Ginger (Zingiber Oficinale Rosec.) : Production, Postharvest Handling, Processing and Marketing - A Comprehensive Extension Package Manual

GINGER
(Zingiber oficinale Rosec.)
PRODUCTION, POSTHARVESTHANDLING,
PROCESSING AND MARKETING:
A COMPREHENSIVE EXTENSION PACKAGE
MANUAL
Organized by:
Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)
December, 2013
Hawassa, Ethiopia
GINGER
(Zingiber oficinale Rosec.)
PRODUCTION, POSTHARVESTHANDLING, PROCESSING
AND MARKETING:
A COMPREHENSIVE EXTENSION PACKAGE MANUAL
Organized by:
Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)
December, 2013
Hawassa, Ethiopia
ii
Copyrights 2013 FARM AFRICA and Authors

All rights reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher and
Authors.
For permission to use material from this Manual please contact the authors (detailed contact
information under List of Authors) and FARM AFRICA Ethiopia Country Office via:
Telephone:
+251114674129
P. O. Box:
5746 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. viii
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... xi
LIST OF AUTHORS ........................................................................................... xiii
TECHNICAL EDITION: ...............................................................................................................................xiii
LANGUAGE EDITION: ........................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS ...............................................................................................................xiii
THE NEED FOR THIS MANUAL .................................................................... xiv

PART I .............................................................................................................1
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................1
1.1
Uses of Ginger .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.2
A Brief Description of Ginger Morphology.................................................................................. 4
1.3
Ginger Production in Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 6
1.4
Ginger Production in SNNPRS ..................................................................................................... 8
1.5
Trends of ginger production in SNNPRS.................................................................................... 11
1.5.1
Diversity of ginger in SNNPRS .......................................................................................... 12
1.5.2
Climate and soil .................................................................................................................. 19
1.5.3
Temperature ........................................................................................................................ 19
1.5.4
Soil Requirement for ginger production ............................................................................. 20
1.5.5
Rainfall ................................................................................................................................ 20
1.6
References ................................................................................................................................... 21
2. AGRONOMY OF GINGER ...........................................................................23

2.1
Pre-harvest Management of Ginger ............................................................................................ 23
2.1.1
Land Preparation ................................................................................................................. 23
2.1.2
Method of propagation and management of planting materials .......................................... 24
2.1.3
Rhizome Seed size .............................................................................................................. 26
iv
2.1.4
Seed rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting ...................................................... 27
2.1.5
Application of organic and inorganic fertilizers ................................................................. 28
2.1.6
Weeding/Cultivation of ginger ............................................................................................ 30
2.1.7
Crop rotation and intercropping .......................................................................................... 31
2.1.8
Mulching ............................................................................................................................. 31
2.2
2.2.1
With-in-the Season Harvesting ........................................................................................... 33
2.2.2
Extended harvesting/over seasoning/ perennation .............................................................. 34
2.3
Organic Ginger Production ......................................................................................................... 35
2.1.1
Consequences of Modern, intensive agriculture ................................................................. 35
2.1.2
Benefits of Organic farming ............................................................................................... 37
2.1.3
Methods and materials used for organic farming ................................................................ 37
2.1.4
Steps in organic ginger production ..................................................................................... 38
2.2
Perennating /over seasoning and with-in season harvesting of ginger........................................ 32
References ................................................................................................................................... 39
PROTECTION OF GINGER.........................................................................41
3.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 41
3.2
Factors affecting ginger production ............................................................................................ 42
3.2.1
Major diseases of ginger ..................................................................................................... 42
3.2.2
Major Pests of ginger plant ................................................................................................. 49
3.3
References ................................................................................................................................... 52
PART II .........................................................................................................53
4
HARVESTING AND POSTHARVESTHANDLING OF GINGER ..........53

4.1
Harvesting ................................................................................................................................... 54
4.1.1
Harvesting Maturity ............................................................................................................ 55
4.1.2
Harvesting Time.................................................................................................................. 55
4.1.3
During Harvesting ............................................................................................................... 56
4.1.4
Harvesting Methods ............................................................................................................ 56
4.1.5
Harvesting Tools ................................................................................................................. 58
4.1.6
Loosening the soil and Lifting ............................................................................................ 60
4.2
After Harvest ............................................................................................................................... 61
4.2.1
Trimming and Washing ...................................................................................................... 61
4.2.2
Curing ................................................................................................................................. 61
4.2.3
Cleaning .............................................................................................................................. 62
4.2.4
Cleanliness specifications for ginger .................................................................................. 62
4.2.5
Grading, packaging and labeling......................................................................................... 63
4.2.6
Transport ............................................................................................................................. 66
4.2.7
Ginger Storage .................................................................................................................... 66
4.2.8
Storage practices ................................................................................................................. 69
References ................................................................................................................................... 72
4.3
GINGER AGRO-PROCESSING...................................................................73
5.1
Principles of Ginger Processing .................................................................................................. 73
5.2
Major Ginger Processing ............................................................................................................ 73
5.2.1
Green Ginger Processing .................................................................................................... 73
5.2.2
Dried and powdered Ginger Processing .............................................................................. 74
5.2.3
Ginger Essential Oil Extraction .......................................................................................... 83
5.2.4
Ginger Oleoresins ............................................................................................................... 84
5.3
Quality and Safety Requirements for ginger and its products .................................................... 87
5.4
References ................................................................................................................................... 94
NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GINGER ......................96

6.1 Nutritional Significance of Ginger .................................................................................................... 96
6.1
Health Benefits of Ginger ........................................................................................................... 97
6.2
References ................................................................................................................................... 98
PART III ....................................................................................................100

7
GINGER VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS ......................................................100

7.1
Ginger Marketing ...................................................................................................................... 100
7.1.1
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 100
7.1.2
Ginger marketing and Market Place ................................................................................. 101
7.1.3
Spice export by country of destination.............................................................................. 107
7.1.4
Future Perspectives of the Ethiopia Spices ....................................................................... 109
7.1.5
Ginger Market requirements of quality standards and grading ......................................... 110
7.2
Ginger Value Chain .................................................................................................................. 112
7.2.1
Over view of ginger Value Chain ..................................................................................... 112
vi
7.2.2
7.3
Ginger Value Chain Map .................................................................................................. 113
Level of Support for ginger Value Chain.................................................................................. 117
7.3.1
Government agencies ........................................................................................................ 117
7.3.2
Government agencies ........................................................................................................ 117
7.3.3
Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX) ........................................................................... 118
7.3.4
Farmers Organizations ..................................................................................................... 119
7.3.5
Some activities initiated by private businesses ................................................................. 120
7.3.6
Development partners and donors..................................................................................... 120
7.4
Overall issues in Value Chain Analysis .................................................................................... 121
7.4.1
Constraints ........................................................................................................................ 121
7.4.2
Opportunities..................................................................................................................... 123
7.5
References ................................................................................................................................. 125
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Fresh ginger (Left) and dried ginger (Right) ............................................................................ 3
Figure 1-2: Parts of a ginger plant: side tillers (left), foliar and subterranean organs (middle), and
rhizome (right)........................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 1-3: Ginger Flower ........................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 1-4: Feminine Wolaita (left), Masculine Wolaita (right) ........................................................... 13
Figure 1-5: Subterranean parts of Bilbo with two tap roots (left) and Volvo with a single tap root (right)
................................................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 1-6: Released varieties of ginger: Boziab (left) and Yali (right) .................................................... 18
Figure 2-1: Non-sprouted (left) and sprouted (right) ginger rhizome piece .............................................. 25
Figure 2-2: Recommended size of ginger rhizome piece ............................................................................ 26
Figure4-1: Manual harvesting (hand picking holding the stems/branches) of ginger ............................... 57
Figure4-2: Harvesting Machines ................................................................................................................ 58
Figure4-3: Machine harvesting of ginger ................................................................................................... 58
Figure4-4: Row planting for easy and effective machine harvesting ......................................................... 59
Figure4-5: Spade (A) and digging fork (B) used for ginger harvesting ..................................................... 60
Figure4-6: Ginger Plant (left) and Ginger Rhizomes (right) ..................................................................... 60
Figure4-7: Different Primary Packages of Ginger ..................................................................................... 64
Figure4-8: Packaging of ginger right at the farm ...................................................................................... 65
Figure4-9: Tertiary packaging of ginger for shipment ............................................................................... 65
Figure4-10: Ginger seed rhizome storage structure .................................................................................. 67
Figure4-11: Inspection of produce and cleaning of the storage structure ................................................. 69
Figure4-12: Cleaning and maintaining the storage structure .................................................................... 70
Figure4-13: Disinfect used sacks: .............................................................................................................. 70
Figure4-14: Water proof sheets .................................................................................................................. 71
Figure4-15: Wooden Pallets ....................................................................................................................... 71
Figure5-1: Flow Chart for green ginger processing .................................................................................. 74
Figure 5-2: Electrical Ginger Slicer ........................................................................................................... 75
Figure 5-3: Manually operated Ginger slicer ............................................................................................ 75
Figure5-4: Direct type solar dryer (combined radiation collector and drying chamber) .......................... 77
Figure5-5: Illustration of Food drying in a direct solar dryer. .................................................................. 78
Figure5-6: Design and structure of a typical direct solar dryer. ............................................................... 78
Figure5-7: Illustration of an indirect type solar dryer (opaque drying chamber) ..................................... 79
Figure5-8: Flow sheet for dried and/or powdered ginger processing........................................................ 81
Figure5-9: Illustration of tent solar dryer .................................................................................................. 82
Figure5-10: Industrial tunnel solar dryer .................................................................................................. 83
Figure5-11: Flow sheet for single-stage oleoresin extraction .................................................................... 85
Figure5-12: Flow sheet for two-stage oleoresin extraction methods ......................................................... 86
Figure7-1: Marketing channels of ginger (fresh/dried) in Kenbata Tembaro Zone................................. 102
Figure7-2: Hadero old marketplace collection by local traders (left) small volume marketing (right) ... 103
viii
Figure 7-3: New transaction of ginger Primary market center (HaderoTunto) ....................................... 104
Figure7-4: The value chain map of ginger from local to export market .................................................. 114
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1: Area and Production of Ginger in Ethiopia (2002-2011) ........................................................... 7
Table 1-2: Area and production under production of major spice crops in SNNPRS (2008-2012) ............. 9
Table 1-3: Production and regional average yield of ginger in major Woredas, SNNPRS (2006/07)....... 10
Table 1-4: Data on land use for ginger production in major ginger cultivating woredas, SNNPRS ......... 11
Table 1-5: Characteristics of different ginger vernaculars cultivated in SNNPRS .................................... 16
Table 1-6: Physical environment data for the major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS ........................... 21
Table 2-1: Distinctions between with-in season and extended harvesting ................................................. 34
Table 4-1: Fresh ginger grading categories (Henry and Adriano, 1999) .................................................. 64
Table 4-2 Fresh ginger requires particular temperature, humidity/moisture and ventilation conditions .. 68
Table 5-1: Food Chemical Codex (FCC) specifications for ginger oil ...................................................... 84
Table 5-2: Limits for residual solvents in spice oleoresin .......................................................................... 86
Table 5-3: Approximate dosages of ginger oil and oleoresin for typical applications............................... 87
Table 5-4: American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) Cleanliness Specification for Ginger ................... 88
Table 5-5: EU standards for ginger ............................................................................................................ 88
Table 5-6: Microbiological specification for spice under German Law ................................................... 88
Table 5-7: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in ginger under American Regulations ....................... 89
Table 5-8: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in spices under German Regulations .......................... 89
Table 5-9: Defect Action Level (DAL) for Ginger (Food and Drug Administration (FDA)) ..................... 91
Table 5-10: Tolerance levels for aflatoxins in Spices ................................................................................. 91
Table 5-11: Maximum permissible limits for trace metals in ginger powder (Japanese) .......................... 91
Table 5-12: International Standards Organization (ISO) Specification for ginger.................................... 92
Table 5-13: Indian Standard Specification for ground ginger ................................................................... 92
Table 5-14: ISO Specification for ground ginger ....................................................................................... 93
Table 5-15: Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) rules for ginger powder ........................................... 93
Table 6-1: Nutritional Data for 100 g dry ginger ....................................................................................... 96
Table 6-2: Chemical Composition of dry ginger ........................................................................................ 97
Table 7-1: Ginger Marketing in SNNPRS................................................................................................. 104
Table 7-2: Ginger price during 2003/2004 2007/2008 at Hadaro market place .................................. 106
Table 7-3: Export Spice by type for 2008/9-2010/11 volume in tons and value in "000 USD ............... 106
Table 7-4: Indias Import (Trade Indicators) ........................................................................................... 107
Table 7-5: Export of spices (amount) by country of destination 2008/9-2010/11 .................................... 108
Table 7-6: Targeted export volume and revenue generation by 2015 ...................................................... 109
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ANSAB
Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bio-resources
ASTA
American Spice Trade Association
AGP
Agricultural Growth Program
BA
Bureau of Agriculture, SNNPRS
BHT
Butylated Hydroxytoluene (commercial antioxidant)
BMC
Bureau of Marketing and Communication, SNNPRS
BRC
British Retail Consortium
CBI
Confederation of British Industries
DAL
Defect action level
DAP
Diammonium Phosphate (Phosphorus Fertilizer)
ECBP
Engineering capacity building program
ECX
Ethiopian Commodity Exchange
EIAR
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
ESA
European Spice Associations
ESEF
Ethiopian Spices Extraction Factory
EU
European Union
FAO
Food and Agricultural Organization [of the United Nations]
FCC
Food Chemical Codex
FDA
Food and Drug Administration [of the United States of America]
GAP
Good Agricultural Practices
GACP
Good Agricultural and Collection Practices
GRAS
Generally recognized as safe
GTP
Growth and Transformation Plan
GTZ
German Organization for Technical Cooperation
HABP
Household Asset Building Program
HYV
High Yielding Varieties
ICT
International Trade Center
IFAD
International Fund for Agricultural Development
IPC
International Pepper Community
xi
ISB
Indian Spice Board
ISO
International Standards Organization
JICA
Japanese International Cooperation Agency
MA
Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopia
MT
Ministry of Trade, Ethiopia
MRL
Maximum Residue Level
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
PFA
Prevention of food adulteration
PONV
Post-Operative Nausea and Vomiting
SME
Small and Medium Enterprises
SNNPRS
Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State [Ethiopia]
SNV
Netherlands Development Organization Value Chain
UAE
United Arab Emirates
UNIDO
United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UREA
Urea ammonium Nitrate (Nitrogen Fertilizer)
USA
United States of America
USAID
United States Agency of International Development
WHO
World Health Organization [United Nations]
xii
LIST OF AUTHORS
TECHNICAL EDITION:
TADESSE FIKRE
ASFAW KIFLE
LANGUAGE EDITION:
AKALEWOLD SAMUEL
CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS
ABRHAM ASTATIKE
Mobile phone: +251911384833
E-mail:emanabrham@yahoo.com
Expert (Crop Quality Control) Bureau of
Agriculture,
SNNPRS
ALYE TEFERA
E-mail: alyetefera@gmail.com
Lecturer and Researcher, School of
Plant and Horticultural Sciences
Hawassa University
ASFAW KIFLE
E-mail:akifle2003@gmail.com
Researcher, Areka Research Center
Southern Agricultural Research Institute (SARI)
BRIHANU SIMA
E-mail:ewedewalehu1960@gmail.com
Expert (Spice) Bureau of Agriculture,
SNNPRS
SINEDU ABATE
E-mail: zasinedu@gmail.com
Expert (Plant Protection), Bureau of
Agriculture,
SNNPRS
TADESSE FIKRE
E-mail: tadessefikre@gmail.com
Lecturer and Researcher, School of
Nutrition, Food Science and Technology
Hawassa University
TESFAYE HABTE
E-mail: tesfayehabte246@yahoo.com
Expert (Agronomy)
FARM AFRICA,
AKALEWOLD SAMUEL,
LANGUAGE EDITOR:
Mobile Phone: +251 916826299
E-mail: sakalewold@gmail.com
Lecturer, School of Language &
Communication Studies,
Hawassa University
xiii
THE NEED FOR THIS MANUAL

Tesfaye Habte
Ginger is one of the most important spice crops. The Arabs, in the 13th Century brought ginger
from India to east Africa and ginger had perhaps been known since then in Ethiopia, and
predominantly grown in the wetter parts of the South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples
Regional State. East Ginger is mainly used as a flavoring agent. It also finds immense usage in
many of the different medicinal systems of the world for a wide variety of disorders. It has been
a good source of income and is a favorite crop that improves the economic status and, hence the
quality of life of the grower significantly. As an export commodity, the contribution of ginger to
the national economy is not negligible.
xiv
PART I
1. INTRODUCTION
Asfaw Kifle and Brihanu Sima
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosccoe) is monocotyledonous, herbaceous, tropical plant

belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial plant, but is usually grown as an
annual crop for harvesting as a spice. Ginger is native to South East Asia, and now it is
grown commercially in most tropical regions (Abeykeraet al., 2005). It has a long and
well -documented history of both culinary and medicinal use throughout world history,
especially in Chinese, Indian and Japanese medicinal care.
The Arabs, in the 13th century brought ginger from India to East Africa (Jansen, 1981)
and ginger had perhaps been known since then in Ethiopia, and predominantly grown in
the wetter parts of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State
(SNNPRS). Ginger production to a lesser extent, has been also extended to some parts of
Western Oromia and Northern Amhara.
large-scale commercial production of ginger by farmers in SNNPRS is practiced with the

administrative districts of Kacha Bira and Hadaro-Tunto (both are located in KambataTambaro zone), Boloso Bombe and Boloso Sorie (both are located in Wolaita zone), and
part of western Badawacho (Hadiya zone) taking the leading position in the region as
well as in the country as far as the total production and supply to the central market is
concerned. The statistical information from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development indicates that 99% of the crops production was in SNNPRS (Geta and
Kifle, 2011). The standard of living of the farmers cultivating ginger in this region is by
far better than those farmers whose livelihood is based on any other crop. Its contribution
to the national economy has also been considerable.
In Ethiopia, ginger has been used as a flavoring agent, carminative and stimulant and it
has become the most important spice for the local as well as the export market. The
underground rhizome of this crop is also valued throughout the world as a spice of
flavoring agent for its two major classes of constituents, such as essential oils and
oleoresins (Baladinet al. 1998) .
The more volatile essential oil consists of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which
contribute to the characteristics flavor of ginger, and oleoresins which is responsible for
the pungent flavor, which is also a source of antioxidants (Sanwalet al., 2010). The
principal compounds responsible for the pungency of ginger are gingerols and shagols.
Ginger is commercially available in various forms, such as green ginger, dry ginger,
ginger powder, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin and preserved ginger (Kizhakkayi and
Sasikumar, 2009).
The area under ginger cultivation in the world was estimated to be 314350 hectares in
2011, with a total production of 2025571 tones,; out of which the share of Ethiopia was
7746 tones, that is about 0.38%. Ginger yield on farmers field is very low i.e., 15.87 t ha1
, which is far less than the crops potential. This is attributed to several factors of which
shortage of improved varieties, poor agronomic practices and poor soil fertility are the
most important ones (Hailemichael et al., 2008). The top five ginger producer countries
are India, China, Nepal, Nigeria, and Thailand. India is the largest producer of ginger
accounting for more than 34% of the world production in 2011 followed by China. For
the past five consecutive years (2006-2011), Ethiopia stood 10th and 14th position in terms
of area harvested and total production of ginger, respectively among the 36 countries
engaged in ginger production globally (FAO, 2013).
Ginger has been produced as an important commercial spice crop in Southern Ethiopia. It
has been a good source of income for farmers who grow it. Despite its remarkable uses
and contribution to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and to the economy of the
country, due attempt has not been made so far to improve its pre- and postharvest
management. The aim of this comprehensive manual is therefore, to avail the full
package on ginger production, marketing and processing which, in turn, may play a
substantial role in the improvement of both pre- and postharvest management of the crop
and its products, respectively.
1.1
Uses of Ginger
Ginger is used throughout the world as a spice or fresh herb for cooking and varieties of
other value added products (Bartley and Jacobs, 2000). It is available in the form of oil,
oleoresins, ground and fresh ginger. The crop has multiple advantages in that it is highly
productive per unit area, tolerant to drought, can be stored for long period of time in dried
form ,and can also be intercropped with other crops like beans, maize and taro.
Ginger is mainly used as a flavoring agent. Especially, powdered dry ginger is an

important component of curry powder. Dry ginger (Figure1-1) is used for the
manufacture of several products ,such as ginger oil, ginger essence, ginger oleoresin, and
vitaminised effervescent ginger powder used in soft drinks, local foods and drinks (Idris
et al., 2010). It is widely used for culinary purposes in ginger bread, biscuits, sauces, and
cakes. Besides, it is used in breweries for the preparation of ginger beer, ginger ale, and
ginger wine in different countries.
Figure 1-1: Fresh ginger (Left) and dried ginger (Right)
Ginger finds immense usage in many of the different medicinal systems of the world for a
wide variety of disorders. It is used in traditional medicines to treat several ailments
including nausea, diarrhea, motion sickness, migraine, dyspepsia, heart problems,
arthritis, and to reduce flatulence and colic. Moreover, ginger is believed to relief the
common cold, flu-like symptoms, headaches, and even painful menstrual periods. Ginger
is known to be effective as an appetite enhancer and an improver of digestive system
(Wresdiyatiet al., 2007).
Across the world, ginger is considered - as an important cooking spice. Young rhizomes
that are harvested early are also used in pickles and confectionery. The rhizome yields
essential oil which is obtained as a result of steam distillation, a yellow liquid lacking the
pungency. It is used in the manufacture of flavoring essences and perfumery. An
oleoresin, which marks the full presence of spices - is used for flavoring purposes, and
also has medicinal values-. As a matter of fact, ginger contains a number of different
pungent and active ingredients. For instance, the oleoresin contains the constituents that
are responsible for pungency of ginger. It can be deduced that these multiple properties of
ginger come from its chemical composition. -
1.2
A Brief Description of Ginger Morphology
The ginger plant is an erect, perennial herb with thick, hard laterally compressed, often
palmately branched rhizomes, covered with small scale leaves and fine fibrous roots.
Rhizome is pale yellow in cross section. The stems are erect and vertical, generally
sterile, covered with leaf sheaths, and reaches up to 1.5 m height. It is a perennial reedlike plant with annual leafy stems. Leaves are alternate, sessile, distichous, linear,
lanceolate, acuminate, lamina 15-20 cm long and 2-3 cm wide, continuing into a
transparent sheath on the stem (Figure1-2).
Figure 1-2: Parts of a ginger plant: side tillers (left), foliar and subterranean organs
(middle), and rhizome (right)
Flowers bloom at the axil of a bract. The ginger plant has greening calyx, and three sepals
joined at the base. Corolla is yellowish-orange. It has three stamens and only one is
fertile. The two sterile stamens are joined together to form a blade, which is 2 cm long
and 1.5 cm wide, divided into three lobes. This blade (lip) is reddish purple with lighter
patches. Stigma is in a fringed disc.
Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers
(Figure1-3). In ginger, fruit capsule are with three loculi and fruits are very rarely found.
Seeds are angular, small, black, arillated and they develop very rarely. Because of its
aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, ginger is often used as
landscaping around subtropical homes
Figure 1-3: Ginger Flower
1.3
Ginger Production in Ethiopia
Some ancient literatures claim that, in Wolaita (Jansen, 1981) and in the neighboring
areas of Kambata-Tambaro, SNNPRS ginger has been cultivated long ago applying some
modern agronomic management practices. In Ethiopia, ginger is cultivated under suboptimal rain- fed conditions with the rain fall often less than 1500 mm per annum and at
lower temperatures (Jansen, 1981). However, reasonable yields, i.e., as high as 30 tons of
fresh rhizome yield per hectare has been recorded in some parts of the country, mainly in
SNNPRS under farmers management condition (Geta and Kifle, 2011). However, the
average yield reported for ginger in the region was only 16 tons/ha according to the
report of BoARD (2008).
Long ago, ginger production in Ethiopia was restricted to a home garden using local
cultivars at the level of small-holder farmers to be used for household consumption
and/or for small local trading. Nowadays, farmers in some parts of SNNPRS have been
engaged in large scale commercial production covering more than ten hectares of land
using newly introduced relatively high yielding cultivars, especially at Boloso Bombe, at
Wolaita Zone, SNNPRS. Moreover, the level of ginger production in Ethiopia has also
been -advanced to the level of large scale commercial farms at the level of big investors.
For instance, Horizon Plantations P.L.C., at Bebeka, south western part of SNNPRS has
started ginger cultivation in its estate spreading to an area of about 985 ha, which may be
the largest single location to cultivate ginger in the country. This company is said to be
able to identify suitable cost effective technology for sustainable crop production, harvest
and postharvest management with a vision to increase the productivity and quality of
final product. As a result, the area and production (Table 1-1) of ginger in Ethiopia have
shown a trend of progressive increase in the past 10 years, except in 2011 where a sudden
drop was occurred due to a market price fall of ginger in the previous year.
Table 1-1: Area and Production of Ginger in Ethiopia (2002-2011)

Year
Area (ha)
Production (tonnes)
2002
1200
4000
2003
1500
5000
2004
2000
6000
2005
2100
7000
2006
2400
8000
2007
2700
9000
2008
3000
10000
2009
3300
11000
2010
2717
12130
2011
2046
7746
Source: faostat.fao.org (2013)

For the past five consecutive years (2006-2011), Ethiopia stood --10th and 14th position in
terms of area cultivated and production of ginger, respectively as compared to the 36
countries engaged in ginger production globally (FAO, 2013). In this regard, the global
position of the country will further be augmented by simply improving the production
and postharvest quality of the crop since the current position has only been obtained from
the traditionally managed production of the crop. To this effect, improved varieties that
would satisfy international quality standards in terms of oleoresin and essential oil as well
as other quality parameters need to be cultivated extensively making the use of wellestablished extension systems. Using improved agronomic practices will also play a
significant role in the improvement of yield in ginger production.
Some farmers as a culture continue growing ginger at commercial level even at the time
of great fall of the market price in previous year, speculating the re-rise of the price. In
some parts of Omo Sheleqo, SNNPRS including Umbukuna and the neighboring Peasant
Associations (PAs), other crops are rarely grown as the result of damage caused by wild
lives except -ginger. In such PAs, ginger has been grown year after year irrespective of
any condition including at the time of low market price, which ensures sustainability of
ginger production in the country.
1.4
Ginger Production in SNNPRS
The Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) of Ethiopia,
is endowed with a verity of horticultural crops, especially with spices including
Kororima (Aframomum kororima), Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Cardamom (Elletaria
cardamomum), Black pepper (Piper nigrum), Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), and
ginger (Zingiber officinale) more than any other regions of the country for which ginger
is the most important. Spices are high value and export-oriented crops, playing important
roles in agricultural economy of the country. Spice crops have significant contribution to
raise the socio-economic status of the rural people. For instance, they contribute to earn
foreign currency and decrease environmental degradation. Among all spices, ginger is the
main cash crop that is improving and backing up the livelihood of its growers in the
region.
Table 1-2 shows the land area covered by some spice crops including ginger and the total
production for respective spice crops grown in SNNPRS in the past five consecutive
years (2008-2012) (BoARD, 2013). Over these years, ginger has shown apparent
progressive increase both in terms of area coverage and amount of production in the
region.
Table 1-2: Area and production under production of major spice crops in SNNPRS (2008-2012)
Year
2008
2009
2010
2011
Spice Crop
2012
Area
Producti
Area
Producti
Area
Productio
Area
Production
Area
Production
covere
on (qt)
covered
on (qt)
covere
n (qt)
covere
(qt)
covered
(qt)
d (ha)
(ha)
d(ha)
d (ha)
(ha)
Pepper
58054
427140
36362
342310
48494
615345
43590
377695
48518.
485980
Ginger
19452
2176375
19802
2358802
20241
3069142
20966
5449296
26972
6500497
Kororima
1495
7088
3252
20721
4140
24342
1892
11106
13300
75226
Cinnamon
67.7
38
Turmeric
778
77800
924
147233
1106
288665
1120.6
279907
1971.2
395209
pepper
24
192
98
637
3334.5
14777
Cardamom
72
78
26
520
34
221
47.014
277
Chili
1164
12789
1145
13450
1389.9
7680
738
75200
1047
13563
275
1760
1225
28933
649.8
2818
Black
Other spices
Source: Bureau of Agriculture, SNNPRS, 2013, unpublished data
In 2006/07, about 2,896372 quintals of fresh ginger was produced from an area of 18,240
hectares of land indicating the regional average rhizome yield of 160 qt/ha (BoARD,
2008), (Table 1-3). However, in 2012, a total ginger rhizome fresh yield of 6500497
quintals was reported (BoARD, 2012) at a regional level from the area of 48518 hectares,
which indicates an increase of production by over 44% within five years -. The statistical
information from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development indicated that 99%
of crop production was from the SNNPRS.
Table 1-3: Production and regional average yield of ginger in major Woredas, SNNPRS
(2006/07)
Administrative
Woreda
Area (ha)
Production
Yield
zone/special
(qt)
(qt/ha)
wereda
Hadiya
West Badawacho
423
67680
160
Wolaita
Boloso Bombe
7000
1120000
160
Hadaro-Tunto Kacha
8223
1308652
159
Gena Bosa
1500
225000
150
Gimbo
55
8800
160
379
60640
160
187
29920
160
Konta
473
75680
160
Total
18240
2896372
Kambata-Tambaro
Bira
Dawro
Kafa
Shaka
Bench Maji
Sheko
Source: Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS, 2006/07, unpublished

data
Demographic data (Table 1-4) on land use pertaining to ginger production in the major
ginger cultivating woredas of SNNPRS indicated that 80 and 85% of the total population
at Hadaro-Tunto and Boloso Bombe woredas respectively have been engaged in ginger
production. Similarly, considerable amount of ginger production undergoes in some suboptimal woredas for ginger production that encompasses some parts of Kadida Gamela,
and Belle woredas of the region
10
Table 1-4: Data on land use for ginger production in major ginger cultivating woredas,
SNNPRS
Woreda
Total
Population
Arable
Total area
Percentage
Total
population
Hadaro-
density
land
allotted to
of ginger
ginger
(persons/km2)
(ha)
ginger
producing
production
production(ha)
farmers
(qt)
121,715
600
12,559
3986
80
637760
108,342
406
5000
85
600000
Tunto
Boloso
Bombe
Source: Agriculture and Rural Development Offices of Hadaro-TuntoZuria and Boloso
Bombe woreda, SNNPRS, 2008, unpublished data
Considering individual farmers who are engaged in commercial production of ginger,
especially in Boloso Bombe woreda, it is not unusual to see more than a hectare of land
allotted to ginger. This indicates sustainability of ginger production in the region.
In general, the region has a huge potential of ginger production attaining a total of
300,0000 qt of fresh ginger per annum (Table 1-3), which is expected to sufficiently
satisfy a number of companies/enterprises interested to take part in various sorts of
ginger processing investments in the region.
1.5
Trends of ginger production in SNNPRS
Higher and more extensive production of ginger occurs following the rise of market price
in the previous year in SNNPRS. Consequently, it tends to replace enset and permanent
cash crops including coffee and banana. Farmers were accustomed to sell-their dairy
cattle and oxen out to use them as cash source for purchasing-ginger seed. However, in
the subsequent years, it has been a common phenomenon to see a sudden fall of the price
shortly followed by a high supply, which in turn, results in a low market demand of the
production. Consequently, a total production and the size of land allotted by farmers to
11
ginger drops down at a very fast rate, especially in areas having little traditions of ginger
production (Geta and Kifle, 2011)
Currently, a sudden outbreak of bacterial wilt disease has occurred on ginger throughout
the -region showing a tendency of -complete crop loss. -Diseases have devastated all
cultivars of ginger cultivated currently in the region including the local cultivars and the
improved varieties released so far in the country. This in turn, calls for the urgency of
searching for an effective remedy so as to bring about resistant varieties and improved
disease management practices.
1.5.1
Diversity of ginger in SNNPRS
Ginger is a vegetative plant that comes from the family of Zingiberaceae. This family is
the largest family in the order of Zingiberales that include approximately 50 genera and
more than 1000 species (Rashid, et al, 2013). There is a wide variability among ginger
accessions in Ethiopia, which has an important implication for breeding ginger for yield,
morphological and quality attributes (Argaw et al, 2011). SNNPRS can be considered as
treasure house of ginger germ plasmas because there are several cultivated types of
ginger available in the region, which are generally named after the localities they are
being grown in. In line with this, farmers in SNNPRS have identified two broad groups
of ginger varieties: local and introduced, each group, in turn, comprising two varieties
with distinct morphological characteristics (Geta and Kifle, 2011). Accordingly, farmers
in Wolaita, SNNPRS, have classified the local cultivars as Masculine- and Feminine
Wolaita. Similarly, farmers in Kambata-Tambaro, identified one local cultivar known as
Hargema (Figure 1-4), which shows great resemblance with the cultivar Masculine
wolaita of Wolaita.
12
Figure 1-4: Feminine Wolaita (left), Masculine Wolaita (right)

In both administrative zones, the local cultivars have been under production since time
immemorial. However, cultivars categorized in the other group (Bilbo and Volvo
(Figure1-5)) were introduced to the area very around 1998. (Geta and Kifle, 2011). As
farmers` believe, these two cultivars have been transferred from Kacha Bira to HadaroTunto and then to Bombe area through an informal seed system of farmer-to-market-tofarmer seed distribution mechanism. Most farmers have substituted the local cultivars
with the new introductions. Each quarter of ginger production of the region has unique
cultivars. The occurrence of variability among ginger germ plasms has an important
implication for breeding ginger for yield, morphological and quality attributes (Argaw et
al., 2011). The different characteristics/requirements of the major ginger vernaculars
currently cultivated in SNNPRS as pointed out by the farmers as presented in Table 1-5.
13
Figure 1-5: Subterranean parts of Bilbo with two tap roots (left) and Volvo with a single
tap root (right)
Some preliminary research conducted at Tepi, Ethiopia indicated that the local and exotic
ginger germ plasms showed variability in their morphological characters, fresh rhizome
yield, oil and oleoresin content (Hailemichael and Tesfaye, 2008). As can be seen from
Table 1-5, farmers also identified a lot of variations among the different cultivars for preharvest requirements and postharvest characteristics as well as their distinctions in
commercial values. However, no attention so far in the region was given towards solving
the multifaceted bottlenecks of the crop to improve its productivity and quality.
Following are areas of research interventions identified for evaluating variability existing
among and within the locally introduced and released ginger varieties:
Drought tolerance
Fertilizer requirements
o Chemical fertilizers
o Organic fertilizers
Farmyard manure
Compost
Coffee- husk and pulp
o Combination of both chemical and organic fertilizers
14
Variability in indoor storability in maintaining the required quality
Variation in suitability for extended harvesting
Variation in susceptibility to mould development during wet weather drying

condition
Variation in response to dry planting
Variation in productivity per unit area
Cost analysis of root trimming
Cost analysis of harvesting
Variability in stage of maturity
Variation in suitability for fresh ginger
Analysis of variation in dry matter content
Analysis of variation in chemical composition
Analysis of variation in fiber content
Analysis in variation of pungency
Analysis of variation in oleoresin and volatile oil content
Variation in rate of drying
Analysis of quality deterioration as affected by storage duration

o Percentage of weight loss
o Percentage of oleoresin and volatile oil content
Variability for disease tolerance
Variability for seed production

o Variability for mass propagation employing tissue culture techniques
15
Table 1-5: Characteristics of different ginger vernaculars cultivated in SNNPRS

Category
Vernacular
Local
Feminine
Wolaita
Masculine
Wolaita
Hargema
(Kambatigna
)
Unique
characteristics
Highly
palmated
rhizomes
Large
sized
rhizomes
More
productive
High
fiber
content
Highly
pungent
Large number
of prominent
roots
(AmesaIgier)
common characteristics
Drought tolerant
Less fertilizer requirement
Long postharvest storability (up to 10 years)
suitable for perenniated harvesting
Less susceptible to mold development when subject to sun-drying at wet
weather condition.
More preferred to dry planting
High harvesting cost
Less productive/unit area
Large number of prominent roots
High cost of root trimming during rhizome drying
Late maturing
Less preferred for fresh rhizome market
Low dry matter content (high degree of shrinkage up on drying)
Fast rate of drying
Less attractive appearance
Much weight loss with prolonged storage period
16
Introduced
Bilbo
(wolaitignaa
ndKambatiga
)
One prominent
root/digitaly
palmated
rhizome
VolVo(Wol
aitignaandKa
mbatiga)
2-3
prominent/tap
roots/digitalyp
almated
rhizomes
Relatively
highly pungent
Drought tolerant
Soil exhaustive
short postharvest storability
less suitable for perenniated harvesting, dries up with extended dry season as a
result of less number of prominent roots
Highly susceptible to mold development when subject to sun-drying at wet
weather condition.
less preferred to dry planting
easy for manual harvesting; low harvesting cost
more productive/unit area
Low number of prominent roots
low cost of root trimming during rhizome drying
Early maturing
Highly preferred at fresh rhizome market
High dry matter content (less degree of shrinkage up on drying)
slow rate of drying
highly attractive appearance
High demand at the central market
Easily peeling off of the skin at frequent overturning during the process of
drying, which in turn, increases its susceptibility to mould development
Minimum weight loss up on prolonged storage period
17
On the other hand, the recommended varieties such as Yali (180/73), Boziab (37/79),
38/79, 39/79, 141/79, 180/73, 181/73, 190/73, and 305/73 from Tepi Sub Research
Center have not been introduced to the area through the formal extension system. Yali
and Boziab (Figure 1-6) were officially released in 2007. They are high yielding (200250 qt/ha of fresh rhizome), and are reported to be promising in satisfying international
quality parameters (high content of the essential oil, 1.8-2.5% and oleoresin, 6.01-8.22%)
of the ginger export market. The vernaculars Volvo and Bilbo (Figure 1-5), which have
been informally introduced recently to the region, need to be tested for their genetic
variability with the released varieties employing scientific method(s) of characterization
because some of them, for example, Boziab and Volvo closely resemble each other and it
is hardly possible to distinguish between them in terms of both the foliar and
subterranean morphological characters.
Figure 1-6: Released varieties of ginger: Boziab (left) and Yali (right)
They are supposed to be duplicates. In the same way, their similarity for ecological and
agronomical requirements together with other quality parameters needs to be studied.
Furthermore, attempts should be made to introduce varieties that may exceed domestic
varieties in terms of some of agronomic, socio-economic and disease/pest resistance.
Moreover, the varieties intended to be introduced should fulfill the global quality
18
standards for most of the quality parameters including appearance of the ginger rhizomes,
contents of the essential oil, oleoresin, and fiber as well as pungency, flavor and odor.
Besides, exhaustive germ plasm collection from the whole country, which is an important
tool of selection breeding, is required in order to broaden the genetic base of the crop for
further breeding and utilization.
In general, there is moderately high diversity of ginger varieties in the country, which
might serve different purposes in the ginger market if they are supported with good preand postharvest management practices.
1.5.2
Climate and soil
Ginger has wider adaptability for different climatic requirements. It prefers brilliant
sunshine, heavy rain fall and high amount of relative humidity for a promising yield. Dry
spells during land preparation and before harvesting are required for large scale
cultivation. Ginger prefers warm and humid climate, with most soils that have proper
water holding capacity and aeration. The crop is sensitive to water logging, frost and
salinity and is also tolerant to wind and drought. Steep slopes in hilly areas are not
recommended for cultivation as it leads to soil erosion during heavy rainfall because
rhizome yield has negatively correlated with slope. Ginger is cultivated in the tropics
from sea level up to 1500 m altitude, but partial shade also increases its yield.
1.5.3
Temperature
The base temperature requirement for ginger is 13C and the upper limit is 32C/27C
(day/night), where as the favorable range is 19-28C. The optimum soil temperature for
germination is between 25-26C, and for growth it needs 27.5C. A temperature in excess
of 32C can cause sunburn; on the other hand, low temperatures induce dormancy. The
day and night length does not have significant variation in Ethiopia; however, in other
ginger growing countries as day length increase from 10 to 16 hours, the vegetative
growth was enhanced, while it was inhibited and rhizome swelling promoted as the day
19
length was decreased from 16 to 10 hours. Nevertheless, further increase in day length
above 16 hour did not promote rhizome swelling.
1.5.4
Soil Requirement for ginger production
Ginger prefers soils that mostly have proper water holding capacity and aeration. It also
prefers deep, sandy loam soils. The upper layer needs to be permeable. For higher yield,
the soil should be loose, friable and offer minimum resistance to rhizome development.
Well drained soil with at least 30cm depth is essential. As depth of soil increases, its
suitability for cultivation of the ginger increases. In heavy clay soils, deep plowing allows
better root penetration and free rhizome development. Stony and water logging soils need
to be avoided for ginger production. Compact clay soils, which are subject to water
logging or coarse, sands without water holding capacity, gravelly soils or those with hard
pan are not conducive for the production of high yielding healthy plants. The most
favorable soil pH is 6.0-6.5. Though ginger is grown on a wide variety of soils such as
sandy loams, black rich clay soils and lateritic soils, for optimum yield it best prefers
medium loam soils with a good supply of humus.
Most parts of ginger growing areas of the region are characterized by clay loam and
sandy loam soils, which are suitable for the production of quality ginger. However,
research needs to be conducted in the major ginger producing areas of the region in order
to have the general information on the soil properties, which in turn, will have
implications on the proper management of the soils.
1.5.5
Rainfall
Ginger is cultivated in the tropics with an annual rain fall of 1500 mm or more (up to
3000 mm) (Purseglove, 1972). A rainfall of, well distributed in 8-10 months is ideal for
ginger production. In Ethiopia, ginger is cultivated under sub optimal conditions with rain
fall often less than 1500 mm per year (Jansen, 1981). Since ginger is cultivated under rain
fed and irrigated conditions in areas that receive less rainfall, the crop needs regular
irrigation.
20
Data on physical environment for major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS is indicated in
Table 1-6. However, research is required to determine the climatic requirements for the
different ginger cultivars for an optimum yield and premium quality.
Table 1-6: Physical environment data for the major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS
Wereda
Area ( km2 )
Mean annual
Mean
Elevation
rain fall (mm)
annual
(masl)
temperature
(C)
Hadaro-Tunto Zuria
367.9
1201-1400
15.1-22.5
1001-3000
543.5
1201-1600
17.6-25
501-2500
552.8
801-1400
17.6-27.5
1501-2500
Kacha-Bira
Boloso Sorie
Boloso Bombe
West Badawacho
East Badawacho
Source: SNNPRS Trade and Industry Bureau statistical abstracts (1995-1999), 2000 EC.
1.6
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
References
Abeykera, WKSM, Illeperuma, CK. Amunugoda, PNRL, Wijeralasm, SW. 2005.

Composition of Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) Clones Dried at Different Temperatures
for Oil and Oleoresin Content. Sri Lankan journal of Agricultural sciences. 42:34-42
Argaw, M., S. Alamerew, G.H/Michael, and A. Tesfaye. 2011. Variability of Vinger
(ZingiberofficinaleRosce) Accessions for Morphological and Some Quality Traits in
Ethiopia. International Journal of Agricultural Research. 6(6): 444-457.
Baladin, D. A, O. Headley, L. Chang Yen, and, DR. McGaw. 1998. High Pressure Liquid
Chromatographic Analysis of the Main Pungent principles of solar dried West Indian ginger.
Rentable Energy. 13(14): 531-536
Bartley J, A. Jacobs 2000. Effects of drying on flavor compounds in Australian-grown ginger
(Zingiberofficinale). J. Sci. Food Agric., 80(2): 209-215.
BoARD (Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS), 2008. Unpublished data
21
8. FAO. 2013. FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
RomeItaly.http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/desktopdefault.aspx?pageID=567
(September,4,
2013).
9. Geta, E., and A. Kifle. 2011. Production, Processing and Marketing of ginger in Southern
Ethiopia. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry. 3(7): 207-213
10. HailemichaelG., and K. Tesfaye. 2008. The Effects of Seed Rhizome Size on the Growth,
Yield and Economic Return of Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosce). Asian J. Plant Sci., 7: 213217.
11. Jansen P. C. M., 1981. Spices, Condiments and Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia, their Taxonomy
and Agricultural Significance. Wageningen PUDOC., pp. 1-132.
12. Kizhakkayi,,J. and B. Sasikumar. 2009. Variability for quality traits in a global germplaasm
collection of ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) current trends in biotechnology ginger and
pharmacy. 3(3) 254-259
13. Purseglove JW (1972). Tropical crops: Monocotyledons, 1st edition,Longman group Limited,
UK, London, pp. 52-54.
14. Rashid, K., A. B. M. Daran, A. Nezhadahmadi, K. H. B. Zainoldin, S. Azhar, S.
Efzueni.2013. The Effect of Using Gamma Rays on Morphological Characteristics of Ginger
(Zingiberofficinale) Plants.Life Science Journal. 10(1)
15. Sanwal, SK., N. Ral, J. Singh, J. Buragobala. 2010. Antioxidant Phytochemicals and
GingerolContent in Diploid and TetraploidClones of Ginger. ScienciaHorticulturae. 124:
280-285
16. Wresdiyati, T., Astawaa, M., Muchtadi, D. Nardiana, Y. 2007. Antioxidant Activity of
Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) Oleoresin on the Profile of Superoxide Permutase in
theKidney of Rats under Stress Condition Journal Technologi Dan Industri Pangan 8(2) 118122
22
2. AGRONOMY OF GINGER
Asfaw Kifle and Brihanu Sima
2.1
Pre-harvest Management of Ginger
As a pre-harvest management, ginger needs several precautions to be taken in to

consideration. These includes: land preparation, Methods of Propagation, weeding and so
on, which will be discussed in details in the sub-topics to follow.
2.1.1
Land Preparation
Plowing is necessary to prepare the land for a new crop. It improves the structure and
water holding capacity of the soil. In areas where water is limiting factor, plowing
enhances water conservation as well. Plowing the land after harvesting the previous crop
is said to improve the soil structure and water holding capacity. It also reduces soil-born
pests and diseases by exposing the soil to the sun. Deep plowing is necessary to break an
impermeable hard sub soil layer (plowing pan), remove the weeds and bring the land to
fine tilth. It also encourages root growth.
To produce high yield of ginger, the soil should be loose and friable. The mode of
preparing soil depends to a considerable extent up on climate, and the farmers must use
their judgment to choose the most suitable method. The soil should be thoroughly broken
up and pulverized with a hoe or plough and if possible harrowed afterwards; without such
improvement in tilth, the crop fails to produce good shaped rhizomes, which are desirable
for marketing and postharvest processing. Land preparation may vary with soil type,
slope and irrigation.
Most ginger growing farmers in SNNPRS start plowing the land allocated to ginger
production just at the end of the main rain season (between late September and early
23
October) after harvesting the previous crop. Plowing the same unit of land will be
repeated for about 3-5 times. The land that has been pulverized to a fine tilth at the end
of the rainy season when the soil is at moist condition will conserve its moisture until 2-3
months. Depending on the soil type and the moisture content of the soils as well as the
capacity of the farmer to use oxen power, the total number of tillage frequency ranges
between 3 and 10, with the highest frequency being more productive (Geta and Kifle,
2011)
According to Geta and Kifle (2011), plowing the land just at the end of the main rainy
season allows dry season planting of ginger. It enables early planting of the crop to take
advantage of using the total annual precipitation distributed in the growing season and the
crop will complete its normal growth cycle, which in turn, makes it more productive.
Conversely, late planting, as the result of late onset of rain, results in significant yield
reduction. However, so far, there have been no research results on the yield difference
between early dry planting (moisture conserved land) and late wet planting, the latter is
not recommended as the crop does not complete its normal growth cycle, which results in
poor yield. This also calls for additional research to be conducted.
2.1.2
Method of propagation and management of planting materials
Ginger is propagated asexually by planting pieces/portion of rhizomes, (usually 2.5 to 5

cm long, weighing 20-30 gm) which have at least one good bud. As ginger rarely sets
seed, the general mode of propagation is asexual, with a low proliferation rate (about 1015 buds from one plant/year). Hence, ginger improvement is mainly through introduction
and selection.
In SNNPRS, farmers have developed their own traditional management method of ginger
planting material. It involves two methods: underground storage method and indoor
storage. The former method is not a common practice, but the latter is the popular seed
management method that most farmers are practicing in the region. With the first method,
ginger rhizomes of the previous crop are kept in the ground without being harvested until
24
planting and after harvesting. Just before planting, rhizomes are cut in to pieces/sets
(Figure 2-1) of the required sizes and are immediately planted. In this case, it may take 23 months for the sets of the rhizome to emerge.
Figure 2-1: Non-sprouted (left) and sprouted (right) ginger rhizome piece
This may have a negative effect on the exploitation of the growth cycle of the crop within
the season and the total rhizome yield and quality. This will also be kept as a future
research topic. The second method of propagation of sprouted rhizome pieces (Figure
2.1) involves the following steps:
rhizomes of the previous crops are harvested in November
rhizomes are cut in to pieces/sets of the required sizes (usually 2.5-5 cm

length) and are placed mostly in plastic bags
Bags containing the sets of ginger are stored in residential houses placing one
up on the other to form different layers of stratum.
After 15 days to one month storage time of cutting the rhizomes in to pieces, the cut
sets/piece tends to sprout in the bags where they are stored. Once sprouting is initiated,
dry or wet planting will take place if the onset of the rain coincides with sprouting. The
25
rate of germination of rhizomes using indoor seed storage method is found to be very fast
as it emerges in 15 days after planting.
2.1.3
Rhizome Seed size
Farmers in the SNNPRS use larger pieces/sets of ginger rhizomes (approximately larger
than the recommended range of 2.5 to 5 cm). This is in line with the recommendation
given by Hailemichael and Tesfaye, 2008, (Figure 2-2). It states that an increase in seed
rhizome size (using a rhizome seed size of 9.1 cm) will significantly increase the major
growth parameters and dry rhizome yield and using large seed rhizome was also found to
be economically profitable. The reason that some farmers use larger pieces in Wolaita
area is to re-harvest a mother rhizome, which they call Kenna, together with the
daughter rhizomes since it is economically valuable when they sell it after sun-drying
(Geta and Asfaw, 2011). However, no scientific evidence has been reported on the
quality of Kenna to be used as an input for preparing any sort of ginger products (ginger
powder, oleoresin, and volatile oil).
Figure 2-2: Recommended size of ginger rhizome piece
26
2.1.4
Seed rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting
Size of sets/cut pieces of ginger rhizome is one of the major factors that affects seed rate
in ginger. Research conducted at Tepi Agricultural Research Center (TARC) indicated
that using 25 quintals of fresh ginger rhizomes/ha at the spacing of 30 cm x 15 cm gave
higher rhizome yield. However, the recommended spacing is only possible with
mechanization. Farmers claim that the setup of the traditional plow does not allow
maintaining the suggested spacing, particularly for large scale or commercial production.
Thus, the spacing between any of the adjacent plow-made rows should be adjusted to
about 40 cm so as to tailor the size of the traditional plow to that of the recommended
spacing. By so doing, the number of population per unit area can be nearly made similar
to that of the recommended spacing.
Because of its biennial nature (7-9 months), ginger needs to be planted as early as
possible in the growing season in order that it would have sufficient time to exploit the
limited moisture which is commonly experienced in many parts of the region. In most
cases, it is customary to plant ginger in the dry months on plots of land which have been
prepared during the wet season with the objective of conserving water for dry planting.
However, to make use of the conserved water, deep planting is essential.
Long ago, Jansen (1981) reported a planting depth of 5-10 cm used for ginger production
in Ethiopia. Planting depth is one of the most limiting agronomic factors that affect
productivity of ginger. It may vary depending up on seed size, soil type and soil moisture
content. In general, bolder seeds are planted deeper and smaller seeds at a shallow depth.
As depth of planting influences the time of germination, it is necessary to plant at
optimum depth. Deep planting does not allow horizontal development of rhizomes.
Horizontal development of rhizome just beneath the soil surface has a positive correlation
with the yield and appearance of ginger rhizome.
Research conducted aiming at the effect of time of planting on the rhizome yield of
ginger indicated that planting ginger in March and April would show better growth and
27
gave better rhizome yield. However, farmers of SNNPRS especially, farmers in Wolaita
and Kambata-Tambaro prefer dry planting in December and January on the unit of lands
that have been pulverized to a fine tilth during the wet season for the purpose of moisture
conservation. Farmers declare that this joint effect of planting time associated with the
described tillage practice considerably increases productivity of ginger. In general, seed
rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting need to be explored in order to exploit
the genetic potential of the ginger varieties.
2.1.5
Application of organic and inorganic fertilizers
To get high yields, ginger needs fertilizer. There are two groups of crop nutrients: organic
and chemical fertilizers. Farmyard manures, poultry manure and compost are three types
of organic manures that have been used in ginger production. Using organic fertilizers
results in better rhizome yield on sandy soils than on clayey soils, because it is quite
sticky. Sandy soils will not fall apart as easily as manures are added; therefore, they will
be able to hold more water.
Ginger is a soil-exhausting crop, requiring heavy fertilization. As a result, in the past,

newly cleared land was required for its production. Otherwise, dressing of manures was
necessary for good yields (Jansen, 1981). Similarly, most small-scale ginger-farmers still
have continued using farmyard manure. Some farmers have experiences of adding dry
manures in to the ground 2 to 3 months ahead of planting as fresh manure is too strong
and can damage the sprouting plants. In fact large dressing of manure is necessary for
good yields.
Since the availability of farmyard manure is restricted/scarce, it cannot support large

scale ginger production. On the other hand, the rate of its application for optimum yield
per unit area has also not been determined. In addition, farmers working with farmyard
manures complain that it is a laborious activity. To undertake large scale production
outside the homestead, the cost of transportation of farmyard manure is also very high. It
has also been mentioned that application of organic fertilizers at the level of large scale
28
production is highly time consuming task. Farmers also argue that inputs for making
compost are highly scarce and do not allow large scale commercial production.
However, some small-scale farmers in the region use compost, which is a source of
nutrient made from all kinds of organic materials such as crop residues, kitchen wastes,
garden cuttings, and manure, are used for production of ginger. Compost is especially
useful for improving the soil structure and fertility. Therefore, it supplies nutrients at the
right time in required quantities.
Coffee- pulp and husk have been the other sources of nutrients used by the farmers that
produce ginger at commercial level in some parts of the region, especially at HadaroTunto and KachaBira districts of Kambata-Tambaro zone, SNNPRS. They buy the coffee
pulp/husk from the wet and/or dry coffee processing companies operating in their vicinity
and even from the neighboring weredas, and they transport it to their farms using rented
or self-owned cars when they anticipate high market demand for their ginger product. In
most cases, they supply the coffee pulp to the farmers to apply on their own land holdings
ahead of ginger planting in order that both parties would have mutual benefit on a given
traditional shareholding agreement. Both parties believe that application of coffee
husk/pulp alone or in mixture with industrial fertilizers, as a nutrient source for ginger
production incredibly increases productivity of ginger. However, the correct proportion
of combination of both nutrient sources for optimum yield/quality need to be defined.
Although the price of chemical fertilizers is high and chemical fertilizers do not improve
the soil structure (but enrich the soil by adding nutrients).Some farmers producing ginger
at commercial level use DAP when they expect good yield and prices. DAP is commonly
used chemical fertilizer. Formerly, almost all farmers did not use UREA for ginger
production as they claim that UREA dries the soils. Time of application is variable
with season of planting. For example, during dry planting, farmers do not apply chemical
fertilizers. They apply the fertilizer by broadcasting approximately 3-4.5 months of
planting during the third weeding/cultivation at the rate of approximately 100 kg/ha when
the rhizomes are emerged. However, farmers do not use chemical fertilizers in small
scale cultivation, when prices are fluctuating. Research is required to determine the
29
correct type, rate and time of application of the chemical fertilizers for the optimum
yield/quality as well as to analyze the economic aspect of fertilizer application. In India
farmers apply manure 25-30 tons/ha or apply compost at planting, and N 36, P, 16, and K
66 kg/ha (Jansen, 1981). The recommended rate of chemical fertilizers at Tepi research
center for an optimum yield of ginger was 375 kg/ha urea and 175kg/ha DAP.
2.1.6
Weeding/Cultivation of ginger
Ginger is a very vulnerable crop, which is easily affected by weed damage. Weeds
compete for light, water and nutrients resulting in a significant yield reduction. In
Ethiopia, farmers follow non-chemical weed management practices that include deep
plowing of the seed bed at the end of the rainy season and frequent cultivation/hoe using
hand tools. In Wolaita, SNNPRS, before planting ginger, farmers begin to prepare
seedbed at the end of the main rainy season (between late September and early October)
plowing the same unit of land as frequently as 3-5 times. By doing so, seeds of weeds get
exposed to the sun periodically and most of them are destroyed until dry-planting will
take place 2-3 months after land preparation in (February/January).
Cultivation commences before germination takes place in order that the soil would get
loose which may facilitate the emergence of the rhizome seeds. Cultivation frequency is
at every 15 days intervals for about 5-12 times (for the crop to be harvested in one
season) and 4-6 times (for the extended crop) which loosens soil that has crusted or
become compacted. This will bring about the free development of rhizomes. Loosening
the soil helps the absorption of rain water and supplies oxygen to the soil microorganisms., These micro-organisms in turn decompose organic matter and provide
nutrients for the ginger crop (Jansen, 1981).
The surface soil may become hardened after rain or irrigation. Soil stirring and earthing
up are essential as they help in enlargement of daughter rhizomes and provide adequate
aeration for roots and protect the rhizome from scale insects apart from controlling
30
weeds. The first earthling up is done at 45th day and second at 120-135th day. Earthing up
may be combined with hand hoeing or weeding.
2.1.7
Crop rotation and intercropping
Where ginger is grown in monoculture, crop rotation is important as ginger is a heavy

feeder. Crop rotation implies planting different crops on the field each season and only
returning the same crop after at least three growing seasons. This interrupts the life cycle
of pathogens and reduces the chance of damage by diseases or pests. In SNNPRS, crop
rotation with ginger is a common practice. However, it is not perfect rotation as it
involves crops of the same family. The crops used in the rotation include maize, taro, teff,
sweet potato, haricot bean, etc. The objective of a farmer to employ crop rotation is not
necessarily to make use of the purpose of crop rotation. Rather, it is to avoid yield
reduction that would result from repeated monocroping. Some farmers claim that it
makes no difference with employing monocroping or crop rotation if proper amount of
fertilizer (chemical and organic) is used.
In subsistent agricultural systems, farmers have established mixed cropping or

intercropping to minimize certain risks. Intercropping gives high output, maintains soil
fertility, and gives greater stability of production. Ginger in the region is usually inter- or
strip-cropped with maize, taro, haricot been or coffee. It is not unusual to observe ginger
plants growing under coffee plants withstanding the effect of light shade. Nevertheless,
the land equivalent ratio for the different crops involved and the yield difference as the
effect of direct and defused light calls for research.
2.1.8
Mulching
Mulching means covering the ground with a layer of loose material such as compost,
manure, straw, dry grass, leaves or crop residues. Green vegetation is not normally used
as it can take a long time to decompose and can attract pests and fungal diseases.
.Mulches have several effects on the soil which help to improve plant growth: enhances
31
germination, prevents washing of soil due to heavy rain and surface run off , increases
infiltration conserves moisture, regulates temperature, decreasing water loss due to
evaporation decreases evaporation, suppresses weed growth by reducing the amount of
light reaching the soil, increasing the number of micro-organisms in the top soil enhances
microbial activity and improves soil fertility by adding organic matter. Mulching changes
the physical and chemical environment of the soil resulting in increased availability of
phosphorus and potassium. The quantity of mulch applied varies with availability of
material. In general, 10 to 30ton/ha is applied twice or thrice, one at planting, second at
45th day and third at 90th day after planting. Commonly used mulch materials are green
and dry forest leaves, residues like sugarcane trash, wheat, finger millet barely straws and
also weeds and vegetation of the locality. Farm yard manure and compost are also used.
Banana and green forest leaves were found best. If the quantity of above materials are in
short supply, live mulches like niger, common sesbania, cluster bean, soy bean and cow
pea can be grown as intercrop and used for insitu mulching between 45-60 days after
planting. Straw mulching increased yield by 12.2% over unmulched farm. Application of
forest leaves at 20 t/ha in to two equal splits, one at planting and second at 45th day after
planting increased yield by 200%.
Small-scale ginger growing farmers in SNNPRS mainly use plant residues of enset,
banana, maize, weeds, etc. as mulch just after dry planting of ginger has been carried out.
Mulching with plant residues is mainly employed for soil moisture retention, in case the
dry spell tends to extend.
2.2
Perennating /over seasoning and with-in season harvesting of ginger
Ginger should be harvested after the leaves have died (seven to nine months after
planting) and the ginger root has fully matured. Internal flesh color should be pale
yellow. Delaying harvesting after maturity will reduce the rhizome quality, decrease the
storage life and increase the incidence of sprouting during storage. Rhizomes are
harvested carefully by hand using a fork to lift and break the soil. Time of harvesting of
ginger depends mainly on cultivar, local demand and rhizome end use; for general
32
wholesale in local or oversea markets or to be processed for spice, oil and oleoresins.
Fresh ginger might be harvested about five months after planting. For preserved ginger,
they are usually dug up five to seven months after planting, before they are fully mature
but while they are still tender and mild.
In Ethiopia, it is not usual to harvest ginger based on the end use. In SNNRS, for dried
and fresh ginger, mature rhizome with a full aroma, flavor and pungency are harvested
after planting when the leaves begin to turn yellow or completely withered away, internal
flesh color should be pale yellow. In the SNNPRS, harvesting is usually manual using
forks taking no care not to damage the outer epidermis or the rhizome. Harvesting during
very wet or very dry conditions is to be avoided as this will reduce the ease of harvesting
and increase the level of potential damage. According to Geta and Kifle (2011), two
forms of ginger harvesting (Table 2-1) are identified in SNNPRS: these are with-in-theseason harvesting and extended harvesting.
2.2.1
With-in-the Season Harvesting
With-in-the-season harvesting of ginger involves harvesting of matured rhizomes within

the same season of planting. In SNNPRS, usually harvesting of ginger begins eight to
nine months starting in late September when the leaves start turning yellow and the stems
stop growing. Harvesting may extend to March or until the onset of the belg rain based
on the market demand and need of rhizome for planting. Farmers sometimes deliberately
extend time of harvesting with due reason of expecting high market price. In this case,
two issues (the question of land use and ginger quality) need to be considered.
With-in-the season harvesting is claimed to be more specific to the introduced varieties,

as they have a very small number of prominent roots not to withstand the effect of
prolonged dry spell. As a result, they need to be harvested in one season. These include
cultivars Volvo and Bilbo, which have been introduced to the region recently (after
1998).
33
2.2.2
Extended harvesting/over seasoning/ perennation
Sometimes ginger is grown as a perennial crop (extended harvest) in Ethiopia, especially

in SNNRS. In this form of harvesting, farmers deliberately keep the matured ginger
rhizomes in the field for two or more successive seasons without harvesting. The
rhizomes start to sprout following the onset of the belg rain of every successive
season(s), after which the regular agronomic practices as for the with-in-the season
harvesting are applied.
The purpose of extended harvesting is suggested to be a mechanism used as:
Insitu storage (i.e., leaving aside in the field without harvesting)
saving cash in bank
reducing cost of production of successive harvests
holding up/delaying a harvest expecting high market price
ensuring yield increment/unit area
Table 2-1: Distinctions between with-in season and extended harvesting

One- season (non-perennial) harvesting
Extended (perennated) harvesting
high production cost
Reduced cost of production
more appropriate for improved varieties
More appropriate for local varieties
Rhizomes are preferred as a seed
Rhizomes are less preferred as a seed
better rhizome appearance (acceptable
Poor
pale yellow rhizome cortex color)
rhizome cortex color)
rhizome
appearance
(dull
low fiber content of the rhizomes
High fiber content of the rhizomes
reduced harvesting cost
High cost of harvesting
relatively low soil depletion
High soil depletion
Risk of disease/pest hosting
Farmers in SNNPRS conditionally employ both forms of harvesting. Although, the merits
and demerits as regards to the quality and quantity of the rhizome as well as cost of
production have not been investigated for the two forms of harvesting, the fiber content
34
of the over seasoned ginger rhizome obviously tends to increase which eventually will
end up in reduced quality and quantity of ginger final products.
2.3
Organic Ginger Production
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation,
green manure compost and biological pest control. Organic farming uses fertilizers and
pesticides but excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured (synthetic) fertilizers,
pesticide (which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators
such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, genetically modified organisms,
and human sewage sludge. Organic farming works in harmony with nature rather than
against it. This involves using techniques to achieve good crop yields without harming
the natural environment or the people who live and work in it. Organic farming is
supposed to be environmentally friendly due to abandonment of external inputs such as
mineral fertilizers or pesticides. Although conversion to organic farming frequently
comes along with a decline in crop yields, proponents of organic farming emphasize the
sustainability of that system particularly because of improving organic matter-related soil
quality (Leifeld, 2012). The adverse impact of agriculture based on synthetic fertilizers
and herbicides is visible in the degradation of soil fertility, quality and safety of food,
taste of food and so on.
2.1.1
Consequences of Modern, intensive agriculture
Artificial fertilizers and herbicides are easily washed from the soil and pollute
rivers, lakes and water courses.
The prolonged use of artificial fertilizers results in soils with a low organic matter
content which is easily eroded by wind and rain.
Dependency on fertilizers: Greater amounts are needed every year to produce the
same yields of crops.
Artificial pesticides can stay in the soil for a long time and enter the food chain
where they buildup in the bodies of animals and humans, causing health problems.
35
Artificial chemicals destroy soil micro-organisms resulting in poor soil structure

and aeration and decreasing nutrient availability.
Pests and diseases become more difficult to control as they become resistant to
artificial pesticides. The numbers of natural enemies decrease because of pesticide
use and habitat loss.
Organic agriculture has proved to be a boon to curb these adverse effects. Organic
agriculture is rapidly growing in all parts of the world. The growth of the organic land
area in developing countries was mainly based on increasing exports of organic food to
developed countries (Parrott et al., 2006). In recent years, the market for organic farming
has significantly increased in response to concerns over food quality and environmental
matters. Organic food is quite attractive for consumers and is often associated to quality,
healthy and natural products in opposition to the more processed and artificial
conventional food. Organic farms although yield on an average 10 -15% less than
conventional farms, the lower yields are balanced by lower input costs and higher
margins (Pandey and Singh, 2012). The strong demand of European and North American
consumers and their willingness to pay higher prices for organic compared to
conventional foods enables exporters in developing countries to pay higher prices to
organic farmers who have in fact lower yields in organic agriculture. Hence organic
agriculture in developing countries is becoming a tool of socio-economic development
and is therefore supported by various international and national development initiatives
(Twarog, 2010). Strong growing organic markets in Europe and the US have stimulated
organic produce all over the world.
In Ethiopia, there is high potential of organic farming as a result of occurrence of many

pocket areas which have much more suitable climatic and edaphic conditions for the
production of quality organic ginger. Some of them, for example, include the untapped
low lying portions of Basketo and Konta Special Woredas, SNNPRS. Soils in such areas
are naturally rich, untouched and uncontaminated. In these areas, there has been no
experience of using any sort of synthetic agricultural productivity inputs. In some of these
localities, on the other hand, research has proved occurrence of no crop response for most
major nutrients, even for heavy feeder crops like maize.
36
2.1.2
Benefits of Organic farming
Organic farming has the following benefits. It:
Increases long-term soil fertility.
Controls pests and diseases without harming the environment.
Ensures that water stays clean and safe.
Uses resources which the farmer already has, so the farmer needs less money to
buy farm inputs.
Produces nutritious food, feed for animals and high quality crops to sell at a
good price
2.1.3
Methods and materials used for organic farming
1. To keep and build good soil structure and fertility:
Recycled and composted crop wastes including coffee pulp/husk, and animal
manures
The right soil cultivation at the right time
Crop rotation
Green manures and legumes
Mulching on the soil surface
2. To control pests, diseases and weeds:
Careful planning and crop choice
The use of resistant crops
Suitable cultivation practice
Crop rotation
Encouraging useful predators that eat pests
Increasing genetic diversity
Using natural pesticides
37
3. Organic farming also involves:
Careful use of water resources

Good animal husbandry
2.1.4
Steps in organic ginger production
1. Preparation
Choose the right variety
Buy/keep healthy, clean rhizome seeds
Store seeds dry and clean till sowing
2. Seedbed preparation
Select and clean the land with a gentle slope.
Bring compost or manure to the planned ridges (1 kg per plant)
Plow the land until the soil gets finely pulverized
3. Planting
Plant seeds on the bottom of the furrow; keep 15 cm between plants and 30
cm between rows
Cover the seeds with 10-15 cm soil and mulch
4. Intercropping and shading
Plant under tree shade if needed
Planting or sowing with bananas, pigeon-peas or other beans, coffee, orange

trees and other species
Do not intercrop or rotate with tomatoes, peppers and egg plants (threat of
bacterial wilt)
5. Rotation (every year)
It is not advised to grow ginger in the same field year after year; Plant - the
year after ginger cultivation - beans or other legumes, which not only
improve the physical condition of the soil but also give additional income.
6. Composting
Make a compost heap near the field
38
Collecting cow dung, herbs burned coffee husk, all kinds of organic material
etc.
7. Plantation maintenance
Earth up as frequently as recommended
Mulch with any organic material available
Cultivate frequently as per recommendations
Apply organic manures as recommended
Check for pests or disease periodically.
Do not use chemical pesticides.
8. Harvesting
Dig-up every mount or ridge per variety with a fork, pull up the plant and
shake of the soil
Make sure not to dig into the rhizomes with the fork (damaging!)
Damaged rhizomes should be graded out at this stage (first grading)
Place the rhizomes gently in baskets, barrels or buckets
9. Grading and storage
Upon arrival from the field grading before washing according (export)
standards dictated by contract
Grading the ginger by variety and size (second grading)
10. Washing, drying and storage
Transportation to the farm (or factory)
Carefully wash off all remaining soil with fresh water
Dry the ginger within 5 to 10 days after washing
A third grading might be needed
2.4
References
1. Geta, E., and A. Kifle. 2011. Production, Processing and Marketing of Ginger in Southern
Ethiopia. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry. 3(7): 207-213.
39
2. HailemichaelG., and K. Tesfaye. 2008. The Effects of Seed Rhizome Size on the Growth,
Yield and Economic Return of Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosce). Asian J. Plant Sci., 7: 213217.
3. Jansen P. C. M., 1981. Spices, Condiments and Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia, their Taxonomy
and Agricultural Significance. Wageningen PUDOC., pp. 1-132.
4. Leifeld,J. 2012. How Sustainable is Organic Farming? Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment. 80(2): 209-215.
5. Parrott, N., J. E. Olesen, and H. Hgh-Jensen. 2006. Certified and Non-certified Organic
Farming in the Developing World. In N. Halberg, H. F. Alre, M. T. Knudsen, and E. S.
Kristensen (Eds.), Global Development of Organic Agriculture Challenges and Prospects
chapter 6. (pp. 153177). Cabi Publications, USA.
6. Pandey,J and, A. Singh. 2012. Opportunities and Constraints in Organic Farming: an Indian
Perspective. Journal of Scientific Research. 56: 47-72.
7. Twarog, S. 2010. Clearing a Path for Sustainable Trade: FAO, IFOAM and UNCTAD
Announce the Global Organic Market Access (GOMA) Project. In H. Willer, and L. Kilcher
(Eds.), The World of Organic Agriculture - Statistics and Emerging Trends. pp. 9296. FiBL
and IFOAM, Frick, Switzerland and Bonn, Germany.
40
3. PROTECTION OF GINGER
Sinedu Abate
3.1
Introduction
In Ethiopia, the major bottle necks of ginger have been low productivity and poor product
quality resulted in lack of improved high yielding varieties and inappropriate postharvest
handling, respectively. Disease and pest problems in ginger were not reported at all in the
country until the dawn of 2013. In the history of the country, diseases, which were
spreading unusually quickly and extensively, had occurred suddenly in southwestern
zones of SNNRPS, Ethiopia including Sheka, Kefa and Bench Magi. In the following
season, its rapid spread was extended to the central zones of the region, covering the
areas of Wolaita, Kembata Tembaro and Dawro, causing almost complete crop loss
irrespective of varietal, climatic and geographic variations. Correspondingly, farmers and
even inventors engaged in ginger production in the region are compelled to shift from
ginger to the production of other crops. Nowadays, disease in ginger is becoming one of
the most notable bottlenecks of ginger in Ethiopia. Although some preliminary studies
have been undertaken to identify the pathogen, clear consensus has not been reached
among professionals on the type of the cause of the disease.
The complexity of the disease hasn`t been well studied in the country. It was suggested to
be a bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum or a leaf spot disease caused by
Phyllosticta zingiberi or it may be the combined effect of both pathogens. It needs
thorough investigations as the symptoms and epidemics of the suggested diseases have
been more complex and beyond the peculiar characteristics of the particular pathogens.
Although it is not exhaustive, the major aim of this part of the manual is therefore to be
used as a guide of disease management in ginger.
41
3.2
Factors affecting ginger production
Both abiotic and biotic factors affect yields and quality of ginger. Unfavorable
environment, which can cause physiological disorders in ginger, is an example of abiotic
factor. Therefore, abiotic factors are essentially nonliving components that affect living
organisms, while biotic factors that affect ginger are living organisms such as diseases,
insect pests and weeds that are present in the ecosystem and their consequent action
affects life cycle of a ginger plant.
3.2.1
3.2.1.1
Major diseases of ginger
Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)
Ralstonia solanacearum is an aerobic non-sporing, Gram-negative plant pathogenic

bacterium. R. solanacearum is soil-borne and motile with a polar flagellar tuft. It
colonizes the xylem, causing bacterial wilt in a very wide range of potential host plants.
Ginger wilt, caused by a bacterium known as Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) Yabuuchi,
is the most limiting factor in the production of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). It is a
complex and difficult disease to control, infecting the ginger crop through all phases of a
production cycle. It is present systemically in seed rhizomes as both an active and latent
infection that contaminates seed-pieces when they are cut and prepared for field planting.
In open-field production, even when disease-free starting materials are used in a clean
field, it is difficult for a grower to prevent introduction of the disease from nearby
diseased fields by means such as water runoff and human, equipment, and animal traffic.
In fact, it is becoming more difficult for ginger farmers in Ethiopia to find suitable
planting areas that are not already contaminated by the ginger wilt bacteria.
Ralstonia solanacearum was classified as Pseudomonas, until very recently. Both

pathogens resemble each other, except that the cells of Pseudomonas do not produce
fluorescent pigments. Pseudomonas spp. produces yellow to green fluorescent pigments
when grown on a media of low iron content. In Ethiopia, the symptoms of bacterial wilt
42
of ginger for the first time were reported in 2012. However, it is one of the major
destructive diseases of ginger worldwide.
Economic Impact
Ralstonia solanacearum is classified as one of the world's most important
phytopathogenic bacteria due to its lethality, persistence, wide host range and broad
geographic distribution. It infects over 250 plant species in over 50 families at a time. It
causes a wilt disease in several important agricultural crops such as potato, tomato,
tobacco, banana, pepper and eggplant. Many more dicots suffer from the disease than do
monocots. Among the monocot hosts, the order Zingiberales dominates with 5 over 9
families being infected by this bacterium.
In SNNPR, the prevalence of the disease was noted to begin with the over seasoned
ginger plantation, in the season. The symptom of the disease on new plantation was
observed 3-5 months of planting leading to a ceased development of rhizomes, .This, in
turn, resulted in a considerable yield reduction of the crop. The yield loss in monetary
terms can be estimated to be about 20 million US Dollars. Moreover, an incredible
sudden drop of a ginger price has occurred and seriously affected the economy of most
ginger farmers to the extent of causing food insecurity. Above all, farmers are highly
discouraged as they cannot get seed of a healthy ginger for the immediate future use for
ginger production. In general, as the result of the epidemics of the disease, the
socioeconomic conditions of the actors of the ginger value chain including farmers,
traders, transporters, investors, exporters, processors, casual laborers etc., have been
affected significantly.
Although, ginger is a minor crop, its contribution to the national economic development
is not negligible. Because it is one of the export commodities selected to play its
important role in achieving the objectives of the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP)
of the government.
Disease symptoms
43
Water soaked spots appear at the collar region of the pseudo stem of ginger and
progresses upwards and downwards. The first conspicuous symptom is mild drooping
and curling of leaf margins of the lower leaves which spread upwards. Yellowing
(Figure 3-1, left) starts from the lower most leaves and gradually progresses to the upper
leaves. In the advanced stage, the plants exhibit severe yellowing and wilting symptoms.
Under favorable conditions for disease development, the entire shoot becomes flaccid and
wilts (Figure 3-1, right). Wilted leaves show chlorotic, wedge-shaped areas or chlorotic
and/or necrotic leaf margins. The vascular tissues of the affected pseudo stems show dark
streaks. The affected pseudo stem and rhizome when pressed gently extrudes milky ooze
from the vascular strands, ultimately rhizomes rot. No leaf spots are evident. Eventually
entire plant collapses on the medium with white runny ooze from cut stems. The plant
then dries very rapidly and the foliage turns into yellow-brown in 3 to 4 days.
Figures 3-1 leaves showing symptoms of leaf yellowing (left) and drying (right),
respectively on ginger plants infected by bacterial wilt
Young succulent shoots of ginger frequently become soft and completely rotted and these
diseased shoots break off easily from the underground rhizome at the soil line. The
underground parts are also completely infected. Grayish-brown discoloration (Figure 32, right) of the rhizomes may be localized if the disease is at an early stage of infection,
or discoloration may be general if the disease is in an advanced stage (Figure 3-2, left).
44
A water-soaked appearance of the central part of the rhizome is common. In advanced

infections, the entire rhizome becomes soft and rots.
Figure 3-2 ginger rhizome infected with Ralstonia solanacearum, showing a discolored,
necrotic center (left) and grayish-brown discoloration (right)
Survival
Ralstonia solanacearum can overwinter in plant debris or diseased plants, wild hosts,
seeds or vegetatively propagative organs like rhizomes. The bacteria can survive for a
long time in water (up to 40 years at 2025C in pure water) ,and the bacterial population
is reduced in extreme conditions (temperature, pH, salts, e.g.). Infected land sometimes
cannot be used again for susceptible crops for several years. R. solanacearum can also
survive in cool weather and enter a state of being viable but not culturable. In most
cases, this stage is not an agricultural threat because the bacteria usually become a
virulent after recovering.
R. solanacearum causes wilting at high population and disperses in several routes. The
large number of R. solanacearum can shed from roots of symptomatic and nonsymptomatic plants. Besides that, bacterial ooze (which is usually used as a sign for
detection) on plant surfaces, can enter the surrounding soil or water, contaminating
farming equipment or may be acquired by insect vectors. In addition, this pathogen can
be spread out by contaminated flood water, irrigation, contaminated tools or infected
seeds.
45
Infection
R. solanacearum usually enter the plant via a wound. Natural wounds (created by
excision of flowers, genesis of lateral roots) as well as unnatural ones (created by
agricultural practices or nematodes and xylem-feeding bugs attack) would become entry
sites for Ralstonia solanacearum. The bacteria get access to the wounds partially by
flagellar-mediated swimming motility and chemotaxic attraction toward root exudates.
Unlike many phytopathogenic bacteria, Ralstonia solanacearum, potentially requires
only one entry site to establish a systemic infection that results in bacterial wilt. After
invading a susceptible host, R. solanacearum multiplies and moves systematically within
the plant before bacterial wilt symptoms occur. Wilting should be considered as the most
visible side effect that usually occurs after extensive colonization of the pathogens. When
the pathogen gets into the xylems through natural openings or wounds, tyloses may form
to block the axial migration of bacteria within the plant. In susceptible plants, this
sometimes happens slowly and infrequently to prevent pathogen migration and it may
finally lead to vascular dysfunction by unspecifically obstructing uncolonized vessels.
Wilting occurs at high level of bacterial population in the xylem and partially due to
vascular dysfunction in which water cannot reach the leaves sufficiently. Wilting is due
to vascular dysfunction that prevents water from reaching the leaves. The primary factor
contributing to wilting is probably blocking of pit membranes in the petioles and leaves
by the high molecular mass of the extracellular polysaccharide. Other contributing factors
to wilting are high bacterial densities, byproducts of plant cell wall degradation, tyloses
(outgrowths on parenchyma cellsof xylem vessels) and gums produced by the plant itself.
Management practices for bacterial wilt of ginger
Commercial chemicals have generally proven to be ineffective in controlling the
pathogen and are not recommended as a means of control. In regions where the pathogen
is endemic, an integrated disease management strategy is the best way to reduce any
impact of the pathogen.
46
Cultural practices
Site selection. The site should be well-drained and having no previous history of
ginger cultivation. Avoid planting down slope from another ginger field, as the runoff
rain water can carry the pathogen Therefore, it is advisable to test the soil at a field
site for the pathogen before planting by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) or a
bioassay. Select a site with consistent rainfall throughout the growing season, and
with a drier period at the end of the growing season (before and during harvest). If a
site has excessive rainfall, the waterlogged soil may foster soil-borne diseases such as
root rot and bacterial wilt. Choose a site with gently sloping land to improve soil
drainage during the rainy months.
Planting. Avoid planting during very wet weather, as this promotes dispersal of the
pathogen within fields in draining water and on muddy boots and tools.
Site preparation. Hill the planting rows to promote aeration of roots and adequate
soil drainage. Use clean, pathogen-free equipment then, prepare soil plowing and
harrowing so that the site and soils drain well after rainfall.
Plant pathogen-free seed. Plant disease-free ginger by using pathogen-free

seed.
Chemical treatments
Bleach can be used to surface sterilize ginger seed by dipping in a 10% bleach
solution for 10 minutes (1 part commercial bleach to 9 parts water), but it will
not eliminate bacterial infections within the rhizomes.
If available treat seed rhizomes with Streptocycline 200 ppm for 30 minutes
and shade dry before planting.
Drench field beds with Bordeaux mixture 1% or copper ox chloride 0.2%.
3.2.1.2
Ginger soft rot (Pythium aphandermatum)
The ginger rhizome rot is caused by fungus known as Pythium aphandermatum and other
phythium spp., as well. It is the most destructive disease of ginger, which results in total
loss of affected clump. The disease starts at the collar region, where the pseudo stem and
47
the rhizomes meet. The infection, then spread out from that junction to the lower and
upper part of the ginger plant. Younger sprouts are easily affected by those pathogens.
The pathogen causes yellowing of tips of the lower leaves and the leaf margin, where as
the central part of the leaf blade stays green. Later, the whole plant changes to light
yellow color starting from lower region up wards and is followed by withering, drying
and dropping of the pseudo stem (Figure, 3-3).
Figure 3-3: Damage symptom of ginger caused by ginger soft rot

The fungus which causes the disease is soil borne and multiplies with the buildup
of the soil moisture in the wet seasons. The pathogen is also seed borne and can be
transferred to new areas with infected seed rhizomes.
Management of ginger soft rot
1) Cultural methods
Seed rhizomes should be selected from disease free areas.
Use well -drained soil to avoid soft rot infestation
Rotate the crop only with none Zingiberaceae and Solanaceae families.
48
2) Chemical treatments
If the disease is located in fields, remove the affected ginger plants and treat
the spot and the surrounding areas with Mancozeb 0.3% to check the spread of
the disease.
Treat the seed with Mancozeb 0.3% /3gms/L of water/ for 30 min., and shade
dry before storage or before planting.
Drench the beds with Captafol at 0.1%
3.2.1.3
Ginger leaf spot (Phyllosticta zingiberis)
Leaf spot disease is caused by fungus called phyllosticta zingiberis and it is a very
common disease in all ginger growing areas. The disease is very severe in ginger
under exposed condition. Its symptom starts as water soaked spot on leaves and later
turns as white spot surrounded by dark brown margins. The pathogen spreads through
rain splashes during heavy showers. The disease can be controlled by regular
spraying of Bordeaux mixture or Mancozeb0.2%.
3.2.2
3.2.2.1
Major Pests of ginger plant
Nematodes
Nematodes are worm-like animals that are virtually found in every environment both as
parasitic and free living organisms. Plant parasitic nematodes are very small and
microscopic. They can cause significant damage to crop. Some of the nematodes, which
cause injury to ginger are root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), burrowing
(Radopholus spp.), and lesion (Pratylenchus spp.). Nematodes are soil-borne pests, which
can cause injury to the roots and rhizomes of ginger. Their infestation aggravates rhizome
rot and cause water socked areas in the outer tissues. A general assessment shows that
plant parasitic nematodes reduce agricultural production by approximately11% globally
(Agrios, 2005).
49
Though the symptoms of nematodes are often none specific, stunting, chlorosis,
poor tillering and necrosis of leaves are common symptoms on the aerial part of
the plant. On the other hand, root gals and lesions that lead to root rotting are
general indications of nematodes on roots.
Under favorable condition, many species have short life- cycle with several
possible generations per season. This can lead to rapid build-up of the nematodes
population in the soil. Although the mobility of nematodes is limited, some
migratory endo-parasite nematodes are mobile and can move from one plant to
another by themselves. Infested seed rhizomes and farm tools can also transfer
nematodes from one place to another. Following are some options for the
management of nematodes:
Treating infested rhizomes with hot water. /500C for 10 minutes/.
Using rhizome from nematode free areas as planting material.
Dip plowing and exposing the nematodes and other pests to their natural
enemies and solarizing of ginger seed bed for 40 days.
Using resistant varieties in areas where nematodes population is high.
3.2.2.2
Insects
Invertebrate pest management in ginger is important because they may assist in

spread of disease like viruses and bacteria as well as causing damage to the foliage
and rhizomes. Stem borers and root grubs affect water uptake and can cause
wilting that is similar to the one caused by vascular wilt and root rot diseases.
Ginger shoot borer (Conoethes punctiferalis)
Ginger shoot borer is highly polyphagous, and it is a serious pest of ginger.

Larvae bore into shoots and feed on internal tissues. Infested shoot becomes
yellow and dry. Shoot borer damage is observed in the field throughout the
season; the cause for this, however, is a medium sized moth Conoethes
50
punctiferalis. The wings are pale, yellowish with black spots. Eggs are pink oval,
flat and lay alone or in group on the tender part of the plant. Its larva is long, pale,
greenish and pinkish color. The head has brown colored prothoracic shield l, and
its body is covered with minute hairs growing around. Pupation takes place in lose
silken cocoon in larval tunnel.
The main symptom of shoot borer damage is the presence of a bored hole on the
pseudo stem through which frass is extruded and the central shoot being withered
and yellowing and drying of leaves of infested pseudo stem. To manage a shoot
borer, freshly infested shoots should be pruned so as to stop the progress of the
larva attack. As soon as the infestation is noticed on the inner most leaves on the
pseudo stem, the field has to be sprayed with Malathion 0.1% in a monthly
interval.
Rhizome scale (Aspidiella harttii)
Scale insects attack wide groups of plants, which are important mainly on woody
hosts of tree crops and ornamentals in diverse families. Some of these insects also
feed on plant roots underground. Rhizome scale feed on plant sap and infests
rhizome both in the field and storage. When rhizomes are infested, they show
symptoms of shrivel, desiccate and finally fail to germinate. At initial stage of the
infestation, the white colored scales are seen scattered on rhizomes and later they
gather near growing buds. Plants look devitalized, pale and withered before drying
completely. When the infestation is severe, the rhizome and its buds shrivel and
ultimately lead to the entire rhizome drying.
Ginger Rhizome Scale
The white colored Aspidiella harttii is a circular scale. The female scale is about 1 mm in
diameter and light brown to gray, and appears as bulge on the rhizomes. Male is orange
colored with transparent wings, distinct head, thorax and abdomen. The potential time for
51
dissemination of Ginger Rhizome Scale is harvesting time and minute crawlers are seen
moving in large numbers on the rhizomes. Rhizome scale is mainly transferred from one
place to another with the infected rhizomes and farm tools.
To put it in a nut shell, control of scale insects is often difficult and requires very close
monitoring of scale population and growth stages. Chemical control of rhizome scale can
be done by spraying it with 0.05% methyl parathion, 2 - 3 times or by dipping rhizomes
in 0.05 % dimethoate at planting time. The use of oil reduces the detrimental effects of
organophosphates on parasitoids. Severely infested rhizome has to be discarded before
storage and control ants in the field as it has fundamental importance in the bio-control of
scale insects.
3.3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
References
AGRIOS, G.N., 2005, Plant Pathology, ed. a V-a, ELSEVIER Academic Press.
BOA (Bureau of Agriculture) SNNPRS, 2013. Annual report, CTSE Process,
Hawassa, Ethiopia.
Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Hawaii 1964. Disease of
ginger in Hawaii.
Gurang, N. Ginger Disease in Stikkim, Farmers Persception and Cultural
practices, Department of Horticulture and Indo Swiss Projec Sikkim Gangtok),
199,23.
Farzana, P., 2005. Ginger Cultivation in Sindh, Pakistan, Digitalverlag Gmbitt,
Germany.
ISB (Indian Spice Board), 2009. Ginger Extension Pamphlet, Ministry of
Commerce and Industry Government of India Cochin-682025.
Sinedu Abate, 2012. Ginger Cultivation and Protection in Southern Region,
Paper Presented On Ginger Bacterial Wilt Management Workshop, SNNPRS
BOA, Tepi
BOA (Bureau of Agriculture), SNNPRS, 2013. Ginger Disease Management
Weekly Report, CTSE Process, Hawassa.
APPRC (Ambo Plant Protection Research Center), 2013. Training manual on
plant pathology.
52
PART II
4. HARVESTING AND POSTHARVESTHANDLING OF GINGER
Alye Tefera
The postharvest handling system starts with harvest, and pre-harvest factors influence the
final quality. It is not possible to improve the quality of production after harvest, but it is
possible to slow down the rate of undesirable changes (Beverly et al., 1992). A range of
environmental conditions including temperature, humidity and atmospheric composition
can influence harvested ginger.
Growing and marketing of fresh produce in Ethiopia are complicated by postharvest

losses in quantity and quality between time of harvest and consumption. Postharvest loss
of perishable commodities sometimes is estimated to be as high as 50% (Anon, 1989).
Kader (1992) estimated the extent of postharvest losses in fresh fruit and vegetables to be
between 5 and 25% in developed countries and 20 to 50%in developing countries.
Both the grower and the industry have common interest to produce a high quality product
that will attract a premium market price. Pre-harvest operations involve the preparation of
the facilities for the harvest material, which will ensure the crop is stored and dried
quickly under hygienic conditions. The main reasons for low quality product are
harvesting the crop when it is not mature; poor drying systems where there is a high risk
of moisture retention and microbial contamination (dirt floors); and frequent rain during
the drying process. There is need to have buildings or structures at the harvesting area or
to have a common facility for drying and curing products.
53
Many growers of spices use traditional methods and high moisture retention, microbial
contamination, and contamination with extraneous matter are common processing
problems. International sanitary and phytosanitary agreements define measures to be
taken to protect against risks arising from additives, contaminants, toxins or disease
causing organisms in food or foodstuffs. In particular, there are problems with mould,
high moisture and aflatoxin contents. Difficulties in reducing these problems to a low
level are due to poor weather conditions at harvest associated with low cost of processing
technology; poor storage facilities and small-scale production units. Poor storage
facilities and unhygienic and improper storage methods also contribute to contamination
with mammalian and other excreta, as well as moulds or other microbes. In order to
overcome these problems completely, capital investment is necessary, particularly for
mechanized handling after harvest (Douglas et al., 2005).
All personnel (including field workers) involved in the propagation, cultivation, harvest
and postharvest processing stages of plant production should maintain appropriate
personal hygiene and should have received training regarding their hygiene
responsibilities (htpp://www.codexalimentarius.net).
4.1
Harvesting
Harvesting is the primary process of collecting the target crop product from the field,
where it is open to the impulse of the climate and the growing environment, and placing
that product in controlled processing and stable storage environment. The harvesting
requirements will differ for the final product sought, and there are specific needs such as
maturity and evenness, that will dictate the harvesting management and timing at which
rhizomes are harvested at different times, depending on their intended use
(Krishnamoorthy et al., 2002).
The harvesting of ginger, a perennial herb but often grown as an annual, depends on the
cultivar and varies from 7-9 months for annual crops while perennial crops are harvested
at the growers discretion (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2002).
54
4.1.1
Harvesting Maturity
The principal measurements used to determine ginger harvest maturity are age of the
leaves and size of the bulb. Ginger should be harvested once the leaves begin to turn
yellow and start to dry. This natural aging process typically begins between 7 to 9 months
after planting. Delaying harvest until all of the leaves have died is not recommended as it
will reduce rhizome quality, increase fiber content, limit storage life, and increase
sprouting. In some markets, ginger harvested before the beginning of the natural aging
processes may be of higher value. In this case, several but randomly selected plants
should be dug up to figure out average rhizome size. If the size is acceptable, the
remaining plants can be harvested. The drawback of harvesting less mature ginger is that
rhizomes are susceptible to greater weight loss.
4.1.2
Harvesting Time
Plants should be harvested during the optimal season or time period to ensure the
production of plant materials and finished spice products of the best possible quality. The
time of harvest depends on the plant part to be used. However, it is well known that the
concentration of biologically target active constituents varies with the stage of plant
growth and development. The best time for harvest should be determined according to the
quality and quantity of biological target constituents.
Fresh ginger might be harvested about 5 months after planting. For preserved ginger,
they are usually dug up 5 to 7 months after planting, before they are fully mature but
while they are still tender and mild. For dried ginger, mature rhizomes with a full aroma,
flavor and pungency are harvested 8 to 9 months after planting. The essential oil content
within rhizomes increases with age, so plants used for this might be harvested 8-9 months
even later.
55
4.1.3
During Harvesting
During harvest, care should be taken to ensure that no foreign matter is mixed with the
harvested plant materials. When possible, plant parts should be harvested under the best
possible conditions, avoiding dew, rain or exceptionally high humidity. If harvesting
occurs in wet conditions, the harvested material should be transported immediately to a
drying shed. Cutting devices, harvesters, and other machines should be kept clean and
adjusted to reduce contamination from soil and other materials (Douglas et al., 2005).
They should be stored in an uncontaminated dry place, free from insects, rodents, birds
and other pests, and inaccessible to livestock and domestic animals.
Soil can have a high microbial content, and contact between the harvested crop and the
soil should be avoided so as to minimize the microbial load on the harvested plant
materials. If the underground parts (such as the rhizomes roots) are harvested have any
adhering soil it should be removed from the plant material as soon as it is harvested.
Mechanical damage or compacting of raw plant materials as a consequence of overfilling
or stacking of bags may result in fermentation, composting or other damage and should
be avoided. Rotting plant materials should be discarded during harvest, postharvest
inspections and processing, in order to avoid contamination and loss of product quality
(Modified from the WHO guidelines on good agricultural and collection practices
(GACP) for medicinal plants).
4.1.4
Harvesting Methods
Ginger rhizomes are harvested either by hand or by mechanical diggers .Ginger is dug by
hand using a fork or cutlass to loosen the soil around the crown of the plant. The leaves
must be cut prior to mechanical lifting or after hand digging. Care is necessary to avoid
damage to the rhizome (splitting or bruising) as injuries can result in fungal infection
(Douglas et al., 2005).
56
The harvesting method must ensure that there is no rhizome damage and both manual and
mechanical methods of rhizome digging are used. The process should be done carefully
in order to avoid damaging the rhizomes. The rhizomes should be gently pulled out of the
soil using the stem of the plant as a handle.
Figure4-1: Manual harvesting (hand picking holding the stems/branches) of ginger
Other type of harvesting methods in some countries such as Australia may be fully
mechanized using special equipment. The crop must be planted in such a way that
interspacing between rows is adapted to equipment (Henry and Adriano, 2009). Care
should always be taken to assure integrity of the rhizomes during harvest and postharvest
handling.
Care should be taken not to injure the ginger, which has a delicate skin and is easily
wounded during harvest and handling. Early harvested ginger will still have an actively
growing green stem attached to the rhizome which needs to be snapped or cut off slightly
above the point of attachment. Excess soil and roots should be removed by hand before
placing the rhizomes in the field container. Cotton gloves are typically worn to facilitate
field cleaning. Ginger should be pre-graded in the field and any unmarketable, damaged,
or diseased bulb should be discarded. The harvested ginger should be placed directly into
strong, well- ventilated wooden or plastic field crates for removal from the field.
57
Transport of ginger in mesh sacks will result in skin damage due to rubbing of the
delicate skin against the mesh.
4.1.5
Harvesting Tools
Figure4-2: Harvesting Machines
Figure4-3: Machine harvesting of ginger
58
Figure4-4: Row planting for easy and effective machine harvesting
59
Figure4-5: Spade (A) and digging fork (B) used for ginger harvesting
4.1.6
Loosening the soil and Lifting
Loosen the soil around the rhizomes with your hands or with a lifting tool, like a broad
fork is the necessary. You can then either excavate by hand or up root plants using the
tops as a handle. Use a gentle motion pulling when applying the latter method as hands
can be broken apart easily if pulled too hard.
Figure4-6: Ginger Plant (left) and Ginger Rhizomes (right)
60
4.2
After Harvest
4.2.1
Trimming and Washing
The roots need to be trimmed from the rhizomes using a sharp knife or floral shears. Care
must be taken when trimming roots and stems from rhizomes so as not to cut nearby
fingers of ginger or one's own fingers. The harvested rhizomes should be washed to
remove the soil sticking to them. This helps in getting uniform color for the dried
product. If rhizomes are kept in masses for long, they are liable to ferment. Use a power
nozzle on the end of a hose to wash soil/media from between the rhizomes. Rhizomes
have no skin, so they can scratch and blemished relatively easily. Care must be taken in
order not to break hands apart if there is a necessity to leave them as a whole. Foliages
need to be trimmed off about a half inch above where it meets the rhizome. Longer stems
can be left on, and the more stem length left on, rhizomes will dry out faster. After
trimming and washing, the rhizomes are allowed to stay for an hour or two, depending
upon how long it takes for them to dry, out of direct sunlight before packing for market or
storage.
4.2.2
Curing
When intended for storage, ginger should be cured by air drying rhizomes at average
temperature, 22C to 26C, (71.5F to 79F) and 70% to 75% RH for several days to
allow the skin to thicken and the cut surfaces to heal. Follow the web
page(http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY839.pdf). Curing of the rhizomes prior to
drying directly affects the fiber and volatile oil content. Removal of the skin reduces the
fiber content and also increases the oil loss. Peeling also affects the pungency as these
compounds (gingerols) are in the skin. When sun drying is not an option, fuel wood-fired
or solar driers can be used where as in Australia gas- heated dehydrators are used. The
final dry matter should be in the range of 7-12% with aweight loss during drying of 6070% (UNIDO and FAO, 2005). Artificial drying minimizes the loss of quality and can
also eliminate microbial contamination. It is believed that drying temperature, airflow
and the length of drying all affect the flavor compounds in ginger.
61
4.2.3
Cleaning
Cleaning the ginger prior to packaging and sale is to ensure that the ginger is of the
highest quality and will obtain the highest price. It is done to remove all the foreign
matter that lowers the quality and endangers the sale. Grading tables, flotation tanks and
screens can all be used to ensure that the quality standards are met and an even line of
high quality ginger is obtained.
Cleaning and drying procedures should be done as fast as possible after harvest to ensure
minimum loss by microbial contamination, mold growth and fermentation. Mechanical
washers, slicers, and solar or hot air driers may help minimize contamination from dust
during postharvest handling operations.
Specific equipment is suggested for optimum cleaning of the dried rhizomes. To this
effect, an air screen separator will help remove dead insects, excreta and extraneous
matter, while a rotary knife cutter with a screen separator will help remove residual
insects and other unimportant matters.
4.2.4
Cleanliness specifications for ginger
The American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) has established standards for Cleanliness
Specifications and assured through its approved laboratories that no spices enter the food
market without meeting the criteria. Contaminated or adulterated spices would need
proper sanitation and reconditioning, or would be returned to the exporting country.
Besides, the standards were changed over the years to reach FDA requirements for foods.
The ASTA Cleanliness Specification has become a standard for most exporting countries,
which have built their facilities to meet those for ginger Postharvest preparation
requirements. Importing countries that do not have specified standards may use ASTA's
specifications (Anne, 2002).
62
Quality specifications are imposed by the importing countries pertaining to cleanliness

specifications rather than quality of the spice (see cleanliness specifications in Table 5-4
under section 5.3). Proper care must be taken to meet minimum requirements, otherwise a
lot may be rejected and need further cleaning and/or disinfection with ethylene oxide or
irradiation.
4.2.5
Grading, packaging and labeling
A label affixed to the packaging should clearly detail the name of the spice, the plant
name, the place of production, the harvest date and the names of the grower, the
processor, and quantitative pieces of information as well.
Labeling packages helps handlers to keep track of the produce as it moves through the
postharvest system, and assists wholesalers and retailers in using proper practices. Labels
can be preprinted on fiberboard boxes, or glued, stamped or stenciled on to containers.
Brand labeling packages can aid in advertising for the product's producer, packer and/or
shippers. Some shippers also provide brochures detailing storage methods or recipes for
consumers (McGregor, 1989).
Shipping labels can contain some or all of the following information:
Common name of the product
Net weight, count and/or volume
Brand name
Name and address of packer or shipper
Country or region of origin
Size and grade
Recommended storage temperature
Special handling instructions
Names of approved waxes and/or pesticides used on the product
The records should be retained for a period of three years or as required by national
and/or regional authorities.
63
Table 4-1: Fresh ginger grading categories (Henry and Adriano, 1999)
Category
Attributes
Large, normal or special
Large size, high in quality
Regular, medium or chunky
Medium size
Small
Small and irregular sizes, includes ginger off

cuts
Figure4-7: Different Primary Packages of Ginger
64
Figure4-8: Packaging of ginger right at the farm
Figure4-9: Tertiary packaging of ginger for shipment
65
4.2.6
Transport
The harvested raw plant material of the ginger crop should be transported promptly in
clean, dry conditions. The ginger may be placed in clean baskets, dry sacks, trailers,
hoppers or other well-aerated containers and carried to a central point for transport to the
processing facility. All containers used at harvest should be kept clean and free from
contamination by previously-harvested plant products and other foreign matters
(Duglaset al., 2005). If plastic containers are used, particular attention should be paid to
any possible retention of moisture that could lead to the growth of mould. When
containers are not in use, they should be kept in dry conditions, in an area that is
protected from insects, rodents, birds and other pests, and inaccessible to livestock and
domestic animals. Conveyances used for transporting bulk plant materials from the place
of production to the place of storage for processing should be cleaned between loads.
Bulk transport, such as ship or rail cars, should be cleaned, and where appropriate, well
ventilated to remove moisture from plant materials and to prevent condensation.
4.2.7
Ginger Storage
There is a need for quality storage both on-farm and off-farm, with cool stores and
warehousing facilities linked to postharvest crop management. Spices deteriorate rapidly
in adverse conditions and should be stored in well-prepared and maintained storage
facilities. Essentially, the moisture level of the spice to be stored is at a safe level which
should usually be below 10%. The storehouses should be damp-proof, vermin- proof, and
bird- proof as well as having controlled ventilation as well as devices to regulate
humidity and temperature, where possible. A dehumidifier fitted to a storage room, by
keeping the atmosphere always dry, can eliminate mould and insect attacks. The room
should be fumigated before storage, the walls need to be washed regularly and the facility
should be kept dry.
Fumigation against pest infestation should be carried out only when necessary, and
should be carried out by licensed or trained personnel. Only registered chemical agents
66
authorized by the regulatory bodies of the source country and the countries of intended
end-use should be used. All fumigation, fumigation chemicals agents, and dates of
application should be documented. When freezing or saturated steam is used for pest
control, the humidity of the materials should be checked after treatment.
Because ginger rhizomes are bulky and perishable, the storage of the seed rhizome for 3
to 4 months from harvesting to next planting season is faced with many problems, such as
rotting, sprouting, rooting, and shriveling, which can result in huge losses. Therefore,
adopting an efficient storage technique in ginger will go a long way in minimizing the
storage loss of the valuable planting materials.
Figure4-10: Ginger seed rhizome storage structure

Fresh, unpeeled root should be wrapped in paper towels, placed in a plastic bag and
refrigerated up to three weeks. It can also be tightly wrapped and frozen up to two
67
months. Dried ginger should be kept in a cool, dark space in an airtight container. Pickled
and preserved ginger should be kept in their original containers in the refrigerator.
Crystallized ginger can be stored in an airtight container in a cool and dark place for up to
three months.
a). Temperature
Ginger may be successfully stored for several months if the correct postharvest handling
and storage procedures are utilized, and healthy, undamaged rhizomes are initially
selected. The optimal temperature for storing and transporting ginger is 12C (55F).
Holding ginger at ambient temperatures (25C to 30C or 77F to 86F) will result in
high moisture loss, surface shriveling, and sprouting of the rhizome, follow the link
(http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY839.pdf). Market life under these conditions is
less than 1 month. At the other temperature extreme, ginger is very sensitive to chilling
injury and should not be stored below 12C (55F).
b). Humidity/Moisture
Table 4-2 Fresh ginger requires particular temperature, humidity/moisture and

ventilation conditions
Designation
Humidity/water content
Relative humidity
60 - 70%
Water content
12 - 15%
Maximum equilibrium moisture content
65%
c). Gases
Dehydration is a common postharvest disorder of ginger held under low relative humidity
(RH) conditions (i.e. less than 65%). Shriveling of the rhizome becomes noticeable after
the loss of more than 10% of the initial harvest weight. On the other hand, surface mould
68
will begin to grow at an RH above 90% and sprouting will be stimulated, especially if the
temperature is above 16C. In order to minimize weight loss but avoid surface mould, a
compromised RH range of between 70% and 75% is recommended for storing ginger
(http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY839.pdf).
d). Ventilation
Due to the increased intensity of respiration and associated oxygen consumption, fresh
ginger has a tendency to self-heating and to elevated CO2 concentrations in the hold. To
counter these phenomena, particularly extensive ventilation measures are required. With
chilled goods, the fresh air supply must be controlled in such a way that the CO 2 content
of the circulating hold/container air does not exceed 0.4% (vol) Fresh ginger displays low
ethylene sensitivity. The rate of ethylene production is very low, which is below 0.1
l/kg*h (C:\PhD research proposal\Ginger\Ginger, dried.htm).
4.2.8
Storage practices
Inspecting stored produce and cleaning storage structures on a regular basis will help
reduce losses by minimizing the buildup of pests and discouraging the spread of diseases.
Figure4-11: Inspection of produce and cleaning of the storage structure
69
Figure4-12: Cleaning and maintaining the storage structure
When inspecting stored produce, any spoiled or infected produce should be removed and
destroyed. In some cases, yield may still be fit for consumption if used immediately
perhaps as animal feed. Reusable containers and sacks should be disinfected in
chlorinated or boiling water before reuse.
Figure4-13: Disinfect used sacks:
70
Placing materials on the floor beneath sacks or cartons of produce prevents dampness
from reaching produce suited to dry conditions in storage. This helps to reduce the
chance of fungal infection, while also improving ventilation and/or sanitation in the
storeroom. Some examples of useful materials follow:
Figure4-14: Water proof sheets
Figure4-15: Wooden Pallets
71
4.3
References
1. Anon, 1989. Guide to Food Transport: Fruit and Vegetables, Mercantile

publishers, Copenhagen, Denmark. 247p.
2. Anon, 1989. Guide to Food Transport: Fruit and Vegetables, Mercantile
publishers, Copenhagen, Denmark. 247p.
3. Balakrishnan, K. V., 2005. Postharvestand Industrial Processing of Ginger, In
Ravindran, P. N. and Babu, K. N., 2005. Ginger: the Genus Zingiber, pp. 391435, CRC Press, Washington D. C., USA.
4. Beverly, R.B., J.G. Latimer and D.A. Smitte, 1992. PreharvestPhysiological and
Cultural Effects on Postharvest Quality. pp.73-124. In: R.L.Sheusfect and S.E.
Prussia (eds). Postharvest Systems Approach. Academic press, INC.
5. Douglas. M, Heyes.J, and Smallfield,B. 2005. Herbs, Spices and Essential Oils:
Postharvest Operations in Developing Countries.NZ Institute for Crop andFood
Research LtdNewZealand,FAO.
6. Fekadu, T. 1991. Postharvest Losses of Fruit and Vegetable in Horticultural State
Farms, Ethiopia, Acta Hort. 270: 261-270
7. Heindl, A., Solar Drying of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Zeitschrift fur
Arznei- andGewurzpflanzen, 2000. 5(2): p. 80-88.
8. Henry E C. and Adriano B., 1999. The Australian Ginger Industry, Overview of
market trends and opportunities.
9. Henry E .C and Adriano B., 2009. The Australian Ginger Industry,Overview of
Market Trends and Opportunities. Australian
10. Kader, A.A., 1992. Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops. (2ndeds),
University of California, Berkeley, CA. Publication No. 3311. pp.-228-345
11. Kitinoja,L. and Adel A. Kader,2002. Small-Scale Postharvest Handling Practices:
A Manual for Horticultural Crops (4th Edition), PostharvestHorticulture Series
No. 8E July 2002, Slightly Revised in November 2003
12. Krishnamoorthy, V., N. Meenakshi, and M.B. Madalageri, Herbal Spices aReview. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 2002. 24(1): p. 123131.
13. McGregor, B. 1989. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. USDA, Office of
Transportation, Agricultural Handbook Number 668.
14. On web page,http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY839.pdf
15. On web page, htpp://www.codexalimentarius.net
16. UNIDO and FAO 2005. First published 2005Herbs, Spices and Essential Oils
72
5. GINGER AGRO-PROCESSING
Tadesse Fikre
5.1
Principles of Ginger Processing
Ginger processing involves the conversion of fresh ginger rhizomes into forms and
products that are more convenient for end-users. Processed ginger forms and products are
of higher market values and their marketability and applications are usually governed by
numerous sets of standards conventionally accepted worldwide (Tables 5.1 to 5.14). The
basic principles of processing ginger are converting the perishable bulky and shapeless
fresh ginger products into shelf stable and safe products, while retaining their flavoring
and aroma components. Processing of ginger can refer to concentrating the desired aroma
(essential oil) and flavor (oleoresin) components by separating them from the remainder
of the composition of ginger (Tables 6.1 and 6.2).
The most widely employed processing technology worldwide, which is employed to add
value to ginger rhizome is drying. However, the drying technology has not been much
developed and well mechanized as the volatile oils are lost with higher temperature
applications.
5.2
Major Ginger Processing

5.2.1
Green Ginger Processing
As it is stated before, ginger (Zingiber oficinale) is a rhizomatous spice crop which is

grown in Southeast Asia, Japan, Australia, Latin America, Jamaica and Africa. The crop
naturally matures after 9-10 months after planting which is usually indicated by the
leaves turning yellow and falling down. For the Green ginger preparation, however, the
crop is harvested at around 6 months as ginger for green or fresh use has to be fleshy and
less fibrous.
73
For the production of green ginger, harvested rhizomes are washed and slightly dried to
remove the excessive surface moisture. The rhizomes are then packed and marketed in
their fresh forms. This is also called young ginger and is widely used worldwide as a
vegetable (Balakrishnan, 2005; Camacho and Brescia, 2009).
Harvesting Fresh Ginger (6 months after planting)

Washing (safe water in terms of chemical and microbial contaminants)
Drainage and surface drying (natural or artificial methods)
Grading
Packaging (suitable size)
Marketing (as vegetable, not stored for long)
Figure5-1: Flow Chart for green ginger processing
5.2.2
Dried and powdered Ginger Processing
Large proportion of ginger is dried and marketed in many countries. For the production
of both dried and/or powdered ginger, the crop is harvested at full maturity in 9-10
months after planting. The harvested rhizomes are cleaned by soaking them in water
overnight and rubbing them against each other. The first step in drying ginger is peeling
to remove the thin outer skin and cutting rhizomes into thin slices. This operation
increases the surface if the ginger is exposed to the drying condition and results in faster
drying. In cases where large quantity of ginger is being considered, mechanical slicers
may be required. Some operates electrically (Figure 5-2) while others are driven
manually (Figure 5-3).
74
Figure 5-2: Electrical Ginger Slicer
Figure 5-3: Manually operated Ginger slicer
75
The second step is drying the peeled and/or sliced pieces of ginger by exposing them to
drying medium. The dried ginger pieces will then be polished, graded and packed for
dried pieces or grinded and packed for powdered ginger. There are many types of drying
technologies suitable for ginger drying. Some of the hot air drying techniques are
discussed in the following sub-sections:
5.2.2.1
Open-sun Drying
Open-sun drying is a method where food products are spread on mats or raised in clean
platforms to be dried by direct radiation of the sun. It is the simplest and least cost drying
technique, which is widely practiced in the tropical region where the outdoor temperature
is high enough (usually 30C or higher) to remove moisture from agricultural materials
with in reasonably short period of time (Shamsher et al., 2004). The peeled rhizomes are
washed and dried uniformly in the sun for 1 week. Freshly peeled rhizomes should be
handled in clean containers only as dirt keeps adhering to the product after drying.
Drying under sun requires spreading the rhizomes on concrete flour or a bamboo mat
raised off the ground.
Sun drying method has been reported to be inefficient for it requires long time and the
product quality deteriorates due to spoilage and contamination (Fellows, 2000; Chua and
Chou, 2003; Brennan, 2006).
5.2.2.2
Solar Drying
Solar drying is often differentiated from sun drying in that the former operates by the
use of equipment to collect the suns radiation in order to harness the irradiative energy
for drying applications. In many parts of South East Asia, spice crops and herbs are
routinely dried (Fellows, 2000; Chua and Chou, 2003; Brennan, 2006; Swetman et al.,
2002).Solar dryers are far more rapid, providing uniformity and hygiene to the products
being dried and are suitable for industrial food drying processes (Diamante and Munro,
1993; Ratti and Mujumdar, 1997).Food Materials to be dried are kept in an enclosure
76
where they contact with heated air and/or solar radiation. The food products dehydrated
in the chambers of solar dryers usually have 5-15C higher temperatures than the outside
day time air (Sokhansanj and Jayas, 1995). Solar Dryers are categorized on two bases
(Imre, 1995, Grabowski and Mujumdar, 2000):
Based on type of energy contact with the product:
Direct solar dryer
In these dryers, the products being dried are directly exposed to the radiations from the
sun. In solar dryers of this kind, the drying chamber is usually constructed from
transparent or semi-transparent materials like plastics sheets or glasses and may be
combined with the radiation collector (Figure 5-4 and 5-5) or separate (Figure 5-6).
Figure5-4: Direct type solar dryer (combined radiation collector and drying chamber)
77
Figure5-5: Illustration of Food drying in a direct solar dryer.
Figure5-6: Design and structure of a typical direct solar dryer.
78
Indirect solar dryer

In an indirect solar dryer, the products are not exposed to the solar radiations due to
occurrence of some undesirable changes such as, the loss of volatile components or
discoloration. Spices, colored fruits and vegetables are good examples which need to be
dried indirectly with a moving air heated by the solar radiation in a separate unit. For this
purpose, the drying chamber of indirect solar dryers is constructed from opaque materials
like wood and or colored thick plastic sheets and needs to be separated from the radiation
collector (Figures 5-7).
Figure5-7: Illustration of an indirect type solar dryer (opaque drying chamber)
79
Based on air movement:

o Passive solar dryer (air movement is based on natural convections; when air
gets heated, it becomes buoyant and moves up; air gets into the wet product
and removes the moisture)
o Active solar dryer (air movement is forced by using fans (pushing or
suction), faster drying, fans operate by electric current from photo-voltaic
cells (solar energy).
5.2.2.3
Solar Tent Drying
Solar tent dryers (Figure 5-7) are cheap and simple to construct, consisting of a frame
wood poles covered with plastic sheets. Transparent plastics are used on the wall facing
the sun and black plastics (radiation absorption) should also be used on the wall facing
away from the sun. The products to be dried are placed on a rack above the ground. This
drying method, like other solar drying methods, is much better than the open-sun drying
technique (section 5.2.2.1), which requires much lower drying time and ensures much
better product quality and safety. The main purposes of this dryer are providing
protection from dust, dirt, rain, wind and/or predators. Tent dryers can be taken down and
stored when they are not in use as they may be damaged by strong wind (the only
disadvantage) (Balakrishnan, 2005).
80
Harvesting Fresh Ginger (9-10 months after planting)

Washing (safe water in terms of chemical and microbial contaminants)
Peeling and/or slicing
Drying (open sun, solar, tent, other artificial methods)
Polishing and grading
Grinding for (powdered ginger)
Packaging and Marketing
Figure5-8: Flow sheet for dried and/or powdered ginger processing
81
Figure5-9: Illustration of tent solar dryer
5.2.2.4
Solar Tunnel Drying
A solar tunnel dryer (Figure 5-8) is essentially a poly house having tunnel like framed
structure covered with ultra-violet (UV)-stabilized polythene sheet, where agricultural
and industrial products could be dried under at least partially controlled environment, in
which loading and unloading is quite easy (Dulawat and Rathore, 2012).
82
Figure5-10: Industrial tunnel solar dryer
5.2.3
Ginger Essential Oil Extraction
Essential oils are the volatile organic constituents of fragrant plant matter. Dry ginger
contains 1.5 to 2.5% essential oil (volatile oil), which imparts the characteristic aroma to
the spice. The oil is devoid of the pungent taste of ginger by using Hydro distillation,
which permits the safe recovery of these heat-sensitive compounds from the plant matter.
Ginger oil is commercially produced by steam distillation of the comminuted dried spice.
Hydro distillation employs the use of either water or steam to separate volatile principles
from plant materials.
The volatile oil derived from dried ginger is a free-flowing, pale greenish yellow liquid
possessing the characteristic aroma but not the pungent taste (bite) of the spice. Ginger
oil is soluble in ether and insoluble in water. The odor of the oil is quite lasting. Other
physical properties of ginger oil are set and regulated by quality agencies. An example of
Food Chemical Codex specification is summarized in Table 5-1 below.
83
Table 5-1: Food Chemical Codex (FCC) specifications for ginger oil
Characteristics
Requirement
Angular rotation
Between -28 and -47
Heavy metals (as lead, Pb)

Refractive index
Passes test
Between 1.488 and 1.494 at 20C
Saponification value
Specific Gravity
5.2.4
Not more than 20

Between 0.870 and 0.882 at 25C
Ginger Oleoresins
Oleoresin is the whole flavor component (non-volatile) of ginger. It is separated from the
plants by using organic solvents. In this regard, acetone, methanol, isopropanol,
methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, and ethyl alcohol are popular extraction solvents for
ginger. The oleoresin, obtained by extraction of the spice with volatile solvents, contains
the aroma as well as the taste principles of ginger in highly concentrated form.
The oleoresin represents the wholesome flavor of the spice, which is concerned about a
cumulative effect of the sensation of smell and taste. It consists of the volatile essential
oil and the nonvolatile resinous fraction comprising taste components, fixatives,
antioxidants, pigments and fixed oils naturally present in the spice. The oleoresin is,
therefore, designated as true essence of the spice and can replace spice powders in food
products without altering the flavor profile.
The oleoresin extraction process essentially comprises the following four steps:
i. Size-reduction of the ginger rhizomes to enhance the extraction process
ii. Contacting the spice powder and solvent in the extractor to effect the transfer of
the functional components from the spice to the solvent,
iii. Separation of the resulting solution (solvent-oleoresin complex) from the powder,
and
iv. Distillation of the extract to recover the product (separation of the oleoresin and
the solvent).
84
Ginger oleoresin is usually extracted in two ways of extraction: single-stage and twostage extractions. Figures 5-9 and 5-10 below present summary of the two commonly
used extraction methods:
Ginger
Size Reduction (Powdering)
Solvent Extraction
Solvent Removal (Recovery)
Ginger Oleoresin
Packaging (Opaque Containers)
Figure5-11: Flow sheet for single-stage oleoresin extraction
85
Ginger
Size reduction (Powdering)
Hydrodistillation (Water or Steam)
De-oiled Powder (Spent)
Ginger Oil
Solvent Extraction
Solvent Removal (Recovery)
Ginger Resin
Blending
Ginger Oleoresin
Figure5-12: Flow sheet for two-stage oleoresin extraction methods
Solvent
Table 5-2: Limits for residual solvents in spice oleoresin

Limit, ppm max.
Acetone
30
Ethylene dichloride
30
Hexane
25
Isopropyl alcohol
50
Methanol
50
Methylene Chloride
30
86
Table 5-3: Approximate dosages of ginger oil and oleoresin for typical applications
Ginger oil
Dosage, limit (ppm)
Non-alcoholic beverages
17
Ice cream. Ices etc
20
Candy
14
Baked goods
47
Condiments
13
Meats
12
Ginger oleoresin
Non-alcoholic beverages
Ice cream. Ices etc
79
36-65
Candy
27
Baked goods
52
Condiments
10-1000
Meats
30-250
5.3
Quality and Safety Requirements for ginger and its products
Quality and specifications play a significant role in the supply and buying of spices.
Spices have to meet certain standard requirements to be acceptable by buyers. Safety of
spices and bioterrorism also play a key role in buying spices. In the US market, for
instance, the safety of spices is addressed by the FDA through ASTAs conclusions that
they are generally recognized as safe (GRAS).
In the European Union, the European Spice Association (ESA) sets minimum
specifications for spice quality in Europe. Many growing regions have their own quality
specifications, including the Indian Spice Board (ISB) and International Pepper
Community (IPC), which implement quality certifications in close association with
ASTA and other international standard groups. Accordingly, the quality of different
forms of ginger is set by different countries and markets. (Balakrishnan, 2005; Raghavan,
2007)
87
Table 5-4: American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) Cleanliness Specification for
Ginger
Parameters
Upper Limits
Whole insects, Dead (Count)
Excreta, Mammalian (mg/lb)
Excreta, others (mg/lb)
Mold (% by weight)
Insect defiled/infected, (% by weight)
Extraneous, Solid Matter (% by weight),
Table 5-5: EU standards for ginger

Parameters
Limit
Aflatoxin, B1(ppb)
<5
Aflatoxin, Total (ppb)
<10
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) (ppm)
<10
Moisture (%)
<12
Water Activity
<0.60
Oleoresin (%)
>6
Essential oil (%)
>2.5
Ash (%)
<8
Sand Content (%)
<0.5
Table 5-6: Microbiological specification for spice under German Law

Parameters
Standard value (per
Danger value (per gram)
gram)
105
106
Escherichia coli
Absent
Absent
Bacillus cereus
104
105
Staphylococcus aureus
100
1000
Absent in 25 grams
Absent in 25 grams
Total aerobic bacteria
Salmonella
Sulfite-reducing clostrides
10
105
88
Table 5-7: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in ginger under American Regulations
Pesticides
Tolerance limit (ppm)
Lindane
0.50
BHC
0.05
Heptachlor
0.01
Heptachlor epoxide
0.01
Trifluralin
0.05
Ethylene oxide
50
Propylene oxide
300
Diquat
0.02
Dichlorvos
0.50
Dalapon
0.20
Aluminum phosphide
0.10
2,4-D
0.10
Glyphosate
0.20
Methyl bromide
100
Table 5-8: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in spices under German Regulations
Pesticides
Tolerance limit (ppm)
Aldrin and dieldrin
0.1
Chlordane
0.05
Sum of DDT isomers
1.0
Endrin
0.1
HCH without Lindane
0.2
Heptachlor and epoxide
0.1
Hexachlorbenzol
0.1
Lindane
0.01
HCN and Cyanides
15.0
Bromides
400.0
Carbaryl
0.10
89
Carbofuran
0.20
Chlorpyrifos
0.05
Methyl Chlorpyrifos
0.05
Cypermethrin (sum of all isomers)
0.05
Deltamethrin
0.05
Diazinol
0.02
Dichlorvos
0.1
Diclofop methyl
0.1
Dicofol (sum of all isomers)
0.02
Dimethoate
0.5
Disulfoton
0.02
Dithiocarbamate
0.5
Endosulfan (sum of all isomers)
0.5
Ethion
0.5
Fenitrothion
0.5
Fenevalerate (sum of all isomers)
0.5
Copper based pesticides
40.0
Malathion
0.5
Methyl bromide
0.5
Mevinphos
0.5
Omethoate
0.5
Parathion and paraoxon
0.1
Methyl parathion and methyl para oxon
0.1
Phorate
0.05
Phosalone
0.5
Phosphamidon
0.05
Pyrethrin
0.5
Quinalphos
0.01
Quintozen
0.01
90
Table 5-9: Defect Action Level (DAL) for Ginger (Food and Drug Administration (FDA))
Parameters
Upper Limits
Insect filth and/or mold
Average of 3% or more pieces by weight are insect infected and/or

moldy
Mammalian excreta
Average of 3 mg or more of mammalian excreta per pound
Table 5-10: Tolerance levels for aflatoxins in Spices

Aflatoxin
Limit, ppb, Max.
German Law:
EC Regulation:
B1+B2+G1+G2
B1
B1+B2+G1+G2
10
B1
Table 5-11: Maximum permissible limits for trace metals in ginger powder (Japanese)
Metal
Upper limit (ppm)
Magnesium
2000
Zinc
33
Copper
3.7
Aluminum
42
Arsenic
Boron
1.5
Barium
15
Beryllium
0.038
Chromium
0.4
Manganese
270
Molybdenum
0.47
Nickel
0.97
Antimony
2.2
Selenium
0.14
Silicon
21
Tin
4.4
91
Lithium
Strontium
1.2
Titanium
Bismuth
Cadmium
Gallium
Lead
Tellurium
Table 5-12: International Standards Organization (ISO) Specification for ginger

Characteristics
Requirement
Moisture Content, % (m/m) max
12.0
Total ash, % (m/m) on dry basis max

a) Unbleached
8.0
b) Bleached
12.0
Calcium (as calcium oxide), % (m/m) on dry basis,

max
a) Unbleached
1.1
b) Bleached
2.5
Volatile oil, mL/100 g, on dry basis, min
1.5
Table 5-13: Indian Standard Specification for ground ginger

Parameters and units
Requirement
Moisture, % by mass max.
12.00
Total ash, % by mass, max.
7.00
Water soluble ash, % by mass min.
1.70
Acid insoluble ash, % by mass, max.
1.00
Cold water soluble extract, % (m/m) on dry basis min.
10.00
Lead (Pb), ppm, max.
10.00
Calcium (as CaO), max.
1.00
Alcohol soluble extract, % (m/m) on dry basis, min.
4.50
92
Extraneous matter, % by mass, Max.
2.00
(Based on ISO and Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA))
Table 5-14: ISO Specification for ground ginger

Characteristics
Moisture Content, % (m/m) max.
Requirement
12.0
Total ash, % (m/m) on dry basis max.

c) Unbleached
8.0
d) Bleached
12.0
Calcium (as calcium oxide), % (m/m) on dry basis,

max.
b) Unbleached
1.1
c) Bleached
2.5
Volatile oil, mL/100 g, on dry basis, min.
1.5
Water soluble ash, % (m/m) on dry basis, min.
1.9
Acid insoluble ash, % (m/m) on dry basis, max.
2.3
Alcohol soluble extract, % (m/m) on dry basis, min.
5.1
Cold water soluble extract, % (m/m) on dry basis,
11.4
min.
Table 5-15: Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) rules for ginger powder
Characteristics
Requirement
Moisture
Not more than 13.0% by weight
Total ash
Not more than 8.0 by weight%
Acid-insoluble ash in dilHCl
Not more than 1.0% by weight
Water soluble ash
Not less than 1.7% by weight
Cold water soluble extract
Calcium (as Calcium oxide)

Alcohol (90% v/w) soluble extract
Volatile oil
Not more than 4.0% by weight on dry basis

Not less than 1.0% (v/w)
93
5.4
References
1. Balakrishnan, K. V., 2005. Postharvestand Industrial Processing of Ginger, In Ravindran,

P. N. and Babu, K. N., 2005. Ginger: the Genus Zingiber, pp. 391-435, CRC Press,
Washington D. C., USA.
2. Brennan, J. G., 2006. Evaporation and Dehydration. In Brennan, J. G., 2006. Food
Processing Handbook, pp. 71-121, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH and Co. KGaA,
Weinheim, Germany.
3. Camacho, H. E. and Brescia, A., 2009. The Australian Ginger Industry: Overview of
Market Trends and Opportunities, pp 6-40, Australian Ginger Growers Association Inc.,
Queensland Government, Australia.
4. Chua, K. J., and Chou, S.K., 2003. Low Cost Drying Methods for Developing Countries:
A review. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 14, 519-528.
5. Diamante, L. M. and Munro, P. A., 1993. Mathematical Modeling of the Thin Layer
Solar Drying of Sweet potato Slices. Solar Energy, 51(4), 271-276.
6. Dulawat, M. S. and Rathore, N. S., 2012. Forced ConvectionTypeSolar Tunnel Dryer for
Industrial Applications. Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR E-journal.
Manuscript EE 07 001. 14. (4), 75-79.
7. Fellows, P., 2000. Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices, pp 331-332,
Woodenhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, England.
8. Grabowski, S. and Mujumdar, A. S., 2000. Solar-Assisted Osmotic Dehydration. In
Mujumdar, A. S. and Suvachittanont, S. (Eds.), Developments in drying vol. 1: food
dehydration. pp. 142-178, Kasetsart University Press, Bangkok, Thailand.
9. Imre, L., 1995. Solar drying. In: A. S. Mujumdar (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial Drying.
pp. 373-452, Marcel Dekker, New York, USA.
10. Kitinoja, L. and Kader, A. A., 2002. Small-scale PostharvestHandling Practices: A
Manual for Horticultural crops 4th ed., PostharvestHorticulture Series No. 8E. University
of California, Davis PostharvestResearch and Information Center, California, USA.
11. Nayaranasamy, P., 2006. PostharvestPathogens and Disease management, pp. 122-170.
John Wiley and sons Inc. New Jersey, USA.
12. Raghavan, S., 2007. Handbook of Spices, Seasonings and Flavorings, Pp 116-119. Taylor
and Francis Group, New York, USA.
13. Ratti, C. and Mujumdar, A. S., 1997. Solar drying of foods. Modeling and numerical
simulation. Solar Energy, 60 (3-4), 151-157.
14. Shamsher, H. K., Armitage, D. M., Noyes, R. T., Barker, N. D. and Graver, J. van S.,
2004. Wheat. In Hodges, R. and Forrell, G., 2004. Crop Postharvest: Science and
Technology, Vol. 2., pp. 69. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford, UK.
15. Simson, S. P. and Straus, M. C., 2010. PostharvestTechnology of Horticultural Crops, pp
34-189. Oxford book Company, New Delhi, India.
16. Sokhansanj, S. and Jayas, D. S., 1995. Drying of Foodstuffs, In: Mujumdar,A. S. (ed.),
Handbook of Industrial Drying, pp. 589-625. Marcel Dekker, New York, USA.
94
17. Swetman, A. A, Nicolaides, L. Wareing, P. W., New, J. H. Wood, J. F. and Hammond,

L., 2002. Food Processing and Preservation. In: Golob, P., Forrell, G., and Orchard, J. E.,
2002. Crop PostharvestScience and Technology, Vol. 1, Principles and Practices, pp. 158,
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK.
18. Thompson, A. K., 2003. Fruits and Vegetables harvesting, handling and storage, pp 121122. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford, UK.
19. UNIDO and FAO, 2005. Herbs, Spices and Essential oils postharvestOperations in
developing countries
20. Vasala, P. A., 2001. Ginger In: Peter, K. V., 2005. Handbook of Herbs and Spices
Volume 3, pp. 195-205,
95
6. NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GINGER

Tadesse Fikre
6.1 Nutritional Significance of Ginger
Ginger is nutritionally important as a source of vitamins and minerals in its fresh and
dried (powdered) forms. It is known to supply significant levels of calcium, potassium,
phosphorus, magnesium, niacin and vitamin C. (Raghavan, 2007). As indicated in (Table
5-1), 100 grams of dried ginger contain approximately 9.4 gram of proteins, 347 kcal of
food energy, 70.8 grams of total carbohydrates and significant quantities of other macroand micro-nutrients (Vasala, 2001; Valenzuela, 2011)
Components
Water
Food Energy
Table 6-1: Nutritional Data for 100 g dry ginger

Level
9.4 g
347 kcal
Protein
9.1 g
Fat
6.0 g
Total carbohydrate
70.8 g
Fiber
5.9 g
Ash
4.8 g
Calcium
116 mg
Iron
12 mg
Magnesium
184 mg
Phosphorus
148 mg
Potassium
1342 mg
Sodium
32 mg
Zink
5 mg
Niacin
5 mg
Vitamin A
147 IU
96
Other vitamins
Insignificant
Table 6-2: Chemical Composition of dry ginger

Components
Level (%)
Volatile oil
1.25 to 2.81
Crude Fiber
1.4 to 9.5
Cold alcohol extract
1.12 to 3.9
Total ash
6.11 to 9.58
Acid insoluble ash
0.3 to 1.23
Crude Protein
8.1 to 11.6
Starch
41.54 to 55.06
Water extract
10 to 20
Acetone extract
6.1
5.11 to 11.71
Health Benefits of Ginger
Ginger is among numerous herbs known for their health benefits both in traditional and
modern medicines. Historically, ginger has a long tradition of being very effective in
alleviating symptoms of gastrointestinal distress thereby facilitating digestion and
treating stomach upset, diarrhea, and nausea. In herbal medicine, ginger is regarded as an
excellent carminative (promoting the elimination of intestinal gas) and intestinal
spasmolytic (relaxing and soothing the intestinal tract). Similarly, modern scientific
research has revealed that ginger possesses numerous therapeutic properties including
antioxidant effects, an ability to inhibit the formation of inflammatory and carcinogenic
compounds, and direct anti-inflammatory effects (Shukla and Singh, 2007; Karnaet al.,
2012).
Ginger is also a common traditional remedy taken by numerous women experiencing

nausea and vomiting in pregnancy (NVP). There is considerable evidence that support its
effectiveness as an anti-emetic, but also increasing concern over its safety. Ginger is a
powerful herbal medicine which acts pharmacologically and thus has specific indications,
97
contraindications, precautions and side-effects; the most notable of which is an

anticoagulant action (Portnoiet al., 2003; Bryer, 2005;Ali et al., 2008; Ensiyeh and
Sakineh, 2009; Tiran, 2012;Ding et al., 2013).After 6 months clinical experience, it was
reported that a 5% solution of ginger essential oil is an effective post-operative nausea
and vomiting (PONV) prevention when administered preoperatively, naso-cutaneously
concurrently with conventional therapies to general anesthesia patients at high risk for
PONV. (Geiger, 2005)
Ginger has antioxidant property which is helpful in scavenging free radicals from human
body that have the potential to cause cancer. The ginger alcohol extract showed an
antioxidant activity comparable with that of butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT) in
inhibiting, for instance the lipid peroxidation. The ginger extract also revealed an
inhibiting effect of hydroxyl radicals, better than that of quercetin at around the human
body temperatures (Shukla and Singh, 2007; Stoilova, et al., 2007).
6.2
References
1. Ali, B. H., Blunden, G., Tanira, M. O. and Nemmar, A., 2008. Some Phytochemical,
Pharmacological and Toxicological Properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe):
AReview of Recent Research. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46, 409-420.
2. Balakrishnan, K. V., 2005. Postharvestand Industrial Processing of Ginger, In Ravindran, P.
N. and Babu, K. N., 2005. Ginger: the Genus Zingiber, pp. 391-435, CRC Press, Washington
D. C., USA.
3. Bryer, E., 2005. A Literature Review of the Effectiveness of Ginger in Alleviating Mild-toModerate Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy: Brief Report. Journal of Midwifery and
Womens Health, 50 (1), e1-e3.
4. Ding, M., Leach, M. and Bradley, H., 2013. The Effectiveness and Safety of Ginger for
Pregnancy-induced Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review, Women and Birth, 26, e26e30.
5. Ensiyeh, J. and Sakineh, M. C., 2009. Comparing Ginger and Vitamin B6 for the Treatment
of Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy: ARandomized Controlled rial. Midwifery, 25, 649653.
6. Geiger, J. L., 2005. The Essential Oil of Ginger, Zingiber officinale, and anaesthesia. The
International Journal of Aromatherapy, 15, 7-14.
7. Karna, P., Chagani, S., Gundala, S. R., Rida, P. C. G., Asif, G., Sharma, V., Gupta, M. V. and
Aneja R., 2012. Benefits of Whole Ginger Extract in prostate cancer. British Journal of
Nutrition. 107, 473-484.
98
8. Portnoi, G., Chang, L., Karimi-Tabesh, L., Koren, G., Tan M. P. and Einarson, A., 2003.
Prospective Comparative Study of the Safety and Effectiveness of Ginger for the Treatment
of Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 187
(5), 1374-1377.
9. Raghavan, S., 2007. Handbook of Spices, Seasonings and Flavorings, Pp 116-119. Taylor and
Francis Group, New York, USA.
10. Shukla, Y. and Singh, M., 2007. Cancer Preventive Properties of Ginger: A brief Review.
Food and Chemical Toxicology, 45, 683-690.
11. Stoilova, I., Krastanov, A., Stoyanova, A., Denev, P. and Gargova, S., 2007. Antioxidant
Activity of a Ginger Extract (Zingiberofficinale). Food Chemistry, 102, 764-770.
12. Tiran, D., 2012. Ginger to ReduceNausea and Vomiting during Pregnancy: Evidence of
Effectiveness Is Not the Same as Proof of Safety. Complementary Therapies in Clinical
Practice, 18, 22-25.
13. Valenzuela, H., 2011. Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Ginger
(Zingiberoficinale): A review.
14. Vasala, P. A., 2001. Ginger, In: Peter K. V., 2001. Handbook of Herbs and Spices, pp. 195206, Woodhead publishing, Cambridge, England.
99
PART III
7. GINGER VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS
Abreham Astatike
7.1
Ginger Marketing
7.1.1
Introduction
Producing for a market requires some basic assets and skills. There must be basic
infrastructure, such as roads, communication facilities, and farmers must have access to
productive resources - land, water, seeds, initial capital, etc. On top of the technological
production skills, farmers also need farm management skills to plan their activities,
manage cash flows and keep records to gain a proper understanding of the costs involved.
Due to the differences in the accessibility to such assets and skills, different farmers can
only go through different markets ranging from local (village market stall), national
(urban market), regional (neighboring region) to international (export) markets in that
order of increasing sophistication (ITC,2010).
Producers lack appropriate skill, knowledge and information on ginger marketing and are
compelled to sell their produce at relatively low price. On the other hand, farmers have
very little stake over the value chain, and the system is mainly operated by the middle
man, wholesalers, suppliers, retailers and cooperatives, who have the access to market
information. Hence the backward flow of information is managed in favor of these
stakeholders. Furthermore, the product is exported to neighboring countries, like the Gulf
countries without any value addition.
100
There is a need to ensure high level of farmers participation and integration in the value
chain to benefit from the ginger value chain. Linkage among the stakeholders is the key
issue to establish efficient value chain that ensures benefits to the producers as well as the
market actors.
Ethiopia has been exporting ginger to neighboring countries, like the Gulf and Asia
regions with some practice of value addition. Because of this, reason quality of ginger is
uncompetitive. The current ginger marketing is substantially shifting towards natural
products; therefore, in Europe it has stimulated the demand for ginger in recent times.
Added to this is the new demand wave for organic ginger in USA and Japan (ITC, 2010).
Moreover, the producers are not aware of ginger market and value chain information
including price at the end markets, demand situation, quality etc. As a result, the
production (supply) is not planned according to the demand situation and hence
oversupply/short-supply often results in unstable price and losses in business. Therefore,
stakeholders should support the producers as well as the market actors by introducing the
innovative approach to direct marketing practices and value chains so as to earn benefit
from production of their ginger and improve their livelihoods.
7.1.2
Ginger marketing and Market Place
Before the establishment of modern marketing system in the country, the common
marketing practice has been selling the products of fresh and dried ginger at marketplaces
in their locality.. Majority of ginger production areas in the country like Hadaro
marketplace in Kembata Tembaro zone is a key assembly center of ginger in the
aforementioned forms. There are other market places such as Shinshicho, Mudula and
Tunto in Kembata Tembaro zone; of those the Shinshicho market place is important for
fresh ginger collection.
Similarly, in Wolaita zone, Areka marketplace is a key assembly center. In Hadaro town,
there are about 10 registered local collectors who buy dried ginger from farmers and
101
small-scale collectors and sell in bulk to buyers in Addis Ababa. As shown in the Figure
below (on the right), there are many farmers who are engaged in selling small amount of
ginger simply to get some money for their daily necessities. There are small-scale
collectors who buy those small-heaps of dried ginger to collect in bulk/large volume. The
old marketing channels are illustrated as follows in Figure 7-1(JICA, 2012).
Marketplace in Major production

area (Assembly market)
Town/city
Farmers
Consumers
Small-scale
Collectors
Collectors/Bulk
buy
Terminal
Market
Farmers
Small-scale
Collectors (Farmer
traders)
Minor Market
Place
Figure7-1: Marketing channels of ginger (fresh/dried) in Kenbata Tembaro Zone
102
Figure7-2: Hadero old marketplace collection by local traders (left) small volume
marketing (right)
Marketplaces in major production areas play a role in gathering farm products, and
function as a starting point of distribution to urban markets. However, basic market
infrastructure such as marketplaces and warehouses are still in poor condition in the
country. These undesirable conditions prevent utilization of the existing high production
potential. This problem calls for improving market places as they are basic
infrastructures. . In order to improve this poor condition, the government agency called
(BoMC has established a working development plan which mainly focuses on
betterement of
quality, efficiency and trading volume through provision of market
infrastructure and proper management for strategic agricultural products.
Currently marketplaces in Ethiopia can be classified as: primary, secondary/terminal and

international based on their level of facility scale. One of the newly established ginger
transactions- primary market centers is illustrated bellow.
103
Figure 7-3: New transaction of ginger Primary market center (HaderoTunto)
Table 7-1: Ginger Marketing in SNNPRS

Production and
Supply Seasons
December to
February
April to June
July to October
7.1.2.1
Marketing practice
Harvesting of majority of the rhizomes after planting develops 8-9
months. This supply gets low price due to the bulk of the fresh
rhizome.
Hoard rhizomes in the storage brought to market. The price is
relatively good at this time of period.
Graded out and left-over on the farm brought to market. This price is
lowest due to the quality of products.
Current ginger market segments and distribution channels (domestic to

exports
Purchasing at the farmers level is done by local collectors and wholesalers. They either
buy for their own account or they are liaised to large processors in Addis Ababa or
Nazareth. There is hardly any direct contact between processors and farmers within the
traditional long supply chain. Recently, the supply chain is relatively made short. As
these are primarily produced for market, they pass only few hands to reach the exporting
junction mainly to the private company through cooperatives and or trade unions..
104
Cooperatives play roles for producers like Boloso bombe primary cooperatives and
Damot union in Wolaita zone and Hadero Tunto cooperatives in Kambata-Tembaro zone.
For examples, in Kambata-Tembaro zone, Ambaricho Farmers Cooperative Union and
11 primary cooperatives tried to take part in ginger marketing in 2010 to 2012.
The outlets in the country are; a domestic consumption as food (tea, spices mix), b)
exporters to Middle East, Asia and Europe and c) oleoresin extraction factories such as
Ethiopia Spice Extraction Factory (ESEF) and KASSK Spices and Herbs Extraction
Factory. There are no bulk buyers of dried ginger in SNNPRS. Bulk buyers reside mostly
in Addis Ababa. It is reported that there are only about 10 large exporters of dried ginger
in the whole country. Company players like YSO, Haile and Negash export a variety of
crops like sesame, niger seed and chick peas, but also include ginger, black cumin and
turmeric (JICA, 2012).
7.1.2.2
Local, national, regional and export trade of ginger and other Spice
Local marketing: It is characterized by unpredictable prices that are commonly offered

by middlemen, who have limited access to market information and offer limited
opportunities for the huge number of smallholder farmers before the restructured ginger
market channels. For example, annual fluctuation of price of fresh and dried ginger in
2004-2008 is shown below in Table 7-2. Regarding the long-run price movement, the
prices for both fresh and dried ginger have been decreasing since 2003/2004. The prices
have considerably dropped in 2006/2007(JICA, 2012).
National marketing: Cross border trade, especially of ginger, has been going on among
neighboring countries. As far as export markets are concerned, many farmers in the
region have been involved either directly or indirectly in export trade of the commodity
exports of coffee and others..Some of the export status reviews presented in this manual
gives important information for producers as well as market actors in production of
marketable ginger.
105
Table 7-2: Ginger price during 2003/2004 2007/2008 at Hadaro market place
Computed marginal price of dried
Year
Dried
ginger
Fresh
25% *
33% *
2003/2004
130-180
27-30
108-120
82-91
2004/2005
100-130
20-25
80-100
61-76
2005/2006
80-110
15-20
60-80
45-61
2006/2007
40-60
10-15
40-60
30-45
2007/2008
45-75
12-17
48-68
36-52
Unit: Birr per 17kg (feresula) * Adopt the drying yield of 25% for Volvo and 33% for
Hargema. Source: 2012, SAMS final report, in SNNPRS state BMC.
Table 7-3: Export Spice by type for 2008/9-2010/11 volume in tons and value in "000
USD
2008/2009
2009/2010
2010/2011
Type
Volume
FOB
value
Volume
FOB
value
volume
FOB
value
Ginger
10547
6292
10610
6036
10270
11999
Cumin seed
1715
2887
1127
1888
801
1555
Coriander
323
191
431
417
316
204
Turmeric
776
394
897
536
2932
2840
Pepper
110
374
234
633
133
486
Fenugreek
192
202
1171
839
588
508
Holy Basil
12
11
69
60
Cardamom
49
188
31
93
116
567
Mustard seed
187
25
13911
10564
14510
10451
15234
18226
Total
Source: Ministry of Trade, annual export report 2011
According to Ministry of Trade Annual Export Report of 2011 production year, the
export data from 2008/9 to 2010/11 revealed that the oversees export reached more than
15,000 Mts. Ginger, being a typical cash crop , is the largest exported spice crop.
106
Regarding market value, Salesin 2009/10 however showed a great leap and reached about
45% that is estimated to be 18.2 million USD. This is entirely the result of growing
ginger prices (Table 7-5).Ginger contributes 66% to the spice export value.
7.1.2.3
The status of World Import of ginger
Import data shows that there is a good prospect for Ethiopian ginger to export to
international markets with better unit prices. Since India is one of the worldwide
importers with increasing demand, it is necessary to analyze trade indicators of ginger
imports by India (ITC, 2011). Unlike India, Nigeria, Nepal, China, and Ethiopia are the
major suppliers of ginger to India (Table 7-6). Therefore, Ethiopia should compete with
those countries in terms of quality, quantity, and price.
Exporters
Table 7-4: Indias Import (Trade Indicators)

Imported
Imported
Share in
Imported
growth in
value
India's Imported
growth in
value
2010(USD imports qty 2010
qty(2006(2006000)
(%)
2010) (%)
2010) (%.)
Total
Imported
growth in
value
(20092010) (%.)
25171
100
38481
79
40
194
5414
Nepal
6164
24.5
30188
18
China
5823
23.8
1780
49
26
44
Ethiopia
1514
880
132
112
68
Nigeria
Source: ITC, 2011
7.1.3
Spice export by country of destination
Looking at the export of spices by destination, in 2010/11, Sudan is the leading importer
of spices from Ethiopia (with a 38.4% share of value of total spices export), followed by
India (10.4%), and Yemen (8.6%) respectively. Other important importers of spices from
107
Ethiopia are: UAE (8.3%), Saudi Arabia (6.7%), Morocco (5.8%), while Singapore and
Jordan have shares of 3.2% and 3.1% respectively (ITC, 2011).
Table 7-5: Export of spices (amount) by country of destination 2008/9-2010/11

Country
Export Mts
Sudan
6,229
Yemen
1,333
Saudi Arabia
849
India
1,490
United Arab Emirates
1,297
Morocco
1,122
Singapore
472
Jordan
390
North America
85
European Union
243
Others
2,084
Total
18,226
These export destinations open important rooms for expanding the production volume
and marketing point for the producers to fetch better price. Hence, we should be focusing
on improving the pre- and postharvest handling and market linkage by supporting the
producers as well as the market actors to withdraw from the old ginger production
systems.
108
7.1.4
Future Perspectives of the Ethiopia Spices
Table 7-6: Targeted export volume and revenue generation by 2015

2009/10
Export achievable by 2015
Spice
Volume
Values ($
Has planted
Yield in
yield/ha in
Volume
(tons)
000)
for export
fresh kg
kg dry
dry(tons)
Ginger
10.270
$11.999
5000
16000
4000
20000
50% sliced
$35000
Turmeric
2.923
$2.840
5000
16000
4000
2000
50% sliced
$3000
801
$1.555
30.750
800
800
3000
$6000
Other
1.591
42.174
5000
$6000
Total
15.594
$18.568
30000
$50000
Black cumin
Specification
Value ($
000)
Source: Ethiopia Spice Sub-Sector strategy, 2010
109
The data provides various pieces of information to ginger producers. It focuses on the
relationship among different market outlets, world import system and Ethiopias spice
strategy as well as market actors. This paves away to assess possibility, to increase price
through improved postharvest practices like washing, drying, cleaning, grading and
sorting, to increase the production area and overall productivity, to increase volume of
product and market diversification, to create opportunity for import substitution and
potential for the inward flow of foreign currency. Therefore, the current and the future
market demand will be determined by the producer, as well as the market actors which
ginger market requires higher quality standards of supplies and reward to fetch
competitive pricing for the producers.
7.1.5
Ginger Market requirements of quality standards and grading
More sophisticated markets like those of exports bring about challenges to most
smallholder farmers access to them either directly or indirectly. Such considerations
include quantity and consistency of supply, quality (specific varieties, washing, drying,
physical grading, and packaging) and competitive pricing, with the later increasingly
becoming very important.
Meeting food safety standards especially Maximum Residue Levels (MRL) for chemical
pesticides and fertilizers are also important requirements for continued export success.
Although not binding in a regulatory sense, private sector standards are becoming
increasingly mandatory from a commercial, buying-power perspective. Several of these
standards combine food safety standards with environmental health and safety
requirements, which make compliance very difficult for developing country producers
and exporters. One of the main reasons for this trend towards multidimensionality is that
standards aim to fulfill food safety objectives by encouraging environmentally
sustainable production methods. Examples of some of the standards include; the Global
Food Standard of the British Retail Consortium (BRC); Fair trade and other social
accountability standards. Locally developed standards present an opportunity to take
regulatory, agronomic, social and other conditions into consideration (FAO, 2008).
110
Therefore, there is no defined standard of classification parameters in ginger grading for

national and export marketing, simply the buyers providing ginger sample what it looks
like for the local collectors. Some suppliers and exporters are doing some sort of ginger
grading after bulk collecting based on demands of importer countries. Before the
development of national spice strategy, there was no evidence of ginger grading
parameters in the country.
According to ITC (2010), some the Ethiopian companies received separately graded
ginger products from bulk collectors as well as whole sellers; these are A-export quality;
B-export quality; C-domestic resale; and D-rejects. Often times the volumes to be
exported must still be dried down to 10% moisture which is usually done in the open sun.
C- and D-grades find their way to the Ethiopian consumers. In other words the Ethiopian
spice strategy simply put standards as grade-A and grade-B only to the export without
clarification of the standard parameters.
Indian Marketable ginger classification is described as flows():
Variety: Based on the thickness of rhizomes, there are two types of ginger; these
are: 1) Thick type and 2) Thin type.
Ginger is also classified based on the fiber content. Fibreless varieties are
known as Bose (Ethiopia case, Hrgema) and the varieties with high fiber content
are known as Nase (Ethiopia case, Volvo). Fibreless ginger variety, compared to
fibrous one, has better market.
Rhizomes Size: Cut size/ broken rhizomes are not preferred in the market. It
fetches a lower price at the terminal market. Hence, full size rhizomes are
preferred by most markets. In the Indian market, there are three grades of ginger
according to rhizome size:
Grade A This grade is characterized by full size, unbroken rhizomes
which are most demanded in Indian markets.
Grade B Broken. This grade is considered as average quality and can
be easily sold in Indian markets.
111
Grade C Cut pieces/ Broken size. This is the lowest grade ginger. The
price for this grade is very low, and generally this grade is not marketed
for fresh consumption. The main consumers of this grade are pickle
producers and other processing industries.
Season and Stage of Maturity: Fresh, immature early harvested rhizomes are
characterized by poor storability, less fibrousness and pungency.
Type of Soil: Ginger grown in the red soil is considered to be the best and fetches
a better price. The traders do not prefer ginger grown in black soil.
Mother rhizomethis is seed rhizome after offspring rhizomes have been formed.
Such a stock fetches good price if it is harvested during the lean season and the
recovery percent is also considerably high at this stage. The fully matured new
rhizomes are considered to be of the best quality (ANSAB, 2011).
7.2
Ginger Value Chain

7.2.1
Over view of ginger Value Chain
Value Chain is the sequence of related business activities resulted from the provision of
specific inputs for a particular product to primary production, transformation, marketing,
and leading to final consumption. The set of enterprises that performs these functions
include the producers, processors, traders and distributors of a particular product.
With regard to ginger, the value chain is the way of sorting, cleaning, washing and drying
by local farmers. The small holder farmer households (the predominant production
system for spices in Ethiopia), and also their cooperatives/unions and limited emerging
cases of commercial farming enterprises are selling products to local and regional traders
in the nearby towns. They sell the ginger in a wet/fresh stage (in most cases), or after
drying, depending upon their cash need, interest and experience in ginger drying
processes. Farmers directly sell the products away to their cooperatives/unions/ and
marginally cooperatives/unions.
112
Small to big local collectors and regional traders including small local shops in growing
areas are engaged in purchasing and bulking from farmers. There are also brokers who
are collecting and selling their ginger purchases to local wholesalers, after employing
some sort of processing for value addition. They may also sell products directly to
consumers. The local traders in turn may do further drying and bulking operations of the
ginger to make it convenient to be transported using trucks. At a time 50-90 quintals
(1quintal=100kg or 0.1ton) or above may be transported to traders at central/terminal
markets. There are national level wholesales of spices in terminal markets, which
undertake the task of further bulking mainly from regional traders. Retail supermarkets,
and retail village shops, sell the products to consumers (Ghimire, 2009).
Exporters are those who buy from regional wholesaler traders and national wholesalers in
terminal markets. The exporters are not as such specialized in export of ginger and other
spices alone. They are also engaged in export of such commodities as pulses and oil
crops. Logistics cargo is trucked to Djibouti (2 days), and then uploaded in 40 foot
containers (24 Mts). Though the production of ginger is bulky within this value chain,
awareness of farmers and buyers concerning quality are limited and it still remains the
main challenge (ITC, 2010). Therefore, to improve the quality of ginger products through
the existing value chain supportive measures should be taken.
7.2.2
Ginger Value Chain Map
The map provides a graphic representation of the structure of the value chain as to how
products flow through the production and primary market system as well as alternative
channels. The channels are generally vertical and horizontal chain of market actors that
transform raw materials and deliver them to consumers as finished goods. Moreover, the
map lists functions horizontally along the left-hand side with the final markets indicated
across the right-hand side. The stakeholders and market actors of the value chain are
designated by boxes. In the ginger value map, the channels have been identified on the
basis of core business units, i.e. the supply input and market
regulatory(MT/BMC),production, processing, collecting and distribution, processing and
exporting involving physical product flow from wholesaler (cooperatives) and suppliers
to the end-user. The present value chain of ginger is described below in Figure7-4.
113
Farmers
Local Intermediators
Input
Suppliers
BA/EIAR/ESR
C
Quality control
& Market
Regulatory
MT/BMC
Buyers
Ginger
producers
farmers
Cooperatives/Trade
union
Local
Processers
Wholesalers
Suppliers/Akerabi
Ginger producers
Cooperatives/union
Retailers and
Super market
Commercial ginger
producers
Sources: Bureau of MC, SNNPR, Marketing Manual
Local
consumers
oleoresion
extraction
Export
market
Figure7-4: The value chain map of ginger from local to export market
114
7.2.2.1
Functions in Ginger value Chain
Major functions involved in this sector can be described at: farmers level, traders level,
and processors level. These-are input supply, production, local processing at farmers
level; collection, domestic trading, exporting at traders level; as well as processing and
manufacturing for value addition at processors level. The function of final processing and
manufacturing is limited form in Ethiopia. Some companies like Company players such
as YSO, Haile and Negash have been using ginger as raw material in their various
products.
7.2.2.2
Actors in Ginger value Chain
In a value chain, the actors include the value chain operators and the operational service
providers together. Those functionaries who are directly involved in transaction or
directly support the actors involved in transaction are the value chain actors. Based on
activities performed, the actors are classified as follows:
Input suppliers: are those who provide inputs for the production and marketing of
ginger. Seed (HYV) from EIAR, Ethiopia Spice Research Center and Pesticides, which
are rarely used in ginger, and chemical fertilizers are provided by fertilizer dealers
existing in primary cooperatives or unions. Government and non-governmental agencies
provide technical support to equip them with the necessary skills and also provide inputs
to the farmers; however, the flow of information and inputs is not that much satisfactory.
Farmers: In ginger production, the term farmer refers to a person or his/her family
members who have been growing and selling ginger and its products. There are three
types of farmers, who are engaged in ginger production. These are: 1) small farmers with
subsistence ginger production, 2) small commercial farmers characterized by small
production volume but still targeting the market, and 3) large scale commercial
producers. Most of the yield from small farmers and small commercial farmers are sold
115
to various market segments. Farmers are also engaged in local processing of ginger, such
as drying and washing.
Local intermediaries: These are brokers involved at different stages in the supply chain
during the purchase and selling processes from farm to terminal markets.
Local processors: Ginger is locally processed by washing and drying. The processing of
ginger is done by the farmers themselves using traditional techniques before it is sold to
either local traders, wholesalers or national traders. More than 75%of the production is
sold as fresh, and the remaining is sold in dried forms. Washed ginger is prepared by
local cooperatives in a very little quantity and exported through their unions as well as
private commercial farming companies.
Wholesalers: are defined as those who sell the goods to suppliers, retailers, hotels,
industries, and institutional users. Wholesalers are those traders located at woreda and
zone level and sometimes even in rural towns, who collect ginger directly from farmers.
Wholesalers usually emerge from the local community and sometimes outside, and
perform trading various agricultural products. Ginger is collected and stored until the
amount reaches the load of trucks. Sorting to some extent, such as removing the decayed
and spoiled ginger, is done at this level. Most of the ginger from wholesaler traders is
supplied to exporters who primarily send to various market destinations. Some quantity
of the ginger also goes to retailers for local consumption.
Suppliers: are traders who have been actively participating in trade of ginger and its
products at national market. They get ginger both from cooperatives and wholesalers and
then sell it to the national market, national level processors and exporters. Sometimes it is
common that national traders provide ginger directly to the neighboring countries.
National processors (manufacturers of oleoresins): The firms which are engaged in

producing ginger and other products using ginger as one of the ingredients are termed as
national processors. It is evident from various sources of information that ginger
oleoresin essential oil, and slices have been exported to Japan, US and EU markets from
national level processors. Ginger processing plants, which are owned by government
116
such as Ethiopia Spice extraction Factory (ESEF) and privately owned plants such as
KASSK Spice and Herbs Extraction Factories are some of the national processors that are
worth mentioning.
Exporters: The firms which are engaged in export business of ginger and its products are
regarded as exporters. The majority of the dried ginger goes to different foreign market
destinations, while very small amount of ginger products are exported to niche- market of
USA, EU and Japan.
Retailers: Retailers are those traders who purchase the ginger products from wholesalers
and sell back to the final consumers.
7.3
Level of Support for ginger Value Chain

7.3.1
Government agencies
The key government ministries and agencies concerned with the provision of the requisite
policy, strategy, regulatory functions and key support services for the spice and related
crops are Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Trade,
Ethiopian Institute of Agriculture, Ethiopian Cooperative Agencies and their respective
offices at Regional, Zonal and Woreda levels. The MoA is a key concerned body mainly
responsible for the production of this crop by providing the relevant policy and strategy
inputs to spice crops. In addition, the BMC of SNNPRS via its respective offices at all
levels; provide generic and specialized extension service for small holder farmers on
postharvest management practices. Postharvest and marketing extension is one of the key
services required by all categories of value chain players in the spice sub-sector, which
needs to be strengthened in order to continuously educate farmers to utilize specific,
innovative and sustainable farming methods and approaches (ITC,2010).
7.3.2
Government agencies
Ethiopian Institute of Agriculture Research (EIAR) is the major institution involved in

generation and dissemination of agricultural technology by working very closely with
117
Ministry Agriculture. One of the factors still limiting production of spices in Ethiopia is
sub-optimal agronomic practices. This is due to such factors as inadequate skills training,
lack of improved inputs and technologies such as improved seed varieties, fertilizers and
pesticides are also among others.
Current Research endeavors on spices and their disseminations are said to be inadequate.
This is well witnessed by the lack of improved varieties either developed and
disseminated within the country or introduced for evaluation and adoption. EIAR has a
key role in addressing this constraint by enhancing the existing research activities and
making it more market oriented and pragmatic. Currently EIAR is conducting research
pertinent to the spice subsector in some of its specialized and semi specialized research
centers, namely Tepi (major spice research centre), Sinana, Jimma (primarily coffee and
also some spices), Areka (primarily ginger) Kulumsa, DebreZeit, Melkassa, Bako,
essential oil, Gondar, Adet, Agricultural Research Centers. It also provides advisory and
technical supports in collaboration with the extension services (ITC, 2011).
7.3.3
Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX)
Agricultural markets in Ethiopia are characterized by high costs and high risks. With only
one third of output reaching the market, commodity buyers and sellers tended to trade
only with those they knew, with the aim of avoiding the risk of being cheated. Trade is
done on the basis of visual inspection because there is no assurance of product quality or
quantity, and market costs, leading to high consumer prices. Small-scale farmers, who
produce 95% of Ethiopias output, came to market with little information and are at the
mercy of merchants in the nearest and the only market they know, unable to negotiate
better prices or reduce their market risk.
The ECX is a new initiative for Ethiopia. Its operation commenced in April 2008 as the
first of its kind in Africa. The ECX expected to assure all commodity market players the
security they need in the market by providing a secure and reliable end-to-end system for
118
handling, grading, and storing commodities. ECX, however, is not providing ginger
marketing.
7.3.4
Farmers Organizations
Farmers organizations play an important role in the economy of the smallholder farmers.
The formal farmers organizations in Ethiopia are primary Cooperative Associations,
Cooperative Unions and Cooperative Federation. In SNNPRS, 25 Farmers
cooperatives, 3 unions and 1 Federation, who are engaged in spices (ginger) production
and marketing, were formed as of 2013. These organizations provide the smallholder
farmers with the opportunities to access different services in a more cost effective
approach. A good example is access to credit services where most smallholders are
deemed not credit worthy by the financial institutions but are nevertheless able to access
credit within the umbrella of their associations. The farmers organizations also provide
enhanced direct access to markets. In this regard, organizations provide opportunity for
bulking of produce there by making it possible to have adequate quantities of good
quality produce to attract the market. Besides, the organizations are able to improve
access to storage facilities which is crucial in spreading the supply of farm produce away
from periods of glut. This avoids selling the produces at non remunerative prices during
periods of surplus production (JICA, 2011).
Efficient farmer groups also act as catalysts for investment in agro-processing sectors. A
good example of this is Abay ginger washing market groups Kenbata Tembaro zone in
Hadero-Tunto woerda. There is an exemplary ginger washing at Hadero Tunto by the
primary cooperatives and Damot union that export washed ginger to Indian markets. The
associations are able to leverage finances which can be used to establish processing and
grading facilities for ginger products; this enables smallholder farmers to add value to
their produce and attract better returns on their produce.
119
7.3.5
Some activities initiated by private businesses
Most of the services provided to spice producing smallholder farmers fall within the
remit of the public sector, through the Ministry of Agriculture. However, it is noted that
some of the services can be devolved to be more effectively delivered by the private
sector players. Extension services for example, could be under taken by the farmer
groups, input suppliers and exporters of the spices. There are unutilized opportunities by
leveraging synergies of public sector and private sector to guarantee more sustainable
solution to the delivery of services sought in the ginger spice subsector with the view of
addressing some of the challenges currently existing in this domain. Now a days these
activities are being initiated as capacity building program and run by the efforts of: Eden
Oil Plc, Ethiopian Spice Extraction Factory, Yahia Seid Omer Company. These private
organizations are playing their significant roles by training farmers who reside around
farm sites and investing in postharvest processing facilities (ITC, 2011).
7.3.6
Development partners and donors
It is noted that there are a number of development partners and donors working in
Ethiopia in the areas pertinent to the private sector, such as agriculture, trade and industry
in support of promotion and expansion of production and trade of key commodities
particularly those used for export market. The most important ones among other includes:
Bilateral development agencies such as USAID, JICA, SNV, GTZ, IFAD and other
agencies and NGOs including World Bank and Farm Africa. Some of the
programs/projects most relevant to ginger and others spice related products include;
GTZ-ECBP-ginger support
SNV-Oilseed
Farm Africa improving ginger production, postharvest handling, marketing and

market linkage
JICA - on value addition and market linkage on ginger
HABP - Income resource generation of a produce, this could be spices (if it is

selected by the target farmers).
120
AGP (Agricultural Growth Program) - Having a program of extension, development and

scaling up of different agricultural products in which spices could also be included as per
the choice of the regions, zones and woredas, basically switched on by the interest of the
farmers (JICA,2012).
7.4
Overall issues in Value Chain Analysis

7.4.1
Constraints
Challenges in accessing these markets: Most farmers currently operate in a situation

where they do not know what it means to produce for a competitive market. They deal
with poorly presented products which can only attract low prices. They do not know that
producing for a market has its own risk. Farming by itself is a risky business due to the
traits caused by: droughts, pests, diseases, market prices rate, and unpredictable buyers.
There is little or no innovation and most of the farmers are stuck doing old things, and the
do new things in an old way; however, conditions in markets such as, competition, new
technologies, and consumer preferences are changing rapidly.
Production Quality
Low yield varieties in use, and lack of High Yielding Verities (HYV);
Need for improved spice agricultural research, new and locally adaptable varieties
that offer opportunities for increased yield, that meet home and export market
demands;
Poor quality of final output;
Weak role of private commercial investors in spices production;
Lack of proper postharvest handling practices, and problems of the marketing
system in use resulting in significant postharvest wastage and product quality
deteriorations;
Postharvest quality deteriorates because:
Drying whole ginger is slow and leads to quality losses. Sliced ginger dries within
one week and has lower salmonella risk. Transporting ginger with high moisture
results in high moulds.
121
Marketing stage:
Keeping ginger in store for long expecting higher prices;
Adulteration of inferior varieties with better ones for marketing;
Poor quality of ginger traded due to highly traditional pre- and postharvest
handling practices;
Weak marketing system not stimulating production and marketing based on
enforceable quality standards;
Weak business linkage among stakeholders in the chain including farmers,
traders, processors and Woreda level support institutions and macro level
regulatory and enforcement institutions;
lack of value addition in terms of major agro processing activities in ginger;
weak organizational capacity of cooperatives and trade unions;
Price volatility due to changes in demand and supply in local and overseas
markets;
Lack of organized market information service to the different actors in the
ginger farm-to-market chain;
Weak market research and promotion in potential overseas for natural and
processed ginger products.
To improve the challenge in ginger marketing and value chain:

Improving the local market infrastructure to minimize postharvest losses, e.g. the
market place and washed ginger processing technologies;
Improving postharvest handling by providing ginger washing and drying
technologies to the farmers;
Developing long term alliances with buyers having shared interests and mutual
growth
Developing ownership (bargaining power) over the chain in order to be able to
influence factors like fixing prices, quality and logistics;
Formalizing trade relationships through mutual agreements or commitment letters
needed as individuals or cooperatives;
Promoting market focused production if the end is to market;
122
Enhancing skills and assets that farmers need to effectively engage in production;
development of national quality assurance systems; national Good Agricultural
practices (GAP) and certification of infrastructure to make use of the benchmarking
and equivalence provisions of most export market standards
7.4.2
Opportunities
There are a number of opportunities that can be tapped to boost this sector. Some of these
subsume:
Input supply
Good demand of quality inputs: It is noted that there is a good demand of quality seeds
and effective plant protection measures from ginger farmers. There is clear scope to
develop a seed supply chain that can benefit for this sector. Hadero-Tunto is one of the
potential areas to develop as a seed pocket and link to the producers of ginger.
Production
Improved postharvest practices: Cleaning, sorting and grading are the basic
postharvest handling practices which can be easily adapted at farmers level. Those
simple postharvest handing practices can add value to the product and fetch better prices
for producers.
High scope to increase area and productivity: There is a potential to increase

productivity of ginger in all producing areas by introducing high yielding varieties and
using improved cultivation practices. Besides, the treatment and prevention of ginger
blight disease, a major disease in ginger is discovered in 2013 for the first time in
Ethiopia.
Processing
Different studies indicated that at developing value added products in different value
chain points of ginger, helps for better market penetration and economic advantage of the
primary producers. Such processes as washing and drying as well as production of
ginger, powder, and slices mixed with vinegar can be practiced without any
123
sophistication and less capital requirement. If the processors can make those products,
they will easily access the market and get more profit compared to selling it in fresh
form.
Marketing
Value addition through cleaning, grading and sorting: To make the products
competitive in any range of markets, simple activities like, cleaning, grading and sorting
can be done. These activities would be helpful to increase the shelf life of products and
generate premium price in market.
Opportunity for import substitution: As Ethiopia is exporting dried ginger in low price
and importing value added products from international market paying high price, there is
opportunity to start value addition activities thereby substituting the imports in return.
Market diversification: Most of the ginger from Ethiopia is exported to Sudan and
India. ITC data shows that about 43% and 18 % of ginger was exported to Sudan and
India in 2009.However, the unit price of ginger in Sudanese and Indian markets is too
low compared to European, Japanese and US markets. Therefore, Japan, United States,
UK and Netherlands can be a very potential area for export of Ethiopian ginger as they
have good demand of ginger with high unit market value.
Employment for women and the poor in primary processing Centre: In Ethiopia,
there is a lack of primary processing centre. According to the report by JICA,, a single
processing centre can provide employment to 70 people for at least 6 months. Most of the
workers in such processing centres are found to be women and poor. Therefore
establishment of such processing centres within ginger producing area can generate
employment for thousands of women and poor. Besides, the quality of ginger is also
upgraded in order to supplement the increase of unit price.
Inward flow of foreign currency: Ethiopia, being the sixth largest producer of ginger,
also enjoys being one of the biggest exporters. The export of ginger has contributed about
124
0.25% of the total export in the year of 2010, and it has become one of the sources of
foreign currency earning.
7.5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
References
ANSAB (Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources), 2011. Value
Addition Analysis of Ginger Sub-sectors in Nepal, FAD, SNV, July 2011.
CBI (Confederation of British Industries), 2005. Oleoresins Export Potential Ethiopia.
Ethiopia Promotion Department Report, January, 2005.
EIAR (Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Researches), 2004. Tepi Spice Research
Center Progress Report.
FAO (Food and agricultural organization of the United Nations) 2002.Ginger Grading
and Packing.
Ghimire, P. L., 2009. Value Chain Analysis of Ginger Sector of Nepal: A Study on
Governance Structure and Upgrading strategies for Micro, Small and Medium sized
Enterprises. Unpublished Masters Thesis for the Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of
MBA in SME Development, International SEPT Program, University of Leipzig,
Germany.
ITC (International Trade Center), 2010. Spice Sub-sector Strategy for Ethiopia, by
Spice sub sector Strategy Coordinating Committee with collaboration of International
Trade Center (ITC), February, 2010.
JICA (Japanese International Cooperation Agency), 2012. The Development Study on
the Strengthening Agricultural Marketing System in SNNPRS in collaboration with
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Overseas Merchandise Inspection
CO., LTD, November 2012.
Swinnen J. F. M, 2007. Global Supply Chains, Standards and the Poor (ed), CAB
International.
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GINGER

(Zingiber oficinale Rosec.)

Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)

Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)

Copyrights 2013 FARM AFRICA and Authors

THE NEED FOR THIS MANUAL .................................................................... xiv

Uses of Ginger .............................................................................................................................. 3

A Brief Description of Ginger Morphology.................................................................................. 4

Ginger Production in Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 6

Ginger Production in SNNPRS ..................................................................................................... 8

Trends of ginger production in SNNPRS.................................................................................... 11

Diversity of ginger in SNNPRS .......................................................................................... 12

Climate and soil .................................................................................................................. 19

Soil Requirement for ginger production ............................................................................. 20

2. AGRONOMY OF GINGER ...........................................................................23

Pre-harvest Management of Ginger ............................................................................................ 23

Land Preparation ................................................................................................................. 23

Method of propagation and management of planting materials .......................................... 24

Rhizome Seed size .............................................................................................................. 26

Seed rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting ...................................................... 27

Application of organic and inorganic fertilizers ................................................................. 28

Weeding/Cultivation of ginger ............................................................................................ 30

Crop rotation and intercropping .......................................................................................... 31

With-in-the Season Harvesting ........................................................................................... 33

Extended harvesting/over seasoning/ perennation .............................................................. 34

Organic Ginger Production ......................................................................................................... 35

Consequences of Modern, intensive agriculture ................................................................. 35

Benefits of Organic farming ............................................................................................... 37

Methods and materials used for organic farming ................................................................ 37

Steps in organic ginger production ..................................................................................... 38

Perennating /over seasoning and with-in season harvesting of ginger........................................ 32

Factors affecting ginger production ............................................................................................ 42

Major diseases of ginger ..................................................................................................... 42

Major Pests of ginger plant ................................................................................................. 49

HARVESTING AND POSTHARVESTHANDLING OF GINGER ..........53

Harvesting Maturity ............................................................................................................ 55

During Harvesting ............................................................................................................... 56

Harvesting Methods ............................................................................................................ 56

Harvesting Tools ................................................................................................................. 58

Loosening the soil and Lifting ............................................................................................ 60

After Harvest ............................................................................................................................... 61

Trimming and Washing ...................................................................................................... 61

Cleanliness specifications for ginger .................................................................................. 62

Grading, packaging and labeling......................................................................................... 63

Ginger Storage .................................................................................................................... 66

Storage practices ................................................................................................................. 69

Principles of Ginger Processing .................................................................................................. 73

Major Ginger Processing ............................................................................................................ 73

Green Ginger Processing .................................................................................................... 73

Dried and powdered Ginger Processing .............................................................................. 74

Ginger Essential Oil Extraction .......................................................................................... 83

Ginger Oleoresins ............................................................................................................... 84

NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GINGER ......................96

Health Benefits of Ginger ........................................................................................................... 97

PART III ....................................................................................................100

GINGER VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS ......................................................100

Ginger Marketing ...................................................................................................................... 100

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 100

Ginger marketing and Market Place ................................................................................. 101

Spice export by country of destination.............................................................................. 107

Future Perspectives of the Ethiopia Spices ....................................................................... 109

Ginger Market requirements of quality standards and grading ......................................... 110

Ginger Value Chain .................................................................................................................. 112