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CREATIVITY RESEARCH JOURNAL, 26(3), 338352, 2014
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1040-0419 print=1532-6934 online
DOI: 10.1080/10400419.2014.929424
Creativity.4in1: Four-Criterion Construct of Creativity

Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin
Downloaded by [Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin] at 02:37 10 August 2014
American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
The purpose of this theoretical article is to provide an extended denition of creativity

that embraces potential cross-cultural variations in this construct. Creativity is dened
as a 4-criterion construct, which includes attributes of novelty, utility, aesthetics, and
authenticity. Novelty attribute stipulates that a creative work brings something new into
being, which presents a new conceptual framework and=or modies or violates an existing one. Utility attribute stipulates that a creative work is what a producer or a recipient
considers creative, what represents an important landmark in spiritual, cultural, social,
and=or political environment, and what addresses moral issues. The aesthetics attribute
stipulates that a creative work presents the fundamental truth of nature, which is
reected in a perfect order, efciently presents the essence of the phenomenal reality,
and is satisfactorily complex, expressing both tension and intrinsic contradiction. Authenticity attribute stipulates that a creative work expresses an individuals inner self and
relates ones own values and believes to the world. These attributes establish a comparison matrix, which can be used to evaluate and compare the levels of creativity of works
from different areas of human endeavor.
Current creativity research lacks common framework

of creativity, and the tests employed in this research
provide mixed assessments with no strong correlation
among each other. For example, Guilford (1967)
assumed that divergent thinking is linked to creative
behavior. Personality psychologists, likewise, suggested
that some personality traits are linked to creative behavior. Others claimed that individuals attitudes and
intentions or their past experiences are related to
creative behavior. Each of these approaches uses its
own strategy of creativity assessment. Hocevar (1981)
listed 10 different types of creativity measurement: tests
of divergent thinking, attitude and interest inventories,
personality inventories, biographical inventories, teacher
nominations, peer nominations, supervisor ratings,
judgments of products, eminence and self-reported
creative activities and achievements (p. 450). All of them
were employed to identify creative talent. Therefore, as
Hocevar noted, Since each method is purported to be
measuring creativity, it is reasonable to predict that they
be correlated, thus satisfying a minimum condition of
Correspondence should be sent to Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin,
Department of International Studies, American University of Sharjah,
P.O. Box 26666, Sharjah, UAE. E-mail: akharkhurin@aus.edu
convergent validity (p. 457). However, a relatively

weak corelation among these tests provided no convincing evidence of convergent validity. Further, Mayer
(1999) identied at least ve points on which researchers
may differ in their approach to creativity: whether
creativity refers to a product, process, or person;
whether creativity is personal or social; whether creativity is common or rare; whether creativity is domaingeneral or domain-specic; and whether creativity is
quantitative or qualitative (p. 450). These considerations prompted Kaufmann (2003) to make a rather
bitter conclusion that the eld of creativity research
was declared somewhat of a scientic disaster area
(p. 235). In his view, the major problem of this research
is the considerable fragmentation that characterizes the
eld of creativity, both on the level of theory, measurement and empirical research, as well as the difculty in
pointing to core ideas and research ndings (p. 235).
One of the reasons for this discrepancy seems to stem
from the denition of the construct itself.
Traditionally, creativity is perceived as a twocriterion construct that characterizes creative products
as novel (i.e., original or unexpected) and appropriate
(i.e., useful or meeting task constraints). The hints to
denition of creativity along these two dimensions can
CREATIVITY.4IN1
be found in literature of 19th and early 20th century (see

Runco & Jaeger, 2012, for a discussion). The rst
explicit denition that emphasizes these two characteristics was given by Stein (1953): The creative work is
a novel work that is accepted as tenable or useful or
satisfying by a group in some point in time (p. 311).
The inaugural editorial of the Creativity Research Journal also emphasized these two criteria: Originality is
vital, but must be balanced with t and appropriateness (Runco, 1988, p. 4). Martindale (1989) characterized a creative idea with the same characteristics: It
must be original, it must be useful or appropriate to
the situation in which it occurs, and it must actually
be put to some use (p. 211). Contemporary creativity
research considers novelty and utility as two dening
features of the construct. Mayer (1999) summarized
the denitions of creativity provided by contemporary
researchers in Handbook of Creativity (Sternberg,
1999). He revealed that most of them identify novelty
and utility as key creativity features. However, reducing
creativity to the features of novelty and utility seems to
devalue the rich constellation of meanings to which this
construct refers. As Kaufmann (2003) radically asserted,
The lax denition of creativity as novel and useful is,
indeed, revealed to be a quick and dirty approach that
leaves the door open for all sorts of differing approaches
to the scientic study of the eld (p. 247).
A number of attempts have been made to expand the
denition of creativity. For example, more recent
researchers considered three criteria that echo the standard used by the US Patent Ofce, namely, novelty, usefulness, and nonobviousness (United States Patent and
Trademark Ofce, 2011; see Simonton, 2012, for discussion). Boden (2004) also characterized creativity with
three criteria: novel, valuable, and surprising (cf.
Bruner, 1962). Piffer (2012) proposed a model in which
classical characteristicsnovelty and utilityare complimented with another one, the impact. In a similar
fashion, Sternberg and Lubart (1995) asserted that to
be creative, one needs to generate ideas that are relatively novel, appropriate, and of high quality (p. 6).
All these denitions share one common epistemological orientation: They focus on novelty and the pragmatic aspects of problem solving, which appears to
reect a Western concept of creativity. In contrast,
Eastern cultures emphasize inner growth, personal fullment, and aesthetic aspects of creative problem solving
(Lubart, 1999; Raina, 1999; Westwood & Low, 2003).
This article makes an attempt to account for different
cultural perspectives and provides a theoretical framework combining both Western and Eastern orientations.
There is no doubt in cross-cultural differences in perception of creativity (e.g., Averill, Chon, & Hahn, 2001;
Kharkhurin & Samadpour Motalleebi, 2008; Li, 1997;
Niu & Sternberg, 2006). Likewise, perception,
339
production, and assessment of creativity can be domain

specic (see Baer, 2012, for a discussion). Nevertheless,
this article argues that criteria of novelty and utility pervasive in the Western tradition should be complimented
with criteria of aesthetics and authenticity typical for
the Eastern perspective. Together, these four criteria
construct a generic four-dimensional space, in which
creative works from different domains and cultural
perspectives can be assessed and compared. The
objective of this work is to lay theoretical foundation
for combining Western and Eastern views on creativity,
to discuss four evaluation criteria of creative endeavor,
and to provide a speculative account of how these
criteria can be assessed in creativity research.
WESTERN AND EASTERN PERSPECTIVES

ON CREATIVITY
Literature distinguishes between the West and the East
with respect to individualism and collectivism (Triandis,
1975, 1977) or with respect to an independent and
interdependent perspective (Markus & Kitayama,
1991). This distinction is grounded upon the degree of
subordination of an individuals personal goals to the
goals of some collective (Triandis, Leung, Villareal, &
Clack, 1985). It manifests itself in different perceptions
of creativity. The Western individualistic ideology
considers nonstandard ways of thinking as a virtue of
creative behavior, whereas creative endeavor in the
Eastern, more collectivist cultures would constitute an
adherence to sociocultural norms and traditions. The
Western view of creativity emphasizes individual characteristics, which facilitate the unique, creative endeavor
of a person. In contrast, the Eastern perspective considers the social and moral values of creative engagement,
often in relation to society. For example, according to
the Book of Changes, yin and yangfemale and male
complementary principlesare an ultimate origin of
everything. The endless change and interaction of yin
and yang represent dao, which creates the world (Chan,
1967). The nature of dao is goodness, including moral
goodness (Lao-Tzu, 1992). According to Confucian
philosophy, because dao is good, the created universe
is inherently good, and hence, a person born to this
universe is also inherently good. Then it follows that
creative activity always embraces goodness, and this,
rather than novelty, should be the emphasis of creative
achievement (Lao, 1983). In Confucian classics,
a creative act that simply brings forth something new
was not considered as a valued example of creativity if
it lacks goodness. Such goodness also directs toward
a collective being or contribution to the whole society.
Confucianism prescribes to creative individuals not only
to satisfy their own needs as human beings, but also to
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KHARKHURIN
devote themselves to other people and the interests of

society as a whole (Niu & Sternberg, 2006). The historical and philosophical emphases on collective interest
encourage the Chinese to follow the crowd rather than
to defy the crowd (cf. Sternberg & Lubart, 1995). In general, the latter element is missing from the Eastern
notion of creativity. For example, in the context of
Iranian society, defying the crowd may be seen as less
valuable than making contributions to the society, and
sometimes defying the crowd may even be seen as
strange, rather than as creative (Kharkhurin &
Samadpour Motalleebi, 2008). These considerations
put forward an important conclusion: A dening feature
of the Western concept of creativitynoveltyis not
necessarily embraced by the Eastern one.
These observations suggest that originality in thinking is largely adopted within Western ideals and less
pervasive in the Eastern frame of thought. No doubt,
creative activity is inherent to human nature and, therefore, it earns recognition in all areas of human enterprise
across all cultures. However, the manifestation of creative potential might differ in various cultural groups.
Li (1997) distinguished between horizontal and vertical
traditions in the production of art. According to the former (typical for Western cultures), the symbols, methods, and aims of art are subject to modication and
even radical change. In contrast, the latter tradition
(more characteristic of Eastern cultures) constrains both
the content and the techniques of the artistic work, and
places more emphasis on the aesthetic values of the
product. For example, traditional Western poetics
encourages innovation in the poetic technique, verse
meter, and word use, whereas traditional Eastern poetics
prescribes a set of strict regulations regarding the form
and even the theme. Western poetics delivered a range
of rhythmic structures of a verse and a number of lines
in verse starting from the Classical Greek meter (such as
dactylic that uses verses of six feet), through Classical
French meter (such as alexandrine, composed of two
hemistiches of six syllables each), to contemporary free
verse poetry, and even further to visual poetry that
abandons any canons of poetics and integrates nonverbal elements into a poetic text. A traditional Japanese
haiku, by contrast, retained its form and theme through
the history: three lines containing ve, seven, and ve
syllables respectively, and a seasonal reference. In both
cases, the product is considered to be creative, but if
the former encourages novelty and originality, the latter
assumes the conformity to the standard. In the same
fashion, one may think about exemplars in contemporary Western art, which focuses solely on novelty and
radical rejection of existing paradigm (see discussion
of this approach in the following). The modication
and rejection of existing ideas is contrasted in Confucian
aesthetics of creativity by breathing in a new essence
into existing ideas to reect an individuals own values

and beliefs (Tu, 1985). In traditional Arabic calligraphy
or Chinese brush painting, the old ideas are to be
smoothly modied to t new circumstances. Here, an
artists authentic perception becomes a creative tool that
captures the spirit of the object portrayed. Instead of
trying to establish a unique phenomenon by breaking
up with old traditions, a person cultivates ones authentic approach, which can be applied to both old and
new (Averill et al., 2001).
Thus, the Western creative tradition places more
emphasis on novelty and originality in thinking. In
contrast, in a manifestation of creative abilities in the
Eastern tradition aesthetics, goodness, and authenticity
rather than originality play a pervasive role. These considerations suggest that creativity should be perceived as
a multidimensional construct. Reducing this construct
to one trait drives creativity research into an epistemological cul-de-sac, which has no way out. Trapped in this
dead end, a growing number of studies showing the
superior creative performance of the Western participants compared with their Eastern counterparts
(e.g., Jaquish & Ripple, 1985; Jellen & Urban, 1989;
Kharkhurin & Samadpour Motalleebi, 2008; Niu &
Sternberg, 2001; but see Niu & Sternberg, 2002, for a
literature review showing opposite effect) could fall a
victim to this conceptual aw. These performance
differences could be attributed to the distinction in the
perception of the concept of creativity per se in these
two cultural groups. A related issue is concerned with
assessment techniques developed in creativity research.
Most of the creativity tests adopted a Western,
culture-specic denition of creativity, which emphasizes originality in thinking. Therefore, they are biased
toward typical Western creative behavior and disregard
creative principles inherent to non-Western cultural
groups.
A logical conclusion of this discussion calls for a careful denition of creativity that includes different culture
specic perspectives on the goals, tasks, and aesthetic
values of creative endeavor. To answer this call, the
article combines the typical Western and Eastern
properties of creative enterprise. Creativity, therefore,
is presented as a four-criterion construct that includes
novelty, utility, aesthetics, and authenticity. These characteristics are discussed in the rest of this article.
NOVELTY
The focal feature of most standard denitions of creativity refers to novelty and its closely related property of
originality (Kaufmann, 2003; Lubart, 1994; Ochse, 1990).
Empirical research assumes originality as an important
trait of creative behavior (e.g., Sternberg & Lubart,
CREATIVITY.4IN1
1995). Originality constitutes one of Guilfords (1967)

four divergent thinking traits. Goff and Torrances
(2002) divergent thinking procedure identies originality
as the ability to produce ideas that are generally not
produced, or ideas that are totally new and unique
(p. 6). People are considered to be creative if they
produce ideas that are different from those of others.
Solutions that deviate from a standard set of possible
answers are regarded as creative. In the invented alien
creature studies (cf. Ward, 1994), a creature that is constructed using fewer standard categories (invariants) was
perceived by the independent raters as more creative.
Some people regard a person or a product as creative
if they violate traditional rules or introduce a new paradigm deviating from a norm. For example, an artist or a
musician is proclaimed creative when their style reveals
novel and unique elements that were never encountered
before. Niu and Sternberg (2001) perceived creativity as
something contrasting with conformity . . . that breaks
out of a mould and is surprising in light of what was
known at the time of the discovery (p. 226). This property implies that creative acts should involve the production of something new, both ideas as well as
concrete objects. Some of them take a more radical position and claim that to consider an act as creative,
novelty should be complimented by a modication or
rejection of previously accepted ideas (Kaufmann,
2003; Newell, Shaw, & Simon, 1979).
In this regard, one may think about exemplars in contemporary Western art, which focuses solely on novelty
and on a radical rejection of existing paradigms. Many
20th-century artists purposely moved away from the
artiness in their work and utilized mundane materials
from everyday life. Their intent was to establish an
antithesis to traditional perception of art. For example,
Dadaists concentrated their program on a rejection of
the prevailing standards in art through antiart works
in visual arts, literature, theatre, and graphic design
(Richter, 1965). Marcel Duchampa French artist
whose work is most often associated with the Dadaist
and Surrealist movementssubmitted a urinal (entitled
Fountain) to the Society of Independent Artists exhibit
in 1917. This was an exemplar of what he called readymade or found art, a technique in which an existing
object or objects are exhibited in their normative
appearance with the least involvement of an artist. The
idea of removing mundane objects from their context
and installing them in the museum was further elaborated by Pablo Picasso, in the Fluxus movement and
Pop Art, and by surrealists who dened readymades as
manufactured objects promoted to the dignity of
works of art through the choice of the artist (Breton,
1935, p. 88). German artist Joseph Beuys exhibited
modied found objects, such as rocks with a hole in
them stuffed with fur and fat, a van with sledges trailing
341
behind it, and a rusty girder. The purpose of his work

was to initiate a controversy over what should be
considered as art. These examples illustrate an aspect
of creative performance, which values rejection of an
existing paradigm to establish a new framework, thereby
securing the novelty.
Thus, in line with the standard denition of creativity, the rst criterion of creative work constitutes
novelty functionthe production of new, original work
that may or may not include modication or rejection of
existing paradigm.
UTILITY
The utility attribute of creativity is less clearly articulated in scientic literature. The denitions summarized
by Mayer (1999) described a creative work as valuable,
appropriate, useful, signicant, and adaptive (meeting
task constraints); that is, this work can be put to some
use (see also Runco & Jaeger, 2012). However, these
denitions provide limited account to how this characteristic of creative work can be identied and assessed.
The utilitarian characteristic of creative work can be
easily identied in scientic and business context when
a product of creative endeavor makes a measurable
theoretical or practical contribution. For example,
Einsteins (1920) theory of relativity advanced science
on the notion of gravitation and the structure of
space-time. An obvious utility of this discovery was that
it superseded a 200-year-old theory of mechanics elucidated by Isaac Newton and laid the foundations for a
new research paradigm in physics and astronomy. In
the same fashion, the utility of Google, Inc., established
by Brin and Page, is obvious to every Internet user at the
turn of the 21st century. Identifying the utility of a creative work in humanities seems to be more intricate.
Note that this work cannot be put to some practical
use for its primary value is not utilitarian per se. In line
with the objective of this article, the utility function of a
creative work is perceived from four mutually complimenting standpoints: from the individual, sociocultural,
temporal, and moral perspectives, respectively.
First, a creative work is what an author considers as
creative. Recall Bretons (1935) claim that a work of art
gains its status when the artists perceives it as such; that
is, the signicance of the creative work is in the eye of
the creator. This seems to be a rather subjective perspective, which annihilates any objective evaluation criteria of
the relevance of the creative work. It ascribes the
evaluative power to individuals whose objectivity should
be questioned, given their emotional attachment to the
product of their own creative endeavor. On the other side,
an individuals intrinsic creative effort could be the only
valuable criterion of a creative work. This relates the util-
342
KHARKHURIN
ity attribute to another property of creativity described in

the following, namely authenticity. The authentic engagement in a creative process makes the outcome creative.
This consideration brings to a common denominator the
creative enterprise of, for instance, the eminent Russian
artist Kazimir Malevichthe author of famous Black
Squareand someone enthused to cook brownies for dinner. Both of themby means of their commitment to the
activity, which each of them considers creativecan be
said to produce creative work that satises the criteria
of utility. As an ironic remark, the latter work would be
considered of greater value to the majority of lay people
who have little understanding of art.
Second, a creative work is what others consider as creative. Scharer (2009) suggested that art is all that is understood as such, regardless of the professional preparedness
of the beholder. He refers to the Brockhaus Encyclopedias (2006) denition of art, which emphasizes that this
is a work that is perceived by a viewer for its aesthetic
value. Two important considerations regarding the utility
of creative work can be inferred from this denition.
An appropriate creative work is the one considered by
others as creative. As soon as the piece of fat is perceived
not as a blunder of negligent cleaner but as a creative
effort of Joseph Beuys, it becomes die Fettecke (The Fat
Corner), a famous piece of art (Am Ende, 1987). In this
regard, the context plays an important role in suggesting
the appropriateness of the creative work. An object
placed in the context of the museum is tacitly perceived
as a piece of art. A poem published in literary magazine
is considered as creative, even it is a computer generated
poem (unless of course, its authorship is explicitly stated).
Social recognition represents a viable aspect of creativity (Cskszentmihalyi, 1988). The capricious opinion
of public judgment claims many victims in arts and
science (Koestler, 1964). The case of Italian astronomer
Giordano Bruno serves as the most striking example: his
theory of the innity of the universe was not only
rejected by society, he was also accused of heresy and
burned at the stake. Another dramatic example of
rejection and condemning by society is the Russian poet
and Nobel Prize winner Joseph Brodsky, who was
sentenced to exile and expelled from the Soviet Union.
The Eastern tradition considers goodness a dening
attribute of creativity (Niu & Sternberg, 2006). It comprises not only moral values, but also social values,
a contribution to collective being. The utility function of
creative work therefore stipulates usefulness to a collective
and the recognition of this virtue by the collective.
Another consideration stemming from the Brockhauss
denition relates the appropriateness of creative work
to its aesthetic value. The utility of creative work is
stipulated by the aesthetic reaction of the beholder,
which places this work in an appropriate context (see
discussion in the following).
Third, as the artistic director of the 53rd Venice

Biennale noted, a work of art is an expression of a world
or a worldview (Birnbaum, 2009). According to this perspective, a creative work should reect spiritual, cultural, social, and political atmosphere of the time
period in which a creative person works. The adaptive
aspect of creative utility refers to the ability of a creative
work to meet the task constraints. These constraints can
be relatively clearly dened in a scientic and business
context. Using the previous examples, the task constraints for Einsteins discovery were set up by the lows
of physics; Googles task was to streamline a rapidly
growing vast amount of data presented on the Internet.
The rules and regulations in artistic creativity that can
potentially serve as the task constraints seem to be
rather vague. What constraints do Rembrandts Night
Watch, Malevichs Black Square, and Warhols
Campbells Soup Cans have in common, besides the fact
that all of them were oil painted? Nevertheless, all three
works were recognized as master pieces of artistic creativity. Can one identify a common task that these works
have accomplished? In spite of great controversies that
erupted around the value of these works, all of them
met a task constraint identied by Birnbaum: The artists
reected the political, social, and=or cultural perspectives on the environment in which they resided, each
in their respective time period.
Night Watch (or The Company of Frans Banning Cocq
and Willem van Ruytenburch) depicts a militia unit
marching off to guard the streets of Amsterdam. Citizen
militia (or civic guard, schutterij in Dutch) in the medieval and early modern Netherlands were formed to protect towns or cities from attack and to act in case of
revolt or re. The civic guards were respectable community members providing defensive military support
for the local civic authority. The painting was completed
in 1642, during the last years of the Eighty Years War
(15681648), which resulted in Dutch independence.
Rembrandt, therefore, portrayed an important symbol
of that epoch: civic guards protecting citizens of the
independent Netherlands.
Black Square (1915) reected the essence of the
Suprematism movement originated by Malevich, which
represented an important transformation in the
artistic consciousness at the beginning of the 20th century. The modern art, as well as literature and music,
of that period realized that the established traditions
were unviable and had led to a developmental cul-desac. To overcome the limitations of the existing
forms, Suprematism proposed an extreme reduction of
meaning. The purpose was to construct images that
had no reference to reality, no connection with the real
world. The depiction of real objects yielded to abstract
paintings that combined fundamental geometric forms,
in particular, a square and a circle. Thereby, a
CREATIVITY.4IN1
traditional perception of a work of art by the conscious

mind has been annihilated and substituted by expression
of intrinsic experience of both an artist and a beholder
(Malevich, 1926=2003). This development in artistic
expression came about when Russia was in a revolutionary state: new ideas were fermented and the old order
was being swept away. Therefore, the Black Square,
along with other suprematist works by the artist, manifested a new era in both the artistic mind and social and
political environment of the country.
Warhol exhibited his Campbells Soup Cans in 1962
when the US art scene was dominated by the abstract
expressionist art movement with its ne art values and
aesthetics. This work ushered in pop art as a major art
movement in the United States of America. The combination of the semimechanized process in art production,
the non-painterly style, and the commercial subject of
pop art presented a direct affront to the technique and
philosophy of existing expressionistic paradigm. In his
work, Warhol expressed his view of modern culture as
being dominated by blatantly mundane commercialism.
By presenting eminently recognizable pop culture items,
he ridiculed the modern era of commercialization and
indiscriminate sameness. Therefore, his work was perceived by many as a satire on capitalism and a critique
of pop culture (Bourdon, 1995; Livingstone & Cameron,
1992).
Fourth, a creative work should not only reect the
worldview, it should also assume a didactic role and
inuence existing worldviews. In other words, a creative
work should accentuate moral values and address moral
standards. Eastern ideology considers moral values
as important criteria of creative behavior (Niu &
Sternberg, 2006). Recall from the earlier discussion that,
in Confucian classics, creative act obtains its value only
if it emphasizes goodness, including moral goodness.
Niu and Sternberg (2006) also argued that moral
goodness was pervasive in the ancient Western tradition
as well: Ancient Westerners were more likely to believe
that moral goodness is necessary in creativity, because
all Gods creations are good (p. 24).
Many creative people assume the role of leaders of
the society. They raise important moral and ethical
questions and secure moral values of the society. For
example, Leonardo da Vinci assumed moral leadership
in bringing the world from the Dark Ages to the new
age, the Renaissance (Family, 1993). The era of total
subordination to the church has been transformed to
the one of individualism and the dignity of humankind,
and da Vincis art played a key role in this process.
The moral aspects of creativity play an important
role in contemporary creativity research. In the articles
dedicated to Howard Grubers study of creative
morality, Runco and Nemiro (2003) reviewed the
research in this domain and concluded that creative
343
morality involves a clear sense of selfone in clear contact with social and cultural context (p. 103). Note that
by linking the self with the sociocultural context, the
concept of creative morality joins the moral aspect of
utility function with the other two discussed earlier,
namely the role of the creative person and the role of
society in stipulating the utility of creative work.
Why would creative people strive to embody elusive
ideas in tangible product (such as a musical piece, an
art or literary work, a scientic discovery, or a business
proposal) unless they wish to share these ideas with the
others, and ultimately hope to change others perspectives? Creative ideas generated and cultivated within
a person obtain their signicance to the society only
when they are expressed in such a way that may have
impact on social values and norms. Lart pour lart
slogan, which limits art in its didactic, moral or utilitarian
function, was not accepted by many artists who used art
as a transporter of their moral and ethical thoughts (see
Runco, 1993, for a list of artists). At the same time, as
Dudek (1993) argued, art for its own sake is intrinsically
moral if the artist is true to himself=herself and
truthfully portraits the world. This consideration links
the moral aspect of utility to the concept of truth as
a component of aesthetic function of creative work and
to the concept of authenticity, both discussed below.
Thus, a creative work can be said to have a utility
function if it is regarded by a producer or a recipient
as creative, if it represents an important landmark in
spiritual, cultural, social, and=or political environment,
and if it addresses moral values and norms. This
criterion can be applied to different domains of creative
enterprise: science, art, and business. It can also be used
to evaluate everyday forms of creation. For example,
Glaveanu (2011) proposed a multilayered model of
creativity based on empirical research exploring this
construct in a context of folk art, specically Easter
egg decoration in Romania. It integrates two standard
dimensions of novelty and utility (dened as newness
and originality, and value and usefulness, respectively),
and two other dimensions: subjective and cultural
reception of creative products. Note that the latter two
overlap with the individual and sociocultural perspectives on the utility function in this article. Glaveanus
research implies that the utility criterion together with
novelty criterion can be applied to evaluate creative
work in everyday life as well.
AESTHETICS
An interesting observation can be extracted from the
analysis of multiplying exemplars of contemporary
Western art. Recall the earlier reference to Joseph
Beuys die Fettecke (The Fat Corner): This work is
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KHARKHURIN
regarded as creative, for it satises the criteria of novelty

and utility. The novelty criterion is satised, as this was
an original work that aimed at rejecting the existing
paradigm. From the perspective of the artist, fat presents an important symbol in the formation of his artistic persona, and therefore, according to the discussion in
the previous section, satises the individual perspective
on utility criterion. At the same time, it clearly demonstrates that aestheticsat least in its traditional
denitionshould not be considered as an integral
component of a creative work (just picture a piece of
tainted fat in the corner of the exhibition hall). In general, there is a tendency in the modern Western world
to shift a focus of creative work from aesthetic value
to the novelty and utility.
At the same time, increasing empirical evidence supports the notion that individuals aesthetic development
facilitates their achievements in various areas of creative
endeavors (Kay, 1996). Aesthetic reaction commonly
refers to the ability to appreciate and respond to beauty.
Due to this reaction, highly creative people recognize
ingenious problems in their eld and proceed to nding
creative solutions (Zuo, 1998). The mathematician
Hardy (1940) wrote: Beauty is the rst test; there is
no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics
(p. 25). The novelist and journalist Koestler (1964)
expressed the same attitude toward the role of aesthetics
in the work of many artists and physicists. The
psychologist MacKinnon (1962) asserted: For the truly
creative person it is not sufcient that problems be
solved, there is the further demand that the solutions
be elegant. He seeks both truth and beauty (p. 490).
Indeed, the concept of beauty cannot be reduced to
merely sensuous pleasure. On one side, it refers to the
perceptual pleasure gained by a beholder of an object.
On the other side, it is bounded to the conceptions of
good and truth. Plato (1991) and Aristotle (1998)
believed that the concept of beauty reveals itself in
relation to the concepts of truth. Aristotle asserted that,
although these two elements are different, the truth
might, under certain conditions, be called beautiful. This
idea is reected in Keatss (1819=2000) poetic line
Beauty is truth, truth beauty (p. 34), which presents
the core of aesthetical sense in creation.
Thus, the rst attribute stipulating aesthetic value of
creative work is related to an ability to reect ultimate
truth. According to different mystical, philosophical,
and religious traditions, the latter may refer to the primordial innity (Ein-Sof in Kabbalah, Scholem, 1974),
the creative principle (God the Creator in monotheistic
religions), or nature (yin-yang in the Book of Changes;
Chan, 1967). It represents the essence of all things and
is pervasive in all manifestations of phenomenal reality.
The manifestation, itself, cannot be judged from an
aesthetical perspective for it is the truth in and of itself.
For example, people cannot evaluate the aesthetic

qualities of a sunset for it embodies the truth of nature.
However, they may assess the aesthetic qualities of
a photograph, a painting, or a poem presenting the
sunset. In this case, one talks about an ability of creative
work to reect the truth of natural phenomenon. The
beauty of this work can be measured by a degree of
approximation to the aesthetical reaction elicited by
the original. Note however, that this principle does not
imply a representational or mimetic quality of creative
work. An abstract painting of the sunset may not
resemble an object (the sun), but may reect the mood
elicited in the beholder observing the sun going down.
Similarly, Einsteins theory of relativity expressed in
mathematical equation (see the following) does not
mimic, but reect the laws of nature.
Beauty and truth were argued to be nearly synonymous (Stewart, 2007). Reber, Schwarz, and Winkielman
(2004) provided empirical evidence that judgments of
beauty and judgments of truth both rely on the same
mental operations (namely, perceptual and semantic
uency). Recent research complements these ndings
by demonstrating that people use beauty as an indication
for truth in mathematical pattern tasks (Reber, Brun, &
Mitterndorfer, 2008). This nding suggests that beauty
in an aesthetic sense is not necessarily a characteristic
of an object that provides a perceptual experience of
pleasure or delights the senses.
The criteria of sensual beauty seem to be subjective
and contingent on time, geographic location, and sociocultural environment. Paul Rubens ideal of a beautiful
woman would not sustain today, especially in the
Western frame of mind, which criteria shifted from
curvaceous women to a slim model. An African tribal
woman mounting large clay jewelry into her under lip
may not be considered particularly beautiful by
Europeans. Moreover, although beauty is semantically
contrasted with ugliness, these two constructs seem to
exist in one conceptual plane (Eco, 2007). Can one assert
that Las Meninas (Maids of Honor) by Diego Velazquez
is beautiful, whereas its replication by Pablo Picasso is
ugly? Do people admire Sandro Botticellis Nascita di
Venere (The Birth of Venus) and detest Vincent van
Goghs De Aardappeleters (The Potato Eaters)? In both
cases, these masterpieces are judged for their aesthetic
value. Thus, aesthetics unites both beauty and ugliness.
Rosenkranz (1853) regarded ugliness as a drawback of
beauty, which became autonomous of a prototype and
developed into self-standing aesthetic principle. He
argued that any scientic study of aesthetics should take
in consideration both beauty and ugliness. Intuitively
speaking, ugly objects cannot be considered aesthetic:
Excrement or decayed wombs and breasts should not
elicit any other reaction but disgust. However, they can
nd aesthetic realization in, for example, a collection of
CREATIVITY.4IN1
poems Morgue and other Poems published by German

expressionist poet Gottfried Benn (1912), which
concerned with the physical decay of the esh. Beauty
and ugliness are characteristics of phenomenal reality,
whereas their depiction is an attempt to imitate this
reality. An imitation elicits an aesthetic reaction if it
expresses the truth. The image of a decomposed human
body is aversive, whereas an artistic depiction of this
event such as ones in the right panel of Hieronymus
Boschs triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights
illustrating Inferno may have great aesthetic value.
Thus, aesthetics refers to sensitivity to ultimate truth.
What is beautiful about a creative solution that
reveals the truth? Following Kant (1790=2007), beauty
reects perfect order in phenomenal reality, which
manifests the truth. Thus, the perfect order appears
to be a second attribute stipulating aesthetic value of
creative work. Ancient Greek philosophers had a similar
view. Plato (1991) insisted that aesthetic objects should
incorporate proportion, harmony, and unity among
their parts. Similar to Plato, in his treaties on poetry
and rhetoric, Aristotle (1998) dened the universal
elements of aesthetics as order, symmetry, and determinateness. When people see a man with an edentulous
mouth, they feel awkward not only because of the shape
of his lips and few remaining teeth, but rather because
next to those teeth should be ones that are not there
(Eco, 2007). People have an unaesthetic reaction when
they cannot observe the wholeness of the pattern, when
they perceive a distorted order of things.
Rudolf Arnheim was a great proponent of the primacy
of order and balance in aesthetic judgment of creative
work. His aesthetics is based on the validation of structured order in perceptual experience. Arnheim (1992)
asserted: Great painting and sculpture as well as great
architecture offered the perfection of harmony and
order (p. 238). The aesthetic sense therefore constitutes
understanding and appreciation of the fundamental truth
presented in a perfect order. Moreover, as Arnheim
(1971) claimed, the latter should reect the former: A
high level of structural order is a necessary but not sufcient prerequisite of art. What is ultimately required is
that this order reect a genuine, true profound view of
life (pp. 5556). This aesthetic sensitivity may lead to a
realization of the absence of order and harmony and thus
create an unbearable tension, and this constitutes a creative problem nding (Zuo, 1998). Arnheim believed that
the fundamental goal of an organism is striving toward
a balance that minimizes tension in the phenomenal eld
(Levine, 2002). Thus, having an aesthetic sensitivity could
lead eminent individuals to the discovery of important
problems in their domains. An intrinsic desire to nd
a perfect order could lead creative individuals to formulate
a solution in the most efcient way, thereby conveying the
essence of the phenomenal reality.
345
The efcient presentation of this essence presents the

third attribute stipulating aesthetic value of creative
work. Schmidhuber (1997) formulated an algorithmic
theory of beauty, which postulates that the greatest
aesthetic value is assigned to a work with the lowest
complexity.1 Note that this theory largely relies on a
beholders particular knowledge and a specic method
of information processing, for the beholder should be
able to identify that a creative work has a low complexity to appreciate its aesthetic value. Scientic creativity provides numerous illustrations of this theory.
Mathematicians respect simple proofs with a short
description in their formal language. Charles Darwin
summarized the entire history of natural evolution in
just three words: generation, selection, and preservation
(Perkins, 1988). Albert Einstein brought a complex
theory of relativity to a concise mathematical equation,
E mc2 (Zuo, 1998). These examples demonstrate
the elegance of a creative solution, which reects the
simplicity of the laws of nature.
The same principles can be applied to the artistic
creativity. The climax of poetic ingenuity is an elegant
metaphor that constructs an intelligible analogy
transcending conventional thinking (Zuo, 1998). Italian
gurative artist Amadeo Modigliani drew a pencil
portrait of Russian modernist poet Anna Akhmatova
using just few lines, depicting Akhmatovas most
prominent features and, thereby, revealing her essence.
Schmidhuber (1997) proposed low-complexity art accentuating the essence of creative work with minimum
description length. This genre presents the computerage equivalent of minimal art (Schmidhuber, 1997,
p. 97), with the latter exploring the reductionist idea pervasive in the artistic mind over the entire 20th century.
Kandinsky (1912=1994) identied three elementary
forms (triangle, square, and circle) and three primary
colors (yellow, red, and blue), and produced paintings
using these basic visual elements. As mentioned earlier,
Malevich (1926=2003) and other suprematists used
abstract paintings based on fundamental geometric
forms. In a similar fashion, Levine (2002) claimed
that Arnheims law of simplicity postulates that any
perceived structure should express itself in the simplest
form possible. In this theoretical framework, simplicity
refers not to the expressive capacity of the work of art,
but to its ability to encompass the highest levels of
tension and complexity within the simplest possible form
(Levine, 2002, p. 269). Following the law of simplicity, the
1
The term low complexity was adopted from a theory of
Kolmogorov (or algorithmic) complexity (Kolmogorov, 1965), which
refers to the length (measured in number of bits) of the shortest
algorithm that can be used to compute a given computable object.
Schmidhuber (1997) applied this term to art to identify low-complexity
art objects with shortest possible description, which potentially
capture the essence of what is being depicted (p. 98).
346
KHARKHURIN
creative forces should nd equilibrium presented in the

simplest structure capable of containing its complexity
(Levine, 2002, p. 269). The minimalism movement in art
and design presents an illustration of this perspective by
utilizing the minimum facilities to reach the maximal
impression. The aforementioned Malevichs Black Square
is an example of minimalism in art. The ideal of a minimalist literary work is a blank page (e.g., Vasilisk Gnedovs
Poem of the End, which consists of its title alone on
a blank page, and which the poet performed on stage
using a silent gesture) and its ultimate realization is
an empty book. The most striking example of minimalist
music is John Cages silent composition 433.
The fourth attribute stipulating the aesthetic value
of creative work is concerned with its complexity
expressing both tension and intrinsic contradiction. This
attribute was extracted from Vygotskys (1971) theory
of aesthetical reaction. In his approach, the aesthetical
reaction increases as a result of a complication of
creative work. He asserts that additional (parallel) interpretations complicate the plot, elicit curiosity, arouse
conjectures, and divide attention. This encourages greater psychic energy consumption and, thereby, an increase
in the aesthetical reaction: The greater the expenditure
of nervous energy, the more intense is the effect
produced by the work of art (Vygotsky, 1971, p. 205).
The contradiction between conicting psychological
aspects of creative work creates an explosion of psychic
energy, elicits cathartic experience, which, in turn,
reinforces the aesthetical reaction. In his later works,
Arnheim also emphasized the essential role of complexity and contradiction in creative work: Because
meaning is often complex, the work of art must admit
tension and complexity as intrinsic to its structural
wholeness (Levine, 2002, p. 272). Nevertheless, complexity and even intrinsic contradictions should not lead
to disorder, because if there is disorder the work of art
loses its expressive capacity.
Therefore, self-cultivation of an individuals authenticity

becomes a fourth criterion of creativity (Averill et al.,
2001). Averill and his colleagues illustrated the
relelvance of this criterion with an example of a
computer-generated fractal image. The outcome of
computer-generated work can satisfy the criterion of
novelty; it can meet task constraints, thereby satisfying
the criterion of utility; it can even have aesthetic value
considering the order and complexity begotten by a simple design of the fractal. However, it misses an important component, which questions its overall creative
value, namely authenticity. Averill et al. cited Arnheim
(1966) that creativity involves the pregnant sight of
reality (p. 299). Then they continued: Computers
are lifeless: they have no inner vision, pregnant or otherwise. In a word, they lack authenticity (p. 172).
What is the role of authenticity in creative production? This component seems to refer to ability to
express ones inner self and to relate an individuals
own values and believes to the world. A perfect copy
of previously mentioned Velazquezs Las Meninas is
not considered a creative work when each detail is replicated with ideal precision, whereas a variation produced
by Picasso is regarded as a masterpiece. The difference
between these two is the degree of self-expression that
is minimal in the former work and striking in the latter
one; Picassos work is authentic, whereas the copy is not.
Authenticity imparts meaning to a creative act by providing an opportunity for realization and manifestation
of the self. It enables individuals to explore their own
nature and to relate events in phenomenal reality to
their own values and beliefs.
In Buddhist tradition, the concept of the self appears to
be identical with the concept of the universe: My mind is
exactly the universe and the universe is exactly my mind
(Lu Hsuang Shans complete book, cited in Niu & Sternberg, 2006, p. 30). In this conception, comprehension of
the self endows an individual with the knowledge of ultimate truth and imparts meaning to ones existence. In
words of great Confucian master Mencius:
AUTHENTICITY
Novelty in thinking is assumed to be a prerogative of the
Western creative tradition. However, a unique approach
in creative production is not completely rejected from
the horizon of the Eastern thought. Rather, following
Confucian aesthetics, creativity is a process of breathing
in a new essence into existing ideas to reect an individuals own values and beliefs (Tu, 1985). That is, the
old ideas are to be smoothly modied to t new circumstances. In this tradition, a persons authentic perception
becomes a creativity transporter. Instead of trying to
establish a unique phenomenon by breaking up with
old traditions, a person cultivates ones authentic
approach, which can be applied to both old and new.
There is no greater joy for me than to nd, on selfexamination, that I am true to myself. . . . For a man to
give full realization to his heart is for him to understand
his own nature; and a man who knows his own nature
will know Heaven. (cited in Niu & Sternberg, 2006, p. 30)
Moreover, according to the earlier discussion, an ability

to reect the ultimate truth is related to the aesthetic
value of creative work. Therefore, authentic involvement in a creative act increases the aesthetic value of
the product. The realization of the self in the authentic
act provides meaning to human life. Death eradicates
this meaning. Sartre considered death the most unexpected event occurring in human existence, eliminating
CREATIVITY.4IN1
all its meaningfulness and transforming it into a useless

passion (Thomas, 1998, p. 322). Authenticity in
creative performance allows the mortal self to embody
in the immortal product, which gives a gratication to
individuals in their combat with death. People remember the names of Velazquez and Picasso, and disregard
the names of countless art forgers copying the works
of eminent artists.
The impetus of an authentically creative act should
stem from inner urge, rather than from outer request.
This doctrine is well-known to psychologists as a
humanistic model of self-actualization (e.g., Maslow,
1943; Rogers, 1961). Maslow explicitly dened an individuals self-actualization as the desire to become more
and more what one is, to become everything that one is
capable of becoming (p. 382). The creative acts of
self-actualized people are inspired by their authentic
perception. At the same time, Rogers believed that
individuals can achieve the actualization of their intrinsic
potential only if society allows it. This introduces an
inherent controversy about authenticity that was largely
discussed by Sartre (1943=1992). On one side, an individuals self is unique and different from the world; on
the other, this self is situated in a world that contains
the authentic selves of other individuals. Therefore, the
authentic realization seeks some compromise with external ideologies, which allows it to coexist in a manner
acceptable by the others. In other words, the inner urges
of authentic expression should be considered in the
social context. This consideration points to the sociocultural aspect of utility function of creative endeavor,
which was discussed earlier.
FOUR-DIMENSIONAL MATRIX FOR

EVALUATION OF CREATIVE WORK
All four criteria of the proposed construct are tightly
interconnected. To illustrate their interconnectedness,
Table 1 presents each criterion together with corresponding
conditions for a work to be considered creative.
Novelty relates to utility through the moral aspect of
the latter. The second condition of novelty implies the
modication of existing paradigm. The fourth condition
of utility, in turn, implies the modication of existing
worldviews by suggesting changes to moral values. In both
cases, therefore, a creative work involves modication,
either of existing paradigm or existing worldview.
Utility relates to aesthetics in two ways. First, recall
the Brockhaus Encyclopedias denition emphasizing
that utility of creative work is stipulated by the aesthetic
reaction of the viewer. In this context, the viewers
perception is addressed by the second condition of
utility. Second, recall the previous discussion that art
can be intrinsically moral if the artist truthfully portraits
347
TABLE 1
Four Criteria of the Creativity Construct and Corresponding
Conditions for a Work to be Considered Creative
Criterion
Conditions
Novelty
1) Creative work is new.

2) Creative work modies existing paradigm.
3) Creative work rejects existing paradigm.
Utility
1) Creative work is perceived as such by a producer.

2) Creative work is perceived as such by a recipient.
3) Creative work represents an important landmark in
spiritual, cultural, social, and=or political
environment.
4) Creative work inuences worldviews by addressing
moral issues.
Aesthetics
1) Creative work presents the fundamental truth of

nature.
2) Creative work strives to arrange expressive elements
in a perfect order.
3) Creative work expresses the essence of the
phenomenal reality in efcient manner.
4) Creative work is satisfactorily complex expressing
both tension and intrinsic contradiction.
Authenticity 1) Creative work expresses a creative persons inner self.
the world (Dudek, 1993). This consideration links the

fourth condition of utility to the rst condition of
aesthetics.
Utility is also related to authenticity. First, according
to the rst condition of utility, an individuals intrinsic
creative effort could stipulate the signicance of creative
work. This effort is cultivated within a person and
addressed by criterion of authenticity. Second, the previous section mentions that the authentic expression
should be considered in the social context. This relates
authenticity to the second condition of utility, which stipulates usefulness of creative work to a collective and
the recognition of this work by the collective. Third, if
authenticity stems from realization of the inner potential, which is akin to the source of creation, and if the
nature of the latter is creating all goodness, including
moral goodness, the authenticity principle requires high
moral standards. The latter is addressed by the fourth
condition of utility.
Finally, aesthetics is related to authenticity. Recall
that realization of the self in the authentic act endows
an individual with the knowledge of ultimate truth.
The latter is addressed with the rst condition of authenticity. Therefore, authentic involvement in a creative act
increases the aesthetic value of creative work.
The interconnectedness of the evaluation criteria
suggests that creativity can be perceived as a fourdimensional space with axes representing four proposed
criteria. Each individual work can be assigned a value
along these axes, thereby obtaining a unique location
in this space. The conditions for each criterion can be
348
KHARKHURIN
used to evaluate a creative work. That is, more satised

conditions and higher evaluation on each condition
together ensure a higher score along the axis representing this criterion. In a sense, this space represents a
prototype of ideal creative work, and higher scores on
each criterion signify the proximity to the ideal of creative work. This space, therefore, may be regarded as
a comparison matrix, in which creative products of different nature and from different domains and sociocultural environments can be evaluated and compared.
Using this space, one can compare for example, aforementioned Malevichs Black Square and Einsteins
E mc2. Both pieces score high on novelty for they presented a new work that not only modied, but rejected
the existing paradigms. They also score high on utility
for both of them according to the previous discussion,
satised rst three utility conditions. However, Einsteins
work can be argued to score higher on the second utility
condition (creative work is perceived as such by others),
because it is regarded as highly creative work by a larger
group of people than Malevich painting. As the same
time, the Black Square can be argued to obtain a higher
score on fourth condition, due to the artists attempt to
emphasize the moral aspect, which did not play a crucial
role in the physicists work. Specically, recall that the
Black Square manifested a new era in social and political
environment of Russia. The artist called for substitution
of concrete forms with intrinsic experience, thereby
changing peoples worldviews (in a sense, he called for
reduction of categorical perception, cf. Kharkhurin,
2011). Further, both works obtain high aesthetics score
for they reect the truth of phenomenal reality (psychological in case of art work and physical in formula case)
in highly efcient manner, which reveals its complexity.
Finally, they both score high on authenticity for both
Malevichs and Einsteins involvement in accomplishing
their respective goals appears indisputable.
Using this space, one can also evaluate and compare
creative works produced in different cultures (e.g.,
Western, Eastern, African, indigenous American or
Australian). According to the previous discussion, one
would expect that higher novelty score of the typical
Western creative work (e.g., due to its greater likelihood
to include rejection of an existing paradigm) is counterbalanced by for example, higher authenticity score of the
typical Eastern work (e.g., due to greater self-reection
of the author). However, possibly due to globalization
tendencies (which discussion does not t the scope
of the present article), cultural differences in creative
production do not appear to be that obvious any more.
The apparent cross-cultural similarities in creative work
are reected in the proposed model that combines
evaluation criteria typical for different cultures. Thus,
the proposed creativity construct appears to be culture
independent.
The proposed construct can also be applied to evaluation of creative value of mundane production such as
a brownie recipe. Although this can be an original
recipe, cooking a brownie does not involve any modication or rejection of a paradigm, and therefore its
novelty score should be quite low. This recipe can be
argued to have a utility function if it is perceived as
a creative work by a host cooking the brownie and=or
a guest eating it. However, it obtains a relatively low
utility score because other utility conditions are not
satised. It can also be argued to have an authenticity
function due to the cooks personal engagement. Finally,
although a brownie can have an attractive appearance, its
aesthetic value should be low for it does not satisfy any
other conditions of aesthetics presented above. Thus,
the brownie recipe has low creative value.
The proposed creativity construct appears particularly
useful in evaluating contemporary art and scientic
theories. In spite of vast production of artistic and scientic
works presented during art exhibitions and fairs, at
conferences and in journal publications, one senses that
truly creative work is thin on the ground. Place for example,
famous Damien Hirsts sculpture For the Love of God (a
platinum cast of an 18th century human skull encrusted
with 8,601 awless diamonds) into proposed four-dimensional space and you nd that it obtains moderate scores
on both novelty and utility, and rather low scores on aesthetics and authenticity. Nevertheless, it is regarded as an
important piece of contemporary art, and denitely the
most expensive one (n.a, 2007). The signicance of this
work was explained by Greer (2008): Damien Hirst is a
brand, because the art form of the 21st century is marketing.
To develop so strong a brand on so conspicuously threadbare a rationale is hugely creativerevolutionary even.
Thus, the creative value of this work would be primarily
associated with novelty and utility, which, according to
the proposed construct, would not approximate the ideal
of creative work. Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, it is
honored as a masterpiece, and the question to be asked in
this regard is who is to judge creativity. And following
Murray, Who is to judge the judges? And the judges of
the judges? (as cited in Runco & Jaeger, 2012, p. 94).
Indeed, some researchers suggest that the issue of the
common framework of creativity assessment should be
taken as an integral part of the denition (e.g., Runco,
2003; Simonton, 2012). The proposed construct would
have a limited scope of application unless the assessment
methods for each criterion and underlying conditions
are provided.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this article was to present an
extended denition of creativity that embraces potential
CREATIVITY.4IN1
cross-cultural variations in this construct. The proposed

construct expands the traditional perspective of creativity as an endeavor that delivers an original product that
can be put to some use. In addition to novelty and utility, creativity should have aesthetic and authentic merit.
Thus, creativity is dened as a four-criterion construct,
which includes attributes of novelty, utility, aesthetics,
and authenticity. These criteria seem to represent the
universal principles of creativity as they can be applied
to different areas of human endeavor including arts,
sciences, and business. A logical continuation of this
work calls for development of assessment tool that measures all four criteria and thereby provides a psychometric evaluation system for creativity.
Unfortunately, the scope of this article prevents us
from elaborate discussion of the assessment methods
for all four criteria. This can be postponed to the future
research; meanwhile a brief sketch outlining the assessment directions can be presented. As indicated in the
beginning of the previous section, each criterion of the
proposed construct constitutes a number of conditions
that need to be satised to conrm the presence of a
given criterion. Therefore, one can think about assessment tools measuring each of these conditions. These
tools may include both psychometric measures and surveys. In case of the latter, an expert opinion may be
required, and therefore a group of professionals in
respective area needs to be employed. For example,
novelty criterion in the proposed model can be assessed
with a survey distributed among creativity researchers.
They would receive a survey including three sets of
Likert-type scales assessing each of three novelty conditions. In the same fashion, surveys assessing four conditions of utility and three conditions of aesthetics could
be administered to the same group of experts. Employment of a group of experts in creativity assessment
appears to be common practice in creativity research
as well as in real world (see discussion in Kaufman,
Baer, Cole, & Sexton, 2008). However, this methodology should be taken with caution for personality,
society, and culture related factors can bias the end
result (e.g., Kaufman, Baer, Agars, & Loomis, 2010).
Finally, authenticity can be assessed by both direct survey requiring creative persons self-rating of their authentic involvement as well as by indirect measures of
their motivation (e.g., Work Preference Inventory,
Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994). In the latter,
greater intrinsic motivation would indicate greater authenticity (note that creativity was found to generally
prosper under conditions that support intrinsic motivation; e.g., Collins & Amabile, 1999; Hennessey, 2010).
Another consideration is brought forward by a tendency of creativity researchers to separate a creative process, a creative person, and a creative product. These
researchers went as far as to consider these three aspects
349
of creativity as independent elds of study. Piffer (2012)

even lamented about the lack of a clear separation
between the denitions of creativity of products, people
and creative potential in the literature, and warns that
this can lead to awed studies and mistaken conclusions, and hamper the progress of creativity research
(p. 263). However, this tendency seems to confuse the
creativity research. Instead of studying one construct
of creativity and attempting to identify common characteristics of this phenomenon, research is divided in three
different elds. Each eld produces a set of assessment
tools that measure traits inherent to a process, a person,
or a product. As a result, one witnesses a dispersion of
theories and low convergent validity among psychometric measures as was discussed in the introduction.
The proposed construct is specically conceived to
evaluate a creative product. However, it can be
expanded to establish a model that embraces all three
aspects of creative endeavor. This model will reect
the multidimensional characteristic of creativity construct in the form of creativity spheres, each of which
corresponds to proposed four criteria: a transcendental
sphere corresponds to authenticity; an intellectual
sphereto novelty; an emotive sphereto aesthetics;
and an active sphereto utility. This model will be
detailed in the future research.
Further, recall earlier discussion that the proposed
construct presents creativity as a four-dimensional
space, and each individual work can obtain a unique
location in this space with a prototypical creative work
obtaining the highest value on all four axes. This implies
that although there are different levels of creativity, only
the presence of all four criteria ensures the ultimate
creative outcome. This notion parallels an opinion
expressed by Cropley and Cropley (2008): Creativity
is not something that products either have or do not
have, but, there are both levels and kinds of creativity
(p. 157). Different products can express different kinds
of creativity and express creativity to a greater or lesser
extent (Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz, 2001). For
Cropley and Cropley, creativity construct has a hierarchical structure comprising of four levels: novelty,
effectiveness, genesis, and elegance (see Table 1, p. 157).
Routine product has only the value of effectiveness, the
original product has an additional value of novelty, the
elegant productan additional value of elegance,
and only the innovative product has all four values.
According to this hierarchical construct, a product satisfying all four criteria is considered as most creative:
Innovative is more creative than elegant, whereas
elegant is more creative than original (Cropley &
Cropley, 2008, p. 157).
Finally, the proposed construct appears to differ
from most other models in the eld due to the authenticity criterion. For example, aforementioned Cropley
350
KHARKHURIN
and Cropleys (2008) creativity has four characteristics:

novelty, effectiveness, genesis, and elegance. The rst
one overlaps with the novelty dimension of the proposed
construct, the second and third ones with utility, and the
fourth one with aesthetics. The authenticity criteria
proposed in our construct is omitted from that model.
Similarly, the denition adopted in Creative Product
Semantic Scale (Besemer & OQuin, 1987) assumes
creativity as a three-dimensional construct: novelty
(the product is original, surprising, and germinal),
resolution (the product is valuable, logical, useful, and
understandable), and elaboration and synthesis (the
product is organic, elegant, complex, and well-crafted).
These three dimensions overlap with novelty, utility,
and aesthetics of the proposed four-criterion construct,
respectively, and authenticity is omitted again. Cropley
and Cropleys and Besemer and OQuins models
approximate the proposed construct the most, and
nevertheless they disregard the authentic value of creative endeavor. This observation conrmed an argument
made earlier that this criteria is more pervasive in the
Eastern frame of thought and not yet elaborated in
the Western perspective of creativity.
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CREATIVITY RESEARCH JOURNAL, 26(3), 338352, 2014

Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Creativity.4in1: Four-Criterion Construct of Creativity

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American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

The purpose of this theoretical article is to provide an extended denition of creativity

Current creativity research lacks common framework

convergent validity (p. 457). However, a relatively

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be found in literature of 19th and early 20th century (see

production, and assessment of creativity can be domain

WESTERN AND EASTERN PERSPECTIVES

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devote themselves to other people and the interests of

into existing ideas to reect an individuals own values

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1995). Originality constitutes one of Guilfords (1967)

behind it, and a rusty girder. The purpose of his work

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ity attribute to another property of creativity described in

Third, as the artistic director of the 53rd Venice

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traditional perception of a work of art by the conscious

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regarded as creative, for it satises the criteria of novelty

For example, people cannot evaluate the aesthetic

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poems Morgue and other Poems published by German

The efcient presentation of this essence presents the

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creative forces should nd equilibrium presented in the

Therefore, self-cultivation of an individuals authenticity

Moreover, according to the earlier discussion, an ability

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all its meaningfulness and transforming it into a useless

FOUR-DIMENSIONAL MATRIX FOR

1) Creative work is new.

1) Creative work is perceived as such by a producer.

1) Creative work presents the fundamental truth of

Authenticity 1) Creative work expresses a creative persons inner self.

the world (Dudek, 1993). This consideration links the

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used to evaluate a creative work. That is, more satised

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cross-cultural variations in this construct. The proposed

of creativity as independent elds of study. Piffer (2012)

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and Cropleys (2008) creativity has four characteristics:

Bourdon, D. (1995). Warhol. New York, NY: Abrams.

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Niu, W., & Sternberg, R. J. (2006). The philosophical roots of Western

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Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., & Pretz, J. E. (2001). The propulsion

Triandis, H. C., Leung, K., Villareal, M. J., & Clack, F. L. (1985).

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