ULTRASONIC

INSPECTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
BASI C l'RIN CU'LES ............................................................................................................................. UTl
lntroduction to the basic concept ...................................................................................................UTl- 1
The nature of sound ......................................................................................................................... UT 1- 1
The acoustic spectnun ..................................................................................................................... UT I-2

THEPROPAGATJON OFSOUND ...................................................................................................... UT2

The ultrasonic bemn ...................................................................................................................... UT2- I
Side lobes ........................................................................................................................................ lJTZ-3
Thc ultrasonic pu lse ........................................................................................................................ UT2-3
Resolution ........................................................................................................................................ UT2-5
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) .................................................................................................... UTI-5
Modes of propagation ...................................................................................................................... UT2-6
Boundmy waves .............................................................................................................................. UT2-7
Factors affecting the propagation of ultrasound .............................................................................. lJT2-8
Acoustic impcdancc ........................................................................................................................ UT2-8
Couplant .......................................................................................................................................... UT2-9
Attenuation ...................................................................................................................................... UT2-9

The decibcl (dB) ......................................................................................................'..................... UT2-10

SOUNO GENERATlON ......................................................................................................................... UT3
The piezo electric effect ................................................................................................................. UT3-I
Re flection, refraction and Snell 's ]aw .............................................................................................UT3-2
Mode conversion ............................................................................................................................ UT3-3
Diffraction ........................................................................................... .... ...................................... UTJ-3
Critica! angles ................................................................................................................................ UT3 -4

EQUlPMENT .......................................................................................................................................... UT4

Pro bes .............................................................................................................................................. UT4- I
Probe frequency, bandwidth and darnping ...................................................................................... UT4-4
Probe selection ................................................................................................................................ UT4-5
The ultrasonic Jlaw detector (tlow d iagram of a typical A-sean flaw detector) ............................. UT4-6
Calibration blocks and their uses .................................................................................................... UT4-8
Block No.! , A2, V I, DIN54/!20 or dutch block ............................................................................ UT4-8

0 compression probe uses .............................................................................................................. UT4-8

Shear probe uses .............................................................................................................................. U'f'4-9
Block no.2, A4, V2, DIN54/122 or kidney block ........................................................................... UT4-9
Comprcssion probe uses ................................................................................................................ UT4- IO
Shear pro be uses ............................................................................................ ................. .............. UT4-l O
lnstitu1e ofWelding (IOW)/A5 block ............................................................................................ lJT4-I O
Equipmcnt checks .......................................................................................................................... UT4- 1 1

o PROBE SCANNING .......................................................................................................................... UT5

Calibration ....................................................................................................................................... urs-1
To ca librate a 0 probe toa range ofO to 109 mm .......................................................................... UTS- 1
Calibration exercises ....................................................................................................................... UTS-2
A.c curate measurement ................................................................................................. ~.................. UTS-2
Multiple back wall method ............................................................................................................ UTS-3
O Ru~ "" &

:rt> O't'<ill

IJS11c<l fl(oil)l/11)

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Ocfect dc tection ................................................. ............................................................................. UTS-3

Scnsitivity ........................................................................................................................................ UTS-3
Graph$ a11d D!IC curves .................................................................................................................. UTS-4
Scanning pattems oor>robe .............................................................................................................. VT5-5
Sizing mc thods 0 probc ................................................................................................................. UTS-5
ANGL.E !'ROBE SCANNJl'iG................................................................................................................. UT6
Cal ibration ....................................................................................................................................... lJT6- I
Angle prOix."S test sensitivity ........................................................................................................... U'J'G-2
Scanning pattems ............................................................................................................................UT6-3
Skip factors ...................................................................................................................................... UT6-4
Thc ratio of the s ides of lhe triangles in the three most common probe angles .............................. U16- 5

The irradiation factor ....................................................................................................................... U'l'{i-5

l'lotting systems ............................................................................................................................... lJT6-S
Sizing methods anglc >robe$ ........................................................................................................... 1]'1'6-6

TESTING T t:CHNIQUES ...................................................................................................................... lJT7

A, B & C scanning ........................................................................... ............................................... U'r7- 1

Pulse echo systcms .......................................................................................................................... l rf'?-2

Through transmission tcsting .......................................................................................................... U'I'?-2
The tandcm technique ..................................................................................................................... UT7.3
lmmersion test ing ............................................................................................................................ U'l '7 -3

GLTRASONIC T lllCKNESS SURVEYJNG ........................................................................................ lJT8

AccepUrcject c ritcria ...................................................................................................................... UTS-2
Rcporting ......................................................................................................................................... UT8-2

ULTRASONIC \VJtOUG IITPLATE TI~STING ................................................................................. UT9

Tcchnique ........................................................................................................................................ UT9-1
Dcfects in p latc materia l .................................................................................................................. VT9-2

ULTRASONJC \'VELD TECBNIQUE ................................................................................................ UTI O

Tcchoiquc ..................................................................................................................................... ti r l 0-1
Dcfcct signa! interpretation ................................................................................. ,......................... lJT 10-3
ULTRASONIC TESTJNG OF FOUGTNGS ...................................................... ........................ ......................... UTll
General ................................................................................................................ ......................... UTI l -1
Tcclmiquc ...................................................................................................................................... UT 11 -1
Defects in forgmgs ........................................................................................................................ UTII-2
i\ccept and reject critcria .............................................................................................................. UTII-4
Reportmg .......................................................................................................................................UT ll -4

ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTJNGS ........................................................................................ t n'12

Gcneral .......................................................................................................................................... lJT 12-l
Technique ...................................................................................................................................... UT12- 1
Dcfects in castings ......................................................................................................................... UT 12-2
Accept and rcject criteria ............................................................................................................... lJT12-5
Rcp01iing ....................................................................................................................................... UT 12-5
BRITISH ST AND A RDS .....................................................................................................: .. API' I!:NDIX A
British Standards rcll ting to ull'rasonic tes ting ............................................................................ APl'i\- 1
Ruano & 11

~ ltmo n\ & 1' 1' 1)':"\dll

lwue 4 !X.'IIh'O.}

r P O'Nci/1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOR.MULAE lJSED IN UL'I'RASONIC TESTING .......................................................... Al'l'ENDlX n

TABLE OF ACOUS11CAL VELOCJTlES ....................................................................... APl'ENJ)) X C

Tablc of acou~tical velocitics in different materials .................................................................... Al'PC-1
TABLE OF ACO USTTC IMPEDANCES ........................................................................... APPENDIX D
Table of acousuc impcdances for differcnt materials .................................................................. AJ>PD-1
ATIENUATION l'ACTOR ................................................................................................ API'ENOIX E
Example method ror dctcrmining the attcnuation factor of a material ....................................... Al'l'E- 1
EXAMPLE CAI .CULA'l'lONS ............................................................................................ APPENDJ.X F
Example calc ulations used in ultrasonics .................................................................................... APPf'-1

O M..-1: T 1' O',.ril

a,..f .W.IM.J

Ruano & 11
T P O'Ne/11

Ul'iJT UTI BASIC PRII'iCIPLES

RttDne & 11
T P O'Ne /1/

BASI C PRINCIPL ES

' 01 FS

I NTRODUCTION TO TJIE BASI C C ONCEPT

10

The most COJilttlon tcchniquc used in ultrasonic lcsting is the pulse echo lechnique.
Tbis makes use of the phcnomcnon that sound waves travcl in straight !mes ond are
rel ected by an obstacle p laced in thcir patlL
20

Th e mecha nism is j us i lhc same ns audible sound waves bouncing oll" a brick wnll a nd
o o echo being reccivcd. Thc slrcngrh of lhe echo is controlled by 1hc s i~o of lhe wall.
Also, if tbe ti.me lapse bctwccn scnrling and receiviug the echo is mcasul'<:cl. it is
possible lo d etenninc lhe distance to the wall.

JO

Givcn the required iostrumenta tion wc can p ass souud waves through solid rnaledals
a nd reccive ecboes from thc back wall of thc material. If a defect is prcscm in lhe
material thcn thc sound e nc rgy would be rcflectcd back from it and gtve an echo earlier
than that from thc back wall bccause the sound has not travcllcd as far. Tbe strength or
amplimde of dli.s echo will be an indication of the size of thc dcfcct and the dislance
uavcllcd by the souod willtell us its deplh.
Tbis lhcn is lhc basis of ultrasonic testing.
The instrument that produces tl>e sound et>ergy is callcd the ]>robe and the echoes are
shown on a cathode ray tubc' (CRT) within a flaw detector.

Nott! 1.- Mndror dtgfurl jlaw 4 0

dctct-rorsll5e me>rr rrcem

ctlp:fty tcclm(}/oglrs sur.l1 ns
pht,\'rJW

or LC/) sr.r'('CII.f.

CRT
Pro be
50
A

y "y

Sound v.-aves

v v

60

.A.

y{YJ

.A .

e
Sound energ)' is transmittcd from th c probc into the test specimen a t sur fa ce "A"
producing ao echo at A l ' Some of lhe sound is rcflcclcd by thc defcct at "1)" and lhe
resulting echo !lp>cars ol B l. The remainder of the sound conlinucs thi"Ough the
specimen to be rcflectcl by the bnck wall ''C", the echo from the back wall appcnring
a t Cl.

70

NoiP 1: 11tr eti lO (11 Al is tJw

rcJult o[,fOJmt! ('ll(rgy

n'}lcctbtjl. lt<u:k off rlu,; fr<mt

SJIIjiJCt' oj'tllc ,\'/JC<:imc,,
togctlter willt tlw rlnging uf

tlll' crysUJ/ nnd /)IC lnitlfll

I f the screen is calibratcd flom a test block of knowu th.ickness th10n lhe dcp th or lhc
defect from the specimeu surface (A to B} cnn be read off the screeu.

pulse a/lmcrgrll into 011(!

signa/ t'lf\'dopc.

SO

TBE NAT URE O F SOUND

Sound is causcd by mechanical vibr:ttions.

90

In order for sound to pass there must be a mcdium that will suppon rncchanical
vibrations tberefore SOUNO CANNOT TRAVEL IN A VACUUM.
'lhc particJcs (moJcculcs}

Wllhlll

1he medi\Hll vibrate passing on cn~:r~y rrum onc 10

another gvm&.Hlc c(fcd ofsoun~ movcn'lant-Huough t}le-matennl .

100

~ Ru:u:.~

....

~m~

& T P Q'NeiU

Ko'Oii9.l

IJTI-1

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1

UNIT UTl BASIC PRINCIPLES

i'IOTES

The ability to support sound depends on the elasticity and density of the medium.
Since these properties will vary, from one material to another, sorne materials will pass
sound more easily than others.

The density and elasticity of a

medium are also the main
{actors that affect the
1O
velocity.

Sound follows a waveform:

Wavelength
+

20

30

One cvclc

40

50

VELOCITY

is the distance moved in unit time

WAVELENGTH

is the distance between successive peaks of a wave

PERIOD

is the time taken for one complete cycle

FREQUENCY

is the number of cycles per second

1 cycle per second

1 Hertz (Hz)

1 Kilohertz (KHz)

1,000 Hz

1 Megahertz (MHz)

1,000,000 Hz

Wavelength
Wavelength is a function offrequency and velocity.
60

vWavelength =

Velocity
Frequency

Vfherefore: v = f x A.

Note: Velocity is sometimes

denoted by the letter 'e'.

70

Note: The maximum

{requency the human ear corso
detect reduces with age. It is
general/y accepted that most
people wi/1 have heard al/
the highfrequency sounds
that they are liable lo
encounter by che time they
reach ten years ofage.

or

f = v

and

A.

TBE ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM

Infrasonic

Sonic (audible)

Manual contact testing range

Steels
Ultrasonic
lMHz
SMHz

90

16Hz

20KHz

SOOK,Hz

25MHz
+-Normal test range_..

100

O Ruanc & T P O'Neill

lss ue 4 06/01/03

UTI-2

U:'IIIT UT2 TIIE PROPAGATION OF SOUl\'D

Ruane & 11

T P O'Ne/11

THE PROPAGAT ION OF SOUND

~OTES

to

THE ULTRASONIC BEAM

beam edg.c:

dcnd z.one

-r-

~.Judf a.~n:~e or c1i."CJ.~e~ce

..:-:-.~
. .... . .

,.1-+---__,.-.~

1-f------1----------------+beantocnlt~

( 100% i1Ueusily)
crystal
n~r1..one

!Jeam cdl~
(09G,. iMensuy)

30

The dcad zonc

40

Secn on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse, the dead 1.one s the ringing time
of thc cystal and is mininsod by tlte dampiug mediurn hehiud the crystal. l'lnws or
other reflcctos, lying in lhc dead zone region of lhe bc.1m will not be detecte<!. The
dead zone can be sccn at thc start of the trace on a CRT displaying A-sean, but only
with single crystal probcs.

Tbc dcad zonc increascs wbcn the probe frequcncy decrcases.

The nCaJ or freso el zone

so

In this region of thc bcam, lhe sound imensily is variable owing ro wavc interfc1encc.
tbercfore, rellcctors or flaws ly ing in rbis zoue may appear smnlle r or Jugc r tltan their
actual size. Thc signa! heig hts displayed on tltc CRT are unpredictablc so it is
dcsirable to keep thc ncar zonc lengtb to a mnimum.
Thc ncar li:Onc lenglh can be calculated u.sing dtc following fo,-mula:

D2

.J Ncnr zoue lcngtb (mm) - -

\Vb.erc:

10

D2

or .:::..._:.:....:..
4

Cl)'stal diameter (mm)

l. a wavclcngdt (mm)
f probe frequeucy (Hz)
v test material velocily (nunfs)

lt can be seen frotu tbe formula Umllhc near zone can be dccrcased by decreasing lhc
crystal diametcr or decreasing thc probe frequcncy.

The far or frallOhoffer zone

so

Beyond tite ncar zone the f.1r r.one exists. In thc far zonc d\e be>lm dive rges resulting
in a decay in sowtd intcnsity as the distance from tbe crystal is increascd, jusi as a
beam of ligbt rrom a torch gets wcaker the further l trnvels.

Thc a mount of beam divergence rlepencls upon the crystal size and thc wavclc ngrb as
shown in tbe following formula:
/
KA.
Kxv
./SinO=or
D
D x f
Whec:

Kfacwr.'.:
E.xtn.m~ (()% ilfttnsty) ~dgt

5in Ctl~d6 d8 0.$6

! ()% f't(t!;cd20 d8 .. 1.08

o
K
1.

1.21

the hal f nng le

a constan!

wavclength (mm)

crystal dio meter (n\m)

probc frequency (llz)
matctial vclocity (mmis)

100

t t t - . t r,. o~dll
b>\lt.f 06.'1Hfti)

UT2-1

UNIT UT2 THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND

Ruano & 11
T P O'Nollf

'C>Tf.S

10

lt roay be seen from tlle abo ve beam spread fommla, drat tlle beam divergencc can be
dccreased by io<:reasing thc crystal diameter or by incrcasing the probe frequency.
Unfortunalcly this will cxtcnd tbe lengtll of tlle near zoue. So in probe design there is a
compromise to obtain a minirnal beam spread and a sbort near zone.
beam extreme edge

0% inlcnsily
10% irucnsity edgc

half anglc
20
bctun centre 100% in1cnsity

50% intensity edge

ccystaJ
be.aru extreme cdgc

30

In the far 7..cme of tl1c ultrosonic beam tbere is no ~-ave interference lhcrefore the SOtiOd
intensity in Ibis zonc is prcdictable.

40

Tbe sound intcnsity reduces from 1000/o in dre centre to 0% at tbe edge of thc bcam ,
therefore wben the centre of the beam bits a reflectoriflaw thc amplitude of the signa]
on tbc CRT will be at its maximum.
The sound inlcnsity w ill also dccrease with a g reater distancc ( in lhc mnc axis) lo a
reflector or flaw.

so

In the far zone thc amplitudes of rcflccted sound from large and small rcflcclors follow
)!iffereot laws.
(j:,ARGE REFLECTOR$ ( largcr than thc width of tbe ultrasonic bcam) fo llow the
lNVERSE LA W T he nmplitllde is inversely proportionnl to thc disronce, i.e. if thc
distance is doublcd thcn the signa! amplilude is balved (i.e ... reduccd by 6dl3).

60

SMALL REFLECTOR$ (smallcr than the \\-idth of the beam) follow thc lNVERSE
SQUARE LA W . Tbc amplitude is invcrscly proportional to the square of the distancc,
i.e. if the distance is dOttbled then lhc amplitud!:._ from lhe sccond reflector is one
quarter of dre amplitudc ofthe nearer (12dB less)/
J..a:rge reOectors

Small rclltctors

70

Dl

DI

02
80

...

90

.....
.... ....
.. .. . .. . .. .

.
..

..

Al

'

'
:

100

'

'

..

. ,

.. .. . ......

~'2

1\2

JU

1)2

x Al

tQ

OJ

1)4$739

112

Pi

tn'

10

X AJ

~ IU!~o~a~ .t. 'r F Q'Nt iU

ltwoe 4 Olio'O iit:J

UT22

UNIT UT2 TH E PROPAGATION OF SOUND

Ruano & 11
T PO 'No/l/

S m ELOBES
Side Jebes are secondary lobcs
10

20

10 the primary ultrasonic beam or mai11 lobt! lhat are

fom>ed at the face of a trart~dueer and radiate away from the main lobe. They
reprcscnt areas of high aod low acouslic inlensities and may cause unwanlcd echoes 10
be receivcd by the probe, especinlly on rough surfaces, which may be mrstaken for
flaws on the CRT.

For shear wave probcs, Che rninimum refractcd bcam angle in slccl IS approxmmlcl'
33 to 35'\ bul at thesc rclalivcl)r acule tlllgles, side Jobcs may be n.mncd which,
altllough usually negligibJe, Ulfl}' cnusc spurious ind icatons on Che CR'f. For 1his
reason jt is \iSuaJJy safcr to scc lhe minimtnn benrn angJc for she.:;u wav~.: probcs 1n stecl
al40''.

[; oarrower the ntain lobc, i.c. lhc smaller the half-anglc of thc beam, tho wcakcr and
more numerous the side lobcY
secondary
<ide lobeS

JO

pri rnary bca m

orrn31n lobe

crystal

40

Tlm UI.TRASONIC PULSE

so

60

70

<;.;.. rnodem ultrason ic pulse echo flaw detector the >ulse of uhmsound is crcatcd by

charging a capacilor in thc circuitry tben suddenly rclcasing Ibis ciJarge of clcctrical
cnergy, about !Kv lo 2Kv, into thc pro~ Tltis electrical cncrgy is converted mio a
mechanical vibration by the piczo clcctric crystal in tbe probc. The ullrasonic
vibralions are formed by the collapse of lhc crystal afler the e leclncal cncrgy has been
removed. "lbc behaviom of tbc crystal, on collapse, can be likened to thc behaviour of
a spring wheo l is strctched lhen rclcased. Tite spring will renrrn 10 ils formcr shape
then shorten then strclch, etc., unlil il tinally comes lo resl in its origmal shape. 111is
cyclc of expansioo aod contraction is what fom>s rl.>e uhrasonic pulse.

Maxim.um

expal\51011

80

Maxirnum
contn\clion
90

100

trn-3

Ui'\IT UT2 THE PROPAGATIOi'\ OF SOUi'\D

Ruane & 11
TPO'Nei/1
:\'OTES

Pulse lengtb
10

This lcngth of pulse is unacceptable sil1ce in order to show separa te, tear rel1ccted
signals on the CRT then the pulses of sout\d must be short aud sharp. (!2 sborten the
pulses the ultrasonic crystal must be dampcd with a backillg medinm which absorbs thc
sound euergy (in mucb same way as a shock absorber fit1ed to a spring on a motor
\'chicle dampens the vibratiou of ihe suspeusion). In tbis way the pulse length can be
rcduced tn hetween 3 anct S cyc~
on.e cycl.e

20

Dampcd pulse

Amplitude
30

'Dle ideal pulse leogth would be approximately two cycles but such levels of darnping
are d iffic ult to achieve with conveutional backing mediums and conunercially
available crystals.
>AMPlNG, then controls PULSE LENGTH (!he numbcr of cycles x waveleugt0>
50

T he other factor that conln)(S pulse length is probc frequcncy. (.'The higher the
frequency the shorter the wavelengtb, i.e. the -lengdr of ea eh cycle in tl1c pulse and
bence thc shorter tle pulse lengt~ontaining tl1e same number of cycles).
PULSE LENGTH controls RESOLUTION.

70

so

90

lOO

Q Ru~l'lt & T
1>~.<11(

..

r O'Nclu

0~.'{11103

UT2-4

UXIT UT2 THE PROPAGATIOI\' OF SOUl'ID

Ruane & 11
T P O 'Nei/1

~IJTION

:\OTE S

10

Resolution ts
abilily to scparate on lite tnnebasc two or more rellec1ors that are
close togcO>er in renns of beam palh lcngth.
Consider two reOcclors w ithin the beam with n beam path, lcng1h, differcnce of Jmm.
lf the pulse leng1h wtlS greoter than Juun thcn the signals tlcm> the two rcf1cccors
would be contained within thc same envelope, as in (a). lf thc >ulsc lcng1h wos lcss
tban 3mm thcn, in practica( cerms, thc signnls would be separatcd. as in (b).

20

-.
' .. . ..

.:

. .

.. ..

30

..

..

. - .. .

-:

..

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 & 9 10

.: .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 & 9 10

(b)

(a)

Tbe above thcrefore demonstrates lhat lhc shorter tbe pulse lcngth, lhe bencr the

resolution.

so
Noft P.l!.F. is sMH!timt

MI/M,;..-.....,..,..,.
60

70

P ULSE REI'ETITION FREQUENCY (P .R.F.)

Thc pulse repetilion frcqucncy (p.r.f.) or pulse repetition rnte (p.r.r.) is tbc number of
pulses of ultrasonic energy that !cave lhc probe in a given time (usually per sccon<l).
@eh pulse of energy thnt leaves the probe must return before the ncx1 pulse,Jeaves
otl1erwise the collidc causing "ghost" or spudous echocs 10 nppear on thc CR~ The
time takcn for the pulse to trnvcl fiom the probc flnd rerurn is kno\vn as the " nsiL ti1nc.
Thc time bctween pulses leaving thc probc is known as tbe cloek..inti:Jval. ' ercro,c it
can be statcd that lhe transit time musl be shorter th31l-ilic cloek interval or ghosting
occu!Y Prnctically speaking tbe clock inu:rval should be around five times the cransit
tune.

-TRANSITTJ ME( l:ec) ., DISTANCEmAVELLED(mm)

fS
VELOCJTY
/

CLOCK IN TERVAL (sec)- -.,...,.,....:.,----:P.R.F.(MHz)

CLOCK JNTER VAl. :

Minimum ~ TRANSIT TIME
Prncttcal - 5 x TRAI'\$1111:<.-IE

80

100

O b ~ T P ()'f!MII
bPI(' 4 fli."OIIO)

lj'('2-5

U:\'IT UT2 TIIE PROPAGATION OF SOUND

Ruane & 11
T PO'Nei/1

M O DES OF l'ROI'ACA TTON

lO
1\'ore: C'omprt$Si()n

wtv(~

Prohcs that produce compl'ession waves will normally huve nn incident and cefraclcd

angle of, ore lose lo, o.

11rc pmduced in Sleel ifJIJC

UJCidt!nt ar1.~fe

nf tl!e benm

Compression or longitudinal waves

in

x:rs~i.;c ts ,:13.

thm;
UP/)I'OX.imatcly 17.4' .

1bese W&\"'CS travel thou&h a medium

causing the patUclcs of d1e malttial m

10

oocillale pamllel lo the diroctiOil of ""''"

propagatioo1and ooosisoof Allem:ll<

compression and dilation prcs!.1.1re waves.

tt

o o 0())0 o o o o

t t

30

Din:.ctiOil'Clf(JII11iCI!-

comprer.,<:J.oo

.. dii:Ui(l(l (ttu:CfiX(i.O!l)

vibfation

Compn:ssivc vclocily in stecl

~ ~

59GO mis

Compression "'aves cun propag-dte

througb solids, liqulds nnd J:o'lSH since

t .,t

rig:id partide. bouding (a condition that

only tx.ists in solids) is not <ssenlinl.

Ditution of ~

Shcar or transverse wavcs

so
Particles vlhrate flt 90 to lhc direclion of
propagation and ha ve a whip like action

Nmt' SJ:t(Jr 'Ot.' t'$ <mly c.rf'!

produced ,. neet iftht
l~ldml tDtg/e o{lke ~ClN lt
t><np<X IJ boef,...,.
npproxim41dy 111'" OKd .16.

00

Shear velocily in SICCI = 3240 mis

'
Oi.n::crionof -~r:

SJ1ear waves con onJy propagatc in soJids,

rigid part ele bondiug !Jeiog a p re-tequisitc.

patticle vibnttion

70

01ttJCtion af
pr~

80

IX = l ncidcnl anglc

90

100

OMP"II:TI' O'Pitill

........ .. "'-"'lJU

UT 2-6

t:l\\IT VT2 THE PROPAGATI0;\1 OF SOUl\\D

Ruane & 11
T P O'Ne/1

UOUNDAllY W AVES
n,.se fol'tns of pro>agation can only occur wben a solid togas interface is prcsem. lf
the objects wcrc immersed, tbese rnodcs would be fnlly attcnuated.
10

Surface or rayleigh wavcs

Surface waves are formed whcn s hear wavcs rcfract to 90". Thc whip-like particlc
vibratio n of the shcar wave is convcrtcd intn Hl elliptical motion by the parliclcs
changing diection at d1e interface witlt the surfucc.

20

These wavcs are t\Ol oflen uscd in industnal N.D.T. alti\Ough thcy do havc sorne
applications in thc aerospace industry. Their mode of propagation is clliptical along
lhe surface of a material, pcncrmting to a dcptl of one wavclcngth. TI1ey ";11 follow
the contour of a s\ll'face and thcy travel nt npproximately 90% tl1c velocity of shca l'

wa.ves.
30

Direction of propagation

,.

Dcpth of
penetr:uion
(one wavclength)

40

\Vbere sharp cbanges in contom occur, such as a comer edgc, reOected energy will
returo 10 !he probe.

Platc or l:unb wavcs

50

Plate wavcs nre fonned by thc introduction of surlce waves inlo 1hin plate rrmtcrinl.
They are a combination of comprcssion and surfacc or shear and surtace wavc~
causing thc pinte material to nex by totally saturnting tbe material.
1berc are two rypes of platc waves:

6()

Synuuctrical

plate waves

iJ lJ lJ lJ lJ lJ lJ lJ )
~

U U 'Q 'Q, U U
-}

70

~>

-<- > ~
'Q 'Q, )

Suornce wavc
(Longitudinal wave)
Surface wave

-}

Platc disronion

80
(Shcar wnve)

< Su nace w.we

90

PJate distortion

100

ObaM&TrO',dill
I)'JIIIC .. 06.'01.'0)

U1'27

UNIT UT2 TIIE

Ruene & 11
T P O'Nei/1

I'ROPAGATIO~

OF SOUND

'HlT f. S

FACI'ORS AFFECI'ING TtiE PROPAGATION OF ULTRASOUNO

1M groms ~~~
rarsdom 111 orit:ntOIO#t aNI 10
Mrc ,_f!ucnt dMtlc
propertics ln diffrt'nt
1 Al(isotropk;

direction.f.

20

30

The propagaoo of ultrasonic wavcs in a material is dependan! on thc denStly and

elastic properties of that material and the type of wave transmitted.
The practica! considerations which will affcct propagatioo will include:

the testmatel'ial's graiu sizc

atteouation (absorptiou and scauer <>ffects)

acoustic iJ.opedaoce of lhe (OSI mAterial

characterisc impedance of inclusions

d iffi:action

lack of homogcncity

aoisotropic' matcrials

A C OUSTlC L\1PEOANCE
/Acoustic impedancc (Z) is the rcsistance-ofa material to the passage ofuhnsound. IC
ls the product ofthe material dcnsity (p) and sound velocity (v)j

Note: VrJrx:it)' i, sometlmes

dct~otcrl by

tlltt !f:tre.r 'r'

(con#tml vd()("lf)')

i.e. Z = pv

so

rt is the acoustic impcdancc d iffcrcncc bCPNeeJ\ t\VO different makrinls/mccliums which

govems the intensity of u l tr~sound rcflcctcd ftom the imerfncc bctwccn thcm.
Conve rsely, th e :m)OtJOt ofuHrnSOtllld passing fro m onc material to aoot11er dcpC11ds on
this diffcrencc bctwccn thc two materinls. This d ifference is exprcsscd as the ncoustlc
imped.ance ratio.

60

Theoretically if an ultrasonic wavc was passed through two macerials, with thc same
acoustic impedance (1:1 ratio), in intimatc contact, tbenno reflection would occur, i.c.
100% tr.msmission of sound would occur. In practice it is very difficuh to achicvc
intimatc contact ,.;tbout a coupling medium (see next section). Thc couplant would
have a diffcrcnt acoostic impcdance to tbe material and so would affcct the amount of
sound reflected.
The amount of energy rcOccted at an interface can be calculated with thc following
formula:

70

Zl 22

=
1-V. Reflected en erov
"" ( Z l + Z2

)l

Where Zl aud 22 nre thc

X

100

respective acouscic
impcdanccs of the two
matcrials.

so
lt can be seeo from the formula that:

HIGH ACOUSTIC fJI,IPEDANCE RATIO (c.g. 2(): 1) = MORE REFLEC r EO I;NIJRCY

LOW ACOUSTIC IMI'EDANCB RATIO (e.g. 1:1)

90

=MORE TRANSMITTEO I;NtlRGY

It can also be sccn from thc formula that the same amount of energy s rcflcctcd,
regardless of which direction O>c soond is travelling across the >terface.

100

O Roo:u.e & T P ()!'icill

1~10'4

(l(jt'OI>'UJ

UT2-8

UNIT UT2 THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1
~OTF-S

COUPLANT
Note: 11Je id'eM acoustic

10

impedtmce of coupltmt
slumM be,, betwctJ< the
(JCCusllc im.oedm!CC oftl:c

pMbe tmd rhe uco,tStic

impedtmce of;_IJe rest
m<rtt'IMf. n,e de{l/thi<:.~uess

o[tl:e !rrycr t>fCO!tplnnl

,\kou!d be mre fjltnreT of t11c20
w{wc!englil oj~utmd !hroug/;
il.

Some recem!Jl dewrloped

u!trr..stmir: :;ys;ems use 110
cuuplt:m, t11ese are ktwwn as
olr cou>IC:<l $)'Jin1S uml :h(l)jO
LSe \'Cry: JXMCrfit!
IWtpfi!C(IIiQII tmd SCil~'ilhe
receiwul circuilr}~

40

Because of the very high acoustic impcdancc ratio of air to a solid material ahnost
100% of tbe euergy is reflected at an interface betweeo tbem (rhe basis of flaw
dctection). Thercfore to enable the sound energy to transmit more readily into thc test
specimen we bave to excludc any a ir that may be p resem beewcen lhe probe and rest
surface. This is achieved by substituting thc air with a material 11tat has a closer
aconstic impcdance ratio to tlte probe and test material. This is kno\vn as a couplaut.
Comrnon couplanl are: water, o il, grease, polycell, swarfega and glyccrine.
Tbe selection of couplant is sometimes based ou tbe post-test use of thc material beiog
tested> e.g. watel' based cottplanrs may cause rusting or conos.ioo. but are easier to cJean
off in preparation for painting or coating v.hen cornparcd to oil or grease, wbich may
actually protect tbe material from corros ion.
Viscosity of the couplant may also be a consideration, ideal!y rough surfaces require a
more viscous coupla~lt to effectively fl the air gaps more unitbrmly. (\i;1;atever
conplant is uscd for g 1ibration/se.!tiQg_ tbe searcll sensitivity> (~!lusfoc- use.d
througltout the subsequem inspcc~
.

ATTENUATION
Attenuatiou is defined as Lhc loss in intensity of the ultrasonic beam as it passcs
through a material and is dependan! u pon !he physical properties of the material.
The two main causes ofattenuation are SCATfER and ABSORPTION

50

Scatter
This is the major cause of attenuation and is the redirection of thc sound waves
rdlecting off g rain boundaries, porosity and non-metallic i.nclusions>ere., aud bccomcs
more apparem on the irtspection when thc sizc of grains beco me of tbe waveleugth of
the searcb tlllt being employed.

60

Absorption
As the sound tra\'els through a material a srnall amo<mt of thc cnergy is used up by the
i.oteraction of the particles, as they vibrare, causiug friction which is dissipated as heat.

As the frequeocy of the souud is increased che attenuacion incrcases duc to more
70

so

particle " ibration (absorption) and increased seusitivity to small reflectors (scatrer from
graiu bO\llldaries, porosily and inclusions:) which is rclated to the wavelength of tbe
sound.
Materials sucb as casrings aud austenitic srainless s tecl are highly attenuative due to
their coarse grain stnlCtlll'es, etc. The attenuation factor of a material can be measurcd
aod is expressed io dllimm (see the appeudices for an exarnple).
Natural atteuuation also occurs due to the divergence of thc bcam in the lar mne,
i.e. assumiog compression probe use, the amplilllde of the bllckwall echo will be
halvcd (-6dB} evcry time the distaoce from the probe is doubled.

100

t> R11 ~nt & 1' P o Nll

l:<:<u.- 4 Ob/01.'0)

OT2-9

UNIT UT2 THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND

Ruane & 11
T PO'Nei/1
1\0TES

THE DECffiEL (DB)

10

The decibel is a logarithm.ic base unit used to compare sound intensilies.

Because we do not know the acrual energy being transmilted by a probc, we can only
cmnpare sound inteusities being reccivcd and express them as a ratio, e.g. l \Vice as

much, ten times as nluch etc ..

20

A change itl souJJd intensity, expressed in dB, can be measured by cornparing signa!
heights on a calibratcd CRT. TI1e change in ciD is givcn by thc foonula:
dB = 20 log 10

30

Hl

Whcrc H 1and H2 are the respective signa! heights.

H2

By rransposing thc formula it is possible to determine the rati<l of the sigual heights
wben the dB differencc is known.
TI1e gaiu.iattennator controls on a conventional u.ltrasouic flaw detector are calibrated
in decibels, i.e . ifwe reduce the intensity of ultrasoUJJd by 6dB any signa! on the CRT.
will drop t<>halfits original height. Ifwe reduce or incrcase the iutensity by 20dB then
!he s igna! will reduce toa teotb or increase by ten times ill> original height respectively.

lO

lt is importan! to note that on certaio. flaw detectors, if rcjcct or suppression is used to

remove smallunwantcd signals trom tbe display, then the lincarity of tl1e amplifer,
and hence the other signals, will be advcrsely aiiected, i.e. a 6dB drop will not reduce
thc s igna) by 50%.
Table of approximate dB drops:

50

dB

H2

Drop

Hl:H2 ratio

20

10%
20%
25%
33%
50%
80%

90%
80%
75%
67%
50%
20%

10:1
5:1
4:1
3:1
2:1
5:4

14

12

10

6
2

70

80

100

~ nuill1t &

'f r O'Nem

lu:uc 4 t&ll:IJ/0:'1

UT2-JO

Ul'\I T UT3 SOUND GENERATI Ol'\

Ruano & JI

T P O'Nelll

SOUND GENERATION

T:HE PIEZO ELECfRlC EFFECT

10

T his is defined as tbc property of cel1llin crysaals lo conven electrical energy into
mechnnical cnergy nnd vice versa. Tllesc crystals maybe natura lly occurritl.g,

arrilicially manufaclured or grown in solution.

20

... .. .

saund)' .
1 f ' 1 ' i

1 1

..-.-..-.i>: .

Electrical cnergy in ._

waves
::::::

--?
~~----

----~~

Electrical energy out

Piczo clectl'ic crystals

These cry,;tals may be X-cut or YCUI dependiug on whicll orientation ll>ey are sliced,
f rom thc crystal material. The crystals used in ultrasonic testing are Xcut due to d>e
mode ofvibration they produce (comprcssiono.l). Tllis means that thc crystal is sliced
with its m(\jor plane (the crystal face} perpendicular to t:be X axis of tbe crystal
material.

40

Typlcal crystal
lnyouf

so

Gold silver C<ll\ductCX"' (silvering)

rein(o;ced with chrome fot' wear re:oistmcc

60

The frcquency of tbe crystal is detcrmincd by its lhickncss and its acoustical velocity
and can be calculated with the formula:
70

Ff='
2t

~""here

'

Ff
V
T

~undamcma1

frcquency

Cl')-'51.11 n1:11erial vclochy

Crys<alllc:lcnm

Prom 1J1e formula cnn be

seen Jbat Ute thinner lbe
crystal, thc highcr che
frequcocy.

80

Piezo clectric crystal mnterials

Natural

Artificially grown

90

Quarlz Tourmalinc

Lithium Sulphate (LiSO,)

i\1auufaclured cera mies

Bnrium TilaMle (&TO,}

tend Zirconnle (l'bZrO,}
Lead Zitconate 'ritanatc (PZT}
Lend Meraniobatc (l'bNb,O,)

100

~ ktlltll~

)$$lit

& T,. O'Stnl

06,'01/tJJ

U1'3-l

UNIT UT3 SOUND GENERATION

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nel/1
'i O T f. S

Propertics of piezo clcciTic matcrials

10

Advautages

C.ystal mater ial

Stable
Good wear resistance
Best received and easily
dam ed
Best transmitter and good
piezo electric properties
May be prefonned to focus

Quartz

17ul' lumunioru ofHtOdN'n

ccramfc crpstol mfllerinl.f nre
tluu thcy hnve low

L ithium sulpbnte

mci:hnm'cnl ~trcngtl:, l. e, rhey

mc brlllle, nnd ti:C) lto~ n
teJUkn<y lO <>ge- TM
20
adw:ntnge ko'l-t:cl=t!rll t/r(tf

Barium Ti tanate

thty nre cxceltc.nt gtmern~ors

Limitations
electric
Soluble in wa te r

Temperature critica!

beam

ofulmuoumL

Lead Zirconatc
10

11t< Otrie !etperGJNI't: for

/OQCro l20"C. oltiiOI.gh the

qlr.cuic pruterries oAo
Bl:rltmt 'riUl!UUc wll stnrt co

p/cu~

dtgrude mt~mperowru of
71rC m:d atxr.e.
Tlte primmy reosm: .flfllldrd

on mnterials abQ'.'C $0C is

butut oftkc pt:lfsiblluy 50
of tkgrodaJiOit ofthc <ryrta/.
771e Jo'CC()nd(:l)' t'COSOJI ls due
to tltc Jr<Jl>e shoc
cJumrtltnstics begbm(Jig to
c.hMge. altl!riRg ~locify or.d
thct<for< thc b<- Gt<t;f
Jhrnr um:e pro/Jcl'

cry(?

In their natural state Ute polycrystallute ceramic material's

are randomly
o rientatcd aud the piezo electric properties cancel each othct out. To polarise thesc
ceramics tbey are heatcd up to their Curie tempemture and subjected to an clecrrostatic
lielc\11>c crystals align themselves with tbe direction of the ficld, whicb is maintained
duru{g cooling. Tbis polarised ceramic material then behaves as a piczo electric
/ ,
transducer uutil heated again to it's Curie ternpemture. fto_'T; 11 ,
1

probcs nre 1101 usrfldly u.sed

Poor silvering

Tbe polarisation of ceramics

8oritlfr. 'numere lt oround

()lt

transmitter aud all

row1d >l'O>erties

Lead Zirconate Titana te

60

:,~)(Jculnr: :\1it'I'Qt'-llkc

The most conunon crysrnl materials in use are Barium Tiro.nntc and Lcad Zirconatc
Titaoate.

REFLECTION, REF.RACTlON

& SNELL'S LAW

trason.ic wnves are reflectcd by objects or interf~ces placed in their pnth. When
striking a speeular' reflector the anglc at which this reflection takcs place is govemed
by tbe law of reflection, which states:

70

This escribes what bappcns to an ultrasonic beam when it passes from one medium to
aootber wbcre tbe 1\\'0 media have differett acoustical velocities, e.g. from pcrspcx to
steel. The bcam changes dircction or angle in tbe vertical plane.
Incldent angle

so

(a)

Jnc:ident ilngJe
(a)

90

1Re!r:tcted suond (

1 ncnccted souud 1

Rcfmctcd ooglc
(1\)

100

o n unt & 1' P o Nclll

IA411f .& llf$.'UVOJ

UT3-2

Ul'iiT UT3 SOUND GENERATION

Ruane & /1
T PO'Nel/1

SncU's Jaw

:'1 O 1 1' S

The relationship bet\veen the ineident angle and refracted angles is govemed by Snelrs
law tbat states:
IO

Sin a
Vi
--=S in ,O
V2

Where: a

,o

VI
V2

---

incident angle
refracted angle
velocity in medium 1
velocity in medium 2

20

MODE CONVERSIO!\

30

40

so

A change in wave- foon from one to anotber, together wid1 the accompanying change
in velocity, du~ reflectiou or refraction al an interface. An cxample of mode
conversion tba we make use of is when tl1e compression wave, gencraled by the
crystnl in a shcur ave probc's perspex shoe, crosses an interface betweeu thc shoe and
o stccl test piece nnd converts to ~ shcar wave~
Another example of mode ciJange that we do no1 want to occur, c.g. sltear waves
changing 10 compression waves. This occurs fairly regularly wheu carrying out a
crilical root sean on a single v fully penetraled weld with a sbcar wave probc. i.c(Some
of rhe ultrasouncl enrering the root bead can be refle<:ted vert ically up to d1c we[d cap
and if a criticnl angle is excccded, tlle wave mode will change fro rn shear to
compressio;) Accordingly oo its retum path to lhe probe, tbe received spurious signa!
displayed oo tbe time base wiJI represcnt an indication that appear$ to plot on fu// skip
just outsidc the weld side wall on rhe opposite side from tbe sc3tming surface.

Thc operator however will nor be able to con lirm this from thc opposite s iele of the
weld on half skip w hich, if it hnd been an actual flaw, be would ha ve expected to do
so. As dtis typc of mode changc/spurious indication gives a fairly cbaracteristic signa!
display, an experieneed opern1or would be expected 10 intcrprel this effect falfly easily.
l t is also possiblc rhough that mode convcrsions and!or spul'ious indicalions can be
rnisinterpreted asjlnws, particularly ifnot iuvesligated caref\111y.

D IFFR-.\CTJOi\"

70

1i1is occurs when sound wavcs pass the tip of a narrow reflcclor. Some of lhc sound
scatters off thc tip causing wavcs in different dircctioos dtat reinforce or cancel o ut the
original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity wavcs radintins out
from tbe ps, giving tbe inlpression of soond beoding around the edges of tbe defect.

:\:t /' ~ Diffracted eoergy

80

Sound waves

__. ~:s:: _,
. . . -t4>

/.-}~

90

lOO

e tt~~~~,. r r O'l"dll
b'w~ ..

ll.'fl l ll).l

UT3-3

UNIT UTJ SOUND GENERATI ON

Ruane & 11
T PO'Ne/11
1\()lf. S

10

Calculntiou of tbc critica! angles for n perspcx to steel interface.

et incident anglc
J3 = tefracred anglo
v l compressional velocity in perspex = 2740 mis
v2 - velocity in stccl,

compressional= 5960 mis

sbear 3240 mis

1st uillcal ang1e:

20

sm p

.
=vi
- x
Sma
v2c

Sina =

2740 mis
5960 mis

Sin

<)()"

Sin a = 0.459731543 x 1

a = 27.4
2nd crilical ang1e:

.
= -v i
Sma

v2s

sm fJ

Sina

2740 mis

3240 mis

x Sin 90

40

Sina

=0.845679012

x 1

a = 57.7
50

At Lhc first critica! angle comprcss ion and shear waves co-cx ist, so lhe lowest anglc for
sbear wnvcs only in practica! use, is just beyond lhe fust critica! anglo, atan incident
angle of 29, which gives a refracted shear angle of35".

S.lll p

=v2s
-X

vl

sln (l

Sin fJ =

3240 m/s
x Sin 29"
2740 mis

60

Sina

=1.182481752

x 0.4848096

a= 35"
70

At the second critica! anglc surface waves exis l so the hig hcst incident angle wo use for
shear waves is 56" that g ives an so sbear wave.
So lhe range of shear wave probe angles in sreel (for practica! purposes) are 35" to 80,
produced from inciden! ang1es of29to 56 in perspex.

80

90

,,
100

C> b.lt k T P

O''

Wut 06.'11/Q

UT3-5

UN IT UT4 EQt:IPl\IENT

Ruane & JI
T P O'No/1

EQUIPMENT

~on:s

10

2()

Tite angle of a probe used in ultrasonic testing is measurcd fTom a line drawn
perpendicular lo lhc test surface. This linc is known as tbc normal. A o probe thcn is
one which transmits sound at 90 to the test surface. Also k.nown as a normol probe,
this probe usually transm irs compressionnl or longitndinul wnves. A 60 angle probe
would transnrit sound nt 60c ro the oormnl, i.e. 30 from tbe surface. Tbc most
common angle probes tr:lnsmit shear waves (although anglcd compression probes do
exist for special applications) and tbe manufacturers quote the angle of the probe for
use on mild steel.

0 combined d oublc* probe

" May also be rcfern:tl tt) C$.

1'\1.[11 Cl)st<lf probe.

P RO BES

JO

Oouble probcs have two crysrals, one transmits and the oUtcr receives ultrasound. The
Elo~,ric.>l connections

Back:ing
mcdium

40

Co(k separa tos

50

1 Deml zone: RIJJgl11g time 60

ofcry.sw!.

Pcrspex
cork separator in betwecn tbe sboes prcvents "cross-talk or "chatter" betwecn the
crystals. Using oil as a couplant may evenrually break down the acoustic barrier and
produce spudous standing echoes 011 the display. Having separate crystals eliminales
the dead zone' on tlte display, enabling thc detection of ucar-surface. defects. 11>cse
probcs are tberefore uscful for testiug thin sections, e.g. tlckness gauging and
exaurining for uear surface flaws. 11te crystals may be focuscd to give a focal point at
lhc ideal beam palh range to be exarnined.

Siuglc crystal auglc pro be

70

Electrical connection

Casing
Damping

80

lndex point

Perspcx shoe

90

100

Single crystal probes hu ve onc crystal that trnnsmits and reccivcs ultrasotmd. Thc flaw
detector controls tbe process by transmiuing a pulse of energy then switcbing lhe
circuit 10 rcccive, Jistening for any returning sound, in between pulses. Thc cireuitry
can be switchcd quicker !han the cryst.tl can be damped. So tl1e receiver ptcks up the
last fcw vibratious of tlle crystal, as ir switches in, and displays thciu on the screcn as
tlte dcad zone. This eliminares tbe possibi lity of dctectin neo r-surface dcfccts.

1:,__aTP0't\dlf
SUtl4 06.'01/1)

UT4-1

UNIT UT4 EQUIPJ\'IENT

Ruane & h"

T PO'Neil
NOTES

JO

A.ngle probes llave a perspex shoe, on which the crystal sits, that can be machincd to
any angle. Tbe angle of U>e wedge detemtines the angle that the ulrrasound strikes the
interface (iocident angle). Tilis in tum, according to Snell's law, controls the augle that
rhc sound will propagate through thc test material (refracted augle). Damping material
on ilie back of the crystal (also kuown as a backing slug) controls tl1e length of the
ultrasonic pulses by absorbing tl1e sound energy, produciog short sharp pulses. The
Jengtb of the pulse is tl1e maiu factor in determining the resolution of the equipment.
The most common damping/backiog medium is Tungsteu Araldite.

SHORT PULSE LENGTH/ WJD'n-1/DURATJON MEA>lS GOOD RESOLUTION.

20

Soft nosed probe

30

ring

40

Soft diaphragm

Couplant

so

This has a son diaphragm mounted on rhe front of the crysral, clamped in place by a
U>readed ring, ilie space in betweeu the diaphragm and the crystal being filled wirh
couplant to expel any a ir. Tbe son diaphragm follows thc conrour of thc surface under
test. makjng this probe ideal for rough or uneveo suJfaces, e.g. casti.ngs or rough
machined components.

Water gap or gap scanni.ng probe

Electrical
connection.

70
~ater

acrs as

couplant
80
v

Test material

Sound path

90

TIIis consists of a water jacket with a ll07..zle at 01e end anda probe insidc. Water is fed
into th.e jacket and flows out through thc nozzle, forming a column of water, to thc test
surface, through which thc sound can travel. Because of the flexibility of the collpling
medium, (water) the probe can be uscd on rough or uncvcn surfaces. 11Jese probes

are usually uscd in automated ultrasonic scanning systems and

call

be set up, using a

guide wheel to follow ilie contour of a componen!. Thcy can also be usedin arrays to

sean a wider area.

lOO

O Ruant & T J> O"NtiiJ

bsut 4 O-0110)

UT4-2

UNIT UT4 EQU I P:\I ENT

Ruane & JI
TP O'Neill
~

Whccl typ e probe

01 ES

10

Spring loadcd
Soft tyre, sol id
oc warer filled

CrysUII (wilhin axle)

v
Test sttrfacc
Sound path

40

In this probc the crystal is within the axle of the wheel a1,1d the sound travels through
the soft tyre into d1e test material. The spring loaded joint allows thc probe to follow
the contour ofthe snrfacc so it can be uscd on rough or uneven surfaccs. lt is uscd in
a similar way to the water gap probe. The main advantage of this type of probe is that
it removes the rcquirement of extcmally applied couplant, mainly used in aero.spnce
industries.

Dclay Jiu e probe

50

60

70

80

The delay line probe is very similar in coustmction to d1e soft nosed probe. The
difference is rhat it has a long perspcx shoe clamped in instcad of a diaplu:agm. '!'he
Jength of the shoe extcnds the time taken for ~1e echo from d1c Jlont surface, of the
material under test, to retum to U1e crystal. This places the front surface echo (FSE)
further along the timebnse, i.e. beyond the dead zone. l11is euables near surfncc
defects to be located or thln plate to be testee! using a single crystal probe. TI1ese
probes a.re usually higb frequcncy probes (which means they bave a small dcad ?lne),
but Jligh frcq uency = long near zone, derefore, to nse them for near surf.,cc flaw
detection/sizing, the long shoc is used to conta in the nene zonc in tite probe not in Lhe
test materiaL

100

C ltuat & TPO"ff-'tel

IA~IU:4 116.'111M)

UT4-3

UNIT UT4 F.QUIPMENT

Ruane& 11
T P O'Nefll

Nol t: s

Magnetostrictive transducers
10

20

Freqoeocy 100KHz

40

Used for de1ec1ing defecove bar stock, the transducer coi! has a magnetic field tbat is
switching at ultrasonic ftequency. This field c.auses Lhe bar stock 10 \'ibrate at an
ultr.lsouic frcqueucy and tbe vibrations trove! along tbe length of tbe bar. Wben Ute
vibratious reach tbe other end of the bar, they reflcct back and are then picked up by
tbe tr.lnsducer (in receive mO<!e) and register on the detector. The eqUlpmcnt tS
calibrated off a defect free piece ofbar stock 10 register a specific value on the detector
and defective bar stock is recognised by a chauge in this value.

so
PROBE FREQL'El'CY, BAJ\1)\VIDTR & DAMPil'G
T1te fretu.tnc)' Jttfled o.n rhc
probe ls ,tn~.,. tl$ ,he ccmral
opermingfnqutncy.
60
T1ti.s is rMFtll:t.~I'JCY of1he
htgst_ <l{,_dfrom
th.e prob<

An oltrasonic probe transmits sound at a range of frequencies, not ust at the stated
frequency, Ibis is known as the bandwidth. For example a SMHz probe may produce a
t(equeucy range of 4 to 6MHz. Tbe ba11dwidth is also un indication of the darllpillg
factor.

Broad Band Probcs

l'iarrow Band Probes

They are higbly damped

Ha ve a short pulse length
(rypieally 1 to 2 eyeles)

They ha ve low dampmg

A longcr pulse length
(rypically 3 or 4 cycles)

A shon ringing time (dead zonc)

Better resolvi n2 oower
Poor penetration

A long nnging ttme (dead zone)

Poor resolulion
Oood penetrauon

70

100

o kun.l a

T P O'Nt:ll

1uu.-4 06.0J<'OJ

UT4-4

Ul"IT UT4 EQUIPl\IENT

Ruane & 11
TP O'Nelll
'OTI S

PROBE SELECTION
10

The selcction of probes for uhrasonic inspection is influeneed by vanous aspects of the
test and the particular material under test. Thcse rnay include; the type ond srto of
defect being sottghl, the type of material under test and the disrance tbe sound has to
travelthrough tbe material. Probe anglc is anodler considerotion when searchin; for
defects nt diffcrcnt o1icmations tl.ll'oughoul the material.
Bclow is a table of properties of probes usi.ng the two c.nteria thnt wc can selcct,
i.e. f;equency aud diameter.

20

Effcct of frequency

JO

40

l.ow F1cquency

High l<'requcncy

Long wa vclength
More beom spread
Shorter near zone
Oottcr penetration
l..ess altenuation
Longer dead zone
Less sensitivity

Shon wavelength
Less beam spread
Longer near zone
Less penetra! ion
~1ore

nttenuation

Shorler dead zone

Highcr sensitivity

Effects ofDiameter
so

GO

70

so

00

Large Diametcr

Small Diamcter

Less beam spread

Longer near zone
Better penetrarion
Less attenuation ( dne lo be am spread)
Difficult coupling on curved surfaees
More coverage on llat surfaces

More beam spread

Shorter neaJ zone
Less penetration
.More attcnuntion

Easier coupling on curved surfaces

Less cover-~ge on nac surthccs

Anolho1 consideration is whethcr to use a s ingle ctystlll or a combined double crysral

probe. Tbe advantagcs of a single crystal probe are; bc!!cr penetration, for tbe same
size probe as a double, because rbe effective ttansntitter crystal diamcter is larger. no
focal point, i.e. it works effecrivcly over a longer rangc and cost (cbeaper). The lll3m
advantage of a double crystal probe, is that thcre is no dead zone on thc screen, this
meaus better ncnr surface rcsolution can be achieved.

Jt can be seen from the tablcs that higher frequency probes bave a higher sensitiv11y.
In Ibis contcxt, scnsitivity rcfers to the nbility to detcct small defcctl;. The higher the
probe frequency the smaller the wavelength and the srnaller rl1e si1.e of reflector 1he
probe can detect. JI is genera\ly nccepted thnt the smnllcst reflector a probc can
dctect ls balf the probe's wavelcngth. So a probe with n long wavelongth (low
frequency) will not detect small reflectors, such as small defects or grain boundaries
and so the sound will peneunte further tbrough the material because it is not rcneeted
at thcse small interfaces.

100

O M_, &; T

r O"Sdl

lmlf 4 06/l)lfll:l

UT4-5

UNIT UT4 EQUIPIVIENT

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1
NOTES

THE ULTRASO NI C FLA W DETECT OR ( FLOW )){AGRAM OF A

T YPICAL A SC.AN FLA'W DETECTOR

JO

20

Xplates

30

50

T he P ulse Geoeutor, aJso knovm. as 'the clock or timcr this circuit controls the
synchronisation of thc flaw detector. Jt send' an elecoical sigoal to the tim ebase
generator and to the pulse ttansmitrer simultaneously. These clectrical signal
frequencies are knowu as PRF!PRR (Pulse Repetition FrequcncyiPulsc Repetition
Rate). lt is usually controlled automatically by the range (coruse) control setting, !his
in tum ultimate) y controJs the maximum depth of inspection and the ultimate scaJuling
speed.
The Timebase gener ator or sweep generator, upon receiving the elcctrical signal from
the pulse generator this circuit controls tbe voltage or charge on the X-plates causing
thc clectton bcam in the cathode ray tubc to sweep across thc scrccn in a linear motion.

60

70

The pulse transmiUer or pulser circuit, thc elcctrical signal fro m the pulse gencrator
triggers tls circuit to seud a burst of electrical energ y, about 1 to 2Kv, to activate rhe
probe.
Tbe probe or search tmit, convcrts rhe electrical energy, senr by lhe pulse transmiucr,
into pulses of uhr aso\llld by means of a piezo electric crystal (Tx). The rel\lrning
ultrasound from the test material is converted back into electrical energy by the probe
( Rx) anrl sent to tlte amplifler.
T be receiver a mpllfler circuit accepts and amplifies the llC01uing electrical pulses.
The amplification requi.red is about JO,OOO to 100,000 times and thc output musr be
linear with the input The amplifier must also be capable of acceptu1g a range of
different freqllency signals to accommodate the range of probe freq11encies 11sed.

so

Broad band amplifiers accept a very wide array of freqoencies producing an accurate
representation of signal shape. This enhances defect inte.rpr etation ( type) but tlle sig nal
to noise ratio will be poor, so defect cletection m ay be adversely affected, i.e. a
reduction in sensitivity, bccause of high noisc (or grass) Jevels.

Narrow ba11d amplifiers, on tbe other hand, suppress lhe parts of tbc s ignal that are
o utside the frequency band that it operatcs al (the pass frequency). This creates a
cleaner signal (although no ta true representation ofhe input sig1al), which means d1at
the gain (amplification) can be increased which in turn enhauces defect detectability
(sensitivity). The disadvantage ofthis is that tbe alte.red shape of lhe s ignal means that
clefect interprctation is mo re difficnli.
100

'file AHen uator o r galn control reduces the amplification from the ampli fie r by
controlling the voltage or charge ou tbe Y-plates in tbe C.R.T., which will contr ol
signal heights, bringing them down lo a rcadable lcvel. The conrrols works on a
logarithmic base and it does nor affect the linearity of the amplifier.

O 1t11 nt & r 'P O'Ntlll

'JJSIIt . Ofo>'l)J/Ill

Ul'4-6

UNIT UT4 EQUIPl\IENT

Ruano & 11
TP O'No//1

'

NO I . 'S

10

20

JO

Suppressioo or reject reduces the grass or noise level on thc display by effectively
raising the time base, but in doing this it destroys amplifier linearity. Usually
reserved for taldog thickness measurements. Sorne modem digital flaw detectors have
a "linear reject'' fun<:tion which does not destroy amplifier linearity and shows the
amount of reject in use as a percentage of display height, e .g. 5001. rcjcct mdicates that
all signals below 50% scrccn height have been removed but d>e remaining signals are
still lhe same heigbt as before.

Tite Catlrode Ray Tube (C.R.T.) consists of a vacuwn tube wid> a positivcly charged
t>hosphorescent coating on tltc inside of tbe fl'ont surface, a cathodc ray gun at the
opposite eud, a focusiug coil and X-platcs and Y -plat.es to control thc dircction of thc
elcctron beam. 11te guu produces a shower of negatively cbarged elccuons thot are
attracted to thc posi tively charged coating on rile front of the tube. As che olcctrons
travel toward d>e front (meeting no resistance because of the vacuum), they pass
through th.e focusing coil which rocuscs the sbower into a single strcam (or beom).
They thcn pass betweeo the X and Y piares and are attracted toward any of thcse plates
that llave a positivc chargc or voltage applied. Tbis bends thc bcnm toward the
respective piare so defleeting the position that it hits the front surfacc or thc tube, i.e.
the screcn. When the eleetrons fmally reach lhe front surface tbey react with thc
phospborescent coating causing it to glow (green in most analoguc scts), producing a
dot on the screen,

Tbis dot is changed into signals purely by the deflcction of the beam by the X and Y
pi ates.

Phosphorcscem
conting

50

. . Electrnn beam. . . .
Vacuum ttlbe
Electrons
60

?O

so

90

100

.e Jtu .e &:-T r O't<o.dll

.luut 4 Oti.'lWOJ

U1'4-7

UNIT liT4 F.QUIPMENT

Ruane & 11
T P O'Ne/11

CALIBRATI0:'\1 BLOCKS AND TBEffi tSES

'\1 O T 1 S

to

Tolerances: Wberever practica! the lints on dimensions should be

0.1 mm.
Materials: Steel blocks are made from low or medium carbon fctritic steel (killed),
norrnalised to produce a fino ;rnined bomogenous structure duougbou1.

The international institute ofwelding (1. I.W.) block

17;~ cmnmt

Hririslt Sumrltml
{o tiJit u/mrsrmlc ccllbmtion
IJ/ock is OS EN 12223 uMr!.
refers :o U ''~' CollJnff()n
20

Also rcfcrrcd t.o as Block No.l, A2, Vl, OIN54/1ZO or dutcb blcl(.
.---------------------~~~--------------~-----

Blot k No. l.

J()

40

0 CO:i\-:!PRESSJON PRO RE USES

so

Calibrati.on
o probe calibration can be scl using back wall ecbocs (BvVE) off the various
thicknesscs available, i.e. 5, 10, 25, 100 and 200010.l. It can also be chccked (rough)

60

10

80

oo the 23mm thick pcrspex insen which gives a reading of 50mm when cnlibroted on
steel (the ratio of sound vclocity in steel to the velocity in perspex is 5960mfs to
2740m/s = 50:23). A mnimum of two cchoes are required for calibration with 00
probes. The 91 mm step in the block serves to calibratc thc screeu for use with shear
wave probes by usng a eompression probe. Ifa 00 probe is plaecd over tlle 91nun and
the echoes placed at 5 and 1O oo the graticulc then tbe sereen is calibrated for a range
ofO to 182mrn comprc:ssional. This is equivalent 10 Oto IOOmm shear, tbe ratio of the
velocities of compression to shcar waves is 1.82:1 (5960mis:3240m/s).

Dead zone measuremcnt (single crystal pro be)

Place rhc probe over tbe 5nun scction. lf the signa! is visible outsidc thc dcnd zone
then the dead zouc is less tiJa o 5rn.m. If rhc signa! is not visible then place ~te pro be on
the !Omm section. lf the sigmtl is uow visible thcn the dead zone is gteatcr thnn 5mm
but Jess Iban !Omm. lf thc signa! is still not visible tben go on to the JSm1U deep boJe.
This procedure can be carried out with an uncalibrated screcn. An ultcrnal ive method
wou ld be to calibrotc thc screcn and read thc lcngth of the dead zonc off the Oaw
detector graticule.

Resolution
90

The resolution of a 00 probe can be cbecked by usng thc three differem thickness
sections around the slot below thc centre of tbe 1OOmm radius. Place the probe aboe
the slot and with a calibra red scrcen note the separatiou between thc 85, 91 and 1OOmm
signals.

Probe out.p ut
lOO

Place the o probe <)n the pcrspex tsert aud note the numbcr of B WEs. /1 good pro be
should give three BWEs.

~ Ru.nc ~ct
))IIIIC

Tl" ~'dll

-4 06-'01>'03

UT4-8

UNIT UT4 EQUIP:\IENT

Ruane & 11

T P O'Ne/11

SHEAR PROUE USES

NOif.. S

Indcx or soun d cxit point

10

20

Place the probe oo the top of the block over the cenrre of the IOOrum radms, w1th lhe
bcam travelling toward !he radius. Maximise the signal by moving tl>e probe back and
fot1h, S!Opping at the pOiJll whcre !he signn l is highest. Mark thc position or the small
slot, in !be block, onto the probe, this rcpresents !he point where d>e centre of the
souud be am is leaving thc pro be. Tbe eng r:wcd liues eitllct s ide of tl1e small s lot (and
thc ones on thc probe) can be uscd to mensure lhe movement of the index point as the
probc shoe wears down.

Shear p robe calibration

This can be carried oul using the !OOmm radius, repeal signals being secured by lhc
smnll s lot used tor indexing.

Sbear p robe ao glc check

Maximise tbe reOected signa! from the SOmm diameter (side) of tbe perspcx msen and
note thc position of tite probe index, in relation to lbe e_ngravcd gtaduotions o n 1he
block, ro read off tbe approximatc angle. A more accurnte check can be mfldc using
che retlection fro m tho I.Snun diamcter hole in the samc wny.

40

Shear p ro be output
Maximise the signa! from dle 1OOrrun radius and adjust to full screen hcight, using lhe
gain, and note dte dB figure iudicated on the controls. 11lis figure can be used ro
compOI'e differcnt probes orto check tho probe in use, daily, for dererioraHon.

so
1M cwren1 BrittsA SlnN!artl

BLOCK No.2, A4, V2, DINS4/122 OR KIDNEY BLOCK

((Jr tlt.!t ctzMwaJi<M b/()t'l.

BS EN1796J.

60

25m m
radius

50lUID

1.5 or Smm
dio. hole

radius

12\4 nun OJ' 20 mm

70

so

100

C' R._.. A T P O'Ndll

lmn4 H.OIMll

t;T49

Ui'IIT UT4

Ruane & 11
TP O'Nei/1
NnrEs

EQU IPi\IE~T

COMPRESSIO!\' PROBE USES

Calibration
10

20

This block cau be obtained in various thickncsscs, although the cun enl slandards in use
for ultrasonic calibration blocks llU\y only mentioo 12.5. 20 or 25 mm. The repeat
signals sccured from this lhrough lhickness can be used to ca lbrate lhe o probe.

SHEAR PROBE USES

Probc calibration
Witb thc probe aiming towards the 25mm
175mm, 250mm, 325mm, 400mm, etc.

l"~dius,

signals occur at; 25rrun, 1OOmm,

Wilh tbe probe fac ing lhe other way, toward tbe 50mm radius, d>e srgnals occur at;
30

50mm, 125mrn, 200nuu, 275mm, 350mm, 425nuu, etc.

To calbrate; the mdius which gives the easies t siguals, within the range selectcd,
align on the graticule should be selected.

10

lndex or sound exit point

40

Using the 25rnm or the 50mm radius, :nnximisc lhe rellected signa! and mark thc
pos ition of the central graduaton (the centre of lhe radiuses) onto lhe probe. ( lt is
reconunended howevcr that block no.l is more accurate for lhis check).

Probe angle check

Dead zont. mcasureme11U, 50
rewhdiCHt nNI sJcNN pro-be
gte chla ce ,.y bo

Maximse the echo from the drilled holc and check lhc nngle from thc positioo of thc
index point.

approxlmOtcd 011 Jhe A11Al

blocks. SjNrlflc blocks suclr

ns (llc AS. A6 nmt A7 .slto.,/tl

INSTITUTE OF WELDL.'IG (

1.0.W .) 1A S BLOCK

be used for more accunue

n!prodwdble nSlllls tU
60
fH()l(>d in mocitut'd
srandtmfs, (, (1; BS EN 12668
: Par/ J.

' chis
block
C.Ori tajn$ fOU(
tcansve~nc holes
of l.Smm dia.
dti llcd 11 d~ths
of 13, 19,2 and

70

,...

43 mm from thc

tqp\ cach.one
dril eo :!'imm
deep

SIDE VIEW

1r~

:~ t22 nn

'
. 05mm

so

90

..

PLAN VIEW

This block calt be uscd as a calibrnlion block wilh a comprcssion ptobe, howcvcr, its
main use s as a refereuce block wtll elher compresson or shear wavc probos. lts two
most common uses are for plotting lhe beam profile and for setting test senstivity,
nsing the various individual side drilled boles as reference reneetors.
Thc five side drllcd boles on onc side of the block that are drilled close togcthcr mny
be uscful to check Lhc resolutlon capabilities of angle probes.

100

e Ro11oc & r r O'NciJI

tno.~c 4 06/0110~

UT410

UNIT U'f.t EQUIPl\IENT

Ru:me & 11
TP O'Neill
N O t l'S

EQUIPIVlENT CflECKS
10

Periodically ulttasonic flaw dctection equipment musl be chcclced to ensure

performance characteristics have not deterjorated.
Some of the checks includc:

20

)0

' The curr~m British

StDn.dMd for equlpmt-nl
cltffl:s u B$ EN 1266<1'
Pnf11.

Timebase linearity

Timcbase rangc calibration

Signalto noise ratio

Angle probo index poin t

Probc angle check

Rcsolution check

Amplifier lincal'ity

Beam profile detcnnination

This is nota comprchensive list, the recommcnded checkslo be carried out can usual! y
be found in the relevant current standards'.

40

~ Tite tolcrnnce for l/mebt~s~0

UReority in 8$ EN 11168 il .l
~ ofMe "'-'"ok tiRit'.ba:se.

60
J

The t()!tmnr.efor

mplifier ltm.mrit)' it1

OS
EN 12668 fs (Jttted jOr qnch
~tep of tM c:hk. il
averagu oppro:ti1f.ta(ely
:5%.
70

Timebase liuearity
Carricd out over thc anges co be used, Ibis is perforrncd by placing a compressio11
probe on a calibration block to obtain multiple cchoes. Calibrate the scrceo by placmg
the lirst ond last echoes, within the requircd rnnge, in their correct respective positions
on tbe timebase and check tbat thc intermediatc echoes are in their cor~cct respective
positions. Tbe toletancc' on Jinearity can be found in t be curren! standard'.

Amplifier lin earity

Position a probe on a calibration block to obtnin a reflected signa) from 1.5 or 5mm
diameter transverso drilled hole. Using the gain ndjust Ib is signa! to 80% of full sccen
b.eight. hlCI'ease thc gain by 2dB and the signa! should rise to 100% full screen height.
Now reduce thc gain by 8d8 and the signa! should fall to 40% screen hcight.
Reducing dle gain a funher 12db should see thc signa! fall to t()OA, screen heighl and a
further 6 dB should take the signo! down to 5% screen heighr. The toleronce' on sig na!
heights cnn be found in the curren! standard 1

T imebase range calibr ation

Check ~>e ability ofthe equipment to be calibrotcd to the ranges requiJ'ed.

Signal to ooise ratio

80

Place the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signa! from a transverse
drilled hole. Usiug tbe gain adjust the signa! to 20% of full screen height and note thc
gain sctting (dB). l ncrense the g~in until tile grass (uoise) leve\ reaches 20% screcn
height at the same tilnebase pos ition and note the new gain setting (dB). 1'hc
difference in the two dB gain senings is the signa! to noise ratio and can be used to
compare different equipment or to monitor U>e equipment in use.

Angle probe indcx point

90

This check is covered in the calibration block section of thc notes.

Probc angle cbeck

Also covcred in the cnlibration block section, U1e more accurate check being whon
plotting the bcam prolile using thc AS block (sce next paragraph).
100

e ka.-

T,. O"ll'dll

lA$"' 4 o&I)J ((IJ

U'1'4 ll

UNIT UT4 EQUIPi\IF.NT

Ruane & JI
T P O'Nei/1

Bcamspread
Ex ample: 20 dB drop bcam spread
10

20

30

Ahhough the beam spread can be calculaled, it is usually plotted out pJaclically using
the AS block and a range of differenl depths of reference ho.les. Bcfore plotting lhe
bcam profile thc probe iodex poiot should be checked. The probc is plnced above one
of lbe boles, then by moving the probe baek nnd forth, the signa! from thc hole i.<
mnximised and the gaio adjusled lo givo a signa! at 1()()% full screen beiglu. 11le
pos ition of lhc index point is then markcd onto thc block. Thc probe is thcn moved
forwurd until d1e signa! f.11ls lo 10% screen hcighl and again the posiliou of ihc indcx
poiot is marked onto the block. The hole is now in dJe IOOA. (20d.B) intensity !nliling
edgc of lhe bcam and the distance between the two marks on dte block represcnts the
distan ce from thc centre to tbe 20dB trailing cdge of thc bcam at thc dcpd> of thc hole.
The proccdure is t11en rcpcoted in thc opposite dircctiou (backwards) to fi11d lhc
lending edge of lhc beam. This is repeated on severa! (a mioimum of lhree) different
deplhs of bole to find the profile of dte beam. Tite marks on the block can be
transferred lo a graph to give a pictorial rcpresentation of the beam nnd!or tran~ferred
lo n plotting systcm for use in plottiog and si>;ing defects.

wooc dU.ta.ce (nun)

IU 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80

40
C'20

:S Jo
~

. 40

so

60

50

Resolution
This check can be found in the calibrati<lll block section of lhe notes.

70

80

90

100

Q klttll fl &. 1' P O'Nt:ID

Wuc.4 06/(I I .'Cl,l

UT412

UNIT UT5 0

Rusne & 11
T P O'Nei/1

PI~OBE

SCANNING

0 PROBE SCA.l'I~NG

' u 1 t: s

to

CALIBRATION
Thc lnltial pulse or main bang is a test signa! that the flaw detector creates and has no
significance for calibration. lt usually lies just off to tbe left of a cahbrated screen.

litial

pulse....._

..

. . . ... : ... . .:.

'

'

Visible area

. ... ' .... vof C.R.T.

. . : . . : . . : . :. .
........
.. .

. ~.-- ~

.-. ;

'

'
'

----~-.:..: . -~-

- . :. .

-:

.... - . : - .
~

O 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 W

40

so

DrCi! lOM -

<:J"""'xb ><i:IJ

\Vheu an ultrasonic probe is placed on to a picce of sreel, some of the ultrasound in tite
probe reflects off thc intetface between thc probe shoe and thc steel aod some is
transmitted through into thc steel. Wben the transmitted energy stnkcs the back
surface of the steel it vinuaUy all reflccts off the steel to air intctface and relurnS lo !he
steel to perspex interfae" Here some energy ttansmits into tbe probe and creates thc
ftrst signal (!) and tbe rest rcflects back inside the stcel and the process repeats itself,
creating tbe repeat signals, (2 etc.) unul tbe energy decays away. The spacmg betwecn
tbe echoes represents the thlck..'>ess ofthe steel, so ifwe place tbe probe on a A2 block,
on the 25mm thickness, rben tbe echoes are 2Smm apart. Note. lf we are using a single
crystal probe theu the initial energy that reflcctcd back into the probe will create a
signa! at the start of the screen (F} which will be very close to tbe m1tial pulse aod
tbere will also be a dead zone visible on the CRT. lf we are ustng a double crystal
probe (separate transmit and receive crystals) tben there will be no signa! from thc
front surface and no dead z.one visible.

~lll C')SU:J pro/Jel r.O

l'i.sibl~ lfllcntion aisrs Qrft

60
lite CRT. rM r~rm drod zone

arto
wMrt: mdlcarions cmt:nor be
locattd nnd (s stl/1 prese11t
neroT JurjcJ ~ tO Y.~
onglt of,_ aysu:lr used to
foa.s ""'buM "' w
optiMw"' uogr r.:;nge..
iO
corr~tfy nttan.s t111

Crystal

Pcobe shoe
Test

Marerial

F 1~
1' 1'

..

p. .

1'
.

so
' T'Mn an two llfe:.DS of

aa\im.or cc!ihretiott:
a

"'Jr,.bt:.cJ:M,G!J edo:

b)

dt/cy 1<tf.n~
90

'

. ..

.'

....

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TO CALIBRATE A 0 PROBE TO A RANGE OF:

0 TO 100 1\P-11 1

Apply couplant to the A2 block and place the probe on the 25mm thtckness to obtain
multiple ecboes. We require a range of 1OOoun on the screen so four echoes would lit
in to this range, so we adJUSl the coarse range control to givc us obour four echoes on
the screen. We then adjust the delay control to position the first backwall echo a
qunrter of the way a long the screen and the Cine range control to posiuon the fourth
echo at the end of the screen_ This procedure is repeated until all four ecboes take up
their respective positioos (see sketch). The same basic procedu~ applies to different
ranges using diffcreot thicknesses. By dividing the range by the tbtckness wc can
obtain the number of echoes required and by evenly spacing the echoes on the screen
the desired range is acbieved.

100

CbtAT PO'Nclll
INoN4 MlttltJ

UT S- 1

lJ:'\IT UTS 0 PROBE SCAN~ING

Ruane & 11

T P O'Nei/1
'HIT t: S
'

25
~

10

... . .' . : ...

.. . : . : 50 : :- : : .

... .'15 .: .

.:. T
~:

o
O

20

1 2

.~o

4 5 6 1 8 9 10

to

1OOnm1 1'1\ngc

CALlBRATION EXERCJSES
Usiog the V 1 block:
30

40

so

Calibrnte the timcbnse for:

100 mm range using tbe 25 mm thickness
200 mm range using the 25 nuu thickness
400 mm range using thc 25 nm1 thickuess
100 mm rangc using lite 100 mm thickness
200 mm range using the 100 mm thickiless
400 mm range using tbe 100 mm tbickuess
20 mm range using the 10 mm thiekness
1O mm range ttsing the S mm thickness
1O mm range usitljl the 1Omm d>ickncss
1000 mm rangc using the 200 mm rhickucss

Method:
Method:
Metl10d:
Melhod:
Method:
Metl1od:
Metbod:
Mcthod:
Method:
Method:

.\1ultiple BWE
.l\1ultiplc BWE
l'vl\tl1iplc BWE
Dclay tccbnique
Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Delny tcchnique
Multiplc BWE

A CCURATE MEASUREMEl1i'T
Por occurate beam pnth measul'cment, such as lhickness surveyiug using n tlaw
oo

70

detector, tbe acb.ievablc accuracy is dctenniued by the range selcction. For example if
the range is set to 100 mm full scrcen, then each large graticule division is 1O mm and
each small division is 2 mm. This means tbat tbc mosl accuratc that you could read the
screen, by judging thc halfwny distance between the divisions, would be 1 mm.
However, tl1e ma nufncturers of anologue Oaw detectors usiog n C.R.T., con only
guarantee the horizontal (time base) liuearity of the display to be within 2% of tlte
whole time base. This means tbnt nn echo could be onc small division (or 2 nun on the
100 mm range scale) out ofposition, so tbe guaranteed accuracy would normally bave
a tolcrance of 2% ofthe range (tl>c same size as one small division).
Timeb"se rangc

],.,argc division

Stuall division

Read accuracy

500mm
200mm
lOO mm
50 mm
20mm
lO mm

50 mm
20mm
lO mm
5 mm

lO mm
4 nun
2nun
1 mm
0.4mm
0.2mm

5mm
2mm
1 mm
0.5 mm
0.2mm
0.1 mm

2mm

1 mm

90

lOO

-t Ruae &. 1' r O'N'III

lnuo-' OM>I!IU

UTS-2

UNIT UTS 0 PRO BE SCANNING

Ruane & 11
TP O'Nei/1
NOT F. S

MlJLTIPLE BACK WALL JVIETHOD

iO

Another method of reading accurate tbickn.ess measu.re.meuts is to use the n1ultipJe

backv.all method. This involves calibrating the screcn to a larger rauge then reading
the n th repc.at signul from the thickness and dividing the reading by n> whcrc n is the
clearest signa! that you can read the fttr1est along the screen.

1OOmm .range
20

... ..... . . . .' .

'

:.

....
. . .- ..'
. . . . . ....
.. .. . ... ....
. . . . .. .

"

In this cxample tl1e 6'h s ig1al can be quite

easily rcad off the screen at a beam path of
45 mm.
Tbe th ickness can be calculated by:

30

1 2 3

ts 6

1 8 9 10

= 7.5 J11lll

6tb sigoal

Dif'ferent materials
<10

When testing materials other tban steel, the velocity of tbe sound wave may be
diffcrent. Tf this is thc case, then the difference in velocity between tbe material under
test and the calibration block musr be taken nto consideration and ttscd to compensatc
for tbe difference in readings obtaiJJed. Alternatively, a calibration block made of tite
samc m~\tcrial as the test material must be obtained. Thc fo11owing fonnula can be
used to compensa te when the G'RT is calibra red ttsing a steel calibration block:

50

Actual Thickness

Material Velocity x T imbase Reading

Calibration B lock Velocity

If tbe sound velocty in a material is not known but the actual thickness can be
physically measured, then tbc vclocity can be calculatcd by transposing thc above
formula thus:
Velociry

Actual Thickness x Calibration Block V elociry

= ----..,.---,---,------"Tinlebase Reading

DEFECT DETECTlON
70

S
1

Sec:ion VT4- ErwjJment

When using a o probe to searcb for defects we mttst consider the fo Uowing. Which
raoge sbould be used, for accuracy a.n d tbrough thi.ck:ncss coverage?. Probe selection.
taking into account material attcnuation and defcct size. Wbat leve ! of rcst sensitivity
to use to en.sure that defects which are considered harmful to the product (not
uecessarily all flaws are cousidered harmful), are Jocated a11d to assure that
reproducible test results can be obtained, by different operators, using differcnt
manufacturers equipment. Probe and rangc sclcclion havc bcen covercd in prcvious
sections' oftbesc notes, seuing sensitivity is as follows.

SENSITIVITY
There are various methods of settiug the test seusitivity these include:

lOO

Back wal! echo leve! m ethod (0 probes o nly)

Grass leve!

Using a reference reflector

Using a graph or cur ve p!ottcd fTOm reference reflectors

QRu~M ,lf.:
J,:,~ut

r r O'N(iJI

4 06.'01100

VTS-3

&hrl

UNIT UT5 0 PROBE SCANNI NG

Ruane
TP O'Noil

Back wall ech o (b.w.e.)

;\(()TES

10

Tbe backwall echo method involves coupling the probe to the test material and
increasing thc gai11 until the back. wall echo is at thc pre-<letennined leve!. Thc leve!
can be varied in severa! ways, c.g. if tbe second back wall echo (bwe) is sct to full
screen height {fsh) rhis would be more sensitivc U1an settin the first bwe to fsh.
Anothcr way is lO sct the bwe ro a lower lcvcl {less scns itive) or to set it to a
percentagc of fsh and add a pre-detcnn.ioed number of dBs to tbe gain (incrcase
probes smce
scnsitivity). Thc bwe method can obviou.~ly only be used with
rellectioos off the back surface, whcn using anglc probes, do not ret\tm to the probe.

20

Grllss

30

The gras. or grain interference method iuvolves coupling tbe probe to tbc test swface
and increasing tbe gain un\ the rellections from thc grain structure of tbc material
rcach a pre-detcnnined leve!. This is often quoted as 2 mm 3 mm in beight at the
maximum test depth but ideally should be refcrcnced as a pct-ccotage of full screcn
height as not all flnw dctcetors use the same dmension screen Thc sens itivity can be
adjusted by increasing or decre:uing the leve! or by adding or subcracng dl3s to or
from thc gain.

Rcfcrence rellecCors
40

A eonlrnon m ethod of setting seusilivity is to set a maximised s igna! from a tofereuce

reflector, at target depth, lo a predetermincd leve!, for example full scrcen height. The
rcfcrcnce reflector could take thc fonn of a known reflector, c.g. A transverso side
drillcd hole, a flat bonom bole, a slot or a vee ootch, or it could be a real, or sunulared,
defoct of known size and t)'pe.

GRAPHS At"'D D.A.C. CURVES

60

10

Another common med1od of setting sensitivity involves ploning a graph or curve oo

paper or on the llaw detector screen using ln\nsvcrse or fiar botto m boles. Onc of rhese
is known as thc distance amplitudc correction (DAC) curve. This is a curve plo llcd on
the scrcen using transverse or nat bottom holes, of thc same size bul at d iffere nt
depths. in a block of the samc or smtcturally similar material as tbe material under
examination. The screen is calibrated to the required rnoge aod the probe tS placed
over thc bole that gives the best sigual response. The responso is maximiscd nnd set 10
a pre-dctenuined leve! using the gain. The peak of tbe signa! is lhen markcd onto Ute
screett (usually on a cransparenl inlay) aud thc probe is then moved along 10 a dceper
ho le. The signa! from the deeper hole is then maximised and with the gain selling
unaltered the peak of the sigoal is marked onto thc screen and the probe is then moved
to lb e ncxt bol e down. The proccdure is repeated until the end of the raXJge tS reachcd.
Tne marks on thc screen are then joined up witb a line drawo lluough and this forms
the DAC curve.
A 8

~ ' ; ' ' ~

80

.A:

..

..

..

..
00

90

oo

9 10

1be range, gain sening and probe identificaon should all be recordcd (on the screen
usually) along with the curve. 1be curve shape is a probe charactcristic, the gan
100

sening is dependan! on the flaw detector, i.e. ifthe Oaw detector is changed for nnother
one thc gain selting will be different aud if Lhc probe is changcd for nnother one.
anothcr curve should be plotted.

~ lh1111 &
lwll~

T r O'Nclll

.. OfoiOI/liJ

UTS-4

UNI T UT5 0 PROBE SCANNI NG

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1

NOTJ.. S

10

Dlstnnce gain s izing or DGS, nlthougb a sizing tcchnique, is someti.mes used as a

seositivity leve!, e.g. looking for dcfects up to a certaio size as acceptable and nbove
thot size as rcjectobleo An example method 10 se1 the sensirivity would be: The bwe
from 1he referenee (DGS) block is set 10 a pre-derennined lcvel nnd the goin sening
noted. The maximised signa! from a reference reflector (usually n flat bottom hole) a1
tarct depdt (test matcii al di.ickness) is sct to the same preodelcnnined leve! and the
differ~ncc between the new gain setting and thc previous one is noted. The bwe from
the test material is set 10 the pre-delennined level and tbe difference noted in the first
two gain settings is added to thc present gain and this then is tbe scanning sensilivity.

20

SCANl'ilNG PATTERNS 0 l'ROBE

30

40

When scanning for defects the scanning pattem lo be used is sometimes dependant on
the size of defeet SO<Igbt. The 1wo main fac1ors 10 consider are the pitch (dis1anee
betwcen scans) or overlap (the amount, if any, that tl>e ea eh sean overlays the ncxt) and
the pnucm or direction of scanni11o lf Jh() pitch is less tl>an tbe s ize of thc pro be then
the scans will ovcrlop. lf the pitch is reater tila o the size of thc probe thcn thcre will
be a gap betwccn the scans. Wbether there is a gap betwccn the scans or nol may
dcpcnd on the size of defect sought and thc size of the test picceo For example on a
large test pieee looking for defeets over 1OOmm the pitch may be 75mm bet"'ecn
scans, regardless of the probe sizc, because scallliing cvery 75mm w ill locatc defects

ovcr lOOrwn in sizc. 111e pattem mny rcqulrc scanniug in on.e <.l irection or in two
directions at 90 to each other.

Probc dia.

so

Pitch

StZING METHODS 0 PROBE

Thcrc are four main s izin.g teclui.iqucs used witl1 0 probes:
70

6dD drop

Equalisation
~1aximum amplitude

DGS

6dB drop tecbnique

80

Used to size large defects, i.eo dcfccts that are biggcr than the beam spread, such as
laminations, this is wbere the probc is moved off the edgc of the reflector until the
signa! amplitude is reduced b y 50% (6dB). Thc position of tbe centre of thc probe is
then mal'ked onto the material surface. Tite probe is now in u position where the beam
is half ou aud half off the dcfeclo lf this is repeated along tbe cdgc of the reflector the
rellector's size and shapc will be marked out onto the material's surface.

,, . . ..: :... . ....

. . .. .
...' .
;.
~ 1'

90

.'.

.'.

.: o :

100

C R A T .. O'Ntlll
~nlt4

01\fili:U

,'

: .. : . 1

. ~l ~nl~J ihld~
~

:.

..?-:, .- . . ~"'

\.

:,<Y,. &.;p ; .: . :
. . .. ' .. ' . .. :
; .:

.1: : 1

1 '2 34 }671i'> H}

(l

1 2 J

>1

6 7 ti ' 1(1

UTS-5

UNIT UTS 0 PRO BE SCANNING

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1.

Equalisation tcchnque

~OTES

10

Tbe cquaiisation tecluliquc is very similar in opcratio\> to the 6dB drop except that rhe
pro be is rnoved ojf tbe edge of the reflector uutil its signa! is equal in amplirude to the
risitl,!l bwe. At this posiliou the centre of thc probe is marked Otlto the surface, again
continuing aloug the edge of tl>e reflector to map out tl>e shape and size.

Jsc flfiw tcsponse

.. .. . .'

..

. - - . - . Rc.pc.at.~hOC-5
fl'omtlaw
. . - - ' . :

Fr1wics~oilse :

... -...
.. . ... ..
. \

'

20

. - -

Q 1 2

30

(\
.-~.
'

S 6 7 8 9 JO

..

. , lsaBWE

. :. ' .

.. .

..

..
i

1 2

3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

Both the 6dB drop and the equalisation metbods only work accuratcly on Jarge
re!lectors and will grossly oversize small ones.
NB. The flaw must also be along the centre lio.e of the plate or again sizing accuracy
will be adversely affccted.

40

50

Maxmum amplitude (max. amp) technique

This is used to size arcas of srnall defeci~, such as inclusions, or to size multi-faceted
defects, such as cracks. The technique in vol ves moving the probe off U1e defect area
until the. signals disappcar, tbeu slow!y bringi11g thc probe back, watching lbc whole
signa) group, to the first position where one of the signals maximises. The probe
position is then marked as .in the other methods to mark out the edge of thc defccl arca.
Tilis teclmique will pick out the last individual inclusion of a group or the lasl facet of
a crack givg the overall size of the defect or area.

g_ - ~

60

""'Lasteitherresponse
7
end
70

Distance gain sizing (D.G.S.)

80

90

100

DGS uses the reflections from flal bottom boles or disc reflectors, of different sizcs ami
over a rauge of depths, plotted on a graph. Signal amplitudes from defects are
comparcd to the graph to give the nlioimum size or, more conectly. the t.ninU:num
reflective size ro the defect. These graphs are provided by the manufaclurcr of the
Jlrobe, are illusrratcd in sorne reference standards or can be plotted.
To size a reflector with lhe DGS diagrdms: With a calibrated screen and lhe DGS
diagram for the type of pro be being uscd, maximise the s igual from lhe reflector and
set the amplitude to a pre-determ.ined reference Jcvcl, using the gain control, aorl
record the gain setting. Move the probe to au area of tl1e material, where the back wall
is the same distance as che previously rccorded reflector, there are no reflectors and the
surface condition and curvaturcs are the same as tbe previous area. Set the bwe lo the
same pre-detennined reference Jevcl as before and note the difference between the
previous aud the new gain settings. Using Ute DOS diagram Jook on lhe i.nfi.nity lioe,
at the bwe distance, for the dB figure aud add this figme lo lhe previously noted dB
differ<mce. Read the total dB flgure (the two just added), at che rc!lector bcam path
{depth), oil the grapb, to give the equivalen\ size ofrhe re !lector.

J> R"'~ne & T P 0'!'1(111

fno~

4 06/0 J/l))

UTS-6

UNIT UT6 ANGL E PRO BE SCANNING

Ruano & 11
T P O'Nolll

'

ANGLE PRO BE SCANNI NG

The initial pulse and tbe dead zone, mcnrioned in tbe previous, section also oecm with
angle probes and should be regarded in the same way.
10

CALIBRA TION

20

Wirh angle probes, the reflector must be perpendicular 10 tbe bcam and there must be
sorne method of capturing repeat s ignals. Both the V! (A2) and tho V2 (114) blocks
fulfi.l tbis cl'iteria.

)0

The Vl block has a 1OOmm mdius lO reflect the sotmd and a slot cut at tho centre to
capture repcat sigoals. Signals occur cvcry 1OOouu tberefore can be used 10 calibra te
the screen, e.g. 10 ca lbrate the screen for a O to 200mm range we would place the lirst
echo on Son the graticule and the second on 10. To calibrate for a Oto IOOrnm rangc
we would place the first echo on O ancl the second on 10 (which gives a 100 10 200mru
range), then delay the first echo across the screen 10 10.

CRT

..

. . . . . ... . . . :
. . . .. .
. . . ' . ' . . . -.
.. '.
. : . . ' .
...

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 ?

g ? 10

O 10 200rnm
rangc

The V2 block has a 2Smm radius and a 50mm radius both irradia1ing from lhc samc
centre. T1s has !be effecl of bouncing the sound from onc radius lO lhe other, via lhe
centre, creating repeat echoes. After !be fust echo, whicb occurs al a distance
representarive of thc radius that the probe is facing, tbe eeboes occur every 75mm (the
sum total of the two rad) this fearure can be used to calibrate the sereen. TI1e
direction that the probe faces vares with the muge required because it is casicr to align
more of the echocs on the graticulc, when facing a particular radius. for a particular
rauge, thau on the other radius, e.g. for a O to 1OOmm rangc, thc pro be would fa ce the
2Smm radios where the 2Smm si;nal and t11e JOOmm signa! can be easily aligncd. For
a O ro 200mm rangc tl1c probe would face the SOnun radius where the 50mm Md
200nun siguals can be easily aligned (the 125mm sig na! talling somewhc1e in
between).

60

10

so

.'

..

.. .. ... .. . .
. . .. .. ... .. ... ...
~

. .. ......
. .

,.

'

90
O 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

O to IOOmm ran~e

100

Rn:UIC! & T

r O'N~IU

ISiuc ol 061(11/&J

UT6-I

UNIT UT6 ANGLE PROBE SCANNING

Ruane & JI
T P O'Ne/11
~ OTF. S

ANGLE PRO BES TEST SENSITIVlTY

T11e following methods can be used for setting test sensitivity.
10

Gro.ss level

Rcfcrencc rcflectors

DAC curves

G1ass
20

30

The grass or groin interference method involves coupling thc probe to the tes1 surfacc
and incrcasing ~>e gain until ~1e refloctious from thc grain s tmcture of ~>e material
rcacb a pre-detennined level, this is often quoted as 2 3 mm in height at the
mnximum test dcpth but ideally sbold be referenccd to as a perccntoge of full screcn
hcight as not all flaw dctectors use the same dimension screcn. Tbe sensivity can be
adjusted by increasing or decreasing the level or by adding or subtracting dBs to or
ftom the goin.

Refereuce rcflectors
A common method of sctting scns itivity i.s to seta maxioiiscd signal from a refercncc

40

reflector, at target depth, to a predetennincd level, for exarnple full screen height. T11e
referencc re.flector could takc lhe fom1 ~fa known reflector, e.g. A transverse sicle
drilled hole, a flat bottom bole (drilled at the approprintc angle for the probe), a slot or
a vee notch, or it could be a real, or simulated, defect of known sizc and type.

Graphs and D.A.C. Curves

so

<SO

AtlOther common mcthod of settiug scnsitivity involvcs plottig a mph or curve on

paper or on the flaw detector s<:rcen \ISing tmnsverse boles. Onc of tbese is known as
the distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve. This is a curve plotted on 01e scrccn
using ttansverse boles, of the sume sizc but at different depths, in a block of the samc
or structurally similar material as the material under cxamination. Thc screcn is
calibratcd to the required range and t:be probe is placcd over the holc that gives the bost
signa] response. 111e response is maximised and set to a pre-detcmtined levelusing d>e
gnin. Tho peaJe of the signa! is then marked onto the scrccn (usually on a trausparent
inlay) and the probe is then moved along toa deepcl' hole. The signnl from the deeper
hole is then maximiscd nnd with the gain setting unnltcred thc peak of lhe signal is
marked onto the screen and the probe is thcn moved to the next hole down. 1le
procedurc is repcated until dte cnd of the range is rcached. Tbe marks on 1he screen
are then joined up \\i th a linc drawn through and this forms the DAC curve.

'10
'

._. .......
.~e~: e .
.

~n

80

~ 1!

O 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

90

The range, gan setting nn.d probe identification should all bo recorded ( on lhe scccn
usually) along with the curve. Thc curve shape is a probe characteristie, the gnin
sctting is depeodant on the flaw detector, i.e. ifthe flaw detector is changed for anot.her
one the gnin setting will be diffcrent aud if d1e probe is chonged for another onc,
auotber curve should be plotted.

100

D RIIIUit &: T 1' O'NtOL

h _ ..

ot.IO~)

UT6-2

''
''

UNIT UT6 ANGLE PROBE SCANNI NG

Ruane & 11
T PO'Ne/11
'U lE s

10

Sensitivity methods involving flat bonom boles are rately uscd with anglo probes
(panicularly in tlte UK) due to the fact tbat the boles bave to be drilled to a11 anglc to
suit the probe in use, i.e. the flat reflector at thc bottom of !he holc has to be
perpendicular to !he beam. This is difficult to ochieve bccause probe angles can vary
by one or two degrees. It also means that you would necd a separate block for ench
probe in use.

Sc~~JNGPATTERKS
20

For angle probes the scanning paltems describe the way the probe is manipnlate<l as
well as tbc way it is m ove<l. The most conunon pattems, rcferred lo in some srandnrds
und application procedurcs are:

Orbital sean
30

Whcre the probc is manipulatcd througb an are movemcnt whilst mai.ntnining lhc bcam
fbcuscd on a fJXed reflector. Used oficn to idcntify porosity, where the signa! can be
maintained o n an orbital sean.

Swivel sean

.oo

This is whcre thc probo is rotnted on tbe spot, effectively scanning lhc beam around it .
Use<! to identify multi-faceted, planar or multiple defects and to ensure complete
coverage whcn pcrforming a mited Lransverse sean on a weld where the weld
reinforeemcm is stiU present.

Lateral sean
lO

The probe is moved sideways aJong a flxed linc. Used in the critica! root sean of a
single vee weld or for sizing the length of a defect JongitudnaUy.

Depth sean
This is where d1e probc is moved back and forth in the direction of the beam. As in
Jocati!\g the position of a defect when ploning or when n1aximising thc signal off a
t1ausvcrse hoJe to set sensitivity.

Otber "scans" referrcd

to

such as "root sean'\ .. transverso sean" etc. are scans for a

particular type of defect or in a particular area (root sean, in the root arca, transverso
sean, for transverso defecrs).
70

1Orbilall
j Swivelj

l Lotcr11
90

"\' 8

-.

'"\

LOO

e a-aTPO"Wdll
OOu t 4 (16.'(11.'0 0

U'1'6-3

UNIT UT6 ANGLE PROBE SCANNI NG

Ruano & 11
T PO'Ne//1

SKIP FACTORS

1\0Tf.S

10

20

ln angle probe scanning plotting systems are used for projecting defcct depths aud
positions in relation t<> the probe itlclex by npplying iJ1c beom patlJ, rcad from the
screen, and the stMd off or surface dislatlee from a refcrence darum on tbe test surface.
1e system works on a serJes of rigbt angled triangles, so the depths and positions can
olso be colculatcd, with trigonometr, using thc probe nnglc and thc bean patb rcnding
0 11 the CRT timcbase.

= probe anglc

d = deptb
= skip or surface dislanae
bp = beam path

Sin

sd

p =

Cosp

Tanp

30

ow<sdl

hyp(bp)
~

hyp(bp)

2llll($d)

adj(d)

40
To calcula te 1be expccted benm path ro a rctlector, whcn the dcptJ1 and the probc angle
ore known, we trnnspose d>e Cosine formula.
'bp = d-

CosP

so
To calculnte the dcpth of a reflector, when tbe bcam pnth and probe angle are knowu,
we trnnspose fue Cosine formula again.
d=bpxCosP
60

To calculare diC surface distanee, wben the beom path and probe angle are known, we
traospose !he Sine formulo .

sd

10

= bp

Sin

finaUy ifwe wish to cnlculnte the benm anglc wheu thc depth and surfacc distancc to a
reflector are known we use tl1e iangem formula.
Tan

sd

p = d

.\

80

90

100

(
~ bM.. A
)tlllif ..

T P ()"ftttl

06.'01' 9l

UT6-4

UNIT UT6 A.l\;GLE PROBE

Ruane & 11
TPO'Nc/11
NOTES

SCAX~ING

T IIE UATJO OF TITE SIDES OF 'fHE TIUAt'IGLES IN THE THREE

MOST COMMOI'\ PRO BE Ai'\GLES
JO

1
20

1.73

2.75

JO

T HE IRRADIATION FACTOR

40

Whcn testiug tubular materials around the circumfcrence with angle probcs, it is
possible lhat due to lhe curvature, wall lhiclmess and probe angle, that lhe beam will
not strike lhe inside surface of thc material Wc c.1n calculate the mnimum probe
angle lhat will strike the insidc surfacc (nt a taugent). This is known as thc irrncliation
factor.

By trigonometry:
Sin ft =
50

opposite
IR
=
hyporcnuse
OR

= probe angle
inside rndius
OR = outs ide .radius

(R

60

Since tubular rnaterials are usually

measured by diamcter, we can convert
the equation to:
Sin P =

,.!!2..
00

70

P LOTTINC SYSTEMS

so

Rather Iban ealculate lhe position of a reflector in relation to lhe probe index, using
nigonometry, we can drnw rhe probc nngle onto n cnrd, or uansparent film, and by
ovcrlaying onto a cross-sectional diagntm of the test piece, wc cnn plot thc rcllcctor's
position. Thc following illustrations show two examplcs of plouin; systems, onc for
use on a flat surface and onc for a eurvcd surface.

90

100

O R"f ~ T f O'Ntlll
hut~ 4

0&'61A>l

UT6-S

UNIT UT6 ANGLE PRO BE SCANNING

Ruane&ff
T P O'Nei
:-iOTES

lO

20

30

1C\ltved surface p!O<ting system 1

~~~
40

70'

SIZING METHODS ANGLE PROBES

Thcrc a re tbree main si2ing tecbniques used with angle probes:

60

6d.B drop

20d.B drop

Maximum amplitude

6dB Drop tecbnique

70

Used to size defect dinlensions wbicb are larger than the bcam, sucb as the length of a
Jack of sidewall ft1sion in a weld. The probc is moved off the end of the defect uotil
the signa! amplitude is reduced by 50% (6dB), The position of the centre of the probe
is tben marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position whcre thc
b cam is balf on and half off tbe defect. If this is repeated at the other end of the defect
lhcn che disrance between tbe marks represents its length.

20dB Drop technjque

80

90

This tcchnique is used for defects fuat are less than the width of the beam, sucb as the
c ross-sectional size of a lack of sidewall fusio n in a weld. lt requires the use of a 20dB
beam profile, plotted out for the probe in use, drawn onto a ploning system. The signa!
from tbe defect is flrst maximised aod thc posirion of the defect plotted down the maiu
beam on the plotter as in fig.l. The probe is then moved forwards. off the defect, umil
tbe signa! drops to lO% of its original height. As the probe has moved forward the
defect is now in the trailing edge of the beam, so we now plot tbe signa! d.own thc
trailing cdge on tbe plotter, see flg.2. 1llis should g ive a point p lotted jltst abovc thc
previous p lot and this represeots thc top cdge of the defect. tf we now movc the probe
backwards, past the maxim, to a position where rhe signa! is again 1O% of the maxim,
then plot the signa! do.,.n thc leading edge of rhe beam, as in fig.3, this should give us
the bo ttom edgc ofthc defect and thus tbe overall size.

lOO

&- fhu11e & 1' r O 'NeiU

ln~e4

06/0t:OJ

lJT6-6

UNIT UT6 ANGLE PROBE SCANNING

Ruane & 11

T P O'Ne/11
' 01F.S

10

20

JO

4()

Maximum amplitudc (max. amp) technique

This is used to size areas of Slnclll d cfccf.~, such as inclusions or porosicy, o r lO sizc
nm lti-facctcd defects, sucb as crocks. T1te techniquc involves moving tlc pobc off 1hc
defect area until thc signals disuppcor, then slowly bringing the probe back, wolching
thc wbole signa! group, lo lhc lirst posilion wbere one of lhc signals maximiscs. The
dcfect is theu plotted using lho main bcam on lhe plottug syslem. If lhis is corried oul
in bolh dircctioos theo tbe crosssectional extremities of the defecc are plotlcd ouc. The
cecluquc is repcated moviug tbe probc lnterally lo size the leugd> of che defect by
marking the position of thc centre of the probc. Tbis technique will piclc out thc last
individual inclusion of a group or thc last facet of a crack giving thc overall size of che
defeet or area. U can also be used 10 plot thc shapc of a defect and for condition
monitoring where critica! sizing is rcquired by plotting each individual stgnal "' thc
group as it maximises.

60

70

so

100

Cl Ru;,.nt & T f O 'NtiU

\1'1'67

UNIT UT7 TESTING TECHNIQUES

Ruano & 11
T P O'Nei/1

TESTING TECUNJQUES

NOlf.S

.o

A, B &

e ScANNING svsTEMs

A-sean
This is one of the most cornmon systems in use for manual uhrasonic inspection. It
displays the retlected cnetgy as sinals on a CRT. The horizontal axis on thc CRT
rcpresents elapsed time or distance and tbe vertical axis reprcseots sigoal an1plitude or
sound energy retuming to tbe probe. This system can provide an indication on tl>c sizc
of a dcfect frorn si;nn l amplitude, the defcct locatiou, from U1e position of the signa!
on U1e timehase, and the signa! sbape aod behaviour, oo movement of the probe, can
indicate defect type. TI1e disadvaumges of this systcrn ore that the s ignaJs rcquirc
interptetation, which means that mol'e skill is required for operatioo. Thc advantages
of t1s sySlem are its portability and less time involvcd in setting UJl.
30

Amplitude

..... . ..

... .

.:;0__:.__:.2_.:;3__:4_.:;5__:.6__:7_:8:.....:9--'' o'+ Timc/distance

B-sean system

60
J

111 lile case oj11 Jefoct m

3led pinte. tha lltfcct fimn3

C)h a/r tJ~rjtt IC) lile

Tbe B-scan system provides us wil11 a cross-sectional view ofthe material undcr test by
scauning tbe probe across the surface (sometimes at high specd). By using a higb
persisrencc phosphorescent coating on the CRT thc imagc is tetnined, for a period of
time, and can be photograpbed for a perrnancnt record. TI1e ampliwdc of the rcceived
signa! is represented by tbc brightness of the image a11d the synchromsation of the
movement of the pro be and the display can rive a true reprosent1tion of the siz.e' of the
defeet.

through thickncn ofrhe

defetl il' ll()t sho1wt 011 tite

disp/n}.

Materialtop surfacc~

f------,---:-- -:---,--1

70
_._~.._ .,.,..._~+----

defcct

bottom suacc~l--;__;__;__,--,.....-1

2 )

4 5 6 1 8 9 10

e-sean system

90

This system &ives us a plan view of the S<:anned area, showing defects as contrasting
areas, on a printout or ploHing system that i_s synchroniscd witl1 thc probc's rnovc111cnl'
as it travers~s over tite material. The big advanrage of tbe system is an instan!
permanent record. The disadvantages are there rs no indication of defect dcpth or
oricntation and seltin.g up lhc systern cau be time consuming.

100

;:. '(
.......
,

(IM......

'"""'

O'Ntll~

UT7-J

U~IT

Ruane & 11
T PO'Ne//1

UT7 TESTING TECHNIQUES

'O T F. S

LO

Printou1

30

PULSE ECHO SYSTEMS

A s ystcm thot seuds out pulses of u ltrasonic energy then listeus out fo r thc rctuming
echocs is a pulse echo system. Thc probes used can be in thc s ingle or donble cryslal
formal. Thc s in:le crystal probe ttansrnits pulses of encrgy, 1ypicalty nt a ra1e of
anythiJg belwecn 150 lo 1OOOHz., in betwcen pulses d1e circuitry switchcs 10 receive
modc to listen for any rctuming echocs. The double crystal probe has separate
transmit and rcceive Cl)stals, thc transmittcr still sends out pulses, (at the santc rates as
above) bul rcsts in bctween, whilst (he reccivcr is in. "listening mode pcnnaneutly.
Sec tJe ''Tnlloduclion to the bru>ic coucept" section of tl>e notes for furthcr inlb rmarion
and thc "PrOJ)anation ofsonnd" scction for details on plllsc rcpctition frequencies.

so

The adv.utascs of tbe pulse echo systcm ure that defect positions can be located wi~1
accuracy and ucccss to ooly one s ide ofthc test material is necessary.
The disadvantage is that the sound hos to travel tbrougb tl1e material twicc (there aod
back) so there is more attcnuation.

TnROUGif TRANSMlSSlON TESTING

Maioly uscd in automatcd syslems, l this techniquc thcrc are t:wo probes, one cithcr

70

sidc of the test material, onc transmittIIIl pulses of encrgy thc othcr rccciving thc
cncrgy. Thc reccived energy signal is set lo o pre-determincd lcvcl on thc CRT ond thc
prcscncc of a defect is i.ndicatcd by u rcduction. JI amplitllde or loss of this signal. In
automatcd systcms the signa! may be sct to rcach or exceed a nc;ativc gate ou dte
CRT. This mcans that a portion of thc scrccn in the area of the signa! will have an
alarm sound if the signal does not reach tbe pre-se1 amplitude. This may be coopled 10
an automatic marking systcm, such as a painl sprayer, tha1 marks thc material wben tbe
signal falls short. The marked arcas thcn being in.spected la ter manually in more detail.

so

'lltc advan1ages of 1his techniquc are based on ti1e fhct thatthc sound only has to travel
one way through the material, i.e. Matcrials with higber attenuative propcrtics can be
tested, thickcr materials can be tested and hi;hcr frequency probes can be used.

90

Thc disndvontages are; d1ere is no indicntion of defect depth, thcrc musLbe acccss to
both s ides of the material to place thc pro bes, the probes must be COl'rcctly aligned and
a chnngc in eoupling conditions (caus ing a loss of s igna! amplit1de) could be mistaken
for a defect.

LOO

C Rvnot 11: T

~ O'Hdll

b- """''tJ

liT7-2

UNIT UT7 TESTING TECHNIQUES

Ruane & 11
TP O'Ne /11
!I;OTES

1.0

Transmit
probe
T<:st malcrial

Defect

tf':"'':"':='~~~~~~~ SignaiJe...-el on
~
de(cct free area
. . . . . ..

: o;,,.;.:... :,.:. . :

tmtn.ituu.nv ~ f.IE_;:
. -.,.,-.'"
_..,,,.-J,II--Signal Jevel js
~iw_.'_a:_l l_e~--~-}
reduccd as
'. ' ~ ~

20

Rcccivc
pro be

30

d efect SUU'tS lO

eutcr beam

1 7." :J 4

()

s <J 10

THE TANDEJ\ITECHNIQUE

40

50

11lis cmploys two probes> one transmitting sowtd and <me rcceiving, this time borh lhe
probcs a re on the same surface of the test material. 1'he p robes are se t at a fi xed
distance from each olher so that the pulses from the transmitte r, if rcllcctcd from a
defect, will be directed to the receher probe and tbus create a signal on the CRT. The
distance betwccn th e probes is dependaut on tbe probe augle, !he material tbickness
and tbe depth of expected defccts. The technique is nsed when look iug for dcfccts at a
pre-detemned deptb su eh as iu the roor of a donble siderl weld.

'11tc advautage of tbis techuique is, that vertical dcfccts, which would uonnally be
extrcmely difllcult to locate ultrasouically by 0 or angle probes, would be easily
found.
1'he disadvantagc is, that only defects at tbe pre-determined depth would be located.

Receiver

Transmilt<{r

60

. (weld prep)

Defec.t
70

80

IJ.\11\ofERSION TESTING

Stufate 'tlOW1S ure

e.vtremf!Jy limitd 11
imm.rSi(}lr Systems (ttmks)
sir.u fl i.s lt bumlary: wme
rmd ret uin $ ti solfd to gns

This is an automatic ultrasonic inspection technique thar is carricd out in laboratorios

or specalised factory inspection areas. Tbe systen1 uses a compression probc mountcd
in a manipulator that is carried on a bridge O\'er a tank of water i.n wlcb tbe test
material sits. A 'vettiug agent is added to the water to prcvcnt thc form.atioo of air
btlbblcs on the test piecc surtace. n e manipulator allows the probe to be tilted at auy
a11gle. By varying the a ngle beyond thc critica! angles, various shear \Vave refracled*
angles can be produced in the test material as rcquired. Tbe bridge allow s the probe to
be moved over tbe test material. ' l11e test material is sometin1es placed on a rotating
table in thc tank and is rotated as it is scanned. Pro be f requenc ies up to 2 5M Hz are not

intelfOCC IQ >ropO[!.Mt

un.conunon in immcrsion tcsting.

'Wil/1011( lllfiSSiW~ OUCnlt(rfiOu.

100

'/) RuttU'l & 1'~ 0''1~111

l.uut4 06:'01.'0.\

UT7-3

TESTI~G

UNIT UT7

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nci/1

TECHNIQUES

:\ O T E S

10

=
=

piecc

20

30

: In prm;tlre, the 'mfe of

tJ:umb' illhtU th.e wol~r gap
s.koN/d 1M otl~o:sJ a %of tJ1IJ
mot~rirllthfcAnSj (mt$uming

Ft>JAI + :4" (61nm)

Calibrntion is nonnnlly done with a contact probe from n calibratiou block. T hc water
gap bctween thc probe and the test material front surface is thcn delaycd off thc screen
so tbat the z.ero cnd of tbc screen rcpreseDIS thc front surfnce of lbe test matenal. The
velocity ofultrasound in stecl is four times the vclocity in water. So when tcsting stccl
the water gap shou ld be greater tban onc quarter the tbickncss ofthc steel'. Otherwisc.
tbe rcpeat s ignals from thc front surface will stan to occur bcfore tbe bwe aud a front
surface echo will occur wiO>in the test area on the screen, tbus masking any defccts

within the test piccc at tllis dcpth.

lniti.al pulse

Froclt surface c:dlo

..

50

:-

-r;.-: .
:

1 1 l 4 '

'

'

:-

..
t

..

'hwc
1

'

7 9 10

Corree\ set up

60

'

~:. (1p1 s:urface e lO

. t t

.\

Second front surfaee echo (whm lh~ lCS( a~)

-. . , ,bwe.

t t
lncorrect. set up

O 1 2 3 4 S 6 1

10

70

80

t
1

\00

e
1

O Ru~ lle ,\ 'J' 1' Q'Nclll

jj

O&'OIJIJ

OT7-4

e
'

UNIT UTS ULTRASOXIC THICKNESS SURYEYII\\G

Ruano & 11
T PO'Nei/1

ULTRASONlC THJCKNESS SURVEYJNG

'{) T 1: S

10

Thiclmcss survcys usuaUy takc the fonn of multiplc measurcrncots at pre-de!enniucd

posilions on a component, e.g. a boileo wall ora ship's hull, using a dedicatcd thickncss
meter (O-meter or 'l'-gauge), or an A-sean flaw detector a.nd a oo probo. Tite probe
selcction is depcndam on thc: material thickness and auenuation properties.

Usiug a thickucss meter

lO

30

Dcdicated thickness metcrs are eithcr pre-calibrated at thc factory, for a particular
material, with a supplied probe unit, or may use a calibrauon block and a calibration
routine is canied out prior to use. A typical calibration routine on a diital thiclcncs.~
meter would be: S witch thc unit on, clean the probc shoe and pcss thc "t-ero" function
button to zero thc probe. Sclcct "calibmtc" aud place tite probc on a thin scction of the
calibmtion block, press zero" again and cntcr the actual thickness into tbe uniL Titen
place !he probo on a thick section of tbe calibration block, press "vcl" and cnter thc
actual thickness. T he meter will then ou toonatically calibratc and is rcady for use Otl
the same material as tbe calibration block. The meter may ha ve other features such as
digilal stornge for the rcadmgs, adjustments for accuracy of the readillgs or minimum
tlclu>ess recordiJ>g.
Defects within tJte material can give rise to inconecr thickness readlngs wheu w;ing

4()

so

t1

O-meter that has no A-sean display. \'lhen usiJ>g a D-metcr, whicb rcods !be bcam
path bctween tbe first and second or doe second and third repeat signals, corroded back
wall may cause loss ofreadings due to the attcnuation ofthe sound. lfthe test material
vclocily is not the samc as the vclocity of the calibration block, or thc material the
O-meter is set up for at thc factory, thcn fnlse readings will occur.

Using a .tlaw de1:cctot

11tc A-sean flaw detector can be used lo obtain thickness rcadings to a good degrcc of
accuracy by calibrating to a small rangc or using the multiple backwall method as
explained in the ..0 probe scan.ning" section of the notes. TI1e advanmge of a flaw
detector over a thick:ness meter is tbat a rcpresentution of the signa! shapc can be sccll
ou thc display which indicatcs wltethcr thc reading is off a back wall or off a defecL
within the materiaL
\'lben using a flaw detector, if ~>e surface is coated or paintcd then thc rending should
be token between the rcpeal sigoals and not from O to the tirsl s ig.nal. Whcn usin; a
thickncss meter any coatin;s or paint on the test surface does not affect the readmgbccause it automatically reads the repeat distmce.

70

80

Tf us ing the flank of dle signa! then signa! amplitudes must be al s imilar hcights whe11
chccking the po.~itiou on thc timebase, both when calibrati.ng thc CRT and when taki11g
readings.

IL____

90

_L

f (;gh slgnrl

Lvwcr ; ignill

tt

100

Dirfcrencc in sjgnAII>OSiLion (aod hence reodingJ

Cl Rau.nt l. 1' P' O'J\rill

~"' .. 06/llf,'(l)

U'l'R I

VN JT UTS t.:LTRASO~IC

Ruane& 11
T PO'Neill

THICKi~ESS

SL'R\'EYING

TI1e timebasc on an A~scan Oow detector must be linear ro attain accurate readlnys, n
check for this is explaiued in 1l1c cquipmeut seclion (UT4) oflhe notes.
10

20

30

ACCEPTIR:EJEcr CRITERJA
\Vhen thickness surveying, you may be askcd to evaluate the measurcments takcn,
instead of, or as weU as, recording tbem. This may be by us ing the acccptlrejcct
criteria from a nntional S(andlrd or a wdllcn procedu(e for thc job iu ha11d.
Acceptance tolcrances may be given in the form of maximum and minimum
thicknesses or givcn as a percentage toleranec of a nominal thckncss, e.g. Mnimum
13.Smm, max.imum 16.Smm or 15mm i i.Smm or\Smm i 10"/o. Tbe fust two
examples are quite easy to follow but lhc percentagc tolcrances are not always sunplc
figures ltkc 10%.

To calculatc thc value of thc to lcrance frotll thc statcd perccntoge and hcnco thc
rnaximum and rninimum thicknesses we use thc formula:
Tolerance

So;

1 X D

100

Max imum thickness

Where 1 is the platc thickoess and " is thc percentage.

1 X n

1 +

M innmm thickoess - t -

100
l

100

so

REPOR'l'ING

60

When reporting thc resulls of a thickness survcy, the readings may be electrouically
stored, io mcmory on sorne thiclcness meteiS or digiJal flaw decectors, or written down.
In cach case \be location of the rcading must be storcd along with 1he thickocss for use
as a rcfcrcnce in further checks or fo r mappi"o g outthe test surface. TI1e electroncally
stored rcadings may be downloadcd into a dntabase application Ol' d itectly into a
grapbics pl'Ogram that will gvc a visual rcprescntution ofthe test urca.

70

80

90

100

lJ l'R-2

t:JXIT UT9

Ruano & 11
T PO 'No/l/

ULTRASO~IC

WROUGHT PLATE TESTING

ULTRASONIC WR OUGHT PLAT E MATERIAL

co

TF.CIINIQUE
When searcbing for dcfccL~ in wrougln place you should havc, a< a mnimum, the
following iuformaliou, which is usually written on a tcchnique or inslntction sheet (scc
lhc appendices for au example).

20

30

'I11c test cornponeot iden(ifi.cation and area to test.

Actions to be takcn whcn defects are fo und.
1l1e purpose of the test (dcfccts soug ht nnd ncceptauce critcria).
Equipmcnt rcquired.
Wbat method and lcvcl oftcsl scnsilivity ro use.
The merhod of scanning.

1l1e insrruction sheet would also conmin sections giving dctails of nuy relc,ant snfety
procedures and post test proccdun:s such as tbe clenning of the test area afierwards. lt
would also bave the company name, a unique technical reference numbcr, the
originator's name aod signature and an authorising signarure.

Test arca

Tbe test may involvc tcsling tbe whole, of a component, or j ust par1s, this must be
specified.

Aclions to be takcn
50

When defe<:ts are found it ll'lay be cqu ired that lhc dcfects are repottcd, c.g. on n
diagram or as a written cscription, or the component, or materjaJ, may be acccptcd,
rejectcd or graded accordiug 10 OlC defccLs fo und. I f defe<:ts are lo be reportcd thcn
tbe defect infonnation that neecls reporting would be contauted in this section, i.e.
Defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.

Purpose of tbe test

60

This scction tells us the 3C(:ept/n:ject critcria for panicular defects, i.e. what stze and
type of defects lO repon; wbicb defects n:nder the component rcjcclablc, o r wluch
defects to asscss for grading of the material.

E quiprnent
70

'l'h c type of flaw detector, typc, sizc and fTequency of probcs, typc of couplant nud
calibmtion hlocks lo use, should be sratcd.

Scnsitivity
Method of setti ng and level of sensilivity need to be quoted fo r each sean, c.. 2 nd
l3.W.E. F.S.H..
80

Scanning method
The melhod of scanning the material is either a wriuen, stop by slep, instn~ction o r
technique sheet, or involvcs following the sreps laid out in lhc relevan! nntionnl
standard. An example wriuen step by stop could be:
90

l.

Prepare the material surface by removing any loosc scale, rust, din 01 otbe1 debns
and visually inspect for surface defects or damage.

2.

Calibrate the screen on tite flaw detector, using a 0 probe and the A2 cahbration
block, for a range of O lo SO mm.

3.

Set the sensitivity (as q uo led in !he rclcvant section abovc) and apply couplnnt to
ll1c test a(ea.

100

r f> O'N<ijl
w..- .. No'Otitl

~ R...aow k

tr r9- t

UNIT UT9 ULTRASOii\IC WROUGHT PLATE TESTIJiiG

Ruane & JI
T PO'Neill
;110TF.S

4.

Sean lhe designated tesl arca with n pro be overlnp, betwecn scans, of at lcasl 20"1.
of tbe probe's diamcter at a maximum probe movement ratc of 150mm/see.

5.

When dcfects meeting the criterin in thc "Purpose of the test" section are found,
recotd lhc relevan! dcfect data as in the "Actions to be taken" scction.

6.

Defects larger lhan lhe ulttasonic beam, i.e. wherc tberc is no D.W.I!. prcscn1.
should be si7.ed using the 6 dB drop or equalisa1ion med1ods. Defcets d>at are
smaller lhan the ultrasonic bcam should be sized and positioned using OIC
ma~imum amplitudo tcchn.ique. Where lherc are fouud lo be a numbcr of small
defccts logethcr thcy should be nrouped and s ized asan arca, using thc maximum
amplilude techniquc on the defects that are atthe edge of the area.

1.

Prepare a ncal conciso repon giving details of IJ>e eomponcnt identi fic.11ion. Test
arca, oquipmcnt used, scnsitivity scuings and n drawjng wilh the defcct delails as

10

20

recordcd in section S abovc. Sign and date dte rcporl nud stale your relevan!
qualilicatious.
30

Post test procedurcs

This would involve clenntng any remaining couplant and dirl from the lcst area aud
covering thc surfaee wilh protcctive eoatings according 10 clieot's rcquiremeuls.
40

so

DEFECTS IN }>LATE MATF.RJAL

The intcrprctntion of defects in plate malerial in vol ves knowledge or experiencc of the
expectcd types of dcfect and lite po~ible signals from thcm. In sorne situniOns it is a
case of rcading rhe signal, evaluating which defecls do no! givc lhis type of sig na!, thcn
choosing from the remaining poss ibilitics as to which type of defect is most likely.
Hcre are a fcw ofthe more coom1on dcfccls fouud in plate :

Laminations

60

A lami.nation is a defect thar is larger titan the ulrrasonic bcam and lics parn llcllo thc
plale surface, norJlUllly midway lhrough lhe plate depth. t is fo nned from the rolling
out of secondary pipe in cast ingots. The air and thc slag, thal W11S origmally on tbe
mgot surface, are ttapped withitl lile defcct forming an acouslic barrier (interface).
'lis means lhal souud is IOially reflected offtl>e defect, so thcre is no B.W.E .. So !he
defcct echoes all bebave in a simla1 fashion, c.;. a cbangc in coupling cooditions
causes lhe whole group of repeat cchoes to fluclualc.
AU defect

70

80

,--..,-..,---:::o--:;F
s i"ifln!ali> (repcats)

Laminatjon

lnclusious
90

100

Jndusions, in plate malcrial, are fom.ed from lumps of ttapped solid non-mctallic
material in lhe casi ingot. These hnups are crushcd, flattened and broken up during Ue
rolling process and eod up as smallcr flatter shapcs. Small inclusi(ms are easil)'
ditlerentiatcd fromlamiuations because B.W.E. sisnals are still prcscnt on the screen
among thc dcfect signals and thcy nllly be found al any depth. Two most common
typeS of inclusions are ln.ear and scanered inclnsions. Titey can bo; differenliated by
thc sigoal pauern on lhc screen.

C fttUII~ & "J'I" 0'Nc!Q

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06,'(1(;'0)

t:T9-2

U~IT

Ruane & 11
T PO'Ne/11

UT9 ULTRASO!XIC WROUGHT PLATE TESTING

Linear inclusions

:-i OT ES

10

This defccl is fonned from a sbgle incluston or a eloscly groupcd cluster of mclus 1ons
in the casi ingot. Tbts results in !he rolled oul defec!S cnding up stmtlar dcpths
wilhin tho plale. The signa! pattem eousisrs of a se! of defect rcpea1 signals anda se! of
back wall echoes. The centre of the ultrasonic beam has !he most imense cnergy and
as the probe is moved across tbe ma1crial surfacc the bcam centre ts somelimes on lhc
back wall (as it passes between !he small defec!S) and somenmes oo the individual
defcc1s. Tbis has the effect of higb B. W.E.'s and small defec1 signals or lugh defecl
signals and small B.W.E.'s altemating as the probe is moved.

20
'

30

near inetusions
- _>l_- -

..

.. '
O

1 2 3

S 6

$ t 10

Scattercd lnclusions
Tbesc are formcd from various slUd inclusions througboul !he cast ingo1 and wben
roUcd oul the sbapcs, si=, orientauons and depths of the dcfccrs in !he pla1e vary.
The varyiug orientation and shape has !he effec1 of scaltering the sound beam, as il
passcs tbrough !he plale, aod iflhc sound reachc.~ the back wall and reflccls back, thcn
il scattcrs ogain on !he rerurn joumcy. This causes significan! aneouatton in tite
amplitudc of !he B.W.E., eompared to a defcct free arca. The amptitudes of the signals
from the defects also VIl)' because of !he diffcrences in stzes and onentarions. Tbe
signals we see lhen on !he screen are, a low D. W.E. and a clusler of signals. of various
amplitudes and depth, from tbe defects. Thc ch.tsler of signals from !he defects has a
constantly changing pattem "hen you move !he probe across !he surface.
Significant loss
Constantly cl)anging

dcfcct signo! panem

on mov<mentofJ>robe :

in amplitude
ofb\o\'e

70
6 ,

8ll

8 9 10

Stringers
1bese are fonned from non-metalhc mclusions in !he casi ingoL Tbe mclustons are
rolled otll into long tbm smng-lik.e shapcs (as the namc implies). Tbe stgnal response
from a stringer is vcry mucb lik.e a lmear inclusion sigual, whcn scannUlg across tlte
rolling direction oflhe plate. In the rolling direction, the D.W.ll. is still prescnt, but tbe
stgnal can be maintaincd a long !he defec(s length.

100

O R!Unt ~ T P O'NtiU

llallf .C 06-'(IL'O)

UT9-3

U~IT

Ruane & JI
T P O'Neill
~

UT9 ULTRASOI'\IC WROUGHT PLATE TESTJ]';G

OTES

10

20

A Rolling lap
4o

50

This defect occurs in the rolling proccss, when too great a rcrluction in section is
attemptcd, it1 one rolliog pass. T he material folds ow r o nto itsclr nnd is Oattcncd into
the surfacc by rhe rolls. This lea ves a visible scam on one sirle of thc plate. Thc sinal
response, from the oppositc side of tbe pi ate, is tbe same as with a lamination on one
edge ofthe dcfcct (probo positiou A). Al 1he other edse, (13) thc signa! from tlc defect
drops very low, o r disappears, bcfore tbc B.W.E. appcars, i.e. beforc lhe p robc rcaches
the edge of tbe dcfect. This is because the defect surfacc slopes down toward the
bottom surfaco of !he plato, this cau.scs the sound to deOect away from thc probe. As
thc probe is moved offthe edge ofthe defcct (posirion C), d\e D.W.E. comes up. 'Th.e
sloped eod of the defect tbereforc has 10 be sizcd by perfo rming a 6 dB drop on thc
B.W.E. (lf the s loped arca has a degrcc of i.rregularity, then thc mnxirnum ampli111de
tcchniqne would be an altcrnntive).

60

... .....me ....

... .
..
...
..

'

: : ' . . . : :. : . .
. .. . .
..
. . .. . .

70

: .: I~J: : .. ' :.
'

'

O 1 2 3 4 S 6 1 1 9 10

l..op

so

Acccpt and rcjcct criteria

90

When defects are found it may be rcquired that the dcfects are reportcd, or dlC material
may be aceepted, rcjected or graded aceording to dtc defects found. The aceept!rejec!
crileria tcll us wha! s izc nnd iype of dcfccts lo rcport, which defccts rcnder the
eomponcnt rejcctable, or which defects to assess for grading of the matcl'inl. 11e
criteria can be found in a procedure, n written instruction sheet o r in a natlonal
standard-

100

O Runt ll '1'

1$11

<1

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UT94

U~IT

Ruanc & 11
T P O'Nclll
~o

r.s

UT9 ULTRASO~IC WROUGHT PLATE TESTE'IG

Reporting
10

A reporl should give dctails of the componcrll identification, test orea, surface
condition, equipment uscd, sensitivjty settings and a d ra,viug s howin.g thc dcfects and
details such ns; dctect ype, sizc, lateral and longinrdinal positions in rclation lo
darums, etc .. The rcport should be sigrcd and doled and there may be a requircmentlu
state yoor relcvant qualrlications. Allemativcly, if gradin material, instead of a
drawing you may be asked lo give a written statcmenl of conformity Jo Jhc releva ni

grade, or ucccptancc lcvcl, ofChe national stao.dat'd \:mpJoyed.

20

40

70

90

100

~ )(u Aolt (;. ,. f"

lw~~:e4

Ot'i/ 01.'0)

o f"(ill

UT9-5

UNIT UTIO ULTRASONIC WELD TESTING

Ruane & 11
T P O'NeJ/1

ULTRASONJC WELD TESTJNG

NO T ES

10

T ECHNIQUE
Wben scarchi.ng for defects in welds you should have, as a mnimum. the following
infomJation, which is usually wrinen on a teclmique or instruction sheet (sce the
appendices for an example).

20

The test component identification and arca to test.

Actions to be taken wben defects are found.

The purpose of the test (defectS sougbt and acceptance eriteria).

Equipment required.

What method and leve! of ICSI seositivity to use (prcparations).

The method of scaoning.

30

40

The instntction sheet would also coutain sections giving details of any relevant safcty
procedures and post test procedures such as tJe cleaning of the test area afterwards. 11
would also have the company name, a unique tcchnical reference number, tbe
originalor's name and signature aod an authorising signamre.

Test area
The test may involve exami.ning the whole, of a component, or just the weld aod heac
affected zone, this must be spccified.
50

Actions to be taken
When defecl' are found it may be required that tbe defects are reponed, c.g. on a
diagram or as a written description, or the weld, may be acccpted or rejected based on
the defeets found. If defects are to be reponed then tl\e defect information that nceds
reporting would be containcd in this section, Le. Defect type, size, lateral and
longitudinal position in relation to daturns, etc.

60

Purpose of the test

70

This section tells us the acceptlreject criteria for particular defects, i.c. what size and
type of defects to report, or which defects render the weld, or parent metal. rcjcctablc.
Note: Defects in the parent metal, adjaceot to the weld, could liruit the weld scans with
thc ang1e probes.

Equipment
The type of flaw detector, types, si7..cS, angles and frequencics of probes, typc of
couplant and calibratioo or reference blocks to be used, should be stated.

so

Sensitivity
Method of setting and le,el of seositivity need to be quoted fot eacb scao, e.g. usiJ.1g an
80% F.S.H. DAC curve, ploned from 3 mm diameter s ide dri!led holes, add 14 dB to
the gain. TI\is information may be contained in a scclion on prcparation for thc test,
along with things likc; lighting conditions, surface cleanliness etc.

90

Scanniug method
lnc method of scarming the material is either a written, step by step, iostruction or
technquc sheet, or involvcs foUowiog tbe steps Jaid out in the relevan! oational
ShUldard.

100

~ Ro~ ..... &

r f' O 'Neln

lu:vt ..1 06,1)1f1).'J

UTJ0-1

UX IT UTIO UL TRASONIC WELD TESTING

Ruane & 11
T P O'Ne/1/

An example vriuen slep by step instruCIIOn, for a single vee bult wcld, could be:

JO

20

1.

Visually inspecl thc parent mela) and wcld suaces, reporling 1he surface
condi1ion and lhe presencc of any weld cap defccts.

2.

Sean the porent lllC1al with a

3.

Draw up full size working diagrams nnd cursors (plolting systcms). notmg surface
distanoes and beam paths for each angle probe on balf skip and full skip posiliOns.

4.

Mark lhc centreline of the weld and lhc surface distance for each probe onto lhe
seanning suace.

5.

Using a gnide strip behind tlle probe, perform a critica) root sean by scauning
latcrally on a fixed line parallcl wilh the weld axis, with tl1c probe index poiut at
thc half skip surface dislancc, wilh cnch probe (access pcrmit1in). Mnkc u no1e,

o probc, check and report tbc thick11CSS and any

defects. Whcrc the cap is drcssed fla t sean ihc weld metal witl1 th o probe for
defects and record 0 11 a rough report.

on a rough ctiagr::uu> of auy suspcctcd dcfective aJ'eas of lhc roo1, as 1hey are

30

located with cach ptobe. Assess cach snspect area individuall y to ascerlain
whetlter lhc arca is a defect, wbed1er 1he defccl is in the rool, if so, what type of
dcfcct and ils size and position. Record the defects on tbe rough rcport.
6.

Sean !he weld body on full skip, wilh caeh angle probe in turn (acccss pennining},
by moving the probe back aod fortb belwccn the half and full skip surface
distances, whilst gradually lraversing the lenglh of lhc wcld. Assess each signal
tllal fa lis witl>iu d>e balf skip to full skip beam patb range as 11 1S loeatcd. Record
tbe dcfccts on lhe rough report.

7.

Sean lhe wcld body on halfskip, with cnch ongle probe in tum (acccss pcrmitting),
by moving 1hc probe back and fortb betwcen thc half skip surface dislance and lhc
weld cap, o r pMI thc wcld centre line if the cap has bccn ,cmovcd, wbilsl
gradually traversing the length ofthc wcld. Assess each sigoallbal falls wilhin lhc
zcro lo half skip beam path range (except the dcad zonc), as it is locaied. Record
the defecls on tbe rough reporl.

50

8.

Sean tbe weld for transverse defec~ by searung down the axis of lhe wcld, whcre
the cap is removed, using snfflcicnl seans and differeut aogle probes 10 e usure full
coveragc of lile weld body, on balf and full skip whcrc ncccssary. Assess and
record the defects on the rougb epotl.

9.

70

80

Transfcr the noted defects from lhe rough rcport lo a pro-fonna rcport shcel and
make a note of signa! amplihtdes in comparison to ll1e DAC curvo at 1hc test
sensitivity leve!.

All notcd indications should be asscssed, using me plotting system nnd chunging
probes as necessary, as to wbetller Lhey are in fact defccts, oot spurious indications. lf
thcy are defeets tben tbe type, size and posilion in relation to the dalum and the centre
linc of the weld sbould be assessed. (Tbc sizi11g of defects to be carried om as in lhc
..00 scanning" or angle probe scanning" scction of these ootes, as appropriate, oras in
a relevan! uational standard)
T11e fmished repor1 should be signcd a11d dalcd b a levcl two o perntor.

90

100

ORu-"'- TP'O'~rut

._.. _..,..,

l!l'lG-2

t;\'IT t:TIO

Ruane & 11
TP O 'Ne/11

t:LTRASO~IC

WELD TESTI~G

D EFECT SJGNAL lNTERPltETATION

10

Once it has bccn establishcd that a signa! is an indicarion of dcfcc1, thcn the next
stage is lo try to cstablish what type of dc('cct it is. This is done by interpreta!ion of Jhe
s igna) shape, size and response to oJovcrncnt oftlle probe, the position oflbe dcfect in
the weld and lmowledgc of tbe typcs of defects expected.

Signa! shapc aod size

20

30

l~igh amplitudc sharp signals are Jdicntive of specular (mirror-like) retlcctoJ'S, such as
large Oat defccts, that are perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam. \\1Jen using angle
probes, in wcld testing, a high ampli!udc sharp signa! that drops in amplin.dc
significantly, os tbe probc is swivcllcd slightly (so ll1nt the bcam is 1101 perpendicular to
tl>c defect), would indicate o lack of f'us ion . If thc defect plots at n position wherc the
bcvel ou thc paren! metal was, prior to wclding, thcn this may indicate a lack of side
wall fusion. 1f tbe signa! plottcd in thc bottom comer of the root face thcn it roay
indicate a lack of root fusion. lf it plottcd in !he bottom comer of thc root face on botb
sidcs oftbe wcld then il mny be incomplc1e pcnctration of thc root mn. This illustratcs
thnt defect intCI'pretation is not ouly dcpcndam on signa! charactcl'istics, but also 011 its
plotted position.

Specular reOcction
10

Perpendicular
to thc bcam

so

60

70

l.,ow amplitudc signals are indicalive of poor, or highly attcnualive tellcccors, or

dcfccts or renectors that are not peq)endicuJar (O the ultrasonic bcam. Exnmplcs of
poor reflectors are interfaces wbere the ratio of thc acoustic impcdances of thc
interface materials is low such as cladding mat.erials, applicd to improvc SIITface
qualities of some componcnts (lood bearing or anri-corrosion materials). 1-Jighly
allcnuativc retlcctors are ones with rough surfaccs, such as cracks, or smnll multiplc
dcfccts, such as porosity or inclusions, wbich scattcr the sound in diffcrcnt dircctions
(away from the probe). Spccular reflectors that are not perpendicular to thc beam
(even by only a few degrccs) rcdirect the sound away from !he probe so less, or none
of it, rel\lms.
Scattering effect

80

Crack

90

100

Porosily/slag inclusions

Multiple sig.nals are often obtairJ(cfrorn multi-faceted or multiple defects such as

cmcks, porosity or slag inclusions Cracks usually give a bigher lli_gJ)"l response !han
porosity or slog (size for sizc, at the same sensitivity and beal!(~aiiJDhe sW>nls from
a crack, or porosity, will risc and fallas lhe probc is swivelled.y1e signal pallCJ'll from
a crack will dccrease in amplitude, if lhe probe is orbitcd ar<nmd il, whcrcas !he signa]
pattero from porosity, ora slng inclusion, can be maintaincd when the probc is orbited,
because tbe porosity or slag inclusion is voluroetric (see "angle probe scanning"
section ofthe no1es for dctails on swivel and orbital scans).

O Jluant ~T I' O'Nt-111

I"!!IOf 1 1J.'0li0J

UTI0-3

UNIT UTIO

Ruano & 11
T P O'Ne/1

ULTRASO~IC

WELD TESTI!IiG

Signa! responses from wcld defccts

~OTI'S

As previously m cnlioued the position where thc signa! plots >lays a signiftcant o le in
determining defect type and bere are a few examples:
10

Root defccts
Lack of p cnetration
High amplitudc comer siguals both sidcs of the wcld, rapidly dccreasing in amplirude
on ro1ational sca.n. Plotting at phte thickn.e ss dep~>, the width of tbe mot gap apar~

wich no CI'Oss-ovcr.

20

! :. ~ : . ~

:. ~ :. ~ ,.
. .. :. . .. .. .. .. .. ..

30

Incompltc r ool
penclration
'

.. . ,...
.........
...
,.
..... :.
"

1 1

O tll4 ).11t,.,

ttm

Lae k or root rusioo

40

High amplitude signa! defect side of the weld, rapidly decreasing in amplitude on
rolalional sean aud plotting al plale bottom beam patll. ('O>ere may also be a sigoal
fTolll lhc root bcad as wcll, particulal'ly if us ing a s teep angle probe, e.g. 45 - Sce
skc1ch).

50

. .....
. . . ..
.....
... ..

Lack ofroot

fusion

::~~~ : : :

S '

.. ... .. .

w.... ...
..-...
. .. ..... ... .. . ... .. .
. . . . ....

'

o 1 l S

. .........
...
........

..
.

'

O 1 l

S '

? t 9 10

Pre-dctcrmiDtd ~Am

l>rc d~tenni n.od beat:n

polh oo pllu bouom

~th lO pbJe boUOI"

From the opposile s idc a signal from thc root bcad should be observed wbich could
vary in signa! amplitudc on probc movemcnl. Thc beam path plotting slightly longer
lhan the pi'C-determined BP from platc bottom.
70

Thc tip of lhe LORF is unlikely 10 be monitored at all from this sidc bccausc of its
vel'tical oricntatiou.
Root crack
Subjcct lo orient.1lion ond crack irregularity, it would be uonnol to cxpect a high
amplitude, muhi-f.1ce1ed reflector probnbly from both sides ofthe wcld.

so

lf lhe venical hcighl of the crack was substanrial, a characleristic nmn11g signa! on thc
time base would be no1cd on a tlcpth sean wd1 thc angle probe. '11>e response would
rise and fall on rotatioual and lateral probe movements due 10 crack irrcgularity.
Toe crack plottng at thc toe of the weld root and ccno:e linc cracking plotting a1 thc
root centre.

...

.. .. ... .. .'.
. .. ,... , . ..

:: :r. :-: :; :.

100

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Root crck
(toe)

...
. ....

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:.

, ..

..

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.:

. .. .

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Ruane & 11
T P O'Neill

UTIO lJLTRASONIC WELD TESTJNG

R.oot undcrcut

10

20

Dependen! ou how sovcre tl1o undercut is will determine the type of ampli!ttdc
received, e.g. it coold be a relatively low amplitudc response or oo the othcr hand, tt
can give bigh omplitudo responses. However, associatcd with the undercut cebo will
be a sinal from tbe root bead as well (scc sketch). lfthe undercul is on one side of tbc
weld only as shown in the sketch, wben the root area is being cxanl.ned rrom thc
opposite side it is likely alta! a nonnal root bead response will be obscrvcd ouly.

. .. .. .-.- .. ........
.. . :. . :. ~ :. ~ :.

. .

..

:. :

.. .

; del'<(<

.. '.

:.:

"

:. ~

. .: .. . :r
. .' . .. .- ..
.. ,..~.::

. . . .. ' .. .

:. ' : ' :.

'

0 1 "1' -' Sii?f !I IO

tbp

30

Exccss r oo! (tCnetration (over tenctratio n}

40

Root bead lypc sigoals, both sides of thc wcld, plotting beyond cxpectcd beam path
leng~t to lhe bcad a11d crossin over. Stocper angled probcs (e.g. 38 or 45), access
permilting, giving bcst results. NB. If wcld cap is flush a o probe would give bcsl
results.

.. . .... ... .. .... . . ..

.. . .. - ~.. ..
. ..

Exccss rool
penetration

'

'

'

:. ~ :. ~ . :. ~ :.

o''' "s ' ' ' 'o

....... ,.,t..

f're..dererro.inOO bea.m

. ':. .. : :. ':. .. . ...

:. ~ .. :. .. : .. ~ ..
. ' ..' .. ... ~ . . ... .
:. . : : .. :. : ~
. . . . .. '
Oll)4)~7J9

10

.....................

~nnancd bc:u

Root concavily
Low amplil\tde si!)llals, bolh sidos of tbe weld, plotting short of plate lhiclmess, no
Cfoss-ovcr. lf only sligbt concavity it is likcly lbat ir will not be observcd
ultrasonically.

70

.. ..

,.

':.

.. . .. ... ..
~

. ... ..,. ' .... ' ..- .

~

. :. . . .. ! . :. .

.:

,. : ~ : ,.
~- : . '

:. !

' .. .

. .

: . :. : .

. .., :. ...' ~ ,..': :. ,.'..... .,..

.. ' ..
~

*l!}l).?Stlt

80

Defects in lhe wcld region (sidcwalllbody)

Lack of sidewall fusiolt
High amp~tude signa( frorn "a" on full skip and "e" oo balf skip (access pennil1ing},
plotting on tbe bevcl (as shown). Low amplimdc signals or no response (depcndnnt
ou sJag cntrnpmeut) from "b" and "d" (lower amplitudc signals ftom .. a" and ..e ,,,.hcn
the probe angle is such that the beam is not pependicular to tbe defect}.

100

~ RJ.u

14 '1 l' ()'NtiU

&u.l.C .....l.IQ

UriOS

U~ I T

Ruano & JI
T P O 'Ne /11

UTIO ULTRASONIC WELD

TESTI~G

The sigoal will nonnally be clean wilh a high amplitude rcspoose (as pre,ioosly
and orbital scanning lhe echo will faU quckly.
described) and on

'\OTE S

,,.;,..,

When siziug the dcfect's lengtb usi.ng a lateral sean, tbe amplitude response should
lO

rcmain constnnt.

Lack of shlcwall fusi on

e

20

30

Lack of intcr-mn fusion (between weld runs) would give similar signnl responses to
tbe above, but plotting anywbere iu the body of thc weld, the anglc probc w ilh n be run
perpendicu lar lO the major plane of the defcct giving thc best response.

Slag inclusfOll

40

50

Detectable from all accessible positions and directions, due to volumetrie nature.
Signa! cootains numerous balf-cycles aod bas a rounded peaJe. Signa! appcars to roll
on 1110vement of probe (lbe front edge of tbe signa! appears to fall as the back cdgc
rises and vice versa). Should be ablc to be detected, "~thin rcason, wilb nny angle
probe.

Slag inclusioo

~ .-: : : f\: :
.. .. :- . .. ..
~

..

.. : .
O 1 2 3 .4 S '

..
: .

1 1 9 10

60
Cluster porosity or lmlltiple small inclusions

70

De tectable from nll acccssiblc positions and dircctions, due to volumelric nature. Very
low amplitudc response due to s igna! a tte uuation g iving multiplc si;nals with a wide
time base. S ignal can be maintained on an orbital sean.

...... ... .........

80

...

: .":.\.:
.: .: :

90

100

l l

Porosity

. : ..

. ......
. ..

:.~:

: .~

..

......

) 4 $ ( 7 & 9 10

Cracks
Cracks can apx:ar at the toes, in thc heat affcctcd 7.one or in tbe centre of a wcld as
wcll a.s in thc root arca. The signal response from a crack in thcsc locations is much
lhe same as in thc rool (Sec previous explanation roo/ erad). "loe oriental ion of the
crack has an effect on the amplitudc and widlh of thc signa!. lf lhc major plane of thc
crack is perpendicular lo the beam thc n a h igh amplitude, narrow, group of signals is
seen. lf tbe major plane is at an oblique nngle to the beam tben a lower amplitude,
bi'Oad based, goup of signals is seen (very similar in shape ro thc s igna l fro m cluster

<C Jt.-..._1:- T P O'Ndll

~.a IN.'IIJil

t:TI0-6

UNIT UTIO

Ruano& 11
T P O 'Nei/1

ULTRASO~I C

WELD TESTil\'G

porosity). Thc signals will risc nd fall <m n rolalional scau and 1he siguals will
dimjnjsh on nn orbita1sean.

Sizing

10

The sizing methods are explnined in thc "O" probe scanoing and "angle probe
scanning" sections of the notes.

There al'e various sizing mcthods availablc and normally il is leO: up to lhe ullrnsonic
lcchnician as to which onc he/shc prefers, howcvcr. ccrtain projccts/contracts may re re
to detailcd ult:rasonic procedures which dictale the sizing mcthod to be applied.

20

In genera~ whcthcr applying maximum amplitude, 6 dB drop or 20 dB drop sizing

techniques, providing thcy are allused correctly, lhcy will all give similar resuhs.

Accept and rcjcct criterin

Wben defec1s are found it may be reqttired thnl thc defects are rcported, or lhc wcld
may be accepted or rejcctcd according to tbe defecls found. Tbe acccpt/reject critcria
tell us what size and type or dcfccts to repon or which defects rcndcr tbe weld
rejectable. Thc criteria can be found in a proc:cdurc, a written insLTUction sheet or in a
national standard.

Rcporting

40

A repon should give details of !he componcnt identification, test area, surfacc
condition, equipment used, scnsitivity scttings and a drawing showins the defects and
details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longirudinal positions in relation 10
danuns, etc. making a note of si;nal amplil\ldcs in comparisot\ lo 1hc DAC curve at 1he
test sensitivity leve!. The l'Cport sbould be signcd and dalcd nnd there muy be a
rcquirement to state yout cuncnt rclcvant quali tications. Altel'nutivcly, ifaccept.ing or
rejecting thc wcld, instead of a drawing yo u may be asked to gi ve n writtcn statement
of cotormity lo thc relevan! acceptance leve!, of !he procedure used or national
standard employed.

so

(()

70

so

90

100

Auw 11 T P O"Hdll

l.ullt. 06.'01103

UTI0-7

UNJT UTll ULTRASONJC TESTING OF FORGINGS

Ruane & 11
T PO'No/11

ULTRASONJ C T ESTING OF F OR GINGS

i\OI . S

G ENERAL

10

20

Tbe ultrasonie testing of forings of simple gcometry, sucb as bar and billc1, therc are
few limitations. When testing general forgings, such as erankshafts, ele . Lben thc most
limiting factor is the shape. On complex shapes, the surface curvatures may not nllow
good contact or coupling, lhc !lngles of 1e surfaces may preven! back wall cchoes with
probes and somc fo rgil1gs, simple o r complex, may be nuisotropic in gmin structure
(diffcrent gmin sizcs in different dlrcctio ns).

T ECRNIQUE
30

40

50

60

When searchlng for defects in forgings you should llave, as a mnimum, thc following
information, wbich is usunlly written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the
appeodiees for an exarople).

The test componen! identificalion and area to test.

Actions to be laken wben defeciS are found.

The purpose of the test (defects sought and aeceplance criterio) .

Equipment required.

W hat metl>od and leve! oftcsl scns itivity lo use.

Tlle methoct of scamting.

The instrucrio n sheet would also co11tain scclions giving details of any relevnnt sn tC!y
procedures and post test proeedures sucb as thc cleaning of tl1e test arca a Ocrwnrds. lt
would also have the company name, a unique tecbnical refereuce numbcr, the
originators namc and signature nnd nn nuthorising signature.

Test area
Tbe test may involve 1esting !he wholc. of a componcnt, or just parts, tlus must be
specified.

Actions to be taken
70

When defeeiS are fouud it may be required tl1at the defeciS are reportcd, c.g. on a
diagrrun or as a v.rritten description, or the component. or material, may be accepted or
rejceled acco rding to le defccls found. lf defecls are to be reportcd thcn thc dc fcct
info nnation tbat ueeds reporting would be contained i.o this section, i.e. dcfect type,
s ize, lateral and lo ngitudinal posicion iu relation to datums, etc.

Purpose of tb e test
80

This sectioo tells us thc accepVreject crireria fo r particular dcfccts, i.c. whal sizc and
type of defects to repo rt or which dcfccts render the component rejectnblc.

Equip ment
90

Tbis section sbould give infonnation on; the lype of flaw detector, cype, sia and
frequency ofprobes, type of couplant, calibration blocks aod refereuce blocks to use.

100

Metbod of setting and leve! of sensitivily need to be q\lOted for each sean, e.g. Set ~~e
bwe from the DGS block to 80% fsh and note thc gain setting. Still on 1e DGS block,
maximise the signa! from the flat bono m ho le at rarget dcptb (test material thickncss)
and set lhat to 80% fsh ami note the diffe,ence in dBs between thc ncw gai!l setting and

Sensitivity

C1 lt.ul.f .o:. T P" O':O(lll

l.uut 4 II&'Gh'I)J

UTl l - t

UNIT UTI 1 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS

Ruane & 11
T P O'NeiJJ

the previous one. Set tbe bwe from the test material to 80% fsh and add the differenee
noted in the first two gam setungs to tbe present gain and sean at tls leve l.

:\'oT s

10

Scanning metbod
Tite method of scanoing the material is either a written, step by step, mstrUction or
teehnique sheet, or invol,es following the steps laid out in the relevant national
standard. An example wrinen step by step could be:
L

zo

Prepare tbe material surfuce by removing any loose seale, rust, dut or other debns
and visual!y inspect for surface defects oz dama;e.

2. Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using a O" prohe and the A2 caizbration
block, for a rnnge of O to 200 mm.

30

3.

Set tbe sensitivity (as quoted in the relevant section abo,e) and apply couplant to
the test area.

4.

Sean the designat.:d test area, with a probe ovcrlap hetween seans of at Jeast 20%
ofthe probe's diarneter and ata maximum probe movement rate of 1SOmm!sec.

5.

Wheo defects meeung the eriteria in the "Purpose of the test" secuon are found,
record the relevant defeet data as in the "Actions to be'taken" secuon.

6.

Defects larger than the u!aasooic beam, i.e. where there is no bwe present, should
be si?..ed using the 6 dB drop or eqalisation methods. Defecrs that are smaller
than the ultrasonic bearn should be sjzed and positioned using the DGS dtagram
for the prohe in use. With a calibrated screeo, maximise the szgnal from the defect
and set the arnplitude to 20% fsb and record tbe gain setting. Move the probe to
an aren of the material, where the back waU is the same distance as the pre,iously
recorded defect, there are no defects and the surface condition and eurvanzres are
the sarne as the loeated defect area. Set the bwe to 200/o fsb aod note the
diffcrence hetween the previous and the oew gain setungs. Using the DGS
diagram look oo the infinity line, at the bwc dis tance, for the dB figure and add
thi.s figure to the previously noted dB dference. Read the total dB figure ( the two
just added), at the reflector beam path ( dcpth), off the graph, 10 give the eqUivalen!
sizc of the reflector.

7.

Prepare a ncat concise repon giving details of the componeot idennfication, test
area, cquipment used, senstti,;ry method and settings and a dra.,.;ng wtth the
defcct details as reeorded in section S above. Sigo and date tbe repon and statc
your relevan! qualliications.

40

so

70

Post test procedur es

This would involve eleaning any remaining couplant and din from the test arca and
covering the surface with proteetive coatings aceording to elient's req01remeots.

D EFECTS IN FORGI:-!GS

so

90

100

The interpretation of defects m forgings involves knowledge or experience of the

ex.pected types of defeet and the possible signals from thcm. In sorne sztuations it i.s a
case of reading the signa!, evaluating wleb defects do oot give tlus type of signa l. then
choosiug from the remaining possibilities as to which type of defect is most likely
Here are a few of the types of defects found m forgings:

Inclusions
Jnclusious, in forgings, are formed from Jumps of trapped solid non-metallic material
in the original cast ingot and wben forged out the sbapes, sizes, orientations and deptb.s
ofthe defects vary. The varying orientation and shape have tbe effect of scattenng the
sound beam, as it passes through. When usins a o probe on parallel sided forgings, if
the sound rcacbes the bacl< wall and reflects back, then it scatters agam on the rerum
joumC)' 1ltis causes a significant drop in the amplitude of tbe bwe, compared to a
defect free area. The amplitudes of the signals from tbe defects also vary becouse of

-t

O Ru,t Ir T PO'Stlll
0610111))

UTl l -2

UNIT UTll ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGI NGS

Ruano & 11
T PO'Nei/1
\011-'S

10

tbe differcnces in sizes and oriontations. The signals we sce len on le screen are, a
low, or no bwe and a cluster of signals, of various ampliludes and depth, from !he
defects. 11e cluster of signals nom the dcfects has a constantly ebanging pattem wben
you move 1he probe across the surfaee.
Significan< Joss
.

'

in amplilude

Constantly changmg
deroc~ sgnnl pauern

ofbwe

. '

. .

on movement of probe : . ; . . . ~ . . ~ ._.

20

. . . .....
!

O 1 2 J 4 !

.~

.'

_. o

6 7 S 9 10

30

Banding
40

When alloys are added to the tnolten material in a cast ingot, some of thcm may not
mix thoroughly and ger lefl as segregatcd material in the centre of the ingot allcr
solidiflcation. Thesc segregations gct elongared and reduced in section in the roUmg
and forging processes, this is known as banding. lf thc acoustic impedanccs of the
alloys and rhe base metal were differeut enough ultrasonic reflections may oecur. In
steel casting tl>cy generall) havc an acoustic impednnce lltat is sim.iltlr to the stcel, so
tl>ey are not usunlly found ultrasonically unless the scnsitivity of the equipment is high.

A forging lap
This defccl occurs in tbc forging process by thc material folding over on1o itself and it
is flauened, but not fused onto the surface. This usually leaves a visible seam on the
surface ofthe forging. Using a o probe, scauning from the opposite side ofthe forging
shows a signa! appcaring just befare the bwe. On the defect side of the forging this
defcct is very casily missed bccausc it is very near the surlace and if u.sing a sin:le
crysral probe the signals will be in thc dead zone. (Howe\er, cvidcnce of this problcm
would be a total loss of back wall echo, providing tbe surfacc area of the lap is latger
tban the beam).

b:::

A- dcfect at bouom

. . .. :- .. : . : ..
~

so

~ .

'\

O 1 l

.... ...- ,.
:

-o

..

3 4 S 6 7 8

lO

n- dcfect no:u

..

.~

'

deadz ne ' bwe'

(&
,.Si~ : ... ~
: .

""'de

90

..

.- l

:-

..

. . t

..
~

..

- ;

\'

1 2 '

4 )

1 9 10

100

O Rat.. A T P O'Nelll
lui1e4 lld.iilliOl

UTll-3

UNIT UTI 1 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS

Ruane & 11
T P O 'Ne i/1

lf a double crystal oo probe is used, JJ "B" the dcfect s igna! will be near zero on tbe
CRT. In both cases, if the defcct is largcr than the beam lhen lhe bwc will not be

1\011-'S

presen ~

tO

Slugs
Thesc are picces of foreign material that ha ve becn pressed into the surface and give
signa! responses much the same as a lap.

Bursts
20

30

Interna! or surfacc ruptures of the material, caused by processing ar roo low a

tempcrature or excessive working dur ing forging. The s igna! response liom U1is defe(\
vares according to the sbape, size and orientarion of the defect. The normal rules of
ultrasonic tcsting apply lo the signals reccived, i.c. Perpcndicnlar oricntotion and large
defect area give a good signa!, oblique orientation andlor small defect area gives poor
signals and larger defect arca tbon !he beam causes a loss of bwe, etc.. Deciding
whetl>er thc defect is a burst or not requires careful p lolliug of tbe responses I'Cceivcd
ro determine the shape and position.

A CCEl'T AND REJECf CRJTERIA

4Q

Wl1en defects are found it may be requircl that d1e defects are reportecl. or !he material
or componeD! may be accepted or rejected aceording ro tbe defects found. Tite
acceplireject criteria tell us what size and type of defecrs to report or wbicb defects
rencler the componen! rejeclable. The criterio can be fouod in a procedurc, a wrillcn
instruction sheet or in a natiooal standard.

so
R:EPORTlNG
A repon should give details of the componen! idcntification, test area, surface
eondition, cqllipmcnt used, sensitivity seltings and a drawing showing the dcfects and
detai ls such as; dcfect type, sizc, latero! and longitudinal positions in rclntion to
daturns, etc.. The repon should be sigoed and dated and tbere may be a requircrneot to
statc your relevant qttalifications. Altematvely, if acccptiog or rejccting thc
componen\ or material, instead of a drnwing you muy be asked Lo give a wrinen
statement of eonfonnity to the rclcvant acccpc:ance leve!, or reasoos for rejection, to the
standard elllployed.
10

80

90

100

o MUA!l~" 1',. O'NtJIJ

tu-4 ""~

UTlH

UN IT UT12 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS

Ruano & 11
T P O'Noi/1

ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS

:'\O 1 f. S

to

GENERAL
Thc \tltrnsonic testing of cast products is limited, to sorne degrcc, by thc scattering

eJTecrs of lbe coarse gra.in srntct.ure and tllc rough surfaces produccd 011 most

C~ISling

processcs. This scattering effect can be overcome by using lowcr frequency probes,
but this rcsuh.s in a reduced sensitivity.
lO

TECHNIQljE
When searching for dcfccts in castings you should have, as a mnimum, the following
information, which is usually written on a technique or instntction sheet (sce the
appcndiccs for an example).
30

50

The test component identification and are a to test.

Acticms lo be takcn when defects are found.

Thc purpose ofilie teSt (defects sought and acceptance criteria).

Equipment require<l

What metbod and level of test sensitivity to use.

The mcthod of scaoning.

The instruction sheet would also contain seclions giving details of My relcvalll safety
procedures nnd post test proccdurcs sueh as thc cleaniug of thc test rircn nfterwards. lt
would also have the company namc, a unique technical refecncc munber, the

originntors nnmc and sig.nature and an authorising signature.

Test a rca
60

The test may involve teSting the wholc of a -fing, or just sections of it, this should be
specificd.

Actious to be takeu

;o

When defects are found it may be requirod tbat the defccts are eportcd, e.g. on a
diagrarn or t\S a written dcscription, or the casting may be acccptcd or rejected
according lO l]e defects fO\\Ud. 1f defects are lO be reportcd tben thc dcfect
infonnation Ulat needs reporring would be contained in this scctio n, i.e. dcfcct cype,
size. lateral and longitudinal position h1 relntion to datun1s, etc.

Purpose of thc test

This section tells us the aecept/rejcct criteria for particulat defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report or wbich defects render ilie casting rejectable.

80

Equipmcnt
This scction should give informntion on; the type of ilaw detector, type, si7.c and
frcquency of probes, type of couplant, calibration blocks and refcrcnce blocks to use.
90

Sensitivity
Method of setting and leve! of sensirivity need to be quoted for each sean, e.g. For ilie
o probe; set the response from the 3 mm flat bottom hole refercnee reflector to 40%
fsh and sean at this leve!. For the angle probes; increase ilie gain unril 2 mm to 3 mm
of grass is obtained atilie full skip beam pad1.

lOO

o Ru"" &. r ,, 0',-(thl

b....- 06.<tlltJ

{;Tl2- 1

UNIT UTJ2 ULTRASONIC TESTING 01' CASTINGS

Ruane & 11
T P O'Neifl
"u rF.s

Scanning method
10

The method of scanning the material s ether a writtcn, step by step, insttucllon or
teehnique sheet, or mvohes follo"ing the steps laid out ID the relevant nauonal
standard. An example wrinen step by step could be:
l.

20

30

Prepare rhe material surface by removing any loose sand, rust. d1rt or olber debris
and visually inspeet for surface defects or damage.

2. Calibrate the screen on the Oaw detector, using a 0 probe and the A2 calibr.uion
block, for a range ofO to 200 mm.
3.

Set the sensitivit'y (as quoted in tbe relevaot sectioo above) and apply couplanl to
the test orea.

4.

Sean tbe designated test arca, "~th a probe overlap between scans of at least 200/o
of the probe's diameter and at a maximum probe movement rate of 150mm/sec.

5.

When dcfects meeting the criteria in 1e "Purpose of the test'' section are found,
record the relevant defe<:t data as in the "ActioliS to be taken secuon.

6.

Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, .e. where there tS no bwe present. should
be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. Defects that are smaller
than the ultrasonie beam should be sized aod postioned using the 20 dB drop
method. Multiple or multi-faceted defects should be sized usiDg tht JDaXJmum
amplitude technique.

7.

Prepare a neal concise repOn giving details of t.be casl'ing's identification, test area,
equipment used, sensitivtt'y melbod and settings and a drav.ing with the defect
details as recorded in section 5 above. Sigll and date the repon and statc your
relevan! qualifications.

Post test procedures

TIis would involve cleaning any remaining couplnnt and dirt from tbe test area and
covering thc surface wilb proteetve coatings according to client's requirements.

60

70

D E FECTS fN CASTDIGS
The interpretation of defects ID castings involves knowledge or expencnce of the
expeelcd t'ypes of defec t and the possible signals fro m them. In sorne struauons 11 is a
case of rtding the signa!, evaluating which defecls do uot give this type of signa!, theo
choosin.g from lhe remaining pessibilites as to wbich type of defect ts most ltkely.
Here are a few of the types of defects found in castings:

Inclusions

90

lnclusions are fonned from lumps of rrapped so!id non-metallic matenal in the casnng,
of various shnpes, sizes, orientations and depths. In large groups of small inclusions,
the variation, in orientation and shape, has the effect of scattering the sound beam, as it
passes through. 'When using a O" probe on parallcl sided castings, if thc sound reaches
the back wall and renects back, then it scatters again ou the rerurn oumey. This
causes a significan! drop in the nmplitude of tho bwe, compared to a dcfect free arca.
The amplitudes of the signals from the defccts also vary beca use of lbe dlfferences in
siz.es and orientatioos. The stgnls we see from multiple inclusons are, a cluster of
signals, of various amplitudes and depth, from thc defects and a low bwe, or no bwe.
The cluster of signals from the defects has a constantly chang:ing pattern wben you
move thc probe across the surface. Larger inclusions will give sttonger signals
dependan!' on the shape, size and orientation.

100

01\u.a.nt /.. Tr o ~'tlll

'-"' ' N.'OliOJ

lrT122

UNIT UT12 ULTRASONI C TESTING OF CASTINGS

Ruane & JI
T P O'Neill
NOff.S

. . .
.. .'.. ....
. . . .. . . ..
.'

JO

'

...

20

30

Segregation
\Vl>en alloys are added to thc molleo ma1cl'ial in a cast ingot, somc of d1em may not

nux thoroughly :md gct lcft as segregated material in the centre of Jhc ingot afrer

40

solidifcation. lf thc acoustlc impedances of the nlloys and the base metal were
different enough ultrasonic rcflections may occur. In steel casting thcy generally have
an ocoustic impedancc that is similar to the steel, so they are not usually found
uluasonically unless thc sensitivity of tbe equipment is high.

A llake

so

This defect occurs in !he casting process by the material splashing up tbc sides of rl1e
mould, rlUs defcct is on buJ not fused to 1he surface. This usnally leaves a visible
"Oake" of materia l on tbe smface oftbe C(lSting. Using a o probc, scauning from thc
opposite side of the casling shows a signa! appearing just before the bwe. On the
defect side of lite casting this defect is vcry easily missed becausc it is very near 1he
surface and if using a single crystal probe Jhe signals will be in the dcad zone.
A

60

~~

A defect at bottom
.

defect bwe
.. .....
. 1-:.
. . . . .. . . . ...
:

'( ... .

70

-~

O l 2 3 4 5 G '1 8

JO

B - defcct ncar surface

so
"' ...

.. . !

'.

~ . . .

O l 2 3 4 S 6 1 8 9 JO

Jf a double crystal 00 probc is used, in "B" the defecl signa! will be oear zero on the
CRT. In bo1b cases, if 1be defect is largcr than the beam thert thc bwe will no! be
prcsem.
100

Cku. ne6TPO"J\C'JII

1MIIt4 O&DI,'tiJ

UT12-3

UNIT UTI2 ULTI{ASONIC TESTING OF C ASTI NGS

Ruane & JI
T P O'Nell

Scabs
\0

Thcse are pieces o f forcigu material, from lhc insidc o f the mould that ha ve stuck to
the suacc of the casting and give signa! responses similar 10 a Oake if smootb or m ay
j ust scatter the beam if rough ..

Cold shuts
20

A lack of fusion rcsulting from splashing (a Oake), surging, interrupled pouring or lhe
meeting of two stream s of molten metnl comutg from differcnt d irections. Tis defect
g ives a good signa! respo nse ultrasonically when fa vourably orientnted to tbc beam.

Pipe or Shriukagc cavities

30

Interna! or suacc voids in the material, causcd by shrinkage dunng solidification or

insufficient fillin&of the rnould. Thc sig na! response from tls dcfect val'ies according
to the shape, si2e :md orientation of thc defcct. Thc nonnal rules of ultrasonic lesting
apply ro thc signals receivcd, i.c. Perpendicular oricntation and large de(ect aren give a
good s igonl, oblique orientation and/or small defect area gives poor signals and larger
defec1 arca 1han the beam causes a loss ofbwe, etc..

Hot tears
40

Sttrface or near surface cracks in tbe material d ue 10 different coo ling rntes at changes
in scction in a casting. l.J itrasonic testing gives low amplirudc multiple signals from
mulriple cracks or rnay give a l11gh amplitt1dc "raggcd'' signa) from a largc crack wilh
the o rien tatioo of its major planc favou rable lO the beam .

... .. ... .. .. ..
.. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .
'

~ -
\~

60

'

.. . . .. .
..: ...
: .
. .

'

.. ..

O 1 2 3 4 S 6 1 S 9 10

Porosity
70

T his volumetric dcfect gives a multiple low amplitude signa! from aU dircctioos, access
pem>itting.

Blowholes
80

Thesc are s mall bo les in ilie surface of a casting caused by the gas evolving from
dccomposing grease, moisrure, etc. This defect is no1 rcadily found ultrasonically
bccause it can be confused w ith rough sutf nce s ig nals non:rtally obl:lined on some
castings.

Alrlocks
90

Air aapped in the mo11ld duri.ng pourotg can be locnted ultrnsonically ami g ives signa!
responses dependan! on iCS sl1apc, s ize aud orientatio n.

100

c Ra..,.aTtO\"'-
l.mtt -4 OIVOI/03

UT124

UNIT UTJ2 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS

Ruane & JI
T P O'Neill

ACCEPT AND REJECT CRITERIA

JO

20

30

\Vhen defe<:ts are found il may be required that the defects are reported or the casting
may be accepted or rejectcd accordin to the dcfects fouud. The ccep~recct criteria
tell us what size and type of defects 10 report or which defects render the componen!
rejectable. The criteria can be found in a procedure, a writtcn insttuction sheet orina
narional standard.

R.EPORTING
A repon should give details of the casring idenrification, test aren, surfnce condition,
equipment uscd, sensitivity seltings anda drawing sbowing the defects and deta1ls such
as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal posnions in relation to datums, etc.. Thc
report should be signed and dated and there may be a requircment to state your
relevant qualifications. Altematively, tf accepring or rejecting the casting, instcad of a
drawillg you may be asked to givc a writtcn statement of conformity to the relevant
acceptance leveL or reasons for rcjection, to the standard employed.

50

60

70

90

100

e b&M 4.: T r O":(dl

~l 06101/03

TI2-5

APPENDIX A BRITISH STANDARDS

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1

BRITISH STAJ\'DARDS RELATING TO ULTRASONIC TESTING

lO

ns l!:N t714: 1998

Ulnasonic examination of welded joints (superseding BS 3923 : Part 1).

BS El" 1712: 1997

Ultrasonic cxamination of welded joints Acccprance lcvels
20

BS EN 1713 : 1998
Ultrasonic examination ofwelded joiuts- Characterisati<m of indications
BSEN583
UJtrasonic testing

30

Part 1 : 1999:
General

Part Z: 2001:
Sensitivity and range settiJ>g
40

Part 3 : 1997:
T:ransrn.ission
Par! 4 : 2002:
Ultl'asonic exautination for discontinuities perpendicular to the surface

50

BS EN 10160: 1999
Ultrasonic testing of stccl flats (superseding BS 5996).
BS EN 10228 : Part 3 : 1998
Ultrasonic testing of fenitic and martensitic steel forgings (superseding BS 4124)

60

ns EN 10228: Part 4: 1999

Ultrasorc testing of Austeniric stai.nless steel forgings (supcrseding BS 4 124)

ns EN 1Z668 : zooo
70

Verification of UT eqtprnent : Pat13 : combincd cqlliprnent (supersediug BS 4331

Pare!)

ns EN 12n3 : zooo
Non-rlestmctive-tcsting Ultrasonic examination Specifcation for block no. 1
(snperseding BS 2704).
80

BS EN 27963 : 1992
Calibra!ion block no. 2 tor ultrasonic exami.natio.n of welds (supcrseding BS 2704).
BS EN 1330 : Par! 4 : 2000
Non-destructive-testiog terminology: Part 4 : Ultrasonic tesring (snperseding BS 3683)

90

BS 3923 : Part 2 : 1972

Automatic ultrasonic examination of welds

BS 6208 : 1990
Ultrasonic testiug offerritic steel casrings iucluding quality levels.
100

BS 3923: J>art 1: 1986 (obsolete)

Ultrasonic examination of welds

J:>Rilfll'lt$. 'l'f'O'NtiU
ruut 4 0(\:0J/03

APPA-1

AI'PENDIX A BRITISII STANI>ARDS

Ruane & 11
T PO'Nei/1

S S 5996 : 1993 (obsolete)

Acceptance levels for intemal imperfcctions in steel plalc, strip and wide fMs . bascd
on ultrasonic testing.

1\0IES

10

.6S 4124 : 1991 (obsolete)

Ultrnsonic detection of imperfoclions iu steel forgiJlJ!S.
BS 4331 : 1978 (obsolete)
Assessing thc performance cbaracteristics of ultrasonic flaw dctection cqu ipmcnt.

20

Part 1:

Overall performance: on-site methods.

8S 2704 : 1978 (obsolete)
Cnlibration blocks for use in ultrasonic flaw detection.
30

:OS 36S3 : l'art 4 : 1985 (obsolcte)

Terms uscd in OO!l-destructive testing : Part 4 : Ultrasonic naw detection.
OD 174 (obsolctc)
Calibration of time of night di ffraction

90

(
(

e
100

e
1) R,"' .~ 'r r or.cm
~ .. 06-'(lJ,'Q;)

A.PPA-2

'

APPEN DIX 8 l'ORI\IVLAE

Ruane & JI
T P O'Nei/1
:\ U T.: s

FOR.MULAE USED IN "LTR.ASONrC TESTlNG

10

Wavelength

). e

Whcre:
),
= Sound wavelength (mm)
V
Material sound velociy (mmis)
f
Sound frequency (}U)

..

20

Near zouc

Dz
N

D 2f
4v

or

4).

N
D

.<
f
V

Half beam angle

Sin A =

K;

Kv
Df

or

40

D
V

f
;t

K
50

Snell's lnw

Sin a
VI
=
\12
Smp

;o

so

Ht
H2

dB

Hl
2

= 2f

90

Material velocity V =

T
TB

Hnlf bcam angle (degrecs)

Crystal diameter (mm}
Material velocity (nunls)
= Sound frequency (Hz)
= Sound wavelength (nun)
Constant:
1.22 for 0% edge
1.08 for 10% edge
0.56 for 50% edge of the beam
5

IJlcident (wedge) angle ( 0 )

= Refracted (probe) angle ( 0 )
VI
Yelocity in medium 1 (mis)
Velocity in medium 2 (mis)
V2

dB = 20log 10

Crystal thickness 1

-..

60

Decibel

--

= Near zone (mm)

Crystal diam eter (mm)
= Sound waveleogth (mm)
Sound frequcncy (Hz)
Material velociy (rrun.s)

CV

..
=

Decibel
1" signa! height (100%)
2"" signa! hetght (~ ofH 1)

Crystal thickness (mm)

Sound veloctty in crystal
material (mm!s)
Fundamental frequency that thc
crystal vibra tes at (Hz)

= Unlcuown velocity (mis}

T = Material actual thickness (mm)

TB = Time base reading (mm)

cv

Calibration block veloc1ty (ms)

100

tbuI: TP O'frfdl

tu.... .-

O&~ovn.t

Al'PB l

APPENDIX C TABLF. OF ACOUSTICAL VF.LOCITIES

Ruane & 11
T P O'Ne//1
'Olt:S

T ABLE OF ACOUSTICAL VE.LOCITIES JN DJFFERE.NT MATEIUAJ.S

JO

Comprcssiona1 or
Material

20

Aluminium
Brass
C4st iron
Coppcr

Oold
lron
Lead
Oil
P crspex

30

longHudiml wave vclocity

( mis)

Shcar o transve1sc
wavc vclocity
{m/s)

6,400

3,130

4,372
3,500
4,769

2, 100
2,200
2,325

3,240
5,957
2,400

1,200
3,224
790

1,440
2,740

1,320

~1ild steel
Stainless stecl
Water

5,960
5,740
1,480

3,240
3, 130

Tungsten

5,174
4, 170
4,650

2,880
2,480

Zinc
Zirconium

2,300

The vclocity in a mcdium depends upoo lhe mcdium's dcnsily aod elaSiicity.

60

80

90

100

o tt1nt & 'I'J O'Xcllt

b-..t 4 O.S.'OliOO

APPC-1

AJ>PENDIX D TABLE OF ACOUSTIC li\IPEDA;'I;CES

Ruene & JI
T P O'Nelll
i\t)rEs

T ADLE OF ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCES FOR DlFFERENT MATERJALS

lO

Compre
Medimn

ssion

velocily

Shear
vcloclty (m/s)

Oenslty

Acoustic

(glcm2)

impcdancc

3,130

2-7
5.7
1.8
8.45
7.2
8.93
2.5
19.3
7.85
11.4
2.1
1.74
13.55
10.2
8.85
0.9
1.2
21.4
2.65
7.8
7.8
10.5
7.3
4.5
19.3
10. 5

3,980
2,020

18.7

17.2
30
23.2
37
25
42.5
14.5
63
46.8
24.6
11.2
10.1
19.6
63.7
48.5
1.3
3.2
85
15.2
46.5
44.8
36.9
24.7
27
100
2165
66.5
63
1.48
296

lrn/s).
20

Ait
Aluntinium
Barum tiranatc
Beryllium

Brass
30

so

Casi iron
Copper
Glass (plate)
Gold
!ron
Lead
Lirllium sulpllate
Mng.nesium
Mcrcury
Molybdemun
Nickcl
Oil
Perspex
Plarinum
Quartz

60

Steel
Srainlcss stccl
Silver
Tin

Til1uum
Tnngstcn
Tungsten araldite
Tungslen carbide
Urarum
Water

30

Zinc

330
6,400
5,260
1,289
4,370
3,500
4,760
5,770
3,240
5,960
2,160
5,450
5,790
1,450
6,250
5,480
1,440
2,740
3,960
5,730
5,960
5,740
3,700
3,380
5,990
5,170
2,060
6,650
3,370
1,480
4, 1'70

888
2,100
2,200
2,330

1,200
3,220
700

3, 100

3,350
2,990

1,320
1,670

3,240
3,130
1,700
1,610
3,1 20
2,880

!O

2,480

7.1

90

100

O M~U.M le T P 0\"ttGI

l.swo 4 O&i\ti!IIJ

APPD-1

AP I'ENDI X E- ATTENUATI ON FACTOR

Ruene & JI
T P O'Ne/11

'o s
EXA1"11'LE 1\'IET.UOD FOR DETERMINING THE ATTENUATJON
FACTOR OF A MATEIUAL

10

0 probe method
Using n calibratecl timcbase, place lhc probe on thc material to be meamrcd. Selcct
two back wall cchocs ata disrance ratio of 2:1, tbe first one bcing at leastlhree ocar
zone distances from ZCTo. Mcasurc thc difi'erence io amplitudc, in dB's, of the two
signals nnd record their range difference. The back wall echo dccrea.~es in amplitude
by 6 dB for every doubling of 1he r<>nge. T hc atteruntion factor can be dotermined by
subtracting 6 dB fro m tbe amplitudc differertce (in dB) and dividing this by 1\\'ee tbe
range diffcrence (retum joumey of the sound).

20

TI1is method becomcs less accurate as ~oc number or multiple ochoes used increases,
duc to the fact tl>nl about 1 dB of sound rc-enters the probe, on each bounce of the
sound, al tbe probc lo material interface.

30

Correction for attenuation and transfcr loss

' 8S EN S&J-1 : 1001

When reference or calibration blocks are used, lherc ma y be attenuation differenccs

betwecn tbe block and t~t object (in suace condilion or material). Mcthods for
detem1ining lhcse attenuation difTerencesore given in the curren! standards'.

40

so

60

70

'

90

100

R11.a11t & 1' 11 O'N\'111

111 ~ 1

O-Ollnl

AI'I'ENDIX F EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Ruano & f/
T PO'Nei/1

EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS USED IN ULTRASONICS

10

Wavelengtb (l)
To cnlculatc lhc wavelcng~l of a 5.0 M Hz,

o probe whcn used o n stccl.

F rcqueocy (t) = 5.0 Mllz

Velocity of COOlpreS.~ion waves in steel (v) a 5,960 mis
20

i\.;;:.:::.
f

5.960,000 mm/s
A. = 5,960 m/s
=
5,000,000 Hz
5 M H"
30

= 1.19

mm

Nea1 zone (N)

40

To calculate lhe near zone of a 20 mm diameter, 5.0 MHZ,

aJuminium.

probe uscd on

Frequcncy (f) = 5.0 M Hz

Vclocity of compression waves in aluminium (v) = 6,400 mis

Crystal diamcter (D) 20 mm

N= ~
4A.

70

02
r
or- x
4

N =

20 mm 2
4

N =

400 nun
4

N=

78. 125 mm

SMHz
6400 mis
5,000,000 Hz
6,400,000 mm/s

Hall' beam angle (A)

To calculatc thc half beatn sprcad from a JO mm d iameter, 5.0 MH1., 0 probe uscd on
steel.
~o

Frcquency (f) = 5.0 MHz

Vclocity of comprcssion waves in steel (v) = 5,960 m/s

Crys!al diameter (D) = 1O mm

90

Constant (K)= 1.22 (assume extreme cdgc

statcd)

or bemn K-facto r unless o therwisc

100

O Kmio!lt&'r J'O'NdU
~<: 4 lli\J(l l/00

AI>PF-1

'

APPENI>IX F EXAl\ll'LE CALCULATIONS

Ruane & 11
T P O'Nelll
NOl'E)oi

K.t

Sin.!. 9 = - or
2
D

-x

10

Sin.!_
2

20

1.22
-to

1.22
10

Sin.!:. 9 = - 2

5,960 mis

5 M Hz

5,960,000 mm/s
5,000,000 Hz

Sin.!. 9 = 0. 145424
2
30

40

Snell's law
To calculatc lhe inciden\ (wedge) nnglc, in pcrspex, rcquired to produce a 6Q refrnclcd
(probe) angle in steel (0: 0 = inciden! angle).
Refractcd anglc ({3) = 60
Velocily of comprcssion wavcs in petspex = 2,740 m/s
Velocily of sllcar wtwes in stecl = 3.240 m/s

50

Sin a
V!
.
VI
.
--{3- = transposes toSm et = - x S m {3
&n
~
V2

Sin a -

60

2 740

mis x Sin 6QO

3,240 mis

740
Sin o:= 2.
x 0.860025403
3,240
Sin o; = 0.732379508

70

Angle a= 47 05'

80

Transit time
To calculate the time taken for a longillldinal wave to travel through t picce of steel
20 mm thick and rcturn to thc probc.
Oislance ttavelled (0) = 40 mm (2 x thickness)

Velocity of longitudinal waves in stccl (v) = 5.960 mis

90

. . ,,. )
O (mm)
Transll tune..,.. sec =

v (km.ls)

Transit time=

40mm
-::-:-:,.=:.:;.,-

5.96 krn/s

100

Transit time= 6. 7 f.!Sec

O RtUM & T P O'Ndll

.11U

-4

06/1)1~3

AI'PENI>IX F EXAi\IPLE CALCULATIONS

Ruane & JI
T P O'Neill
1\0rJ:s

Clock interval
To calculale the time bctween pulses of energy when the pulse repctition frcqueocy
lO

(prl) is sel m 4 KH< (4000 H2).

Clock intcrnl (J.Iscc)=

20

Clock imcrval

1
prf(MHz)

0.004MHz

Clock inLerval = 250 ~scc

30

Maxiroum testable tbickness

To calculate thc maximum thickncss of steel we can Lest wictl u scLprf. wc cnlculme thc
e lock intervnl, thcn calculntc distance travellcd by ~le sound in that time and divide by
two (fO<' retum journey). Using tbe above example prf, the maximum thickness would
be:

40

Vclocity of compro.ssion waws in stcel = 5,960 m/s

Time (clock inlerval) = 250 JlSCC
.
.
Time (~sec) x Velocity (km/s)
Max1mum thockness (mm)=
2

. :. ::===!...;;.-=-";;.:..=-->==:..:.

50

,tv1. axamum
.
.L,
k
_25_0_x--=5--=.9~6
uuC ocss =
2
Maximum thickncss 745 nun

60

70

so

90

100

ku..K k T r O'Sdl

li\ll ll4 06.'Ul'<l3

APPF-3