures
thermocouple positions

d) Final testing (if applicable)

hydraulic test procedure

leak test procedure
proof/load test procedure
functional test procedure
NDE

e) Cleaning, painting, preservation, packing

f) Final documentation package

WPS, welding procedure

approval records
welder qualification records
consumables certificates
materials certificates
inspection reports
NDE reports/test reports
heat treatment records
welding records
certificate of compliance
authorised signatures

The above activities are regarded as 'surveillance inspection', as opposed to the

details of visual inspection. However, it should be noted that visual inspection
plays an important role throughout the manufacturing process.

Weldability of materials

Steels
In arc welding, as the weld metal needs mechanical properties to match the
parent metal, the welder must avoid forming defects in the weld. Imperfections
are principally caused by:

poor welder technique;

insufficient measures to accommodate the
material or welding process;
high stress in the component.

Techniques to avoid imperfections such as lack of

fusion and slag inclusions, which result from poor
welder techniques, are relatively well known. However,
the welder should be aware that the material itself
may be susceptible to formation of imperfections
caused by the welding process. In the materials
section of the Job Knowledge for Welders, guidelines are given on material
weldability and precautions to be taken to avoid defects.

Material types
In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be divided into the following
types:

Steels
Stainless steels
Aluminium and its alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Titanium and its alloys
Cast iron

Fusion welding processes can be used to weld most alloys of these materials, in
a wide range of thickness. When imperfections are formed, they will be located in
either the weld metal or the parent material immediately adjacent to the weld,
called the heat affected zone (HAZ). As chemical composition of the weld metal
determines the risk of imperfections, the choice of filler metal may be crucial not
only in achieving adequate mechanical properties and corrosion resistance but
also in producing a sound weld. However, HAZ imperfections are caused by the
adverse effect of the heat generated during welding and can only be avoided by
strict adherence to the welding procedure.

This part of the materials section of Job Knowledge for Welders considers the
weldability of carbon-manganese (C-Mn) steels and low alloy steels.

Imperfections in welds
Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these
materials can be at risk from the following types of imperfection:

porosity;
solidification cracking;
hydrogen cracking;
reheat cracking.

Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but
using modern steels and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to
arise.
In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure
and welder techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding.

Porosity
Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying
weld pool. The gas may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants
such as rust or grease, or insufficient deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous
weld), electrode or filler wire. A particularly severe form of porosity is 'wormholes',
caused by gross surface contamination or welding with damp electrodes.
The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler
wire is beneficial as they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the
weld pool to form slag. Rimming steels with a high oxygen content, can only be
welded satisfactorily with a consumable which adds aluminium to the weld pool.
To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and
degreased before welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless
considered suitable for welding by that particular process and procedure. When
using gas shielded processes, the material surface demands more rigorous
cleaning, such as by degreasing, grinding or machining, followed by final
degreasing, and the arc must be protected from draughts.

Solidification cracking
Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having
insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal.
Sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon pick up from the parent metal at high dilution
increase the risk of weld metal (solidification) cracking especially in thick section
and highly restrained joints. When welding high carbon and sulphur content
steels, thin weld beads will be more susceptible to solidification cracking.
However, a weld with a large depth to width ratio can also be susceptible. In this
case, the centre of the weld, the last part to solidify, will have a high
concentration of impurities increasing the risk of cracking.
Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of
consumable, welding parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk,
consumables with low carbon and impurity levels and relatively high manganese
and silicon contents are preferred. High current density processes such as
submerged-arc and CO2, are more likely to induce cracking. The welding
parameters must produce an adequate depth to width ratio in butt welds, or
throat thickness in fillet welds. High welding speeds also increase the risk as the
amount of segregation and weld stresses will increase. The welder should
ensure that there is a good joint fit-up so as to avoid bridging wide gaps. Surface
contaminants, such as cutting oils, should be removed before welding.

Hydrogen cracking
A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ
immediately adjacent to the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of
cold (hydrogen) cracking. Although the risk of cracking is determined by the level
of hydrogen produced by the welding process, susceptibility will also depend
upon several contributory factors:

material composition (carbon equivalent);

section thickness;
arc energy (heat) input;
degree of restraint.

The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the
process. Basic electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (MMA)
and the gas shielded processes (MIG and TIG) produce only a small amount of
hydrogen in the weld pool. Steel composition and cooling rate determines the
HAZ hardness. Chemical composition determines material hardenability, and the
higher the carbon and alloy content of the material, the greater the HAZ hardness.
Section thickness and arc energy influences the cooling rate and hence, the
hardness of the HAZ.
For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type,
electrode composition and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by
heating the material. Using preheat which reduces the cooling rate, promotes
escape of hydrogen and reduces HAZ hardness so preventing a crack-sensitive
structure being formed; the recommended levels of preheat for various practical
situations are detailed in the appropriate standards e.g. BS 5135:1984. As
cracking only occurs at temperatures slightly above ambient, maintaining the
temperature of the weld area above the recommended level during fabrication is
especially important. If the material is allowed to cool too quickly, cracking can
occur up to several hours after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen cracking'.
After welding, therefore, it is beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period
(hold time), depending on the steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse
from the weld area.
When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels, the measures which
are taken to prevent HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen
cracking in the weld metal. However, with increasing alloying of the weld metal
e.g. when welding alloyed or quenched and tempered steels, more stringent
precautions may be necessary.
The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low
hydrogen electrodes and high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint.
Practical precautions to avoid hydrogen cracking include drying the electrodes
and cleaning the joint faces. When using a gas shielded process, a significant

amount of hydrogen can be generated from contaminants on the surface of the

components and filler wire so preheat and arc energy requirements should be
maintained even for tack welds.

Reheat cracking
Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section
components, usually of greater than 50mm thickness, Fig. 4. The more likely
cause of cracking is embrittlement of the HAZ during high temperature service or
stress relief heat treatment.
As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input
welding procedures reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive
materials, avoidance of high stresses during welding and elimination of local
points of stress concentration, e.g. by dressing the weld toes, can reduce the risk.

Weldability of steel groups

European Standard EN 287 identifies a number of steels groups which have
similar metallurgical and welding characteristics. The main risks in welding these
groups are:
Group W 01 low carbon unalloyed (carbon-manganese) steels and/or low
alloyed steels
For thin section, unalloyed materials, these materials are normally readily
weldable. However, when welding thicker section material with a flux process
(MMA), there is a risk of HAZ cracking which will needs low hydrogen electrodes.
The more highly alloyed materials also require preheat, or a low hydrogen
welding process, to avoid HAZ cracking .
Group W 02 chromium-molybdenum (CrMo) and/or chromiummolybdenum-vanadium (CrMoV) creep resisting steel
Thin section material may be welded without preheat but using a gas shielded
process (TIG and MIG); for thicker section material, and when using a flux
process, preheat with low hydrogen electrodes (MMA) is needed to avoid HAZ
and weld metal cracking. Post-weld heat treatment is used to improve HAZ
toughness.
Group W 03 fine-grained structural steels and nickel steels (2% to 5%)
The weldability is similar to Group W 02 in that preheat is required for welding
thick section material with flux processes.

Group W 04 ferritic or martensitic stainless steel, with chromium (12% to

20%)
When using filler to produce matching weld metal strength, preheat is needed to
avoid HAZ cracking. Post-weld heat treatment is essential to restore HAZ
toughness.
An austenitic stainless steel filler can be used where it is not possible to apply a
preheat and post-weld treatment.

Distortion - Prevention by fabrication

techniques
Distortion caused by welding a plate at the centre of a thin plate before
welding into a bridge girder section. Courtesy John Allen

Assembly techniques
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of
welding procedure but assembly techniques can often be
crucial in minimising distortion. The principal assembly
techniques are:

tack welding
back-to-back assembly
stiffening

Tack welding
Tack welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be
used to resist transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to
the number of tack welds, their length and the distance between them. With too
few, there is the risk of the joint progressively closing up as welding proceeds. In
a long seam, using MMA or MIG, the joint edges may even overlap. It should be
noted that when using the submerged arc process, the joint might open up if not
adequately tacked.

The tack welding sequence is important to maintain a uniform root gap along the
length of the joint. Three alternative tack welding sequences are shown in Fig 1:

tack weld straight through to the end of the joint (Fig 1a). It is necessary to
clamp the plates or to use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking
tack weld one end and then use a back stepping technique for tacking the
rest of the joint (Fig 1b)
tack weld the centre and complete the tack welding by back stepping (Fig
1c).

Fig. 1 Alternative procedures used for tack welding to prevent transverse

shrinkage
a) tack weld straight through to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use back-step technique for tacking the rest of
the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by the back-step
technique

Directional tacking is a useful technique for controlling the joint gap, for example
closing a joint gap which is (or has become) too wide.
When tack welding, it is important that tacks which are to be fused into the main
weld, are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately qualified
welders. The procedure may require preheat and an approved consumable as
specified for the main weld. Removal of the tacks also needs careful control to
avoid causing defects in the component surface.

Back-to-back assembly
By tack welding or clamping two identical
components back-to-back, welding of both
components can be balanced around the neutral
axis of the combined assembly (Fig 2a). It is
recommended that the assembly is stress relieved
before separating the components. If stress
relieving is not done, it may be necessary to insert
wedges between the components (Fig 2b) so when
the wedges are removed, the parts will move back
to the correct shape or alignment.

Fig. 2 Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when welding two identical

components
a) assemblies tacked together before welding
b) use of wedges for components that distort on separation after welding

Stiffening
Fig. 3 Longitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing in butt welded thin plate joints
Longitudinal shrinkage in butt welded seams
often results in bowing, especially when
fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal
stiffeners in the form of flats or angles,
welded along each side of the seam (Fig 3)
are effective in preventing longitudinal bowing.
Stiffener location is important: they must be
placed at a sufficient distance from the joint
so they do not interfere with welding, unless
located on the reverse side of a joint welded
from one side.

Welding procedure
A suitable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and quality
requirements rather than the need to control distortion. Nevertheless, the welding
process, technique and sequence do influence the distortion level.

Welding process
General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion are:

deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible

use the least number of runs to fill the joint

Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules may

increase longitudinal shrinkage resulting in bowing and buckling.
In manual welding, MIG, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to MMA.
Weld metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrode (MMA), or
the highest current level (MIG), without causing lack-of-fusion imperfections. As
heating is much slower and more diffuse, gas welding normally produces more
angular distortion than the arc processes.
Mechanised techniques combining high deposition rates and high welding
speeds have the greatest potential for preventing distortion. As the distortion is
more consistent, simple techniques such as presetting are more effective in
controlling angular distortion.

Welding technique
General rules for preventing distortion are:

keep the weld (fillet) to the minimum specified size

use balanced welding about the neutral axis
keep the time
minimum

between runs to a

Fig. 4 Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the number of runs

in the fillet weld
In the absence of restraint, angular distortion in both fillet and butt joints will be a
function of the joint geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a given cross
section. Angular distortion (measured in degrees) as a function of the number of
runs for a 10mm leg length fillet weld is shown in Fig 4.

If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for
example on double sided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously. In
butt joints, the run order may be crucial in that balanced welding can be used to
correct angular distortion as it develops.
Fig. 5 Use of welding direction to control distortion
a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding

Welding sequence
The sequence, or direction, of welding is
important and should be towards the free end of
the joint. For long welds, the whole of the weld
is not completed in one direction. Short runs, for
example using the back-step or skip welding
technique, are very effective in distortion control
(Fig 5).

Back-step welding involves depositing

short adjacent weld lengths in the
opposite direction to the general progression (Fig.5a).
Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly
spaced, sequence along the seam (Fig 5b). Weld lengths and the spaces
between them are generally equal to the natural run-out length of one
electrode. The direction of deposit for each electrode is the same, but it is
not necessary for the welding direction to be opposite to the direction of
general progression.

Best practice
The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion:

using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap

identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced
about the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt
welds of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should
aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in preference to
MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction;
back-step or skip welding techniques should be used.

Fillet welded joints - a review of the

practicalities
Fillet welded joints such as tee, lap and corner joints are the most common connection in
welded fabrication. In total they probably account for around 80% of all joints made by
arc welding.
It is likely that a high percentage of other joining techniques also use some form of a
fillet welded joint including non-fusion processes such as brazing, braze welding and
soldering. The latter techniques are outside the scope of this article.
Although the fillet weld is so common, there are a number of aspects to be considered
before producing such a weld. This article will review a number of topics that relate to
fillet welded joints and it is hoped that even the most seasoned fabricator or welding
person will gain from this article in some way.
Common joint designs for fillet welds are shown below in Fig.1.

Fig.1

Fillet weld features

ISO 2553 (EN 22553) uses the following notation as Figs.2 and 3 show.
a = throat thickness
z = leg length
s = deep penetration throat thickness
l = length of intermittent fillet

Fig.2

Fig.3

Fillet weld shapes

Over specified fillet welds or oversized fillet welds

Fig.4

One of the greatest problems associated with fillet welded joints is achieving the correct
weld size in relation to the required leg lengths or throat thickness (Fig.4).

The designer may calculate the size and allow a 'safety factor' so that the weld specified
on the fabrication drawing is larger than is required by design considerations.
The weld size is communicated by using an appropriate weld symbol.
In the UK the weld size is frequently specified by referring to the leg length 'z' in ISO
2553 where the number gives the weld size in millimetres as shown in Fig.5.

Fig.5

In Europe, it is more common to find the design throat thickness, 'a' specified (Fig.6).

Fig.6

Once the drawing has been issued to the shop floor, it is usual to find an additional safety
factor also being applied on by the welder or inspector. It is also common to hear 'add a
bit more it will make it stronger'.
The outcome is an oversized weld with perhaps an 8mm leg length rather than the 6mm
specified by the designer. This extra 2mm constitutes an increase in weld volume of over
80%.
This coupled with the already over specified weld size from the designer's 'safety factor'
may lead to a weld that is twice the volume of a correctly sized fillet weld.
By keeping the weld to the size specified by the drawing office, faster welding speeds can
be achieved, therefore increasing productivity, reducing overall product weight,
consumable consumption and consumable cost.
The other benefit is that, in the case of most arc welding processes, a slight increase in
travel speed would in most cases see an increase in root penetration so that the actual
throat thickness is increased:
An oversized weld is therefore very costly to produce, may not have 'better strength' and
is wasteful of welding consumables and may see other fabrication problems including
excessive distortion.

Lap joints welded with fillet welds.

As discussed earlier, oversized welds are commonplace and the lap joint is no exception.
The designer may specify a leg length that is equal to the material thickness as in Fig.7.

Fig.7

Strength considerations may mean that the fillet weld size need not be anywhere near the
plate thickness. In practice the weld may also be deficient in other ways for example:

Fig.8

Due to melting away of the corner of the upper plate (Fig.8), the vertical leg length is
reduced meaning that the design throat has also been reduced; therefore an undersized
weld has been created. Care is therefore needed to ensure that the corner of the upper
plate is not melted away. Ideally the weld should be some 0.5-1mm clear of the top
corner (Fig.9).

Fig.9

It may be the designer may therefore specify a slightly smaller leg length compared to the
thickness of the component.

To compensate for this reduction in throat thickness it may be necessary to specify a deep
penetration fillet weld. This amount of additional penetration would need to be confirmed
by suitable weld tests. Additional controls may also be needed during production welding
to ensure that this additional penetration is being achieved consistently.
In addition to the reduction in throat thickness there is the potential for additional
problems such as overlap at the weld toe due to the larger weld pool size (Fig.10) or an
excessively convex weldface and consequential sharp notches at the weld toe (Fig.11).
Fig.10

Fig.11

Both the potential problems shown in Figs.10 and 11 could adversely influence the
fatigue life of the welded joint due to the increased toe angle, which acts as a greater
stress concentration.
Poor fit-up can also reduce the throat thickness as in Fig.12. The corner of the vertical
component has been bevelled in the sketch in an exaggerated manner to illustrate the
point.

Fig.12

Summary
Fillet welded joints are not only the most frequently used weld joints but are also one of
the most difficult to weld with any real degree of consistency. Fillet welds require a
higher heat input than a butt joint of the same thickness and, with less skilled welders this
can lead to lack of penetration and/or fusion defects that cannot be detected by visual
examination and other NDT techniques.

Fillet welded joints are not always open to NDT or are indeed time consuming to many
non-destructively testing techniques such as radiography or ultrasonic testing and the
results are often difficult to interpret. Inspection methods such as visual inspection,
magnetic particle inspection and penetrant inspection are surface examination techniques
only and with visual inspection, much of the effort is expended in measuring the size of
the weld rather than identifying other quality aspects.
Fillet welded joints are therefore much more difficult to weld and inspect. Often the
welds that are produced are larger than they need to be or they may be of a poor shape
which can adversely influence their service performance.
To overcome these difficulties, designers need to specify accurately the most appropriate
throat size and welding personnel should strive to achieve the specified design size.
Welders also need to be adequately trained and sufficiently skilled to be capable of
maintaining an acceptable weld quality.

Visual inspection of arc welds - a

guide to best practice
Section 4. Imperfections - identification and
interpretation

Detectable imperfections
Practical guidance on interpretation
Imperfections associated with particular welding processes

Detectable imperfections
Introduction
It is important to keep in mind that visual assessment of a weld is, in many
circumstances, one small part of the total inspection process.
On many products, non-destructive examination (NDE) is applied, probably
confirming 'visual uncertainties'. Also, NDE may frequently be employed to locate
defects which cannot be seen with the naked eye (although in some instances
low-power magnification may be used).
If NDE is not being employed, it may be necessary to carry out more extensive
visual inspection which may involve longer inspection times. However, visual
inspection normally requires assessment of the consistency of weld features (i.e.
weld width, height and shape along entire length of weld) and of the surface
defects present.
Many codes and standards use the term 'defect' but this word implies that the
weld is substandard and therefore unacceptable. A more appropriate term is
'imperfection'; this is because many weld 'defects' may prove to be adequate for
specific acceptance levels.
Defects which can be detected by visual inspection can be grouped under five
headings:

root defects
contour defects
surface irregularities
surface cracks
miscellaneous

1. Root defects
2. Contour defects
3. Surface irregularities

4. Surface cracks
5. Miscellaneous

Standard terminology for imperfections

Terminology relating to imperfections in fusion welds has been standardised in
accordance with accepted practice.

Group 1 - Root defects

Incomplete root penetration
Failure of weld metal to extend into the root of a joint
Lack of root fusion
Lack of union at the root of a joint
Excess penetration bead
Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion
weld made from one side only

Root concavity
(suck-back; underwashing - non-standard terms)
A shallow groove which may occur in the root of a butt
weld, but full fusion is evident
Shrinkage groove
A shallow groove caused by contraction in the metal along
each side of a penetration bead or along the weld centreline
Burnthrough
(melt through)
A localised collapse of the molten pool due to excessive
penetration, resulting in a hole in the weld run

Group 2 - Contour defects

Incompletely filled groove

A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld,
running along its length, due to insufficient weld metal. The
channel may be along the centre or along one or both edges
of the weld

Bulbous contour
A non-standard term used to describe poor
appearance

Unequal legs
(non standard term)
Variation of leg length on a fillet weld
Note: Unequal leg lengths may be specified as
part of the design - in which case they are not
imperfections

Group 3 - Surface irregularities

Undercut
An irregular groove at a toe of a run in the parent metal or in
previously deposited weld metal
The inspector must determine if the undercut is continuous or
intermittent, or sharp or smooth

Overlap
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal
flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to
it

Gas pore
A cavity, generally under 1.5mm in diameter, formed
by trapped gas during the solidification of molten
metal

Porosity
A group of gas pores

Crater pipe
A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a run where
the source of heat was removed. Crater pipes may also
lead to micro-cracking

Group 4 - Surface cracks

Crack
A linear discontinuity produced by fracture
Cracks may be ...
a) ... longitudinal, in the weld metal, i.e. centreline
b) ... longitudinal, in the parent metal or heat affected
zone
c) ... transverse
d) Crater crack
(star cracking)

Group 5 - Miscellaneous
Stray flash/arc burn/arc strike
(stray arcing)
1. The damage on the parent material resulting from the
accidental striking of an arc away from the weld
2. The accidental striking of an arc away from the weld
Note that the same term is used for both the action and
the result

Spatter
Globules of metal
expelled during welding
on to the surface of
parent metal or of a
weld

Practical guidance on interpretation

A wide variety of imperfections can be examined and the following additional
points should be considered during visual inspection.
Sharp imperfections
The inspector must bear in mind that the most serious imperfections tend to be
those which are sharp. It is most important, therefore, that the inspector is able to
make a clear judgement and differentiate between sharp and smooth
imperfections.
Example Consider sharp undercut, 0.2mm deep, compared with smooth undercut, 1.0mm
deep. It will be assumed that the acceptance levels specify an allowance of
1.0mm depth of undercut.

Although the smooth undercut is on the limit of acceptance, the physically

smooth transition of the defect means that any transverse stresses applied will
tend to flow round the imperfection when the weld or product is under service
loading.

The depth of the sharp undercut is only 0.2mm, well under the specified
allowance in relation to depth. However, it is likely that stresses will be
concentrated at the sharp notch where a crack might develop in service.
Undetected, this crack could lead to catastrophic failure of the product.
Many sharp imperfections are often referred to as 'planar' (two-dimensional)
imperfections. These generally include:

cracks and tears

Cracking (photo
shows hydrogeninduced cracking
in the heat
affected zone)

Lamellar tearing

incomplete root penetration

Weld metal has not

penetrated root gap

incomplete fusion (root, inter-run and sidewall)

Lack of root
fusion

It must be appreciated that many imperfections observed also indicate the

possible presence of sub-surface defects. Non-destructive examination methods,
such as radiography and ultrasonic testing, must be considered in many
situations along with visual inspection.

Lack of sidewall fusion

Many codes will not allow ANY cracks and will restrict acceptance of other types
of planar imperfection specified in the acceptance levels to within fairly close
limits. Some acceptance levels applied to higher integrity products will not allow
any such types of imperfection.
Workmanship imperfections
Experience has shown that workmanship-type imperfections - such as poor
stop/starts, arc strikes and tool marks - are often not found or recorded during
visual assessment of welded structures. In some cases, these imperfections can
lead to more serious problems developing - even catastrophic failure of the
product due to cracks (perhaps started by an isolated arc strike).

Stray arcing or arc strikes

There are other potential problems such as incomplete fusion and crater pipes
caused by poor stop/start technique. Excessively coarse grinding marks, whilst
potentially ignored by the inspector, may set up small stress concentrations
which could lead to failure of the product in service.

Crater pipe

Other workmanship features

We can still use the motor car analogy for visually examining a completed
weldment - possibly even more so because when you assess the car there are
several areas you would examine visually before driving the vehicle away.
The bodywork of a motor car is in many ways similar to a weldment in that it will
need to have certain visual characteristics such as the required contour (design
shape).

Shape imperfections
Overlap and sharp toe blend
Other sharp imperfections include shape-type flaws such as overlap and sharp
toe blend caused by excessive weld metal height on the weld face.

Overlap

Excess weld metal

Unfortunately, acceptance levels rarely provide guidance on the philosophy of

sharp versus smooth imperfections.

Root penetration bead

Excess root penetration and root concavity are other examples of shape-type
imperfections and their degree of 'sharpness' should be assessed during visual
inspection.

Excess penetration bead

Root concavity

Alignment
In relation to other workmanship details which relate to construction, alignment of
components and the manner in which they fit together is extremely important.
Many specifications will set close limits and tolerances on both linear and angular
alignment.

Dimensional checks
Dimensional requirements are, of course, essential and the engineering drawing
will provide appropriate dimensions and tolerances. It may also include weld
symbols as a way of specifying the welding requirements. However, weld
symbols are not part of this best practice guide. Further details can be obtained
from ISO2553 or BS EN22553.
Corrosion
You would certainly assess a second hand car for corrosion or rusting and this
could be sufficient reason for rejection. A similar principle can be applied to
welded structures, especially if visual inspection is being employed in service
during the life of the component.
Colour
Choice of colour may be one of the most influential factors in the purchase of a
motor car. A weldment's colour is equally important as it will provide background
on how efficient the gas shielding was during the welding operation (TIG and
MIG/MAG processes). This can be the main criterion when visually inspecting
weldments in reactive materials such as titanium.
Knocks and dents
This type of imperfection would certainly be assessed when visually examining a
motor car and could be the reason for rejecting it. A welded structure may also
suffer knocks and dents in the form of transportation damage, tool marks from
chipping hammers and chisels or excessive grinding marks formed during the
removal of surface contaminants.
Other points on workmanship can be found in Section 2 of this best practice
guide under Terminology and definitions .

Inclusions
Solid inclusions
Solid inclusions such as slag (from manual metal arc welding, flux cored arc
welding or submerged arc welding) are interpreted by many industrial sectors as
being associated with lack of fusion imperfections. Furthermore, silica inclusions
associated with the MAG welding of steel are commonly found to be the main
cause of lack of fusion imperfections associated with the process.
Visual inspection cannot find solid inclusions which are entirely sub-surface hence the need for non-destructive examination techniques such as radiography
or ultrasonic testing. On the other hand, if the inspector engaged in visual
inspection were to check the cleanliness of each weld pass during welding, the
problem could, to some extent, be eliminated.

Slag inclusion

Gas inclusions
Porosity and gas pores are difficult imperfections to assess by visual examination
alone. This is due to the fact that they are not always surface-breaking and when
they can be seen, the full extent of the problem is unknown until radiography or
ultrasonic inspection has been carried out. Another problem is that porosity may
hide other, more serious imperfections which cannot be found by any commonly
used non-destructive examination methods.

Surface-breaking porosity

Imperfections associated with particular welding processes

Introduction
An inspector with a sound knowledge of the welding process to be used can
provide valuable information on avoiding typical defects associated with it.
Process know-how will also allow the inspector to focus on particular areas after
welding has been completed to pinpoint specific faults which could influence the
acceptability of welds and the product overall.
To illustrate this point, the TIG process can give very good weld pool control assuming appropriate welder skill. This means that the occurrence of shape-type
defects, such as undercut or overlap, is unlikely compared with, for example,
manual metal arc welding. However, tungsten inclusions and porosity are likely
with the TIG process when compared with MIG/MAG welding to which lack of
fusion problems have always been associated, especially when welding thicksection steel.
The manual metal arc and submerged arc processes both utilise a flux. Slag is
produced during welding which can create slag inclusions which are, therefore,
associated with these process types. Also, submerged arc welding has a deep
penetration characteristic, so an experienced inspector is likely to examine the
completed weld with centreline cracking in mind because it is known that deep,
narrow welds are susceptible to this type of cracking.
It may also be necessary to carry out visual inspection during the welding
operation to ensure that specific welding parameters are met or that the number
or sequence of weld runs is in accordance with the welding procedure
requirements. In practice, many factors can apply, depending on the type of
product and its expected service performance. It is essential for those involved to
hold a qualification in visual inspection or welding inspection such as CSWIP
before embarking on more specialised work.

A brief outline of the common welding processes found in industry and their
related, typical weld defects is given below -

TIG welding
Also known as: Tungsten Inert Gas Welding; Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTA or
GTAW)

Process overview
Type of operation
Usually manual, but can be mechanised.
Mode of operation
An arc is maintained between the end of a tungsten electrode and the
work. The electrode is not consumed and the current is controlled by the
power source setting. The operator must control the arc length and also
add filler metal if needed to obtain the correct weld. A high degree of skill
is needed for best results. The arc is unstable at low currents. Special
provision is made for starting (h.f. or surge injection) and for welding thin
materials (pulsed TIG). In all cases the electrode and weld pool are
shielded by a stream of inert gas. Filler rod is fed into the weld pool in
some cases.

Typical defects associated with process

tungsten inclusions
lack of fusion
incomplete penetration
root concavity
undercut
porosity
burnthrough
excess penetration
oxide inclusions
unequal leg length

MMA welding
Also known as Manual Metal Arc Weldng (MMA); Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMA or SMAW); Stick Welding

Process overview
Type of operation
Manual.
Mode of operation
Arc melts parent plate and electrode to form a weld pool which is
protected by flux cover. Operator adjusts electrode feed rate, i.e. by hand
movement, to keep arc length constant. Slag must be removed after
depositing each bead. Normally a small degree of penetration, requiring
plate edge preparation; but welds in thick plate or large fillets are
deposited in a number of passes. The process can also be used to deposit
metal to form a surface with alternative properties.

Typical defects associated with process

overlap
porosity
slag inclusions
excessive spatter
stray flash
incomplete penetration
excess penetration
undercut
crater cracks
lack of fusion

MIG welding
Also known as: Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG); Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG);
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMA or GMAW)

Process overview
Type of operation
Manual, mechanised or automatic.
Mode of operation
An arc is maintained between the end of the bare wire electrode and the
work. The wire is fed at a constant speed, selected to give the required
current, and the arc length is controlled by the power source. The operator
is not therefore concerned with controlling the arc length and can
concentrate on depositing the weld metal in the correct manner.

The process can be operated at high currents (250-500A) when metal

transfer is in the form of a 'spray', but, except for aluminium, this technique
is confined to welding in the flat and horizontal positions. For vertical and
overhead welding, special low-current techniques must be used, i.e. 'dip'
transfer or pulsed arc. The arc and weld pool are shielded by a stream of
gas. The electrode can be solid or flux cored.

Typical defects associated with process

incomplete penetration
excessive penetration
undercut
excessive spatter
cracking
porosity
lack of fusion
stray flash

Submerged Arc Welding

Also known as: SAW

Process overview
Type of operation
Mechanised, automatic or semi-automatic.
Mode of operation
An arc is maintained between the end of a bare wire electrode and the
work. As the electrode is melted, it is fed into the arc by a set of rolls,
driven by a governed motor. Wire feed speed is automatically controlled to
equal the rate at which the electrode is melted, thus arc length is constant.
The arc operates under a layer of granular flux (hence 'submerged' arc).
Some of the flux melts to provide a protective blanket over the weld pool;
the remainder of the flux is unaffected and can be recovered and re-used
provided that it is dry and not contaminated.
A semi-automatic version is available in which the operator has control of
a welding gun which carries a small quantity of flux in a hopper.

Typical defects associated with process

porosity
cracking
slag inclusions
incomplete penetration
excessive penetration
weld profile defects
undercut
lack of fusion

Oxy-acetylene Welding
Also known as: Oxy Fuel Gas Welding; Gas Welding

Process overview
Type of operation
Manual.
Mode of operation
A fuel gas (usually acetylene) and an oxidant gas (oxygen) are mixed and
burnt. The operator must manipulate the blowpipe to give the correct weld
pool size, and also add filler metal as required. The melting is slow
compared with arc processes, limiting the speed of work. The weld pool is
shielded from atmospheric contamination by the burnt gas mixture which
can be made mildly oxidising or reducing. Requires a very high level of
operator skill.
Typical defects associated with process

unequal leg length fillet

butt weld profile too concave
butt weld profile too convex
undesirable weld profile (lap, fillet)
excessive penetration
excessive fusion of root edges
burnthrough
undercut along vertical member of fillet welded T joint
root run too large with undercut in butt joint
undercut both sides of weld face in butt joint
oxidised weld face
overheated weld
incomplete root penetration in butt joints (single V or double V)
incomplete root penetration in close square T joint

Conclusion
Visual examination of welds is a highly skilled activity. When correctly applied
before, during and after welding, as both a quality control activity and a NDE
technique, many problems associated with welding can be prevented. In contrast,
non-destructive examination such as magnetic particle or penetrant inspection,
radiography or ultrasonic testing may reveal imperfections AFTER welding has
been completed, necessitating repair or a concession which invariably increases
the overall cost of the product and delays completion and subsequent shipment.
Formal training and qualifications in a broad range of welding technologies
greatly contributes towards providing the skills and knowledge required to carry
out effective visual inspection. This must be balanced with adequate on-the-job
experience. Furthermore, practical experience, knowledge and correct
interpretation of appropriate codes or specifications is essential to ensure
accurate and efficient visual inspection of welded products.