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Study of simple
ecosystem
Rivers
Ishan Shikarkhane, Zainulabdeen Sayeed, Suyash Shinde
This report is about the river ecosystem and the biotic and abiotic factors of
river ecosystem, the factors affecting rivers and the causes of river pollution.
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INTRODUCTION
An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the
physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are
many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. The boundaries are
not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seem obvious, as with the shoreline
of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons
having to do with the goals of the particular study.
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living,
or biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. Energy transformations and
biogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology.
Ecology generally is defined as the interactions of organisms with one another and with the
environment in which they occur. We can study ecology at the level of the individual, the
population, the community, and the ecosystem.
Studies of individuals are concerned mostly about physiology, reproduction, development or
behaviour, and studies of populations usually focus on the habitat and resource needs of
individual species, their group behaviours, population growth, and what limits their
abundance or causes extinction. Studies of communities examine how populations of many
species interact with one another, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that share
common needs or resources.
In ecosystem ecology we put all of this together and, insofar as we can, we try to understand
how the system operates as a whole. This means that, rather than worrying mainly about
particular species, we try to focus on major functional aspects of the system. These functional
aspects include such things as the amount of energy that is produced by photosynthesis, how
energy or materials flow along the many steps in a food chain, or what controls the rate of
decomposition of materials or the rate at which nutrients are recycled in the system.
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Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an
ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It
generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from
the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in
the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of
plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic
matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by
converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants
and other microbes.
RIVER ECOSYSTEM
The ecosystem of a river is the river viewed as a system operating in its natural environment,
and includes biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as
well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions.
River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems. Lotic refers to flowing water, from
the Latin lotus, washed. Lotic waters range from springs only a few centimetres wide to
major rivers kilometres in width. Much of this article applies to lotic ecosystems in general,
including related lotic systems such as streams and springs. Lotic ecosystems can be
contrasted with lentic ecosystems, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as
lakes and ponds. Together, these two fields form the more general study area of freshwater
or aquatic ecology.
The following unifying characteristics make the ecology of running waters unique from that
of other aquatic habitats.
Flow is unidirectional.
Abiotic factors
1. Flow:- Water flow is the key factor in lotic systems influencing their ecology. The
strength of water flow can vary between systems, ranging from torrential rapids to
slow backwaters that almost seem like lentic systems. The speed of the water flow can
also vary within a system and is subject to chaotic turbulence. This turbulence results
in divergences of flow from the mean down slope flow vector as typified by eddy
currents. The mean flow rate vector is based on variability of friction with the bottom
or sides of the channel, sinuosity, obstructions, and the incline gradient. In addition,
the amount of water input into the system from direct precipitation, snowmelt, and/or
groundwater can affect flow rate. Flowing waters can alter the shape of the streambed
through erosion and deposition, creating a variety of habitats, including riffles, glides,
and pools.
2. Light:- Light is important to lotic systems, because it provides the energy necessary
to drive primary production via photosynthesis, and can also provide refuge for prey
species in shadows it casts. The amount of light that a system receives can be related
to a combination of internal and external stream variables. The area surrounding a
small stream, for example, might be shaded by surrounding forests or by valley walls.
Larger river systems tend to be wide so the influence of external variables is
minimized, and the sun reaches the surface. These rivers also tend to be more
turbulent, however, and particles in the water increasingly attenuate light as depth
increases. Seasonal and diurnal factors might also play a role in light availability
because the angle of incidence, the angle at which light strikes water can lead to light
lost from reflection. Known as Beer's Law, the shallower the angle, the more light is
reflected and the amount of solar radiation received declines logarithmically with
depth. Additional influences on light availability include cloud cover, altitude, and
geographic position.
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Biotic factors
1. Bacteria:- Bacteria are present in large numbers in lotic waters. Free-living forms are
associated with decomposing organic material, bio film on the surfaces of rocks and
vegetation, in between particles that compose the substrate, and suspended in
the water column. Other forms are also associated with the guts of lotic organisms as
parasites or in commensal relationships. Bacteria play a large role in energy recycling,
[3]
4. Fish and other vertebrates:- Fishes are probably the best-known inhabitants of lotic
systems. The ability of a fish species to live in flowing waters depends upon the speed
at which it can swim and the duration that its speed can be maintained. This ability
can vary greatly between species and is tied to the habitat in which it can survive.
Continuous swimming expends a tremendous amount of energy and, therefore, fishes
spend only short periods in full current. Instead, individuals remain close to the
bottom or the banks, behind obstacles, and sheltered from the current, swimming in
the current only to feed or change locations. Some species have adapted to living only
on the system bottom, never venturing into the open water flow. These fishes
are dorso-ventrallyflattened to reduce flow resistance and often have eyes on top of
their heads to observe what is happening above them. Some also have sensory barrels
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positioned under the head to assist in the testing of substratum. Lotic systems
typically connect to each other, forming a path to the ocean (spring stream river
ocean), and many fishes have life cycles that require stages in both fresh and salt
water. Salmon, for example, are anadromous species that are born and develop in
freshwater and then move to the ocean as adults. Eels are catadromous, and are born
and develop in the ocean and then move into freshwater as adults. Other vertebrate
taxa that inhabit lotic systems include amphibians, such as salamanders, reptiles (e.g.
snakes, turtles, crocodiles and alligators) various bird species, and mammals
(e.g., otters, beavers, hippos, and river dolphins). With the exception of a few species,
these vertebrates are not tied to water as fishes are, and spend part of their time in
terrestrial habitats.[4] Many fish species are important as consumers and as prey
species to the larger vertebrates mentioned above.
1. Pollution:Pollutant sources of lotic systems are hard to control because they derive,
often in small amounts, over a very wide area and enter the system at many locations
along its length. Agricultural fields often deliver large quantities of sediments,
nutrients, and chemicals to nearby streams and rivers. Urban and residential areas can
also add to this pollution when contaminants are accumulated on impervious surfaces
such as roads and parking lots that then drain into the system. Elevated nutrient
concentrations, especially nitrogen and phosphorus which are key components of
fertilizers, can increase periphyton growth, which can be particularly dangerous in
slow moving streams.[5] Another pollutant, acid rain, forms from sulfur dioxide and
nitrous oxide emitted from factories and power stations. These substances readily
dissolve in atmospheric moisture and enter lotic systems through precipitation. This
can lower the pH of these sites, affecting all trophic levels from algae to vertebrates
(Brown 1987). Mean species richness and total species numbers within a system
decrease with decreasing pH.
2. Flow modification:Dams alter the flow, temperature, and sediment regime of lotic
systems.[4] Additionally, many rivers are dammed at multiple locations, amplifying the
impact. Dams can cause enhanced clarity and reduced variability in stream flow,
which in turn cause an increase in periphyton abundance. Invertebrates immediately
below a dam can show reductions in species richness due to an overall reduction in
habitat heterogeneity.[5] Also, thermal changes can affect insect development, with
abnormally warm winter temperatures obscuring cues to break egg diapause and
overly cool summer temperatures leaving too few acceptable days to complete
growth.[3] Finally, dams fragment river systems, isolating previously continuous
populations, and preventing the migrations of anadromous and catadromous species.
3. Invasive species:-
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Invasive
species
can
be
especially
harmful
in
areas
that
have endangered biota, such as mussels in the Southeast United States, or those that
have localized endemic species, like lotic systems west of the Rocky Mountains,
where many species evolved in isolation.
River Pollution has become a menace these days. Even the most prestigious and sacred rivers
of India have been facing the curse of pollution for a long time. This has not only adversely
affecting the availability of fresh potable water in the country but also resulting in many
contentious and dangerous diseases loss of tourism and harm to the property. All this has been
happening due to the fault and negligence of Administrative Agencies and Common Citizens
as they are using these precious sources of clean water in absurd and unreasonable manner. It
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is the need of time that these rivers should be bring back to their natural state by eradicating
the pollution so that their water once again become wholesome and clean.. But again cleaning
these rivers is not an easy task. Though the Programmes of river cleaning are going on these
days by the Government of India but the cost of these Programmes is enormous. Were these
rivers not polluted this money could be utilized for some welfare purpose.
India is a country, which has rich history, not only of social and economic prosperity, but also
of Environmental Richness. But, we cannot claim today the same, because in modern time
India is suffering from economic crises, and unplanned development is resulting in pollution
of rivers, which are considered as Goddesses in the Indian Culture. Ample money has been
spend on cleaning theses rivers as they are the primary source of water supply to most of the
States in India, still, the desirable results are yet to be achieved. In this manner, River
Cleaning Programmes in India, like Ganga Action Plan and National River Conservation
Plan, in a sense, are also contributing in the economic crises of the country, as lot of money
of public has been spended on these Plans. But, This money can be saved if we work upon
the causes of river pollution, which will serve two purposes, First, the eradication on social
evils, and, Second, the rivers will be cleaned once again.
Broadly, the human causes responsible for pollution of water of rivers are mentioned
underneath. They are:
1. Growing population:- The rapid pace of growth of population in India, is primarily
responsible for the significant increase in the level of pollution of rivers. With the
increasing rate of growth of population, the human activities around the bank of rivers
also increased, which results in contamination of water. An intimate relationship is
found between human number (population) and environment. The impact of
population on environment, in general and on rivers, in particular, is harsh. We can
understand the effect of population growth on rivers by a simple formula. Population
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affluence, i.e. material aspects of per capita consumption of goods and resources, and
technology of production. Using appropriate indices, these factors can be incorporated
into an Environmental Impact Equation as under.
2. Poverty:- Lasting peace cannot be achieved unless large population groups find ways
in which to break out of poverty. The observation of Nobel Committee is very
significant for the solution of almost all the problems of the world, besides
conservation of rivers. Poverty contributes equally to both population growth and
environmental pollution, particularly to the river pollution. Poverty can be define as
the inability of an individual or household to attain a minimal standard of living
Unhygienic and insanitary conditions are another by-product of poverty affecting
human health. Each year, between 3 and 4 million people, mostly poor and deprived,
perish due to lack of access to water and sanitation.21 Poverty reduces peoples
capacity to use resources in a sustainable manner, it intensifies pressure on the
environment.
3. Urbanisation:- In India there has been a major shift of population from rural areas to
urban areas with a view to have better livelihood and better standards of living. As a
result of this large human concentration there are changes that are likely to occur in
the urban environment, within its physical and socio- economic aspects. Urbanization,
for river means, more pollution load.
industries.
1994
survey
of
the
quality
at
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Conclusion:It is clear from the aforementioned analysis that our religious and social
practices, though unintentionally, are also contributing in pollution, of water of
rivers. It seems that there is no end to the misery of rivers. Therefore, it may be
concluded with this remark that river pollution generally originates from
industrial effluents, agricultural run-off and domestic sewage, which is resulting
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