Carbon steels are iron-carbon alloys containing up to 2.06% of carbon, up to 1.

65% of
manganese, up to 0.5% of silicon and sulfur and phosphorus as impurities.
Carbon content in carbon steel determines its strength and ductility.
The higher carbon content, the higher steel strength and the lower its ductility & weld ability.
Types of Carbon Steel
1. Low carbon steels (Mild Steel) (C < 0.25%)
2. Medium carbon steels (C =0.25% to 0.55%)
3. High carbon steels (C > 0.55%)
o Tool carbon steels (C>0.8%)
Designation system of carbon steels
Chemical compositions of some carbon steels
Properties of some carbon steels
1. Low carbon steels
Approximately 0.050.29% carbon content [1] (e.g. AISI 1018 steel). Mild
steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable;
surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.[2]
Properties: good formability and weld ability, low strength, low cost.
Applications: deep drawing parts, chain, pipe, wire, nails, some machine
parts.
2. Medium carbon steels (C =0.25% to 0.55%)
Properties: good toughness and ductility, relatively good strength, may be
hardened by quenching
Applications: rolls, axles, screws, cylinders, crankshafts, heat treated
machine parts.
3. High carbon steels (C > 0.55%)
Properties: high strength, hardness and wear resistance, moderate ductility.
Applications: rolling mills, rope wire, screw drivers, hammers, wrenches,
band saws.
Ultra-high carbon steel:
Approximately 1.02.0% carbon content [1]. Steels that can be tempered to
great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose)
knives, axles or punches. Most steels with more than 1.2% carbon content
are made using powder metallurgy and usually fall in the category of high
alloy carbon steels.

Tool carbon steels (C>0.8%) subgroup of high carbon steels

Properties: very high strength, hardness and wear resistance, poor weld
ability low ductility.
Applications: punches, shear blades, springs, milling cutters, knives, razors.
Designation system of carbon steels
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) have established four-digit (with additional letter prefixes)
designation system:
SAE 1XXX
First digit 1 indicates carbon steel (2-9 are used for alloy steels);
Second digit indicates modification of the steel.
0 - Plain carbon, non-modified
1 - Resulfurized
2 - Resulfurized and rephosphorized
5 - Non-resulfurized, Mn over 1.0%
Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01%.
Example: SAE 1030 means non modified carbon steel, containing 0.30% of
carbon.
A letter prefix before the four-digit number indicates the steel making
technology:
A - Alloy, basic open hearth
B - Carbon, acid Bessemer
C - Carbon, basic open hearth
D - Carbon, acid open hearth
E - Electric furnace
Example: AISI B1020 means non modified carbon steel, produced in acid
Bessemer and containing 0.20% of carbon.
Chemical compositions of some carbon steels
SAE/AISI grade
C, %
Mn,%
P,% max
S,% max
1006
0.08 max
0.35 max
0.04
0.05
1010
0.08-0.13
0.30-0.60
0.04
0.05
1020
0.17-0.23
0.30-0.60
0.04
0.05
1030
0.27-0.34
0.60-0.90
0.04
0.05
1045
0.42-0.50
0.60-0.90
0.04
0.05
1070
0.65-0.76
0.60-0.90
0.04
0.05
1090
0.85-0.98
0.60-0.90
0.04
0.05
1117
0.14-0.20
1.10-1.30
0.04
0.08-0.13
1547
0.43-0.51
1.35-1.65
0.04
0.05

Alloy steels are iron-carbon alloys, to which alloying elements are added with a purpose to
improve the steels properties as compared to the Carbon steels.

Due to effect of alloying elements, properties of alloy steels exceed those of plane carbon steels.
AISI/SAE classification divide alloy steels onto groups according to the major alloying elements:

Low alloy steels (alloying elements 8%);

High alloy steels (alloying elements > 8%).

Every steel is truly an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy steels". Even
the simplest steels are iron (Fe) (about 99%) alloyed with carbon (C) (about
0.1% to 1%, depending on type). However, the term "alloy steel" is the
standard term referring to steels with other alloying elements in addition to
the carbon. Common alloyants include manganese (the most common one),
nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Less common
alloyants include aluminum, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium,
tungsten, tin, zinc, lead, and zirconium.

The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as

compared to carbon steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear
resistance, hardenability, and hot hardness. To achieve some of these
improved properties the metal may require heat treating.

Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications,

such as in the turbine blades of jet engines, in spacecraft, and in
nuclear reactors. Because of the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some
steel alloys find important applications where their responses to
magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in
transformers.

Low-alloy steels are usually used to achieve better hardenability, which

in turn improves its other mechanical properties. They are also used to
increase corrosion resistance in certain environmental conditions.[3]

With medium to high carbon levels, low-alloy steel is difficult to weld.

Lowering the carbon content to the range of 0.10% to 0.30%, along
with some reduction in alloying elements, increases the weldability and
formability of the steel while maintaining its strength. Such a metal is
classed as a high-strength low-alloy steel.

What are the characteristics of Alloy.

Excellent general corrosion resistance to sulfuric acid

Excellent resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking

Excellent mechanical properties and fabricability

Minimal carbide precipitation during welding

Excels in resisting corrosion to hot sulfuric acids

Stainless steels (defines a class of ferrous metals) an alloy steels contain 12% - 18% of
chromium. and more than 50% Iron (Fe). steels possessing high corrosion resistance due to the
presence of substantial amount of chromium. Chromium forms a thin film of chromium oxide on
the steel surface. This film protects the steel from further oxidation, making it stainless.
According to the AISI classification Stainless steels are divided onto groups:
1. Austenitic stainless steels
2. Ferritic stainless steels
3. Martensitic stainless steels
4. Austenitic-ferritic (Duplex) stainless steels
5. Precipitation hardening stainless steels
How are stainless steels classified?
The three major classes of stainless steel are:( Types of Stainless Steel)
Austenitic: Chromium-nickel-iron alloys with 16-26% chromium, 6-22%
nickel (Ni), and low carbon content, with non-magnetic properties (if
annealed - working it at low temperatures, then heated and cooled). Nickel
increases corrosion resistance. Hardenable by cold-working (worked at low
temperatures) as well as tempering (heated then cooled). Type 304 (S30400)
or "18/8" (18% chromium 8% nickel), is the most commonly used grade or
composition.
Martensitic: Chromium-iron alloys with 10.5-17% chromium and carefully
controlled carbon content, hardenable by quenching (quickly cooled in water
or oil) and tempering (heated then cooled). It has magnetic properties.
Commonly used in knives. Martensitic grades are strong and hard, but are
brittle and difficult to form and weld. Type 420 (S42000) is a typical example.
Ferritic: Chromium-iron alloys with 17-27% chromium and low carbon

content, with magnetic properties. Cooking utensils made of this type

contain the higher chromium levels. Type 430 is the most commonly used
ferritic.
Two additional classes worth mentioning include Duplex (with austenitic and
ferritic structures), and Precipitation Hardening stainless steel, used in
certain extreme conditions.
6.

Low temperature steels are those which have been chemically formulated to maintain
good ductility of parts in temperatures down to -150F. It must be noted that these steels
are not considered as cryogenic materials but rather fill the gap between steels used at
room temperature and cryogenic temperatures. Normal carbon steels and low alloy steels
are prone to embrittlement at temperatures starting below about 32F. Steels for use in
lower temperature areas must be formulated to minimize this embrittlement. Generally,
lower C contents are found in steels in this group along with varying amounts of Ni up to
4.5%. Cr and Mo are also added in small proportions to special grades in this group to
maintain useful strength levels.

5. Precipitation hardening stainless steels

Precipitation hardening stainless steels contain chromium, nickel as major alloying elements.
Precipitation hardening steels are supplied in solution treated condition. These steels may be
either austenitic or martensitic and they are hardened by heat treatment (aging). The heat
treatment is conducted after machining, however low temperature of the treatment does not cause
distortions.
Precipitation hardening steels have very high strength, good weldability and fair corrosion
resistance. They are magnetic.
Applications of precipitation hardening stainless steels: pump shafts and valves, turbine blades,
paper industry equipment, aerospace equipment.
Chemical compositions of some stainless steels

No.

Grade

Austenite

C
max,
%
0.15

Mn
max,
%
6.0

AISI
201
AISI
304

Austenite

0.08

2.0

Cr,
%

Ni,
%

Mo,
%

N, %

Cu,
%

Cb+T
a,%

17.
0
19.
0

4.5

9.5

0.25
max
-

AISI
316
AISI
430
AISI
410
2205

Austenite

0.08

2.0

Ferritic

0.12

1.0

Martensitic

0.15

1.0

Duplex

0.30

2.0

174PH

Precipit.
hardening

0.07

1.0

17.
0
17.
0
12.
5
22.
0
16.
5

12.
0
-

2.5

5.0

0.14

4.0

4.0

0.30

HSLA (High-Strength Low-Alloy) Steel

A group of low-carbon steels containing less than 2% alloys in a chemical composition
specifically developed for increase strength, ductility, & resistance to corrosion.Much stronger &
tougher than ordinary carbon steel
Duplex Stainless Steel
Duplex Stainless Steels, also referred to as austenitic-ferritic stainless steels, are a family of
grades with about equal proportions of ferrite and austenite. These steels have a duplex
microstructure which contributes to their high strength and high resistance to stress corrosion
cracking. Due to their high content of chromium, nitrogen and molybdenum, duplex steels offer
good resistance to local and uniform corrosion. Duplex stainless steels have good weldability.
What are the Characteristics of Duplex Stainless Steels?

Very good resistance to uniform corrosion

Very good resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion

High resistance to stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue

High mechanical strength

Good sulfide stress corrosion resistance

Good abrasion and erosion resistance

Good fatigue resistance high energy absorption

Low thermal expansion

Good weldability

Oil and gas equipment

Offshore technology

Seawater desalination plants

Chemical industry, especially when handling chlorides

Flue-gas cleaning

Desalination plants and seawater systems

Pulp and paper industry

Cargo tanks and pipe systems in chemical tankers

Firewalls and blast walls on offshore platforms

Bridges

Storage tanks

Pressure vessels, reactor tanks, and heat exchangers

Rotors, impellers and shafts

Forms of Super Duplex 2507 Available at Mega Mex

Sheet- Plate- Bar- Pipe & Tube (welded & seamless)

Fittings (i.e. flanges, slip-ons, blinds, weld-necks, lapjoints, long

welding necks, socket welds, elbows, tees, stub-ends, returns, caps,
crosses, reducers, and pipe nipples)

Corrosion Resistance
2507 Duplex is highly resistant to uniform corrosion by organic acids such as formic and acetic
acid. It is alsohighly resistant to inorganic acids, especially if they contain chlorides. Alloy 2507
is highly resistant to carbide-related intergranular corrosion. Due to the ferritic portion of the
duplex structure of the alloy it is very resistant to stress corrosion cracking in warm chloride
containing environments. Through additions of chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen localized
corrosion such as pitting and crevice attack are improved. Alloy 2507 has excellent localized
pitting resistance.

What are the characteristics of Duplex 2507?

High resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking

High Strength

Superior resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion

Good general corrosion resistance

Suggested for applications up to 600 F

Low rate of thermal expansion

Combination of properties given by austenitic and ferritic structure

Good weldability and workability

Chemical Composition, %
Cr
Ni

Mo

Mn

24.0-26.0

6.0-8.0

3.0-5.0

0.030 Max

.24-.32

1.20 Max

Si

Cu

Fe

0.80 Max

0.50 Max

0.035 Max

0.020 Max

Balance

In what applications is Duplex 2507 used?

Desalination Equipment

Chemical process pressure vessels, piping and heat exchangers

Marine Applications

Flue Gas Scrubbing Equipment

Pulp & Paper Mill Equipment

Offshore Oil production/technology

Oil and gas industry equipment

Mechanical Properties
Specified Tensile Properties, Plate ASTM A240

Ultimate Tensile Strength, ksi

Minimum

.2% Yield Strength, ksi

Minimum

% Elongation
Min.

80

15

116

31
0

Stain Less Steel In Welding

1.Welding austenitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels include series 200 and 300 (examples: 201, 202, 216, 302 ,304, 310,
316, 321 ,347).
Due to their austenitic structure the steels have low thermal conductivity (half of that of ferritic
steels) and therefore lower heat input is required for welding.
coefficient of thermal expansion of austenitic stainless steels is relatively high resulting in larger
thermal distortions and internal stresses of the welded parts, which increase suceptibility of the
weld to hot cracks. The presence of small amount of ferrite (about 5%) decreases the risk of hot
cracks due to the ability of ferrite to dissolve low melting impurities.
Austenitic stainless steels are also characterized by lower wettability and higher viscosity of the
liquid metal in weld pool, which may cause welding defects.
Commonly the compositions of filler materials for welding austenitic stainless steels match the
steels compositions. The un-stabilized steels 201, 202,301, 302, 304, 305 are welded by the filler
material of type 308 (21%Cr, 10%Ni).
308 alloy contains more chromium and nickel than 304, which results in:

suppression of martensite formation ;

controllable amount of ferrite limiting suceptibility of the weld to hot

cracks.

2. SENSITIZATION
One of the possible welding defects of austenitic stainless steels is sensitization.
At the temperatures 900-1400F (482-760C) chromium carbides form along the austenite grains.
This causes depletion of chromium from the grains resulting in decreasing the corrosion
protective passive film.

This effect is called sensitization.

Sensitization is depressed in low carbon steels (0.03%) designated with suffix L (304L, 316L).
Formation of chromium carbides is also avoided in stabilized austenitic stainless steels (321,
347) containing carbide forming elements like titanium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium.
Stabilization heat treatment of such steels results in preferred formation of carbides of the
stabilizing elements instead of chromium carbides.
3.Welding ferritic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steels include part of the steels from the series 400 (examples: 405, 409, 430,
442, 446).
The main welding problem of ferritic stainless steel is growth of ferrite grains caused by heating.
Coarse grain structure results in low toughness of the weld material.
In order to prevent the grain coarsening the preheat is limited to 150-450F (65-230C). Low
carbon ferritic steels (405, 409) are welded without preheating. Heat input should also be limited
particularly when thick parts are welded (thicker, than 0.25/6mm). Weld toughness may be
improved if an Austenitic stainless steels filler material is used.
Commonly filler materials containing equal or excessive amount of chromium are used for
welding ferritic stainless steels.
Some parts may be welded without filler material.
4.Welding martensitic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steels include series 500 and part of the steels from the series 400 (examples:
403,410, 414, 416, 420, 422, 431, 440, 501, 502, 503, 504).
Weldability of martensitic stainless steels is low because of their sensitivity to cold cracks
formation:

Martensitic structure of the steels is determined by high carbon

content, which reduces the steel ductility and therfore increase the
sucsceptibility to cracks.

Martensitic transformation causes changes of grains volume due to to

the changes of the crystall lattice. These changes produce internall
stresses, which increase the risk of cracks.

Martensitic stailess steels easily pick-up and dissolve Hydrogen from

the atmosphere and other sources, which may cause hydrogen
embrittlement.

In order to prevent cracks formation the welded parts should be preheated to 400-570F (204300C). Measures should be taken in order to diminish hydrogen pick-up during the welding
process (dry flux, shielding gas). Post-weld heat treatment at 1000-1200F (540-650C) of high
carbon (> 0.2%) martensitic steels is required for improvement of the steel toughness.
Commonly filler materials, in which contents of chromium and carbon match the composition of
the welded parts, are used for welding martensitic stainless steels.
Weld toughness may be improved if an Austenitic stainless steels filler material (308, 309) is
used.
5.Welding austenitic-ferritic (Duplex) stainless steels

austenitic-ferritic (Duplex) stainless steels (examples: 2205) have a mixed austenitic-ferritic

structure and commonly contain 0.1-0.3% of Nitrogen.
Weldability of Duplex stainless steels is good.
In order to prevent nitrogen loss during welding shielding gas containing nitrogen is used.
Proper filler materials and controlled heat input help to obtain the required balance between the
austenitic and ferritic phases.
6.Welding precipitation hardening stainless steels

Precipitation hardening stainless steels are categorized into three groups: martensitic (17-4PH,
15-5PH), semi austenitic (17-7PH, PH 15-7Mo) and austenitic (17-10P, A286).
Commonly filler materials, composition of which close to the composition of the welded parts,
are used for welding precipitation hardening stainless steels.
Weld ability of austenitic precipitation hardening stainless steels is poor because of their
susceptibility to hot cracks. Limited heat input and welding of parts in solution treated condition
are required for diminishing risk of cracks. Nickel alloys (nickel-chromium-iron) are used as
filler materials for welding austenitic precipitation hardening stainless steels.