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Paul Proulx
Cornell University
Preface
In the mid 1960's, C.F. Hockett was working on a new model of phonology,
which as far as I know he only reported burried in the middle of a long
theoretical paper on mathematics and language (Hockett 1966:213-220,
222-227). I don't think anyone read it, which is a pity. It's an excellent way
of thinking about phonology. However, I was a graduate student at Cornell at
the time, and consulted with him in my study of Cuzco Quechua phonology.
Hence, the paper I wrote may possibly be the only exemplification of his model,
other than his 1966 one (illustrated by Potawatomi). It is also the starting
point from which I went on to publish a few other papers on Quechua (Proulx
1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974).
One should never reread one's early papers many years later. I
once reread some of my college essays years later, and couldn't believe how
generous my teachers had been in grading them. So today I have resisted the
urge, and send this on to you without a second look, lest I be tempted to
consign it to a well deserved oblivion. For in spite of its likely flaws, it is still a
report on Cuzco Quechua phonology, and does present a somewhat original
view of phonology.
Paul Proulx, April 2003
graduate student at Cornell University. My main source of data was the Cornell
Quechua Language Project Dictionary (hereafter 'the dictionary'), but other
Cuzco Quechua materials were consulted, and problematic forms were checked
with Antonio Cusihuaman (a native speaker from Chinchero, Cuzco).
1. Origins of phonemes.
1.1. The minimal contrastive unit in Cuzco Quechua, as in any language, is
the distinctive feature. In the present analysis, these features are given names
that reflect their position and maner of articulation (other nomenclatures are of
course possible).
The analogy between the phoneme and the atom is instructive: both were
smaller units still. In both cases they remained useful constructs. However,
while physicists had no problem with retaining the atom, many linguists -
probably responding to the the mood of the 60s, which was to suspect that all
that was inherited from the recent past was hokum if not deliberate deceipt were quick to drop the concept and taboo the word. Of course, they were
mostly right about the hokum we inherited from the 50s, but the phoneme was
number of protons and neutrons they contain. Such a description begins with
determining which phonological features of a given language are distinctive.
1.2. It seems reasonable to suppose that in preparing to speak in a
particular language, a native speaker moves her tongue and other articulatory
organs into the position from which the least effort is required to reach as
many of the articulatory targets of that language as possible (taking frequency
into account). That is, she wants to be able to produce the more common
phonemes of the language as easily as possible. This preparatory position or
base of articulation varies slightly from language to language, and is largely
responsible for foreign accents.
1.3. Since the Conquest, Spanish has borowed dozens of words from
Quechua, and Quechua hundreds from Spanish. Some of these loans are
ancient and well adapted to the phonology of the borrowing language. Others
are recent and preserve to a greater or lesser extent the phonology of the
donor language.
speakers of Cuzco Quechua, it is not clear to what extent Spanish loans may
have modified the phonology of this dialect. In the present study, only the
phonology of words lacking obvious Spanish cognates is described.
2. Cuzco Q. phonemes.
The intonation carrier of Cuzco Quechua is a sequence of open back nasal
vowel plus velar nasal, with the intonation first rising and then falling. The
hesitation form is na, which also functions as a nominal and verbal root, and
whose cannonical form is therefore constrained (roots all end in a vowel). This
constraint puts the nasal at the beginning of the form, where velar nasals are
not found: thus, absence of the feature VELAR in the hesitation form is
grammatically constrained. The order of the two phones also determines
whether the vowel is oral or nasal: vowels are nasal before syllable final nasal
consonants.
Since the sounds in the intonation carrier are not grammatically
constrained, they may be regarded as better clues to the base of articulation
than the hesitation form, where the two disagree. Therefore, the features
VELAR and NASAL are unmarked. VOCALITY will also be considered unmarked,
on the grounds that it comes first in the form not grammaticallly constrained.
The marked distinctive features of Native Cuzco Quechua are:
Lb = labial
Cn = consonant
Al = alveolar
Ob = obstruent
Pl = palatal
St = stop
Lt = lateral
Rt = retracted
As = aspiration
PS = primary stress
SS = secondary stress
RI = rising intonation
EI = even intonation
La = laryngeal
Gl = glottalization
FI = falling intonation
Lb Al Pl -- Rt La
{ k
ph th {h kh qh h
ll
Cn (nasals)
Or (basic vowels)
and sip'un 'she wrinkles something', {hall{an and wall{han 'it makes a boiling
sound', {'ustin and llust'in 'she husks (corn)'. Marked stops are not found in
affixes. One may therefore think of aspiration or glottalization as
from Spanish alto 'high', t'iran 'she uproots, pulls something' from Spanish tira'pull, throw', and hasut'in 'she whips (an animal)' from Spanish azote 'whip').
Marked stops tend to characterize groups of semanticaly related words, as I
have argued elsewhere (Proulx 1972:143), and to spread by semantic
association.
dictionary does give some words transcribed with aspirated stops in syllable
final position, in addition to the marked stops provided for above. However,
there are no syllable final glottalized stops, and aspirated stops in this position
appear to be an attempt to transcribe simple stops followed by an optional
this transition vocoid as schwa-like after a voiced consonant, but devoiced after
voiceless ones - where it sounds like weak aspiration of the preceeding
consonant (qhatqe 'bitter', t'ipqan 'she husks something'). An example of this
kind of weakly aspirated p in a Spanish loan is iwkaliptu 'eucalyptus'.
its course for *q and *{ (now X and s), and, except for some rare survivals, for *t
and *k (now s and x). But it is still underway for *p - where for Cusihuaman
some words were acceptable with both variants (e.g.,llipt'a and llifta 'lime
(mineral)', others admitting only one (e.g., {'aptan 'she pecks (bird)').
It is not
known if other speakers would make the same choices as Cusihuaman, nor
being replaced by a sequence of bilabial plus fricative. Thus, beside {'apra and
{'afra 'bush' there are by-forms {'awxra and even {'awuxra.
There is also a phoneme }, which I found only in the elements ni}u 'too much'
and in -}a- (and its by-form -}ya-) 'progressive aspect'. There is also x in
syllable final position and between two us, and and X in syllable final position
and loss commonly in other positions. In many words, the latter two alternate
with their stop counterparts in syllable final position and with their aspirated
stop counterparts between vowels, but in other words the one or the other is
required.
Thus, for example, we have uxu and ukhu 'inside', axa and aqha 'chicha
(the alcoholic beverage)' - but only uxu 'cough', naxa 'earlier', {'oxo 'something
coughed up', and only laqha 'twilight' and moqhowasa 'hunchback'.1
The utility of transcription based on the recognition of distinctive features
can be seen from these examples: the easily established contrast of stop versus
fricative seen in t versus s is AUTOMATICALLY extended to other positions of
articulation. For example, q versus X is known to be phonemic as soon as
recorded, and no possibility exists of missing the contrast and
underdiferentiating them as do Rowe (with X an alophone of qh) or Yokoyama
(with X an allophone of qh). (This utility is also seen in the treatment of nasals
below.)
The utility of phonemes defined in terms of distinctive features, rather than
working with the features alone, is that they facilitate recognition of the
different treatments of individual phones belonging to a class of phones
according to their position of articulation (e.g., stops in syllable final position).
This is not to say that an organization of data using only features would
necessarily miss this point - just that less attention would be focused on it.
3.3. Nasals and trills. There are 3 nasals before vowels, m, n, and ;
before a consonant, a nasal is generaly homorganic with that consonant. This
gives us a nasal phoneme for each position of articulation, and provides
Note the similarity of uxu 'cough' and Aymara oqho- 'cough'. However, this need not point to
some ancient phonemic correspondence: compare Cuzco Quechua saq'a- 'pull, uproot' from
Spanish saca- 'take out'.
'quinoa (a cereal)'. This word has postdental n, versus the velar nasal before w
generally. However, kinwa has a history analogous to ki{wa, i.e., it was
borrowed into Spanish and back again. Thus, it is not a Native Quechua word
by our definition.
In terms of classical phonemes, there is a single trill r written here with a
The Dictionary also has optional voicing of the q in maqana 'club', just before a
primary stress - and perhaps reflecting influence of the neighboring
Cochabamba dialect, where q is always voiced.
3.5. Vowels. Only 3 vowels are classical phonemes in Native Cuzco
Quechua: a, i, and u. Before and after postvelars (including trills and nasals)
they are retracted (+Rt), and the retracted high vowels are written with the
graphemes e and o. Before a syllable final nasal, vowels lose the feature
(+oral). Before syllable final y, i and a are respectively closed (i) and (e)
phonetically.
4. Distribution.
5. Suprasegmentals.
Works Cited
Hockett, Charles F. 1966. Language, Mathematics, and Linguistics. Current
Trends in Linguistics 3: Theoretical Foundations, 155-304. Ed. Thomas A.
Sebeok. The Hague - Paris: Mouton and Co.