Tectonic evolution and petroleum

system of the Benue Trough

Aruagha-Ndukwe, Ndukwe John
BOO689058
PETR. 6060
Prof. Amadu Mumuni

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................ 2
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 2
1 ORIGIN AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE BENUE TROUGH...............................2
1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION................................................................................2
1.2 ORIGIN OF THE BENUE TROUGH........................................................................2
1.3 THE TECTONIC PHASES..................................................................................... 2
2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF THE BENUE TROUGH.....................................................2
2.1 TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM..............................................................................2
2.2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM ELEMENTS........................................................................2
2.2.1 SOURCE ROCK................................................................................................ 2
2.2.2 RESERVOIR ROCK........................................................................................... 2
2.2.3 SEAL ROCKS................................................................................................... 2
2.2.4 HYDROCARBON TRAPS................................................................................... 2
2.3 PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF THE BENUE TROUGH..................................................2
2.3.1 THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF THE ANAMBRA BASIN.......................................2
2.3.2 SOURCE ROCKS.............................................................................................. 2
2.3.4 RESERVOIR ROCKS......................................................................................... 2
2.3.5 SEAL ROCK..................................................................................................... 2
2.3.5 MIGRATION PATHWAYS.................................................................................... 2
2.3.6 PETROLEUM TRAPS......................................................................................... 2
2.3.7 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION.............................................................................. 2
2.3.8 EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES...............................................................................2
2.3.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION AND
PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES......................................................................................... 2
3.0 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................... 2
4.0 REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 2

ABSTRACT
The Benue trough is an intracratonic structure occupying the central-eastern part of
Nigeria with a Northeast trend. The trough originated as a result of a triple junction
rift system which separated Africa from South America, also creating the south
pacific and the gulf coast of guinea. The tectonic evolution of the trough was
considered, with the accepted mechanism ranging from the Aptian to the TuronianMaastrichtian age. The trough is divided into three geographical sections, each
sections experiencing different tectonic and stratigraphic activities within the above
mentioned period. The identified petroleum system boundaries were the Lower
cretaceous petroleum system, the Upper Cretaceous petroleum system and the
Palaeogene petroleum system. Due to the size of the scope the petroleum system
considered was that of the Anambra basin, in which the Upper Cretaceous
Petroleum System was singularly dominant. Five potential source rocks were
identified, spread over the pre-santonian and post-santonian ages. Organic matter
content showed high potential of hydrocarbon generation, with predominance of
Type III kerogen, signifying gas generation potential. Viable reservoir rocks were
identified, mostly siliciclastic in nature. Due to the diversity of tectonic activities
which affected the basin, stratigraphic, structural and combination traps have been
identified. Production activities a null in this area due to discouraging results from
drilled exploratory well, the cost of applying more effective exploration methods and
the presence of an more viable investment in the Niger Delta.

INTRODUCTION
Nigerias current petroleum reserves has been estimated to be 37.1 billion barrels of
oil and 180.8 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. (Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries, 2013). These results are based on proven exploration information
obtained from the onshore and offshore petroleum activities in the Niger-Delta,
which is currently the only hydrocarbon producing region in Nigeria. Majority of the
attention is given to the Niger-Delta; however, the hydrocarbon potential of the
other sedimentary basins cannot be overlooked in order to ensure expansion of the
national production and exploration base, thereby increasing the countries asset
reserves.
The Nigerian sedimentary basins, excluding the Niger-Delta basin, comprise of the
Sokoto Basin, Benue Trough, Southeast Chad (Bornou) Basin, Benin Basin, Bida
Basin, and the Anambra Basin (figure 1). These inland basins have constantly
frustrated the efforts of explorers due to the little available geological information,
cost of exploration and the lack of evidence to show large reserves to prompt
investments. Therefore, numerous international companies have focused their
resources on deep-water and ultra-deep-water offshore exploration and production.
Of all the basins, I have chosen the Benue Trough not just because it represents one
of the most important structures in Africa as it is part of the Mid-African rift system,
with its origin linked to being the failed third arm of the rifting which opened the
South American Ocean and the Gulf of Guinea (Olade M. A., 1975), but also that it
presents an interesting basin both to study and for petroleum exploration.
This paper briefly explores the Benue Trough sedimentary basin, concentrating on
its tectonic evolution, the elements of its petroleum system and the production
activities currently being carried out in it.

1 ORIGIN AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE BENUE TROUGH

1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
The Benue trough is a sedimentary basin which trends Northeast-Southwest across
the Nigerian shield. It is approximately 1000 long and 50-100km wide, showing a Yshape at its northern end. The left branch of the shape is referred to as the Yola
basin while the right branch is the Gongola basin (figure 1). The basin is filled with
cretaceous sediments ranging in thickness from 6000km to 5000km moving
northeastwards.
Majority of the Benue trough is located within Nigeria, barring the tip of the Yola
basin which extends into Cameroun. The Benue trough is bordered by the NigerDelta in the southwest and the Chad (Bornou) basin northeast. It is also located
between two large massifs, the Jos plateau to the North and Adamawa to the south
(figure 1).
The Benue trough is divided into three main areas with different geological features
(the lower, middle and upper Benue trough) (figure 1). The lower Benue comprises
mainly of the Anambra basin and the Abakaliki uplift. The Abakiliki uplift is flanked
on the south by the Afikpo syncline and the Ogija area, while the Anambra basin
shares a border northwards with the Bida basin.
The Middle Benue trough is the linear portion of the Benue trough. It is flanked by
the Kardako basin (Benkhelil, 1986) on the north, and on the south, lies the Gboko
regional fraction system (Samuel O. Akande, 2011).

The Upper Benue trough encompasses a more complex system of units due to cover
tectonic activities. These units consist majorly of the Gongola basin, Yola basin and
the Kaltungo inler. The Upper Benue trough features the Kerri-kerri basin on the
northwest.
The lower and middle Benue trough display flat or gentle rippling areas with a few
low hills, while the upper Benue trough has a rugged topography due to the
copiousness of cretaceous sandstone and tertiary volcanic plugs. (Benkhelil, 1989)

1.2 ORIGIN OF THE BENUE TROUGH

The origin of the Benue trough has been greatly debated over the years. Earlier
geologists (King, 1950) (Wright, 1968) (Lees, 1952) hypothesized that the trough is
a halted rift structure. The absence of major rift faults systems, aside for on the rim
of the trough, disproves this theory. However, the protagonists insist that the rift
faults may have been obliterated or concealed over time.
Another postulated theory attempted to clarify the origin of the trough using plate
tectonics. It concluded that the Benue trough is an arm of a rift-rift-rift junction
centered beneath the Niger delta. This theory was built on the observation of
similarities between the Benue trough and the Central Red sea depression. (Burke,
Dessauvagie,
& Whiteman,
Figure 1: Main geographical and structural units of the Benue trough and its surroundings. [1]
1970) (Burke,
Tertiary volcanics; [2] Quaternary and tertiary volcanics; [3] Cretaceous sediments; [4] Basement
complex (Benkhelil, 1989)
Dessauvagie,
& Whiteman, 1971). Another supporting hypothesis was the action of Santonian
folding which entailed the oceanic crust being engulfed by a minor subduction zone
causing the Abakaliki section of the trough to be underlain by continuous oceanic
crust. However, this theory has been criticized by (Nwachukwu, 1972) (Olade M. A.,
1975) (Olade, 1978).
(Grant, 1971) Considered the Niger Delta triple junction as a Rift-Rift-Fault formed
by the South Atlantic, Benue trough and Gulf of guinea. This model involved the
presence of several transform faults along the North coast of the Gulf of Guinea,
crustal thinning and concomitant subsidence and a 30 million year time frame (from
Albian to Santonian times) for these occurrences.
(Ofoegbu, 1981) Has reviewed these theories and presented a more detailed
analysis of the origin of the Benue trough.

1.3 THE TECTONIC PHASES

The Benue trough has always been tectonically active from before the Aptian to
recent times (Benkhelil, 1989). Its tectonic evolution started with a thermal plume,
under the today Niger Delta, resulting in the doming, uplifting, then rifting of
continental lithosphere causing the formation of a rift-rift-rift triple junction involving
the Benue trough, the gulf of guinea and the South Atlantic. This occurred between
the Aptian and Albian period (Burke, Dessauvagie, & Whiteman, 1970) (Burke,
Dessauvagie, & Whiteman, 1971).
6

Although tectonic events are noted to have occurred during the Cenomanian,
Turonian and Senonian eras (Ofoegbu C. O., 1984), the major periods in which
significant effect of tectonic activities have had adverse effects are the Santonian
phase, Maastrichtian phase and the Tertiary period (Benkhelil, 1989). Both phases
resulted in the acute compression, folding and deformation of deposited sediments
within different sections of the Benue trough over time.
The Cenomanian era featured a reduction of the tension in the Benue through,
through upwelling of the mantle. The resulting thinning of the lithosphere caused
the deposited Albian sediments to fold and the water body to regress. (Olade M. A.,
1975)
Tectonic activities during the Turonian times resulted in the renewed rifting of the
Benue trough. (Ayoola, 1978) Highlighted that the tectonic activities cycled until the
Santonian era, allowing the transgression of the sea and deposition of Eze Aku shale
over the distorted Asu River group.
During the Senonian times, the mantle upwelling of the trough reduced and resulted
in the regression of the sea in later times. This regression caused the deposition of
new sediments and deformation of the existing ones. Also, during this period there
was an eastward movement in the center of tectonic activities due to the
displacement of the mantle plume caused by the rotation of the African plate.
(Olade M. A., 1975)
The Santonian phase is the most severe of all the phases and gives the trough most
of its unique properties (Ofoegbu C. O., 1981). It involved the compression and
folding of the cretaceous sediments with intensity spreading in the lateral direction
of the trough and towards its edges. Dips of over 30 have been noted, with some
over 60km in length. In the Lower Benue trough, this phase is distinctly evident in
the Abakaliki anticlinorium and is relatively absent in the Anambra syncline
(Benkhelil, 1989).
The middle and upper Benue trough show very little to no signs due to the action of
this phase (Carter, Barber, & Tait, 1963). A distinct result of this phase is the
uplifting and eroding of the trough edges, causing the deposition of clastic
sediments across the trough (Burke, Dessauvagie, & Whiteman, 1972).
The Maastrichtian phase affected most of the sediments in the trough, however it
was not as intensive as the Santonian phase. (Benkhelil, 1989) Stated that the
Maastrichtian era showed the most effect on the Upper regions of the structure,
featuring compression of sediments resulting in concentric folding and fracturing.
(Figure 2) shows the average direction of the main stress elements within the
trough. The post-Maastrichtian era featured little in the upper Benue trough with
gentle folding of its uniform sediments. In the middle and lower section of the
trough, dual folding and deformation of previous sediments occurred during this
episode (Wright, 1976).
The tertiary phase signified a period of great stress release in the Upper Benue
trough, after the end of the cretaceous compression, due to the occurrence of Postcretaceous and volcanism. Similarities were observed between the post-Santonian
7

tensional regime and the early tertiary period in the Lower Benue trough (Benkhelil,
1989).
The main characteristic of this period is the effect of synsedimentary normal faults.
The growth of the Paleocene Kerri-Kerri basin and the deformation of the Cretaceous
sediments in the Yola basin were affected by faulting in these regions during the
tertiary phase (Benkhelil, 1989) (Benkhelil, 1982).
A singular theory cannot conclusively explain the tectonic evolution of the Benue
trough due to distinct combination of upwelling, folding and faulting units. However,
coupled with other theories, (Olade M. A., 1975) provides the best baseline for
building a definite theory for the evolution of the Benue trough. (Figure 3) provides
a diagrammatic representation of the proposed baseline phase theory for the
evolution of the Benue trough.

Figure 2: Distribution of the stresses related to the Mesozoic and Tertiary tectonic events. [1]
Tertiary volcanism; [2] Tertiary and Quaternary sediments; [3] Cretaceous sediments; [4]
Precambrian basement; [5] Direction of 1 for the end of the cretaceous phase.; [6] Direction for
the 3 for the intra-upper Cretaceous extension; [7] Direction of 3 for the Tertiary phase; [8]
Direction of 1 for the lower Cretaceous phase. (Benkhelil, 1986)

10

Figure 3: Proposed tectonic evolution of

the Benue trough (Olade M. A., 1975)

11

2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF THE BENUE TROUGH

2.1 TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM
The definition and description of a petroleum system has evolved over time. The
concept of a petroleum system was first provided by (Dow, 1974). He used the term
Oil system instead to describe the process, also listing the elements required to
complete the system.
The term petroleum system was first used by (Perrodon, 1983) to describe the
process of formation of a family of pools in the combined presence of source rock,
reservoir rock and a seal.
(Meissner, Woodward, & Clayton, 1984) Used the term Hydrocarbon Machine to
describe a petroleum system as a rock sequence containing the elements necessary
for the generation, migration and accumulation of oil and gas.
(Magoon, 1988) Stated that a petroleum system should emphasize on the genetic
relationship between the source rock and the resulting petroleum accumulation.
Using contributions from previous work, and inserting new words where required,
(Magoon, Dow, & Geologists, 1994) recently and conclusively defined a petroleum
system as a natural phenomenon that encompasses a pod of source rock, all related
oil and gas produced, and the elements and processes required to ensure
hydrocarbon accumulation. The elements and processes are required to be present
at a particular space and time to ensure hydrocarbon generation and accumulation.
This time frame is referred to as The Critical Time.
The Total Petroleum System can therefore be defined as the combination of
essential elements and processes, as well as all genetically related petroleum that
occur in seeps, shows, and accumulations, both discovered and undiscovered,
whose origin is a pod or closely related pods of active source rock (Magoon &
Schmoker, 2000).
The essential elements are listed and expatiated on below:
-

Source Rocks
Reservoir Rocks
Seal Rocks
Overburden Rocks

2.2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM ELEMENTS

2.2.1 SOURCE ROCK
The source rock can be described as a rock formation/structure within which
hydrocarbons can be generated or have been generated (Law, 2000).
Sedimentation involves the progressive accumulation of inorganic minerals, organic
matter, water, etc. Rapid burial, amongst other conditions, results in the
preservation of the organic matter present in the sedimentary rocks. However,
organic matter exposed to the surface experience decomposition due to the
presence of oxygen. The fraction of the organic matter, present within the rock,

12

after biological, physical and chemical decomposition and which is insoluble in

normal petroleum solvents is referred to as Kerogen.
Source rocks are classified based on the quantity of kerogen, quality/type of
kerogen, and the thermal maturity (extent of burial heating) of the kerogen
(Kenneth & Mary, 1994). Source rocks are classified as follows:
-

Inactive source rock: These are source rock which show potential for
hydrocarbon generation but have for some reason ceased production (Baker,
1979).
Active source rock: These are source rock which are generating and expelling
hydrocarbons within the critical time window (Dow, 1977)
Spent oil source rock: These are source rock which have reached the limit of
thermal maturity and are incapable of further hydrocarbon production

.The petroleum potential of a source rock is determined by the composition of its

Kerogen. (Tissot, Durand, & Combaz, 1974) Classified kerogen as Type I, II and III,
while (Demaison, Holck, Jones, & Moore, 1983) subsequently introduced a Type IV
(represented in Figure 5).
The kerogen types are differentiated using the Van Krevelen or H/C
(Hydrogen/Carbon) versus O/C (Oxygen/Carbon) diagram (Figure 4) which were
initially developed to characterize coal (Van Krevelen, 1961). However, (Tissot,
Durand, & Combaz, 1974) extended this principle to include the kerogen spread
within sedimentary rocks.
The Krevelen diagram was modified to feature a plot of Hydrogen Index (HI) versus
Oxygen Index (OI) (Figure 4), which were obtained from experimental analysis
(Rock-Eval pyrolysis and Total Organic Carbon analysis) of the whole rock core
sample. The hydrogen index and oxygen index information are less expensive and
faster to obtain.
The three kerogen types mentioned yield different hydrocarbons. The Type I kerogen
(Sapropelic kerogen) is characterized by generation of oil. They are mainly of algal
origin and the dominant compounds present are Lipids. They have the highest
hydrogen to oxygen ratio of all the kerogen types (Richard, 1998).
The Type II kerogen (Liptinic kerogen) is also of algal decent, however, it also
contains organic matter from zooplankton and phytoplankton. They occupy an
intermediate position with regards to hydrocarbon potential, generating both oil and
gas.
The Type III kerogen (Humic kerogen) are produced from Lignin present in higher
woody plants. They are rich in aromatic compounds, therefore tend predominantly
toward gaseous hydrocarbon potential.
Determination of the properties of a source rock is critical to the modelling of a
petroleum system as expelled oil can be correlated with bitumen residue from its
source rock using inherited biomarkers (fingerprinting). This allows for
reconstruction of deposition conditions of the source rock (Magoon, Dow, &
Geologists, 1994).
13

Figure 4: [A] Atomic H/C versus O/C or van

Krevelen diagram. [B] HI versus OI diagram.
(Kenneth & Mary, 1994)

14

Figure 5: van Krevelen diagram depicting kerogen pathways and coal and sedimentary maceral
groups obtained through the combined use of organic petrography, elemental analysis, and RockEval pyrolysis and Total Organic Content analysis. (Kenneth & Mary, 1994)

15

2.2.2 RESERVOIR ROCK

A reservoir rock is a rock that has the ability to store and transmit hydrocarbons
within the subsurface. It is an important part of the petroleum system as it is the
location of hydrocarbon accumulation at the critical time.
For a rock to be classified as a reservoir rock, it must possess pores, to enable it
store the hydrocarbons, and these pores must be connected to ensure flow of fluids.
Both properties are highly dependent on the compaction of the rock sediments
(Richard, 1998). Therefore, the attributes that determine the viability of a reservoir
rock are porosity and permeability and level of sorting.
There are two basic types of reservoir rocks, they are Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks
and Carbonate Reservoir Rocks.
Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks: These rock type are formed by progressive
sedimentation of sandstone and its aggregate sediments. They owe their
characteristics to the depositional environment in which they are deposited. The
major depositional environments of siliciclastic reservoir rocks are Fluvial, Aeolian,
Lacustrine, and Deltaic environments.
Fluvial depositional environments occur due to the motion of river bodies. River flow
can either be meandering or braided. Meandering flow involves the movement of a
river through a course with a series of bend. With the velocity being highest on the
outer side of the bend, friction causes erosion at the outer end of the bend. Due to
the slow motion in the inner curve of the bend, the collected sediments are
deposited (Figure 6). A braided river occurs when the sediments are two large to be
transported downstream. Therefore, they are deposited along the interconnecting
channels (Figure 6).

16

Figure 6: Model representation of fluvial

deposition. [B] Block representation of a
braided river. [C] Meandering river system.
(David, 1994)

Aeolian reservoirs are formed by the action of wind along the sea coast (Beaches) or
in desert areas. Sand dunes are formed as a direct result of Aeolian activities, where
fine silt particles are carried by low velocity wind and accumulate over a surface
irregularity e.g. a hill (Figure 7a). When wind velocity increases, eddy currents are
formed on the opposite side of the dune, causing accumulation of sand particles
(Figure 7b). Continuous deposition makes the crest of this structure unstable and an
avalanche occurs (Figure 7c). This process continues as long as the wind velocity is
enough to maintain eddy currents, sustaining accumulation and forming a very
good reservoir rock.
Deltaic depositional environment are formed by the progressive deposition of
sediments by a river as it flows into a water body (ocean or lake). The river furcates
forming numerous channels called distributaries (Figure 8). These distributaries are
found mostly along swampy and marshy areas. Deltas are formed by constructive
force (Figure 9a) (accumulation of sediments to form channels) or destructive force
(Figure 9b) (eroding of land mass to form channels).

17

Figure 7: Model for formation of sand dunes. [A]

Sediment deposition by low velocity wind. [B] Eddy
current due to increase in wind velocity causing
sediment accumulation. [C] Avalanche due to crest
instability. (Norman, 2012)

Figure 8: Deltaic depositional environment.

(Norman, 2012)

18

Figure 9: [A] Constructive Delta. [B]

Destructive Delta (Norman, 2012)

Carbonate Reservoir Rocks: These are calcite based rocks which occur through the
digenesis of calcite precipitates or lithification of the secretions of marine plant and
animals. Limestone is a major type of carbonate reservoir rocks, acting as a base for
the formation of other carbonate rock types through its physical or chemical
transformation. Other carbonate rocks include Dolomites, Karst limestone and chalk.
Dolomites are formed by the replacement of Calcium atoms by magnesium atoms
through the leaching of surface limestone by magnesium rich waters. Dolomites are
relatively better reservoir rocks than limestone as they are harder and lose less
porosity under compressive conditions.
Karst limestone is formed as a result of the aggressive dissolving of limestone in
fresh water. This results in the creation of vugs which give karst limestone its high
porosity and permeability.
Chalks are formed by the lithification of undisturbed calcium carbonate-rich
microfossil shells, deposited at the bottom of tropical seas by single celled
organisms (coccolithophores and foraminifera). They have very fine particles,
therefore giving them high porosity but very little permeability (aside for when
naturally fractured).

2.2.3 SEAL ROCKS

A seal rock can be defined a rock which has very little pores and pore connectivity
to allow the passage or migration of hydrocarbon through them. The importance of
seal rocks cannot be overemphasized as the extent of a seal rock layer determines

19

the limit of the petroleum system. The most common seal rocks are shale, however,
evaporites (salts) are the most effective.

2.2.4 HYDROCARBON TRAPS

A hydrocarbon trap can be defined as a geometric arrangement of rocks that allows
for significant accumulation of hydrocarbons in the subsurface with other elements
in place at the critical time (modified from (Kevin & Charles, 1994)). The volume of
hydrocarbons accumulated in a place depends greatly on the trap size and type.

2.3 PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF THE BENUE TROUGH

The origin and tectonic evolution of the Benue trough has been shown to be
strongly related to rifting and basin inversion due to compressive activities (Olade,
1975). Rifted zones have consistently shown signs of high thermal gradients and are
locations for large hydrocarbon accumulation. (Klemme, 1980) Has highlighted that
35% of basin with rifted origin contain large oil fields. The sediment thickness of the
Benue trough is over 4000m (Benkhelil, Guiraud, Posard, & Saugy, 1989), greater
than the minimum required overburden thickness of 1000m (Hunt, 1996). These
tectonic and stratigraphic evidence, coupled with the discovery of hydrocarbons in
the neighboring Niger, Chad and Sudan basins, the discovery of an accumulation of
about 33BCF of gas reserves in the Kolamani River-1 well (Abubakar, Dike, Obaje,
Wehner, & Jauro, 2008) and the discovery of oil and gas in exploratory wells within
the Anambra basin (Nwajide, 2005), give reason to conclude on the presence of a
petroleum system within the Benue trough.
The Benue trough is a part of the West African Rift Sub-system (WARS). (Genik,
1993) Provided a model for the tectonic framework of the basins within the West
and Central African Rift sub-system (WCARS) (Figure 9) and also identified three
petroleum systems within the sub-system. The identified petroleum systems are:
-

Lower Cretaceous Petroleum System

Upper Cretaceous Petroleum System
Palaeogene Petroleum System

These petroleum systems represent the three most significant rift phases
experienced by WCARS. Therefore, they provide a boundary to enable us categorize
the petroleum system of the basins (Abubakar, 2014).
Adopting (Abubakar, 2014) approach to defining the petroleum system of the Benue
trough, we categorize the geological sections of the Benue trough under each of the
three petroleum systems.
Due to the large scope of the Benue trough, which encompasses numerous basin
units over its three divisions, this paper will concentrate on the petroleum systems
in relation to the Anambra basin.

20

2.3.1 THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF THE ANAMBRA BASIN

The Upper Cretaceous Petroleum System is the most feasible petroleum systems in
the Anambra basin (Nwajide, 2005). The Upper Cretaceous can also be sub-divided
into the Pre-Santonian Sub-systems and the Post-Santonian Sub-systems.

2.3.2 SOURCE ROCKS

In the Pre-Santonian Sub-system, the Ezeaku and Agwu formations are identified
as the potential source rocks. Organic matter preservation is as a result of presantonian tectonic activities facilitating rapid burial through compression, folding
and faulting of the sediments with minimal deposition.
Average TOC values obtained for the Ezeaku and Agwu Formations in the preSantonian [Table 1], are far above the standard 0.5 wt. %. The most promising being
the Lokpanta member of the Ezeaku formation (Oil Shale) with a TOC range of 3-10
wt. %. This indicates that the pre-Santonian formations have adequate organic
matter quantity for hydrocarbon generation.
Despite the high Hydrogen Index range, majority of the Ezeaku and Agwu samples
fall within the Hydrogen index range of 50 HI < 150 mg HC/g TOC (Abubakar,
2014). This indicates predominance of Type III Organic Mater or Humic Kerogen,
therefore, falling into the gas generation zone on the van Krevelen Diagram.
Anomalously, the Lokpanta member of the Ezeaku displayed a minimum value of
200 mg HC/g TOC, placing it under the Type II or Liptinic Kerogen zone of the van
Krevelen Diagram, with tendencies of both oil and gas generation.

Formation
sample

PreSantonian
Ezeaku and
Agwu
Lokpanta
(Ezeaku)
PostSantonian
Nkporo/Enug
u
Coaly Shale
Mamu coal
Nsukka

TOC
range
(wt. %)

Averag
e TOC
(wt. %

Hydrogen
Index
range
(mg HC/g
TOC)

Average
Hydrogen
Index
(HC/g
TOC)

Tmax
Range
(C)

Average
Tmax (C)

0.337.28
3-10

2.52

38-587

177

426-437

431

200-600

450-600

0.313.51
0.826.10
30.8060.80
0.500.82

1.86

7-327

68

420-443

430

2.78

24-306

130

407-433

428

40.03

266-327

297

407-433

428

0.80

31-63

45

421-431

428

21

Table 1: Result from TOC analysis and Rock-Eval Pyrolysis (Obaje, Ulu, & Petters, 1999)

(Ehinola, Sonibare, Falode, & Awofala, 2005) (Akaegbobi, Amaichi, & Boboye, 2009)
(Nwajide, 2005)

22

Figure 9: Tectonic frame work of the West and Central African Sub-System (WCARS) (modified
from (Abubakar, 2014))

23

Figure 10: Micro-tectonic representation of

the structural setting in the Early
Cretaceous phase in the Upper Benue
Trough (Guiraud, 1990).

24

Figure 11:
Potential
Petroleum
System in the
Anambra Basin

25

26

Figure 12: Subsurface

stratigraphy showing
relative disposition of
potential source,
reservoir and seal rocks
in the Anambra Basin.
(Nwajide, 2005)

The temperature values obtained depicted immaturity of majority of samples from

both formations. However, (Unomah & Ekweozor, 1993) suggested that the
formations were exposed to temperatures in excess of 150C prior to the MidSantonian tectonic activities. Therefore, hydrocarbon production must have
occurred prior to the halting event.
27

In the Post-Santonian Sub-system, the identified source rocks are Nkporo/Enugu

Formations, Coaly Shale Formation, Mamu Coal and Nsukka Formations. The TOC
analysis results of core samples [Table 1] support the presence of enough organic
matter for hydrocarbon production and classification as source rocks.
The Anambra basin collapsed prior to the post-santonian period, causing a shift in
the depositional axis of the sediments and leading to the third transgression period
experienced by the basin. These actions ensure the increase in depth and
continuous burial of source rock sediments, therefore preserving the organic matter
available in the basin.
The Hydrogen Index values obtained [Table 1] show high accumulations of Vitrinite
and Huminite, in the Nsukka and Mumu coal formations. These properties point to
the Type III hydrocarbon potential, with minor traces of Type II. (Abubakar, 2014)
Concluded that majority of the post-santonian formations are immature, excluding
some Nkporo/Enugu formations which showed marginal maturity.

2.3.4 RESERVOIR ROCKS

The reservoir rocks within the Anambra basin are siliciclastic in nature. They are
sandstone deposits obtained from the shales within the formations [figure 11].
(Nwajide, 2005) Highlighted that the sedimentation process in the Anambra basin
was as a result of land erosion, resulting in a deep sedimentary layer over 3000m.
The proposed reservoir rocks for both sub-systems are the sandy members within
the Awgu Formation (e.g. the Coniacian Agbani Sandstone Member), the sandstones
of the Nkporo/Enugu Formations (e.g. the Campanian Owelli and Otobi Sandstone
Members), the sandy horizons in the Mamu Formation, the Ajali Sandstone, the
sandy horizons of the Nsukka Formation and the sandstones of the Imo Formation
(e.g. the Palaeocene Ebenebe Sandstone Member).

2.3.5 SEAL ROCK

In the Pre-Santonian Sub-system, the seal rock is the basal part of the
Nkporo/Enugu shale formation. With relatively low permeability the Nkporo shale
may act as a seal/cap rock for the underlying source rock
In the Post-Santonian Sub-system, Shales present in the Imo formation may act
as seal rocks. Also, the overlapping source rock mentioned for this sub-system
(Nkporo/Enugu Formations, Coaly Shale Formation, Mamu Coal and Nsukka
Formations) may also act as seal rocks relative to the stratigraphic position of the
intended reservoir rock.

2.3.5 MIGRATION PATHWAYS

The migration pathways of hydrocarbons in the Anambra basin is a topic least
approached directly with regards to shale properties. Therefore very little data is
available with direct mapping of the migration pathways within the Anambra basin.
(Celestine & Tochuckwu, 2012) Attempted to broach this issue by categorizing the
shales within the basin using their Plasticity Index and Toughness index. The values
obtained [Table 2] show that the Nkporo/Enugu shales are the most brittle making
them the most susceptible to faulting and joint creasing which are major pathways
28

for hydrocarbon migration. The results obtained for the Nsukka and Imo shales
showed high ductile stress preventing leakage of hydrocarbons, therefore
identifying them as the possible seal/cap rock in the basin.

Formation

PI range

TI range

16-24

PI
average
20

0.4-0.8

TI
average
0.7

Nkporo/En
ugu
Nsukka
Imo

62-72
34-69

67
46

0.8-1.7
1.5-2.2

1.3
1.9

29

(Uma &
Table 2: Result from Plasticity Index and Toughness Index for Anambra basin formation samples
Onuoha,
(Celestine & Tochuckwu, 2012)
1997) Used
the
pressure data from exploration wells (above 2000m) to determine the hydraulic fluid
potential data around the basin area. However, this was done in relation to water
bore holes ranging from 60-300m. Although three hydraulic systems were identified,
with the central system having the largest pressure gradient, there was no direct
correlation between the results and the hydraulic hydrocarbon potential.

2.3.6 PETROLEUM TRAPS

The tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of the Anambra basin allow us propose the
presence of both stratigraphic and structural traps.
Minor fold and faults are formed within the early Cenomanian and late Santonian
era due to compressive deformation. The progressive deposition of sediments, up to
the transgression experienced in the Post-Santonian era promotes the possibility of
growth faults along the southern direction (Yahaya, 2005) (Whiteman, 1982).
(Nwajide, 2005) Also observed the presence of anticlines, faults, unconformities and
combinations traps within the Anambra basin, attributing their presence to the
tectonic event in the mid-santonian era. (Abubakar, 2014) Also suggested the
presence of pinch-out, buried channels and hills as stratigraphic traps due to the
repetitive transgression and regression episodes in the basin.

2.3.7 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION

Exploration activities have been active since the early 1950s. However, results have
not been as positive as those in the Niger Delta. Oil was first discovered in the basin
in 1967 by now Elf Petroleum Nigeria. However, no sightings have been made after
the initial discovery. Drilling activities are highly expensive, therefore more time is
currently being devoted to exploration.Exploratory wells have been dug, with
(Onuoha, 2005) producing a comprehensive list [Table 3]. However, these have not
yielded enough positive results to facilitate production activities.

Well
Aiddo
Ajire
Akukwa-1
Akukwa-2
Alade-1
Alo-1
Amansiodo-1
Anambra River-1
Anambra River-2

Total Depth (m)

3214
2257
2403
3655
3055
2667
3433
3433
2179

Results
Dry
Dry
Dry
Gas shows
Dry
Gas Discoveries
Gas Discoveries
Oil, Gas Discoveries
Gas shows

Anambra River-3
Igbariam-1

2430
3322

Ihandiagu-1
Iji-1
Nzam-1
Oda River-1
Okpo-1

2524
3003
3672
2400
2431

Dry
Gas discoveries (well
suspended)
Gas discovery
Dry
Gas shows
Dry
Dry

Table 3: Exploratory wells in the

Anambra Basin (Onuoha, 2005)

2.3.8 EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES

The most recent and largest aeromagnetic data was carried out by Fugro Airborne
Survey funded by the Nigerian Government and the World Bank. The survey
provided both magnetic and radiometric data with a Tie-line distance of 500m,
Flight line spacing of 100m and a Terrain clearance of 80m, making it the most
intensive data available at the moment.
(Adetona & Abbass, 2013) Subjected available data to Vertical and Horizontal
Derivatives, Analytical Signal and CET grid analysis. Profile and Map analysis were
used to achieve the above mention tools. Results showed the presence of shallow
intrusive magnetic bodies surrounded by deep lying magnetic rocks depicting areas
of sedimentation.
No conclusive data was found with regards to the use of the survey data in the
detection of hydrocarbon potential in the Anambra basin.
Exploration activities carried out on the Anambra Basin has been restricted to
Aeromagnetic data. A reason for this will be the high cost required to carry out
seismic exploration activities and the data at hand do not show enough potential to
facilitate the risk.

2.3.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION AND

PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
There are currently no production activities in the Anambra basin. There have been
a series of exploratory wells drilled, however there was no information on well
currently being drilled. Therefore petroleum exploration possess very little threat to
the surrounding environment of the Anambra basin. However, the possibility of
future activities cannot be overlooked, therefore we consider the possible
environmental effects of petroleum production and exploration, in relation to the
activities of the juxtaposed Niger-Delta. The major environmental effects are shown
below:
Gas flaring: The flaring of natural gas is a common practice in the Delta zone of
Nigeria. Millions of cubic feet of natural gas are flared because it is a cheaper

solution to separation of gas volumes obtained from oil wells. The burning of this
gas releases methane, accompanied by a conglomerate of carcinogens, into the
atmosphere causing severe pollution and depletion of the ozone layer. Legislations
have been set to restrict these actions, however the lax nature of the Nigerian
government and high level of corruption has seen little or no decrease in flaring
activities.
Oil Spillage: This is the intentional or accidental release of crude oil liquids to the
environment. The environment encompasses both land and water bodies. It has
been reported that over 13 million barrels of oil have been spilled since the
beginning of the oil boom in the Niger-delta, with over 7000 spill cases. Spillages
take months to years to clean up and its effects are felt for a longer time.

3.0 CONCLUSION
The Benue Trough is a major component of the West African Rift System with its
origin from the separation of Africa from South America. It can be divided
geographically into three sections, lower, middle and upper benue trough, each with
its own unique attributes.
The tectonic evolution of the Benue trough began mainly in the Albian age, with
tectonic activities trending Northeast with increasing age.

Due to the size of the scope, the consideration of its petroleum system was confined
to the Anambra Basin, which is the southern lying part or the lower Benue trough.
Five shale formations were identified with varying source rock potential. There was a
predominance of the Type II and Type III organic matter with varying maturity,
showing trends of majorly gas generation.
Seeing that most of the actions of the tectonic phases were terrigenous, most of the
reservoir rocks are related sands of the surrounding source rocks. The stratigraphic
nature of the basin opened the possibility of overlapping shale to act as both source
rock and seal rocks. The major seal rocks were identified as the Nsukka formation
and Imo formation.
Migration paths were greatly inconclusive however the properties of particular shale
formations show the potential for upward migration of produced hydrocarbons.
With no production activities and little viable exploration done, analysis of the
Anambra basin is based on small scale practices, which show good prospects.
Therefore, I believe that advanced exploration method should be considered,
seismic specifically, by the government. This will facilitate the interest of
multinational companies and is what is required to spark up the petroleum activities
in this region.

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