Effects of Vermicompost in Potting Soils and Extract Foliar Spray

Dickinson College
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Honors Theses By Year
Honors Theses
5-20-2012
Effects of Vermicompost in Potting Soils and

Extract Foliar Sprays on Vegetable Health and
Productivity
Anna Rose Farb
Dickinson College
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Recommended Citation
Farb, Anna Rose, "Effects of Vermicompost in Potting Soils and Extract Foliar Sprays on Vegetable Health and Productivity" (2012).
Dickinson College Honors Theses. Paper 27.
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Effects of vermicompost in potting soils and extract foliar sprays on

vegetable health and productivity
By
Anna R. Farb
Submitted in partial fulfillment of Honors Requirements

for the Department of Environmental Science
Dr. John H. Henson, Supervisor
Dr. Thomas R. Raffel, Reader
Dr. Gregory J. Howard, Reader
Dr. Michael D. Beevers, Reader
May 14, 2012
Abstract
According to previous studies, vermicompost has been found to promote beneficial
organisms, nutrient life, transplant growth and disease suppression in potting soils and
aqueous extracts. The objective of our study was to test whether food waste-based
vermicompost and thermophilic compost produced at Dickinson College Farm, Boiling
Springs, PA, would improve productivity when applied to agricultural plants via potting
media and extract foliar sprays. Romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. longifolia) and pak
choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis) seeds were planted with vermicompost-amended,
thermophilic compost-amended, unamended, or McEnroe commercial potting media.
Compost-amended media contained greater nutrient contents than unamended media.
Vermicompost-amended media at 10% had significant negative effects on germination
compared to the unamended controls (P<0.001), likely due to ammonium toxicity. However,
transplant growth was significantly greater in 10% vermicompost-amended potting media
(P<0.001 for all parameters). Among all assessed on-farm media, optimal transplant growth
was achieved with 20%-30% vermicompost and the blood meal mix nutrient amendment.
Extracts did not significantly impact transplant growth. The efficacy of vermicompost
preparations likely depended on its particular nutrient and microbial content, which can vary
from batch to batch. Farm-based vermicompost systems show potential for improving plant
productivity and health depending on management and application methods; thus, farms,
especially those committed to sustainable, agroecological practices, could benefit from
developing on-farm vermicompost systems. However, care should be taken to avoid use of
vermicompost batches with high ammonia levels, which can result if compost is removed
from the system before reaching maturity.
Table of Contents
3
Introduction
Objectives
11
Materials and Methods
12
Experiment 1
16
Experiment 2
19
Experiment 3
22
25
Results and Discussion

Experiment 1
26
Experiment 2
33
Experiment 3
39
Discussion
46
Conclusions
50
Acknowledgements
51
References
52
Introduction
Organic agriculture has utilized the composting process not only to process on-farm
waste, but also to apply the product to fields for soil enrichment. Vermicompost involves the
use of surface dwelling worms, Eisenia fetida, or red wigglers, in addition to
microorganism activity, to convert organic materials into rich humus through their digestive
processes (Figure 1). The vermicomposting process occurs at ambient temperatures,
differentiating it from traditional thermophilic compost systems, as shown in Figure 2 (Jack
& Thies, 2006). Compared to thermophilic compost, vermicompost can contain significantly
higher levels of available nutrients and larger and more diverse microbial communities
(Atiyeh et al., 2000c; Tognetti et al., 2007; Edwards, 1998).
Figure 1. Worms feeding on food waste in Dickinson College Farms vermicompost bed.
Figure 2. Temperature curve for vermicompost and thermophilic compost over time, the
arrows depicting the main phases of the composting process. The thin gray line indicates
vermicompost temperatures, and the black dotted line represents thermophilic compost
temperatures (Jack & Thies, 2006).
The product of the vermicomposting process is a finely divided soil-like material with
high porosity, aeration, drainage, and water retention. The worms ingest pathogenic bacteria
and fungi, and interactions between worms and microorganisms stabilize the material
(Edwards & Burrows, 1988). Red wigglers process raw or partially decomposed organic
waste very efficiently; they can consume their body weight in feedstock on a daily basis.
After the food is ground up by ingested stones in the worms gizzard, it passes through the
intestinal tract, in which digestive enzymes are secreted that concentrate nutrients
(Dickerson, 2001). Moreover, the large surface areas of worm castings provide increased
space for microbial activity and strong nutrient retention (Shi-wei & Fu-zhen, 1991). Thus,
vermicompost supports diverse populations of microorganisms and is rich in nutrients
(Edwards & Burrows, 1988). Nutrients contained in vermicompost include nitrate,
exchangeable phosphorus, soluble potassium, calcium and magnesium, and sulfur, iron,
manganese, zinc, copper, and boron, which are readily absorbed by plants (Edwards &
Burrows, 1988; Orozco et al., 1996; Theunissen et al., 2010). Vermicomposting cow manure
was found to enhance nitrogen mineralization processes and augment conversion rates of
ammonium-nitrogen into nitrate (Atiyeh et al. 2000a). Furthermore, castings contain 5-11
times the amount of available nitrogen and phosphorus, 7 times the amount of available
potash and 1.5 times the amount of calcium present in normal topsoil (Colliver, 1992;
Dickerson, 2001).
With respect to microbial activity of vermicompost, the high humic substance content
supports microorganisms known to foster plant growth and disease suppression, such as
bacteria (Bacillus) and fungi (Trichoderma, Sporobolomyces, and Cryptococcus)
(Nagavallemma et al., 2004). Specifically, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
provide these plant growth and health services by colonizing plant roots aggressively (Jack &
Thies, 2006). When cattle manure-, food-, and paper-based vermicomposts were applied in
field-based trials, each type reduced populations of plant-parasitic nematodes significantly
and increased populations of fungivorous and bacterivorous nematodes (Arancon et al.,
2003). Beneficial microorganisms within vermicomposts produced from various feedstocks
have been found to suppress plant diseases such as Pythium (damping off), Rhizoctonia (root
rot), Plectosporium (blight) and Verticillium (wilt); plant parasitic nematodes such as
soybean cyst nematodes and root knot nematodes; and arthropod pests, such as cabbage
white caterpillars, cucumber beetles, tomato hornworms, mealy bugs, spider mites and aphids
(Arancon et al., 2007). Jack and Nelson (2008) identified the process by which vermicompost
suppresses pathogens like Pythium: first, with the presence of vermicompost in soils, fewer
vesicles develop, reducing the formation of pathogenic zoospores; and second, the very few
healthy zoospores that do form fail to make contact with the plant due to the alteration of
chemical cues by vermicompost seed-colonizing microbes. This effectively creates a gradient

surrounding the seed through which zoospores cannot pass (Jack & Nelson, 2008).
Therefore, the potential benefits of vermicompost are significant, especially in organic or
sustainable agricultural systems.
In order to reap these benefits, vermicompost can be applied directly to plants or
dissolved into aqueous extracts for foliar application. Although these methodologies are
historically well-established in agricultural systems of Latin America and South Asia, they
have only recently proliferated in North American organic farming practices. In Cuba, the
shift from industrial agriculture to local and organic agriculture following the collapse of the
Soviet Union in the early 1990s brought about the establishment of large-scale vermicompost
centers (Koont, 2011). Based on scholarly scientific research for crop yield maximization
within agroecological systems, Cuban organic agriculturalists produce potting soils
comprising about 50% vermicompost, 25% thermophilic compost and 25% rice hulls.
Additionally, they amend their raised beds with vermicompost at 10 kg/m2 (Miguel Salcines,
personal communication, March 13, 2012; Koont, 2011). Vermicompost applications are
much less standardized in the United States, but we can learn from experiences and
management techniques from abroad.
The high porosity, aeration, drainage, water retention, nutrients, and beneficial
microorganisms of vermicompost make it an excellent component in horticultural potting
media and extract foliar sprays. Both forms can enhance plant growth and suppress plant
disease (Edwards & Burrows, 1988; Buckerfield et al., 1999; Arancon et al., 2007; Singh et
al., 2003). The direct application of vermicompost in its solid form supplies macro- and
micronutrients to the soil for plant growth enhancement (Harris et al., 1990). The nutrient
content of vermicompost is released slowly, and vermicompost can hold twice its weight in
water, which indicates a long nutrient life and high water retention capacity in
vermicompost-amended potting media (Colliver, 1992). The amendment of up to 20% pig
manure-based vermicompost in potting media significantly enhanced shoot and root weights,
leaf areas and shoot:root ratios of tomato and marigold transplants compared to the control
media (Bachman & Metzger, 2008). Additionally, the amendment of 10% or 20% food
waste-based vermicompost significantly enhanced growth of tomato and marigold
transplants, provided all the required nutrients were supplied (Atiyeh et al., 2000c). With
respect to vermicompost disease suppression in potting media, amendments of food wastebased vermicompost decreased the severity of Pythium, increased amendments of cow
manure-based vermicompost correlated with the suppression of Rhizoctonia and 5 t/ha of
paper-based vermicompost or 10 t/ha of food waste-based vermicompost significantly
reduced Verticillium incidence (Chaoui et al., 2002). Vermicompost nutrient richness and
microbial diversity both contribute to its success as a potting media amendment.
Microbial activity and nutrients can also be transferred from solid to aqueous forms
of vermicompost. These aqueous extracts are defined as a brewed solution of about 1:1000
compost:water (Carpenter-Boggs, 2005). They can be produced with or without aeration, or
with or without nutrient and microbial additives, such as molasses, algal powders and yeast
extracts (Arancon et al., 2007). When aqueous vermicompost extracts (also called
vermicompost teas, which usually include other additives) are applied as foliar sprays, they
have been found to improve plant health, yield and nutritive quality by augmenting
communities of beneficial microorganisms in soils and plants, enhancing the nutrient content
of plants and stimulating the production of compounds that enhance plant defenses (Pant et
al., 2009; Scheuerell & Mahaffee, 2002; Carpenter-Boggs, 2005). However, their efficacy is
inconsistent, varying by method of extraction, method of application and vermicompost
feedstock (Jack, 2010; Atiyeh et al., 2000c; Jack et al., 2011).
Dickinson College Farm (DCF), an Organic and Food Alliance Certified vegetable
and livestock farm located in Boiling Springs, PA (Figure 3), recently developed a food
waste-based vermicompost program involving both potting media and aqueous extract foliar
applications. DCF has a strong commitment to sustainability through responsible stewardship
to the land. Ecosystem services provided by compost microbial communities, such as disease
suppression and plant growth, which DCF already takes advantage of, help in agroecological
management systems to avoid chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Jack et al., 2011).
Thermophilic compost has been produced and used since the foundation of the farm for field
soil enrichment. Additionally, DCF grows all its own transplants from seed in the
greenhouse, historically using commercial organic potting media. Thus, the farms interest in
vermicompost applications is based on advancing the utilization of these ecosystem services
and extending the localized waste-to-produce closed-loop cycle to transplant substrates
through the production of on-farm potting media and extract foliar sprays. Figures 4 and 5
depict preliminary microbial characterizations of the aerated vermicompost extract produced
without additives at DCF, which were completed prior to this study (Sinchi et al., 2011).
They show that the on-farm vermicompost in aqueous extract form contains a diverse array
of bacteria and fungi.
Figure 3. The location of Dickinson College Farm within Cumberland County, PA (Projection:
State Plane PA South, Datum: North American Datum 1983, Source: ESRI).
Figure 4. Swab samples from the vermicompost extract were streaked on agar Petri plates.
Plates A and B contain mostly bacterial colonies, while Plate C contains both bacterial and
fungal colonies (Sinchi et al., 2011).
Figure 5. A smooth, rounded bacterial colony (left) compared to a filamentous fungal colony
(right) from the vermicompost extract grown on a PDA plate (Sinchi et al., 2011).
In addition to investigating the benefits of vermicompost use, we tested for interactive

effects of compost type and the type of potting soil base. Due to DCFs commitment to
environmental sustainability, the use of peat moss, the most commonly used soilless medium,
is not ideal (Kuepper & Everett, 2010). Emissions from Canadian peat extraction totaled 0.54
x 106 t of greenhouse gases (GHG) in 1990, which increased to 0.89 x 106 in 2000. Most
(about 70%) of these emissions were from peat decomposition associated with end use;
however, about 30% came from land use change, transportation and extraction and
processing. Furthermore, peatlands switched from being a GHG sink to a source, and it
would take 2000 years to restore the carbon pool with effective peatland restoration (Cleary
et al., 2005). Coir, a byproduct of the shredding of coconut husks following extraction of
their coarse fibers, has been found to be an effective substitute for peat (Handreck, 1993;
Kuepper & Everett, 2010). Coir is a byproduct of coconut production in India, Sri Lanka, the
Philippines, Indonesia, and Central America, and its extraction process is considered more
10
sustainable than that of peat (Nelson, 1998; Handreck, 1993). Growth of tomato, pepper,
lettuce, and marigold transplants in coir-based media has been found to be comparable to that
of peat-based media, and amending both peat/perlite and coir/perlite media with
vermicompost can enhance seedling growth significantly (Atiyeh et al., 2000b). Our study
further assessed relationships among coir, peat, and vermicompost.
In most previous studies, vermicompost was provided by large-scale commercial
vermicompost production companies. Although this helps ensure that the vermicompost
being used is of consistently good quality, it is not representative of vermicompost produced
in most practical farm-based management systems fed by on-farm or local organic waste,
which is the form that most small-scale sustainably managed farms likely use in practice.
Thus, our study assessed the applications of vermicompost produced on a working smallscale sustainable and organic farm.
Objectives
We aimed to test how the application of on-farm food waste-based vermicompost and
thermophilic compost in potting soils and aqueous extract foliar sprays affects vegetable
transplant growth through greenhouse-based experiments, relative to commercial potting soil.
Furthermore, we sought to identify the most productive and sustainable on-farm potting
mixtures in terms of transplant growth, taking into account effective quantities and
environmental renewability of ingredients, so that the farm may supplement its potting soil
needs. The ultimate goal was to determine the best way to integrate vermicompost into the
frameworks of environmental sustainability and agroecology on DCF.
11
Materials and Methods

Experiments took place on Dickinson College Farm (DCF) during 2011-2012.
Vermicompost was produced using red wiggler worms (Eisenia fetida) and mesophilic
microorganisms to decompose organic waste in a large plywood bin with a grated floor, and
thermophilic compost was generated by the decomposition processes of mesophilic and
thermophilic microorganisms in large windrows (Figures 6 and 7). The thermophilic compost
feedstock was composed of food waste from the colleges dining hall, whereas the
vermicompost feedstock was composed of vegetable waste from the fields. DCFs
thermophilic compost required 12 months to become mature as was determined by its
temperature, and vermicompost took 1-2 months. The worms dwelled at the surface of the
bin, where they were fed, and their castings continued down through the system, continuing
to be processed by microorganisms. Vermicompost was considered mature when it reached
the bottom of the bin and fell through the grated floor onto the collection area.
12
Figure 6. Vermicompost (Panel A) and thermophilic compost (Panel B) produced on-site at

DCF.
Figure 7. Panel A shows the vermicompost bin, and Panel B shows the thermophilic compost
windrow.
Samples of on-farm vermicompost and thermophilic compost were subject to

physico-chemical analysis by Agricultural Analytical Services Laboratory (AASL) at Penn
State University (pH, soluble salts, solids, moisture, organic matter, total nitrogen, organic
nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, carbon, carbon:nitrogen ration, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, sulfur, sodium, aluminum, iron, manganese, copper and zinc). Samples
13
of their respective feedstocks were also subject to physico-chemical analysis by AASL (pH,
soluble salts, solids, moisture, organic matter, total nitrogen, carbon and carbon:nitrogen
ratio). For the production of the potting media produced on-farm, vermicompost and
thermophilic compost were extracted in temporally defined batches. Due to resource and
time constraints, we did not control for physico-chemical variability between the batches and
spatially within each batch.
The methodologies are presented by experiment following the summary tables and
figures, which demonstrate the methodological linkages among experiments. An overall
summary of the experiments, including media treatments used, is provided in Table 1.
Vegetables seeded and data collected in each experiment are described in Table 2.
14
Table 1. Media treatment group names and details for each experiment.
Media
treatments
Experiment 1
1/3 VC
1/3 TC
McEnroe
Experiment 2
Base, 10% VC
Base, 20% VC
Base, 30% VC
BM, 10% VC
BM, 20% VC
BM, 30% VC
Base, 10% TC
Base, 20% TC
Base, 30% TC
BM, 10% TC
BM, 20% TC
BM, 30% TC
McEnroe
Details
Aqueous extract
spray treatments
Equal parts v/v* VC,* vermiculite, peat moss

Equal parts v/v TC*, vermiculite, peat moss
Compost, peat moss, sand, rock phosphates,
calcinated clay, gypsum, blood meal
VC
TC
Control (water)
Peat base (70 peat moss: 30 vermiculite v/v, lime (3

lbs. yd-3 or 1.78 kg m-3), 10% v/v VC
Peat base, 20% v/v VC
Peat base, 30% v/v VC
Peat base, 10% v/v VC, BM* mix (blood meal,
greensand, bone char) (7 lbs. yd-3 or 4.15 kg m-3)
Peat base, 20% v/v VC, BM mix (7 lbs. yd-3)
Peat base, 10% v/v TC
Peat base, 10% v/v TC, BM mix (7 lbs. yd-3)
Compost, peat moss, sand, rock phosphates,
calcinated clay, gypsum, blood meal
Experiment 3
Peat
Peat, VC
Coir
Peat base, BM mix (7 lbs. yd-3)

Control (none), VC
Control (none), VC
Coir base (70 coir: 30 vermiculite v/v, lime (3 lbs.
Control (none), VC
yd-3)), BM mix (7 lbs./ yd3)
Coir, VC
Coir base, 10% v/v VC, BM mix (7 lbs. yd-3)
Control (none), VC
v/v=volume/volume, VC=vermicompost, TC=thermophilic compost, BM=blood meal
Table 2. Seeds planted, data collected and dates from each experiment.
Experiment
1
2
3
Vegetables seeded
Romaine trial 1: 48 per
media treatment, Romaine
trial 2: 48 per media
treatment, Romaine trial
3: 40 romaine per media
treatment germinated in
cooler, Pak choi trial: 48
per media treatment
32 romaine per media
treatment
90 romaine per media
treatment (n=30)
Data collected
Potting soil analysis, germination (all trials),
transplant growth rate (weekly height, #
leaves, total leaf area; 1, 2), plant harvest
(height, (height, # leaves, total leaf area, root
length, root and shoot dry wt, root:shoot ratio;
1, pak choi), leaf Brix, NO3- and K+
(preliminary), extract NO3- and K+
Dates
Sept.-Dec.,
2011
Germination, transplant data (length, # leaves,

aboveground biomass, harvest index)
Potting soil analysis, germination, transplant
data (# leaves, length, aboveground biomass,
harvest index)
Feb.-March,
2012
Feb.-April,
2012
15
Experiment 1
Experiment 1 was a feasibility study for the practical function of on-farm
vermicompost and thermophilic compost in potting media, in comparison to the commercial
medium that the farm currently purchases, McEnroe Premium Organic (Table 1). No one
medium was expected to perform better than the others; we simply aimed to assess the
capacity of the compost-amended media to support germination and adequate plant growth
and, consequently, the potential to use on-farm media instead of the purchased commercial
medium.
Ingredients in the two on-farm media included vermicompost or thermophilic
compost from the same temporal batches sieved to 5 mm. Both compost preparations were
added to Canadian Berger sphagnum peat moss and vermiculite. The peat moss and
vermiculite were purchased from Martins Produce Supplies, Shippensburg, PA. The on-farm
media were mixed by hand according to the formula described in Table 1, adapted from a
subchapter in On-Farm Composting Handbook entitled "Using compost for container crops
and potting mixes" (Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service, 1992). All three
media were subject to physical analysis using the USDA NRCS (n.d.) Soil Quality Test Kit
Guide bulk density method (water content, bulk density, water-filled pore space and porosity)
and chemical analysis by A&L Eastern Laboratory, Chesterfield, VA (pH, soluble salts,
solids, moisture, organic matter, total nitrogen, organic nitrogen, ammoniacal nitrogen,
carbon, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, sodium, aluminum, iron,
manganese, copper, boron and zinc). The pH levels of all the media were slightly acidic due
to the peat moss input, and although the given range from A&L Eastern Laboratory indicated
that this slight acidity is optimum in potting media, the truly optimum pH depends on the
16
species being grown and its preferential conditions. Lactuca sativa prefers a pH range of 6.2
to 6.8, and Brassica rapa var. chinensis prefers a pH range of 6.5 to 7.0 (High Mowing
Organic Seeds, 2011; Queensland Government 2010). Both are sensitive to acidic soils.
Thus, we aimed to increase the pH of the media with the addition of lime in subsequent
experiments.
Three trials of Winter Density organic romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var.
longifolia) seeds and one trial of Shanghai Green organic pak choi (Brassica rapa var.
chinensis) seeds were planted, with equal amounts assigned to each media treatment, as
specified in Table 1 and number of seeds planted reflected in Table 2. All trials were seeded
within two weeks of one another. Transplants were grown in pseudoreplicated block groups;
all transplants within each spatial block group received the same media treatment, and block
groups were positioned adjacent to one another in 128-cell flats. The flats were placed
adjacent to one another in a plastic-sheeted high tunnel ranging 40-60F during the night and
60-85F during the day, and were spray-irrigated daily or as needed. The seedlings were
transplanted when the majority reached the appropriate size (approximately 5 weeks after
planting for romaine and 4 weeks after planting for pak choi) into thermophilic compostamended research beds in pseudoreplicated block groups within the high tunnel.
Aqueous extract foliar sprays were produced by placing ~2.5 kg (5 lbs.) of
vermicompost or thermophilic compost into a 150-micron mesh plastic bag and placing this
bag in ~10 liters (2.5 gal) of tap water (dechlorinated by aging) in an aerated plastic tank
(Figure 8). A PVC-pipe-based bubbler connected to an air compressor set at 20 psi supplied
aeration. After 10-15 minutes, the extract was drained from the valve at the bottom of the
tank and poured into a backpack sprayer. No additives were used because our aim was to
17
determine the baseline capabilities of the extract. Vermicompost or thermophilic compost

extract was then applied to plants grown in vermicompost or thermophilic compost media,
respectively, such that all foliar surfaces were thoroughly moistened. Dechlorinated water
was applied to plants grown in the McEnroe commercial medium as a control. All extracts
were sprayed at weekly intervals directly following transplantation, and were tested weekly
for nitrate and potassium concentrations using Horiba Cardy microprocessor-based readers.
Germination, transplant growth and plant growth data collected from each trial are
detailed in Table 2. Germination, the total number of transplants to emerge throughout the
seedling phase, was recorded for all trials. For transplant growth data, all transplants in the
noted trials were measured for weekly height and number of leaves, and five transplants were
randomly selected for weekly total leaf area. Romaine trial 1 plants were harvested 14 weeks
after planting, and Pak choi trial plants were harvested 12 weeks after planting (Romaine
trials 2 and 3 plants were not measured for harvest data due to time constraints). For plant
growth data collected at harvest, all plants in the noted trials were measured for root length,
and five plants were randomly selected for measurement of total leaf area, root and shoot dry
weights and root:shoot ratios (using destructive sampling). Height was measured as the
vertical distance between the soil line and the highest living part of the plant. Total leaf area
was measured per plant by summing the products of the length and width of all leaves. Root
length was measured as the length of the longest root. These were all measured with a simple
ruler. Numbers of leaves per plant were simply counted, and dry weights were determined
using a weighing balance after cutting the plants at the soil line. Preliminary leaf Brix (sugar
content), nitrate and potassium levels were collected from individual plants in Romaine trials
1 and 3 and the Pak choi trial. Brix was measured using a refractometer, and leaf nitrate and
18
potassium concentrations were measured using Horiba Cardy microprocessor-based readers.

Data were analyzed in Microsoft Excel using chi-squared tests for germination and one-way
ANOVA tests for plant growth and extract parameters.
Experiment 2
Experiment 2 aimed to identify the most effective concentration of vermicompost and
thermophilic compost in on-farm potting media, and to assess the use of the blood meal mix
as a nutrient amendment (Table 1). No one concentration level or compost media treatment
was expected to perform better than the others, but all media containing the blood meal mix
were expected to perform better than those without. Primarily, this experiment was a pre-trial
for Experiment 3, the objective of which was to determine the concentration of
vermicompost to be used. Because of time constraints on the need to begin Experiment 3, the
selection of compost concentration for Experiment 3 was based on germination rather than
on transplant growth results from this experiment. However, we also evaluated the impact of
different concentrations of compost on transplant growth, compared vermicompost to
thermophilic compost media, and assessed on-farm media in relation to the McEnroe
commercial medium.
As shown in Tables 1 and 3, McEnroe commercial medium and 12 on-farm media
were tested, on-farm media varying by nutrient treatment (base or base+blood meal mix),
compost type (vermicompost or thermophilic compost) and compost concentration (10%,
20%, or 30%). For the purposes of this experiment, we assumed that using a concentration
greater than 0% of compost would produce better results than using no compost in the onfarm potting media, but Experiment 3 further addressed this matter. Vermicompost and
19
thermophilic compost used in Experiments 2 and 3 were from the same temporal batches.
Vermicompost had been removed from the bin, uniformly mixed through the sifting process,
and stored for a period of 2 months. The on-farm media were mixed with a cement mixer
(Figure 8) according to the formulas described in Table 1. The peat moss base mixture,
including lime, was adapted from Jack et al. (2011). Soil Doctor Pulverized garden lime (3
lbs. yd-3 or 1.78 kg m-3) was used to buffer the acidity of peat moss. The blood meal mix was
adapted from Biernbaum (2011) and Leonard and Rangajaran (2007). It contained blood
meal as a nitrogen amendment, greensand as a potassium amendment and bone char as a
phosphorus amendment at 2:2:1 volume/volume ratio (respectively), all from the Fertrell
Company. After mixing, each medium was watered and left to sit for two days prior to
seeding to allow the chemical properties to stabilize and the microorganisms to activate.
Table 3. Media treatments shown by variable.
10%
Base + 10% VC
Base + 10% TC
Base + BM mix + 10% VC
BM
Base + BM mix + 10% TC
mix
McEnroe
Base
20%
Base + 20% VC
Base + 20% TC
20
30%
Base + 30% VC
Base + 30% TC
Figure 8. Panel A shows the cement mixer with a batch of potting soil. Panel B shows the
compost-filled mesh bag during the extraction process in the aerated extraction tank.
Thirty-two Winter Density romaine lettuce seeds were planted into each media
treatment, as specified in Tables 1 and 2. Transplants were grown in pseudoreplicated block
groups; all transplants within each spatial block group received the same media treatment,
and block groups were positioned adjacent to one another in 128-cell flats, as in Experiment
1. The flats were placed adjacent to one another on 70F-heating mats in a plastic-sheeted
greenhouse ranging 40-60F during the night and 60-95F during the day, and were sprayirrigated daily or as needed.
Germination and transplant growth data collected are detailed in Table 2. Seeds were
recorded as either germinating or not. All transplants were cut at the soil line 39 days after
planting, and measured for number of leaves, length, aboveground biomass and harvest
index. Length was measured as the distance between the soil line and the growing tip by
flattening the tallest leaf against a ruler. Aboveground biomass was determined by drying the
cut transplants and weighing them. Harvest index was calculated as aboveground
21
biomass/length. Data were analyzed using program R (R Development Core Team, 2006).
Generalized linear mixed-effects models were used for response variables with binomial
distributions (germination), and linear mixed-effects models were used for variables with
normal distributions (number of leaves, length, aboveground biomass, and harvest index).
Significance was assessed with log-likelihood statistics for the generalized linear models and
F-tests for the linear models, using Type II sum of squares procedures for both. McEnroe
commercial medium germination data were included in the generalized linear mixed-effects
models, but McEnroe transplant data were not included in the linear mixed-effects models.
Experiment 3
Experiment 3 was designed to assess the effects of adding 10% vermicompost to onfarm media containing a base and blood meal mix, of substituting peat with coir as the base,
and of treating these media with vermicompost extract via foliar spray on transplant
germination and growth (Table 1). We hypothesized that (1) media with 10% vermicompost
would perform better than the control (0% vermicompost) in terms of transplant growth, (2)
vermicompost extract foliar sprays would positively affect transplant growth and (3) coirbased media would not significantly differ from peat-based media in terms of transplant
germination and growth.
Four on-farm media treatments were tested, varying by base (peat moss or coir) and
vermicompost concentration (unamended: 0% or amended: 10%), as described in Table 4.
The unamended media were the control treatments. Media treatments were mixed with a
cement mixer (Figure 8) according to the formulas described in Table 1. Because of time
constraints at the beginning of the experiment, the selection of vermicompost concentration
22
was based on an interview with a field expert (Allison Jack, personal communication,
January 30, 2012) and germination, rather than on plant growth results from Experiment 2.
Thus, 10% sieved vermicompost was used for the vermicompost media. The peat moss base
mixture and blood meal mix were equivalent to those described in Experiment 2. The coirbased media directly substituted coir from Ironwood Nursery, Williamsport, PA for peat
moss in otherwise identical mixtures to the peat media. After mixing, each medium was
watered and left to sit for one week prior to seeding, to allow the chemical properties to
stabilize and the microorganisms to activate. Sub-samples of each media treatment were
subject to physical analysis using the USDA NRCS (n.d.) Soil Quality Test Kit Guide bulk
density method and chemical analysis by A&L Eastern Laboratory, as in Experiment 1.
Table 4. Media treatments shown by variable.
Peat
Coir
Control
Peat base + BM mix
Coir base + BM mix
Vermicompost
Peat base + BM mix + 10% VC
Coir base + BM mix + 10% VC
Winter Density romaine seeds were planted in a completely randomized block design
comprising of ten randomized blocks. Each block consisted of three replicates of the four
media treatments. Figure 9 shows an example block. The seeds were planted in triplicate (in
3 adjacent cells) to account for germination being below 100%. Thus, 90 seeds total were
planted per media treatment, but 30 transplants were assessed per media treatment. When
more than one seed germinated per triplicate, the one to be measured was randomly selected,
and when no seeds germinated, zeros were recorded for that data point. The 128-cell flats
were placed adjacent to one another on 70F-heating mats in a plastic-sheeted greenhouse
ranging from 40F to 95F, and were spray-irrigated daily or as needed.
23
Figure 9. An example of the spatial layout of a block.
Vermicompost extract was produced using equivalent methods to those in Experiment

1 (Figure 8). It was sprayed foliarly at weekly intervals; however, unlike in Experiment 1,
treatments started directly after seeding to assess effects on transplants. Using a split-plot
design, extract foliar application alternated by block (Block A was treated, Block B was not
treated, etc.) such that half of the cells were treated and the other half were not treated.
Transplant data collection methods were equivalent to those in Experiment 2 (Table
2). Germination was recorded as whether or not each of the 90 seeds per media treatment
resulted in an emerged transplant. Randomly selected or germination-determined transplants
(potentially 30 per media treatment, as described previously) were cut at the soil line 39 days
after planting, and measured for number of leaves, length, aboveground biomass and harvest
24
index. Data analysis employed the same methods as in Experiment 2, but with Block added
to the analyses as a random variable.
Results & Discussion
The results are presented by experiment, including potting media analyses (when
applicable), germination and plant growth. In order to facilitate understanding of how the
experiments connect to and build upon one another, some interpretation will accompany the
presentation of results. A more global discussion that considers how these results related to
previous studies will follow.
Since the physical and chemical compositions of the vermicompost and thermophilic
compost produced on-farm at DCF and their food waste feedstocks (Table 5) are relevant to
multiple experiments, we address them first. Both vermicompost and thermophilic compost
had typical pH, soluble salts and total nitrogen levels (Agricultural Analytical Services
Laboratory, n.d.; Table 5). Also, their low carbon:nitrogen ratios indicate that they can break
down organic nitrogen into inorganic nitrogen, which is readily available for plant
absorption. However, their solids concentrations were below the typical 50-60%, and their
moisture concentrations were above the typical 40-50% for finished compost, indicating that
they were not quite mature (Agricultural Analytical Services Laboratory, n.d.).
Vermicompost contained higher levels of soluble salts, organic matter and nearly every
nutrient, excluding a few of the trace elements, which is attributed to the worm castings
nutrient richness. Conversely, the organic matter, total nitrogen and carbon levels in the
vermicompost feedstock were much lower than in the thermophilic compost feedstock, which
was also relatively acidic.
25
Table 5. Physico-chemical analyses of on-farm vermicompost (VC) and thermophilic compost

(TC) and their food waste feedstocks.
pH
Soluble salts (mmhos/cm)
Solids (%)
Moisture (%)
Organic matter (% dw*)
Total nitrogen (% dw)
Organic nitrogen (% dw)
Ammonium N (mg/kg dw)
Carbon (% dw)
Carbon:nitrogen ratio
Phosphorus (% dw)
Potassium (% dw)
Calcium (% dw)
Magnesium (% dw)
Sulfur (% dw)
Sodium (mg/kg dw)
Aluminum (mg/kg dw)
Iron (mg/kg dw)
Manganese (mg/kg dw)
Copper (mg/kg dw)
Zinc (mg/kg dw)
*dw=dry weight
VC
TC
7.3
3.68
42.6
57.4
35.2
1.73
1.73
5.0
19.9
11.50
0.744
0.80
3.65
1.16
0.23
750
13035.80
15621.46
850.33
30.96
27.10
7.3
2.16
42.4
57.6
33.3
1.43
1.42
5.0
17.8
12.50
0.570
0.48
3.58
0.74
0.45
432
10749.09
16135.99
988.50
37.76
96.50
VC feedstock
7.8
3.52
42.5
57.5
29.8
0.8
TC feedstock
4.2
7.84
25.3
74.7
95.0
3.9
9.3
11.50
52.7
13.40
Experiment 1
McEnroe commercial potting medium contained the highest levels of most nutrients
compared to both compost media (Table 6); however, its concentrations of nitrogen, nitrate,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur and sodium were greater than the normal range, as
designated by A&L Eastern Laboratories (2012). This suggests that McEnroe could be
providing more nutrients than germinating seeds and transplants need. Also, its very high
concentration of soluble salts could cause salinity stress. The vermicompost medium
contained the next highest nutrient and salinity levels, its concentrations of soluble salts,
nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, manganese, boron and sulfur in optimum levels within the
normal range. The thermophilic compost medium contained the lowest nutrient and salinity
levels, which is attributed to the lower nutrient levels of the thermophilic compost input itself
compared to the vermicompost input (Table 5). Physically, the lower bulk density and higher
26
water content, water-filled pore space and porosity of the on-farm media indicate enhanced
aeration and water retention compared to McEnroe, which suggests that they could be better
suited to support transplant growth. This is attributed to not only the aeration-promoting soil
particle stability of the on-farm compost inputs, but also the use of 1/3 v/v vermiculite in the
media, which lightened them up considerably.
Table 6. Experiment 1 physico-chemical analyses of vermicompost-amended (VC), thermophilic
compost-amended (TC) and McEnroe commercial (M) media.
Bulk Density (g/cm3)

Soil water content (g/g)
Soil water-filled pore
space (%)
Soil porosity (%)
pH
Soluble salts
(mmhos/cm)
Nitrogen (ppm)
Ammoniacal N (ppm)
Nitrate N (ppm)
Phosphorus (ppm)
Potassium (ppm)
Calcium (ppm)
Magnesium (ppm)
Iron (ppm)
Manganese (ppm)
Zinc (ppm)
Copper (ppm)
Boron (ppm)
Sulfur (ppm)
Sodium (ppm)
Aluminum (ppm)
1/3 VC
1/3 TC
0.184
4.165
82.5
0.164
4.774
83.2
0.416
1.605
79.2
93.0
5.8
2.39
93.8
5.9
1.25
84.3
5.9
5.00
173
2
171
70.1
329.0
151
76
13.7
18.2
4.6
0.3
0.8
47
130
1.9
81
2
79
41.4
136.0
105
46
12.8
17.3
4.3
0.3
1.0
20
84
2.2
413
1
412
29.4
672.0
484
237
14.4
3.4
5.5
1.0
0.7
358
125
0.6
Normal range
Low
High
-
5
0.7
6
3
40
0
40
5
50
80
30
15
5
5
2
0.2
16
0
0
200
30
200
30
200
200
100
40
30
30
20
0.9
200
80
3
Germination rates were 80-94% in all trials and potting media, with the exception of
Romaine 1 (Figure 10). Since all the media treatments in this trial had low germination, this
is attributed to external environmental factors, such as the severe overcast that persisted
during the germination period, which provided unfavorable conditions. Germination rates
were similar across the media treatments for each trial (22=1.1, 4.4, 3.2, 1.3, respectively,
27
P>0.1 for each). Since McEnroe commercial medium is a well-established medium with
enhanced constituents and this experiment was DCFs first practical application of its
vermicompost and thermophilic compost in potting media, we could not expect the on-farm
media to surpass the commercial medium in terms of seed nourishment and plant growth.
Thus, the lack of significant differences in germination was considered a favorable result
because it indicates that the on-farm compost media could potentially replace the commercial
medium without sacrificing productivity, at least in terms of germination.
Figure 10. Experiment 1 germination (standard error of individual cells) of the vermicompost
(VC), thermophilic compost (TC) and McEnroe commercial media (M) treatments.
With a few exceptions among the parameters, plants grown with McEnroe
commercial medium and the control extract treatment generally had higher yields than plants
grown with the vermicompost or thermophilic compost media and respective extract foliar
sprays, but not always significantly (Table 7; Figures 11 and 12). The sample size of
Romaine 2 transplants was larger than Romaine 1 transplants, and their growth trends were
more consistent with observational trends of Romaine 3 and Pak choi transplants. Romaine 2
28
McEnroe transplants had significantly higher daily height and leaf growth rates than
vermicompost and thermophilic compost transplants, but only marginally higher daily total
leaf area growth (one-way ANOVA; Table 7, Transplant growth rate section). The
somewhat opposing trend of the Romaine 1 transplants is attributed not only to the unusual
environmental germination conditions, but also to the variability of nutrient and microbial
composition within batches of vermicompost, which acted in the favor of the vermicompost
medium in this case. Generally, since McEnroe contains compost and several minerals, its
superior transplant growth could be attributed to increased availability of nutrients.
Additionally, between the two on-farm media, the relatively higher growth rate of
vermicompost transplants over thermophilic compost transplants is attributed to higher
nutrient levels of the vermicompost medium. The harvested plants (Romaine 1 and Pak choi)
largely did not differ significantly among groups (one-way ANOVA; Table 7, Harvested
plant growth section).
29
Table 7. Experiment 1 transplant growth rate and harvested plant growth (meanstandard
error).
Parameter
Trial
1/3 VC
1/3 TC
M
Transplant growth rate
Height (mm/day)
Romaine 1***
3.200.22
0.930.12
1.890.28
Romaine 2***
1.830.08
1.500.12
3.760.21
Leaves (lpd)
Romaine 1**
0.180.02
0.120.02
0.210.02
Romaine 2***
0.200.01
0.170.01
0.270.01
Total leaf area
Romaine 1**
3.710.29
1.070.27
3.670.75
(cm2/day)
Romaine 2
2.880.60
2.680.50
3.460.70
Harvested plant growth
Height (mm)
Romaine 1
125.749.05
159.5311.12
134.2512.92
Pak choi
134.78.52
159.86.77
160.710.23
# leaves
Romaine 1
264.03
23.81.02
29.43.25
Pak choi*
141.00
16.21.43
20.671.86
Root length (mm)
Romaine 1
155.655.89
142.0510.79
153.699.79
Pak choi
266.412.04
234.915.86
229.617.71
Root dw (g)
Romaine 1
0.760.18
0.680.08
0.890.26
Pak choi**
0.440.05
0.560.02
0.810.12
Shoot dw (g)
Romaine 1
24.2210.96
33.886.69
50.6116.21
Root:shoot ratio
Romaine 1
0.060.02
0.020.00
0.040.02
Total leaf area (cm2) Romaine 1
3518.431203.16
3927.85391.49 5328.661484.72
Differences among groups: *significance at P<0.05, **significance at P<0.01, ***significance at P<0.001 (oneway ANOVA)
Figure 11. Experiment 1 Romaine 2 transplants 28 days after planting (DAP) grown in
vermicompost, thermophilic and McEnroe commercial media, respectively.
30
Figure 12. The 5 randomly selected Romaine 1 plants per media treatment in Experiment 1 that
were measured for dry weights, harvested at 96 DAP; the top row was grown with
vermicompost, the second row was grown with thermophilic compost and the bottom row was
grown with McEnroe commercial medium.
We were unable to verify treatment effects due to the possibility of spatial block
effects associated with pseudoreplication, but spatial block effects were unlikely during the
transplant stage and harvest data, although observationally useful, were largely statistically
inconsequential. However, harvest data could have been affected by physical differences
along the substrate, whereby some areas were more compacted than others, hindering root
growth to different degrees. Also, the cold temperatures stunted plant growth. Therefore, the
effects of the different potting media and aqueous extract foliar sprays on crop performance
after transplantation into greenhouse substrates remain somewhat uncertain. Lastly, we
hypothesized that the compost media would require nutrient amendments in order to perform
more comparably to McEnroe commercial medium; thus the nutrient-rich blood meal mix
was applied and tested in Experiment 2.
Although the nitrate and potassium levels were significantly different among
experimental and control groups for the aqueous extract foliar sprays (P<0.001 for both
31
nitrate and potassium), with vermicompost extract containing the highest levels and
thermophilic compost containing the next highest levels (Figure 13), we observed no
physical evidence of treatment effects on differences physical plant growth or health. This
might be because microbial activity in the extracts was insufficient or that the spraying
frequency was inadequate.
350
Concentration (ppm)
300
NO3NO3
250
KK+
200
150
100
50
0
VC
TC
Spray treatment
Control
Figure 13. Experiment 1 nitrate and potassium concentrations (meanstandard error) in the
vermicompost extract, thermophilic compost extract and control (dechlorinated water).
Preliminary analyses showed that plants grown with vermicompost media generally
had the highest relative Brix, nitrate and potassium levels (Table 8), but determining the
biological significance of this is beyond the scope of this study.
32
Table 8. Experiment 1 Brix, nitrate and potassium measurements of romaine and pak choi
leaves of randomly selected individual plants.
Parameter
Brix
NO3- (ppm)
K+ (ppm)
Trial
Romaine 1
Romaine 3
Pak choi
Romaine 3
Pak choi
Romaine 3
Pak choi
1/3 VC
5.08
15.88
7.06
1900
1100
3100
3500
1/3 TC
3.82
13.55
6.57
2400
310
2600
2300
M
4.58
6.32
6.32
1600
530
2600
2500
Experiment 2
Out of the three tested variables, nutrient treatment (base or blood meal mix),
compost type (vermicompost, thermophilic compost, or McEnroe commercial medium) and
compost concentration (10%, 20%, or 30%), only compost type had a significant main effect
on germination (12=18.1, P<0.001; Figure 14; Table 9). Vermicompost media had the
lowest germination rate, followed by thermophilic compost, and McEnroe had the highest
(Figure 14). The lower germination of on-farm media, especially the vermicompost medium,
could be associated with the potential immaturity of the composts (Table 5). Although
compost concentration did not significantly affect germination, within each group, 10%
compost always had the highest relative germination, 20% nearly always had the lowest, with
30% nearly always in between. Given the need to make a decision based on these study
results and the scientific assertion that concentrations above 20% can inhibit drainage
obtained from an interview with a field expert (Allison Jack, personal communication,
January 30, 2012), 10% was chosen as the concentration to be used in Experiment 3.
33
Base-VC
Base-TC
BM-VC
BM-TC
100%
90%
Germination
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
10
20
Compost concentration (%)
30
Figure 14. Experiment 2 germination (meanstandard error of individual cells) of

base+vermicompost (Base-VC), base+thermophilic compost (Base-TC), base+blood meal
mix+vermicompost (BM-VC) and base+blood meal mix+thermophilic compost (BM-TC) media
treatments with 10%, 20% and 30% compost, and of McEnroe commercial medium (M).
Table 9. Experiment 2 tests of significance of the main effects of nutrient treatment, compost
type, and compost concentration on the germination response.
Predictor
Nutrient treatment (base, BM mix, M nutrients)
Compost type (VC, TC, M compost)
Compost concentration (10%, 20%, 30%, M compost concentration)
2
0.3
18.1
1.4
df
1
1
1
P
0.597
<0.001
0.244
In general, media with blood meal mix had higher plant yields than media with only
the base (Figure 15). Media with vermicompost had higher yields than media with
thermophilic compost, and media with 20%-30% compost had higher yields than media with
10% (Figure 15). The blood meal mix nutrient treatment had significantly positive main
effects on all transplant growth responses (Table 10). Vermicompost transplants had
significantly higher numbers of leaves, aboveground biomasses and harvest indices than
thermophilic compost transplants. These effects are attributed to the increased availability of
34
more exchangeable nutrients provided by the vermicompost and blood meal mix. The
stimulation of vermicompost microbial activity by blood meal mix likely contributed to
nutrient release (Leonard & Rangarajan, 2007). Additionally, we infer that media with higher
concentrations of compost contained higher nutrient levels, which explains why these media
had higher yields, but at the 30% concentration, the media could have become more
waterlogged. Thus, 20% compost was ideal plant growth. Compost type effects on number of
leaves and length depended on nutrient treatment effects, as indicated by a significant
compost*treatment interaction; blood meal mix had a greater positive effect on thermophilic
compost transplant yields than on vermicompost transplant yields (Figure 16). This is
attributed to the lower initial nutrient levels in thermophilic compost compared to
vermicompost, which made the impact of the added nutrients in blood meal mix larger.
Overall, this experiment affirmed the use of blood meal mix and vermicompost for plant
growth, in on-farm potting media. Most blood meal mix-amended media performed similarly
to McEnroe commercial medium, with the 20% vermicompost+blood meal mix medium in
particular performing notably better in terms of number of leaves, aboveground biomass and
harvest index (Figure 15).
35
Base-VC
Base-TC
Base-VC
Base-TC
BM-VC
BM-TC
BM-VC
BM-TC
M
160
11
140
Length (mm)
# leaves
10
9
8
7
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
10
20
30
10
20
30
Base-VC
Base-TC
Base-VC
Base-TC
BM-VC
BM-TC
BM-VC
BM-TC
0.30
0.025
Harvest index (g/cm)
AG biomass (g)
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
10
20
30
10
20
30
Figure 15. Experiment 2 number of leaves, length, aboveground biomass and harvest index
(meanstandard error) of base+vermicompost (Base-VC), base+thermophilic compost (BaseTC), base+blood meal mix+vermicompost (BM-VC) and base+blood meal mix+thermophilic
compost (BM-TC) media treatments with 10%, 20% and 30% compost, and of McEnroe
commercial medium (M).
36
Table 10. Experiment 2 tests of significance of the main and interactive effects on the number of
leaves, length, aboveground biomass, and harvest index responses.
Response
Number of
leaves
Length
AG
biomass
Harvest
index
Predictor
Nutrient treatment (base, BM mix)
Compost type (VC, TC)
Compost concentration (10%, 20%, 30%)
Nutrient treatment*compost type
Nutrient treatment*compost concentration
Compost type*compost concentration
Nutrient treatment*compost type*compost concentration
37
F
197.0
23.1
7.5
5.8
3.7
4.2
6.6
918.3
4.4
1.6
107.4
13.8
0.6
18.9
271.8
22.1
13.7
2.3
0.0
3.3
1.7
57.6
26.5
16.5
2.1
0.9
3.0
0.6
df
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,211
1,211
1,211
1,211
1,211
1,211
1,211
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
1,210
P
<0.001
<0.001
0.007
0.017
0.057
0.042
0.011
<0.001
0.038
0.206
<0.001
<0.001
0.431
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.129
0.848
0.073
0.188
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.147
0.343
0.085
0.439
Figure 16. Experiment 2 vermicompost transplants grown with the base nutrient treatment
(under first two wooden labels) and blood meal mix nutrient treatment (under the third wooden
label; Panel A), and thermophilic compost transplants grown with the base nutrient treatment
(Panel B above) and blood meal mix nutrient treatment (Panel B below) 35 DAP.
Although the treatments in this experiment were spatially pseudoreplicated, it is

unlikely that the observed treatment effects were caused by random spatial effects because in
Experiment 3, which was randomized and properly replicated, spatial block effects were
found to be largely insignificant (P>0.05 for most parameters and predictors). This
experiment was conducted in essentially the same location and spatial arrangement as
Experiment 3, so that spatial effects would likely have been revealed by both experiments if
they were important determinants of plant germination and growth. Thus it is most likely that
the effects observed in Experiment 2 reflect true treatment effects rather than random spatial
variation.
38
Experiment 3
Media containing 10% vermicompost contained higher nutrient levels than media
containing no vermicompost, but most of the distinct nutrient concentrations of the
vermicompost media were lower than their respective optimum potting media levels (Table
11; A&L Eastern Laboratories, Inc., 2012). Ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations of the
vermicompost media were excessively high. This suggests that the vermicompost batch was
not fully decomposed (Grubinger, 2012), which is consistent with results of the
vermicompost physico-chemical analysis. Specifically, the presence of high levels of
ammoniacal nitrogen is attributed to the failure of the microorganisms within the
vermicompost system to nitrify ammonia from worm excretions and the feedstock of the
batch before it was extracted from the system (Lee, 1985). Peat-based media contained
higher concentrations of phosphorous, iron and boron, and coir-based media contained higher
concentrations of nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, zinc, sulfur and sodium (Table 11). Thus,
coir media were richer in nutrients. Coir media had higher alkalinity than peat media. This is
likely due to differences in underlying acidity between coir and peat. Lime was applied to
both treatments to be consistent, but whereas it acted to neutralize the acidity of the peat
moss, it caused the neutral coir to become basic. Physically, coir media had greater water
content and water-filled pore space than peat media, indicating its higher water retention
capacity. Physical aspects favored vermicompost media in some respects and unamended
media in others for reasons that are somewhat uncertain, which would require further
replication.
39
Table 11. Experiment 3 physico-chemical analyses of peat- and coir-based media with and
without vermicompost.
Peat
Bulk Density (g/cm3)
Soil water content (g/g)
Soil water-filled pore
space (%)
Soil porosity (%)
pH
Soluble salts
(mmhos/cm)
Nitrogen (ppm)
Ammoniacal N (ppm)
Nitrate N (ppm)
Phosphorus (ppm)
Potassium (ppm)
Calcium (ppm)
Magnesium (ppm)
Iron (ppm)
Manganese (ppm)
Zinc (ppm)
Copper (ppm)
Boron (ppm)
Sulfur (ppm)
Sodium (ppm)
Aluminum (ppm)
Peat,
VC
Coir
Coir,
VC
0.097
1.042
10.5
0.112
0.970
11.3
0.081
2.423
20.2
0.109
1.832
20.7
96.3
6.3
0.37
95.8
6.9
1.40
97.0
8.0
0.96
95.9
7.5
1.40
4
4
0
2.4
21.7
31
16
8.5
3.8
0.8
0.3
0.3
13
25
1.8
132
58
74
9.0
112.0
76
38
6.4
6.1
2.5
0.3
0.2
30
51
1.1
11
9
2
1.1
140.0
36
18
4.5
4.7
2.6
0.3
0.0
18
63
2.0
141
53
88
6.8
256.0
63
39
4.0
5.9
3.9
0.3
0.1
31
87
1.6
Normal range
Low
-
High
-
5
0.7
6
3
40
0
40
5
50
80
30
15
5
5
2
0.2
16
0
0
200
30
200
30
200
200
100
40
30
30
20
0.9
200
80
3
The application of vermicompost to the potting media and of vermicompost extract to

leaves both had significant negative main effects on germination (Figure 17; Table 12). The
high concentrations of ammoniacal nitrogen in vermicompost media likely harmed
germinating seeds due to ammonium phytotoxicity (California Compost Quality Council,
2001). With respect to vermicompost extract foliar spray, its application could have
waterlogged the media and seeds and exposed them to more ammonia. Main effects of the
media base were insignificant; thus, despite the alkaline pH levels of coir media in relation to
peat media, germination was likely not affected by this difference in pH. These germination
data suggest that coir could substitute peat effectively as a potting media base. All interactive
effects were insignificant.
40
80%
70%
70%
60%
Peat
50%
Coir
40%
30%
60%
Axis Title
Germination
80%
50%
VC extract
40%
30%
20%
20%
10%
10%
0%
Control
0%
0
10
VC concentration (%)
0
10
Figure 17. Experiment 3 germination (meanstandard error) of peat-based and coir-based

media and non-extract-treated (control) and extract-treated media with 0% (control) and 10%
vermicompost.
Table 12. Experiment 3 tests of significance of the main and interactive effects on the
germination response.
2
Predictor
Base (peat, coir)
VC concentration (0%, 10%)
Extract treatment (no, yes)
Base*VC concentration
Base*extract treatment
VC concentration*extract treatment
Base*VC concentration*extract treatment
0.7
58.0
4.8
0.5
1.8
2.4
0.6
df
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
P
0.414
<0.001
0.029
0.502
0.179
0.119
0.432
The main effects of concentration and base media on all growth parameters were
significant, favoring 10% vermicompost over the control and peat over coir (Figure 18; Table
13; Figure 19). One explanation for this is that vermicompost treatment itself positively
impacted transplant growth. Another plausible explanation is that seed mortality in the
vermicompost media confounded the results in terms of plant selection during germination,
such that seeds that did germinate could have been the most robust, growing into the largest
transplants, and seeds that failed to germinate would have grown into smaller transplants.
41
However, no direct evidence of a correlation between germination and growth exists in this
case, whereas both the enhanced nutrient levels of vermicompost media (Table 11) and
trends in the literature support the first explanation whereby the vermicompost treatment
positively impacted transplant growth (Edwards & Burrows, 1988; Buckerfield et al., 1999;
Arancon et al., 2007). Specifically, vermicompost likely contained growth-promoting
microorganisms and increased nutrient availability for plant absorption, especially nitrate.
The alkaline pH levels of the coir media (Table 11) likely inhibited transplant growth
because optimal plant growth is reached with soil pH levels of 5.0 to 6.5 and Lactuca sativa
prefers 6.2 to 6.8, as mentioned previously (Goh & Haynes, 1977; High Mowing Organic
Seeds, 2011). Atiyeh et al. (2000b) found that the alkalinity of coir media reduced
germination of pepper and tomato, similar to the results in this study. Thus, without the
addition of lime, the coir media might have performed better, perhaps as well as the peat
media. Interactive effects were minimal, as can be seen by the similar slopes of the lines
(Figure 18). Only number of leaves and length demonstrated a strong interactive effect
whereby base media effects determined concentration effects; the vermicompost had a
greater positive effect on coir transplants than on peat transplants (Figure 18; Table 13).
Vermicompost extract foliar sprays did not significantly impact transplant growth (Table 13).
Lastly, although the experimental design was randomized and properly replicated, spatial
block effects were essentially insignificant, as mentioned previously (P>0.05 for most
parameters and predictors).
42
9
8
Length (mm)
# leaves
7
6
5
Peat
Coir
3
2
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.35
0.040
0.30
0.035
0.25
0.20
0.15
Peat
0.10
Coir
0
10
Harvest index (g/cm)
AG biomass (g)
0
10
Peat
Coir
0.05
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
Peat
0.010
Coir
0.005
0.00
0.000
0
10
0
10
Figure 18. Experiment 3 number of leaves, length, aboveground biomass and harvest index
(meanstandard error) of peat-based and coir-based media with 0% vermicompost (control)
and 10% vermicompost.
43
Table 13. Experiment 3 tests of significance of the main and interactive effects on the number of
leaves, length, aboveground biomass, and harvest index responses.
Response
Number of
leaves
Length
AG
biomass
Harvest
index
Predictor
Base (peat, coir)
Base (peat, coir)
Base (peat, coir)
Base (peat, coir)
44
F
122.9
68.0
0.3
23.8
1.4
0.0
0.0
92.7
147.1
5.1
8.0
3.4
0.4
0.5
41.1
105.1
17.9
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.0
17.1
34.7
0.1
1.5
0.0
0.1
0.0
df
1,60
1,60
1,2
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,2
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,2
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,2
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60
P
<0.001
<0.001
0.636
<0.001
0.247
0.879
0.891
<0.001
<0.001
0.153
0.006
0.070
0.506
0.474
<0.001
<0.001
0.052
0.541
0.516
0.663
0.865
<0.001
<0.001
0.822
0.225
0.825
0.808
0.986
1. coir-control
4. coir-control
2. coir-VC
5. peat-VC
3. peat-control
6. coir-control
1. peat-VC 2. coir-control 3. peat-control 4. coir-control 5. peat-control

6. coir-VC 7. coir control 8. peat-VC
9. peat-control 10. coir-VC
Figure 19. Experiment 3 transplants from various media treatment groups organized in their
randomized blocks 39 DAP.
Therefore, the application of vermicompost to potting media negatively impacted

germination (Figure 17), but positively impacted transplant growth (Figure 8). This partially
supports the first hypothesis, which stated that vermicompost media would perform better
than unamended media in terms of transplant growth. Furthermore, the application of
vermicompost extract foliar sprays negatively impacted germination (Figure 17) and did not
45
enhance transplant growth (Table 13), providing no support for the second hypothesis, which
stated that extract application would positively impact transplant growth. Lastly, coir
performed as well as peat as a potting media base in terms of germination (Figure 17), but
not in terms of transplant growth (Figure 18). This partially supports the third hypothesis,
which stated that coir media would not significantly differ from peat media in terms of
transplant germination and growth.
Discussion
These experiments, in addition to previous studies, indicate the potential that
vermicompost shows for enhancing plant productivity and health. Vermicompost produced
on a small-scale working farm and fed by localized organic wastes, showed promise when
applied in potting media for vegetable transplant growth. Vermicompost-amended potting
media outperformed both unamended and thermophilic compost-amended media in terms of
transplant growth following germination. This is attributed to enhanced nutrient availability
and richness, and increased activity of beneficial microorganisms.
However, the suitability of composts as potting soil amendments or aqueous extract
foliar sprays depends on their particular nutrient and microbial contents. Distinct differences
exist between specific compost preparations, even when composting is performed with the
same technique, largely because preparations vary in the type of feedstock added to the
compost. This can include differences in nutrient content and microbial communities, which
can in turn influence plant growth, transplant quality, and field performance (Atiyeh et al.,
2000c; Jack et al., 2011). One way to control for some of these differences is to consider
common feedstocks (Edwards & Burrows, 1988; Jack, 2010).
46
It is unclear how food waste-based vermicomposts compare to manure-, paper-, or

sewage-based vermicomposts because of the disproportionately high amount of studies that
have focused on manure-based vermicompost, but food waste-based vermicompost seems to
perform similar ecosystems services to manure-based vermicompost. Arancon et al. (2004)
reported that heights, numbers of buds, and numbers of flowers of peppers grown in food
waste-based vermicompost-amended media were not significantly greater than those grown
in unamended media. Atiyeh et al. (2000c) reported that pig manure-based vermicompost
performed better than food waste-based vermicompost in terms of plant growth
enhancement. Therefore, the shortcomings of the food waste-based vermicompost used in
this study were accepted, and the beneficial aspects were considered forms of plant support
rather than absolute forms of fertilization or disease suppression.
Our study found that vermicompost amendments to potting media reduced
germination of lettuce transplants (Figures 14 and 17). This negative effect on germination is
not consistent with findings of past studies or consistent across experiments, suggesting that
the negative effect on germination might be due to the specific conditions under which the
particular batch of vermicompost was produced. Most studies have found that vermicompost
amendments in potting media either affect germination positively or do not have significant
impacts on germination (Alves and Passoni, 1997; Edwards & Burrows, 1988; Bachman &
Metzger, 2008). The unusual results in our study were likely caused by an excess of
ammonia in the vermicompost preparation (Table 11), possibly because it was not allowed to
mature long enough. Anecdotal evidence from the Dickinson College Farm (DCF) beyond
our study suggests that on-farm vermicompost-amended potting media only cause low
germination rates except with lettuce (Jennifer Halpin, personal communication, April 26,
47
2012). This is attributed to the high sensitivity of lettuce to ammonium phytotoxicity, also
called jelly butt in developed lettuce plants (Queensland Government, 1997). This often
occurs in wet, cold soils and is exacerbated in high-range springtime temperatures (warm
days and cool nights), both of which pertained to the conditions of Experiment 3
(Queensland Government, 1997). Thus, germination effects might have been less pronounced
with other vegetable species. However, these data are still valuable because lettuce is a major
crop for not only DCF, but also most small-scale diversified vegetable farms in the U.S.
Finding ways to reduce ammonia levels in the farms vermicompost would be valuable, in
particular for increasing the effectiveness of vermicompost when growing lettuce.
Even though the vermicompost medium in Experiment 1 had a higher vermicompost
concentration (33%) than in Experiment 3 (10%), the vermicompost medium in Experiment
1 contained ammoniacal nitrogen within the normal range (Table 6), whereas vermicompost
media in Experiment 3 had high ammoniacal nitrogen contents (Table 11). Furthermore,
there was no evidence of vermicompost toxicity in Experiment 1. This suggests that temporal
inconsistencies likely exist within the vermicompost system on DCF. More rigorous
management of the inputs and outputs of the on-farm vermicompost system could enhance its
efficacy in future applications and promote batch-to-batch consistency. For example, precomposting the feedstock could reduce the ammonia toxicity (Pittaway, 2001). Thermophilic
composting kitchen waste for 9 days prior to vermicomposting improved vermicompost mass
reduction, moisture management and pathogen reduction in a previous study (Nair et al.,
2006).
Switching from the McEnroe commercial medium to the on-farm media assessed in
our study may mean sacrificing productivity to some extent in terms of germination (Figure
48
14), but in terms of transplant growth, blood meal mix-amended media performed similarly
to McEnroe, and in particular, the 20% vermicompost+blood meal mix medium performed
notably better (Figure 16). Thus, blood meal mix enhanced transplant growth, as was found
by Leonard and Rangajaran (2007), which affirms the potential for on-farm media
improvement in terms of maximizing transplant growth. With further experimentation on
optimum concentrations of the various ingredients and compost maturity assurance, on-farm
media can reach the level at which the trade-off between increased localized agroecological
benefits and potential yield losses due to lowered germination is worth making. However,
when choosing potting media inputs, enhancing the rhizosphere bacterial community is
important for plant growth and health (Jack et al., 2011), so the effects of different nutrient
amendments on the microbial community should be further explored.
Since peat extraction causes non-renewable habitat degradation and harmful
emissions, coir is considered the more sustainable option in terms of its renewability. Our
results suggest that this substitution might require sacrifices of plant productivity. However,
the addition of lime to the coir media, which caused alkaline pH levels (Table 11), meant that
a fair comparison could not be made between peat and coir based on our experiments.
Handreck (1993) reported that when coir was used as a direct substitute for peat, about 10
mg/l extra nitrogen needed to be added, but coir provided extra potassium. The high
potassium content of the coir media found in our study is consistent with the findings of
Handreck (1993), but our coir-media also contained marginally higher nitrogen contents than
the peat media. Thus, coir-based media demonstrate potential to improve and contribute to
enhanced transplant growth. In practice on DCF beyond our study, on-farm coir-based
49
potting media amended with vermicompost and without lime have performed well in terms
of transplant growth (Jennifer Halpin, personal communication, April 26, 2012).
Although vermicompost extracts in our study had the highest nitrate and potassium
contents (Figure 13), they did not significantly improve transplant growth when applied to
foliarly (Table ). This finding was consistent with results from the preliminary study of onfarm extracts (Sinchi et al., 2011). Previous studies have found that additives that stimulate
microbial growth, such as kelp and humic acid or molasses, increased extract efficacy,
specifically in terms of disease suppression (Carpenter-Boggs, 2005; Scheuerell & Mahaffee,
2004). Pant et al. (2009) reported that vermicompost extracts produced with and without
additives both significantly increased plant growth when applied to leaves and root zones,
those with additives marginally more so. We did not assess the use of microbial additives or
root zone application in this study, which might account for our different results.
Alternatively, extract foliar sprays could affect crop quality more so than yield, acting not as
a fertilizer, but a means of plant support (Fritz et al., 2008).
Conclusions
This series of three experiments provided useful insights into the value of farm-based
vermicompost and thermophilic compost applications on Dickinson College Farm. Although
vermicompost media treatments yielded low germination rates, the surviving seeds grew into
more healthy and productive transplants than with other media preparations. Among on-farm
media, optimal transplant growth was achieved with 20%-30% vermicompost and an
addition of blood meal mix. However, it was difficult to control for differences between
specific batches of vermicompost and thermophilic compost when comparing across
experiments. Vermicompost and thermophilic compost could be used in potting media and
50
aqueous extract foliar sprays not as absolute fertilizers or disease suppressants, but as
supportive inoculants, filling niches for nutrient availability and microbial diversity. On-farm
vermicompost and its applications continues to be assessed on DCF, not only to enhance the
farms own practices, but also to spread practical knowledge to other small-scale sustainably
managed farms. Future studies should focus on microbial and nutrient content
characterizations of vermicompost in various temporal and spatial batches, effects of coirbased and vermicompost-amended pH-neutral potting media on plant growth and disease
suppression, and effects of microbial stimulant additives and different methods of application
on vermicompost extract efficacy.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Jenn Halpin and Matt Steiman for their collaboration and
promotion of vermicompost on the farm, Allison Jack for her invaluable insight and
guidance, and Candie Wilderman and Mary Orr for their support from the Environmental
Science Department.
51
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Effects of Vermicompost in Potting Soils and

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Effects of vermicompost in potting soils and extract foliar sprays on

Submitted in partial fulfillment of Honors Requirements

Materials and Methods

Results and Discussion

chemical cues by vermicompost seed-colonizing microbes. This effectively creates a gradient

In addition to investigating the benefits of vermicompost use, we tested for interactive

Materials and Methods

Figure 6. Vermicompost (Panel A) and thermophilic compost (Panel B) produced on-site at

Samples of on-farm vermicompost and thermophilic compost were subject to

Equal parts v/v* VC,* vermiculite, peat moss

Peat base (70 peat moss: 30 vermiculite v/v, lime (3

Peat base, BM mix (7 lbs. yd-3)

Germination, transplant data (length, # leaves,

determine the baseline capabilities of the extract. Vermicompost or thermophilic compost

potassium concentrations were measured using Horiba Cardy microprocessor-based readers.

Figure 9. An example of the spatial layout of a block.

Vermicompost extract was produced using equivalent methods to those in Experiment

Table 5. Physico-chemical analyses of on-farm vermicompost (VC) and thermophilic compost

Bulk Density (g/cm3)

Figure 14. Experiment 2 germination (meanstandard error of individual cells) of

Although the treatments in this experiment were spatially pseudoreplicated, it is

The application of vermicompost to the potting media and of vermicompost extract to

Figure 17. Experiment 3 germination (meanstandard error) of peat-based and coir-based

Harvest index (g/cm)

1. peat-VC 2. coir-control 3. peat-control 4. coir-control 5. peat-control

Therefore, the application of vermicompost to potting media negatively impacted

It is unclear how food waste-based vermicomposts compare to manure-, paper-, or

Earthworms, Organic Wastes and Environmental Management (pp. 165-181). Boca

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