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Hubert Quick
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Prof. Dipl.-Ing. H. Quick Ingenieure und Geologen GmbH provides geotechnical engineering services e. g. for high-rise buildings in Germany and abroad.
For a safe design a high quality soil report with the following specifications is
indispensable.
The serviceability of construction has to be evaluated regarding the uniform settlement of the construction, the differential settlement, the tilting as well as the
deflection ratio.
The ultimate limit state (ULS) and for the serviceability limit state (SLS) for a raft
foundation must be proved with the following calculations:
With increasing height of buildings respectively increasing loads the depicted raft
foundation is not suitable or even not sufficient to transfer the loads properly into
the ground. Therefore a pile foundation is often used. The main function of a pile
foundation is to transfer the loads into the ground with an adequate factor of
safety.
The load is transferred by end bearing and the skin friction of the piles into the
ground.
The ultimate limit state (ULS) and for the serviceability limit state (SLS) for a pile
foundation must be proved with the following calculations:
The calculations were carried out in consideration of the symmetry of the building. A sixth part of the building was modelled by Finite- and Infinite-Elements.
The extent of the model is 200 m x 180 m x 120 m. Infinite elements were used
to model the ground outside the tower area. The used material law for the finite
elements is a elastic-plastic stress-strain behaviour with the yield conditions of
Drucker-Prager with cap. An elastic material law was implemented for the structural elements (piles and raft).
The maximum settlements of the building add up to 2.1 cm. The minimum settlements were encountered with 1.5 cm. This leads to a tilting of smaller than
1/2000. These results cause no negative effect on the serviceability of the building.
The monitoring shows that the 111 piles of the Commerzbank carry approx.
96 % of the total load of the building. This indicates that not all loads are transferred by the piles into the ground.
In addition to the presented and often used raft or pile foundation, the combined
pile-raft-foundation is nowadays often used to transfer the loads into the ground.
In comparison to a pile foundation, the combined pile-raft-foundation both the
piles and the raft transfer the loads into ground. The loads are transferred by
skin friction and end bearing as well as contact pressures of the raft foundation
(bearing pressure). The piles are used up to their ultimate bearing capacity (load
level) which is higher than the permissible design value for a comparable single
pile The combined pile-raft-foundation represents a complex foundation system,
which requires a qualified understanding of the soil-structure interactions.
The task for the geotechnical engineer is to evaluate the load distribution between the piles and the raft. The distribution of the total load between the raft
and the piles is described by the coefficient of CPRF (CPRF).
The ultimate limit state (ULS) and for the serviceability limit state (SLS) for a
combined pile-raft-foundation must be proved with the following calculations:
The proof of the ultimate limit state of the combined pile-raft-foundation can be
carried out by means of the Finite-Element-Method with the following calculation
steps:
The maximum settlements of the building add up to 3.0 cm. The minimum settlements were encountered with 2.2 cm. This leads to a tilting of smaller than
1/1000. These results cause no negative effect on the serviceability of the building.
The results of the calculation shows that the 31 piles of the Drehscheibe carry
approx. 64 % of the total load of the building (CPRF = 0.64).
The Skyper is situated in Frankfurt, Germany. The high-rise building Skyper has
just been constructed and consists of a 153 m high tower which is connected to
surrounding low buildings. Below the whole area an underground parking with 3
floors on a continuous foundation slab was planned.
The eccentric loading of the building complex with a raft foundation causes large
differential settlements and angular displacements and negative interactions with
the existing neighbouring Villa as well as other neighbouring structures. Thus a
raft foundation was not advisable.
It was decided to carry out a combined pile-raft-foundation (CPRF). The surrounding low buildings are constructed by means of a raft foundation.
Up to a depth of 3 to 6 m beneath the surface fillings were encountered underlying by quaternary sands and gravels in depth of 10 m. Underneath the ground
layers of the Hydrobien (Frankfurt clay) is found up to a depth of 50 to 60 m. The
ground layers of the Inflaten (limestone) and Certithien (marl) were encountered
beneath the Hydrobien.
The Frankfurt clay consists of clay interbedded with sand and limestone. The
dark grey clay was encountered as stiff to very stiff. The limestone within the
Hydrobien layer are encountered with a thickness of a few decimetre to 2.0 m.
Two groundwater level were found in the project site: An unconfined groundwater level in the quaternary sands and gravels as well as a confined groundwater
level. The unconfined groundwater level was found 3 to 4 m beneath the surface. The confined levels pressure head shows approximately the pressure
head.
For the modelling of the soil behaviour an elastic-plastic constitutive law with
isotropic hardening was implemented. The used material law for the ground
elements is a elastic-plastic stress-strain behaviour (Mohr-Coulomb). An elastic
material law was implemented for the structural elements (piles and raft).
The maximum settlements of the building add up to 5.5 cm. The minimum settlements were encountered with 3.0 cm. This leads to a tilting of smaller than
1/2000. These results cause no negative effect on the serviceability of the building. The results of the calculation shows that the 46 piles of the Skpyer carry
approx. 63 % of the total load of the building (CPRF = 0.63).
The result of the numerical calculations shows a rather good agreement with the
measurement. The measured settlements are still increasing due to consolidation of the clay.
The Treptowers is situated in Berlin, Germany directly next to the river Spree.
The building reaches a height of 121 m. The building is founded on a combined
pile-raft-foundation. The bordering low-rise building with 10 floors is founded on
the raft.
A total of 54 piles with a diameter of 88 cm were installed. All piles were constructed with a jet grouted shaft. The length of the piles vary from 12.5 m to 16
m. The bottom of the raft is up to 8 m beneath the surface.
The ground and groundwater conditions were explored by boreholes up to a
depth of 40 m. Up to a depth of 4m beneath the surface fillings and organic soils
were encountered underlying by loose to medium dense sands of the Pleistocene. These sands were found up to depth of approx. 19 m. Dense sands were
encountered in depth of > 19 m. Locally a layer of boulder clay with a thickness
of 1.5 m was found.
The groundwater level is approx. 3 to 4 m beneath the surface.
The calculations were carried out in consideration of the symmetry of the building. The used material law is an elastic-ideal-plastic stress-strain behaviour with
the yield conditions of Mohr-Coulomb. The jet-grouting of the pile shaft is modelled by an expansion of the pile elements.
An elastic material law was implemented for the structural elements (piles and
raft).
The maximum settlements of the building add up to 7.3 cm. The minimum settlements were encountered with 5.0 cm. This leads to a tilting of smaller than
1/2000. The mean value of settlement is 6.3 cm. These results cause no negative effect on the serviceability of the building.
The monitoring shows that the 54 piles of the Treptowers carry approx. 55 % of
the total load of the building. The CPRF factor, the summation of the piles loads
divided by the total load, amount therefore to 0.55 (CPRF = 0.62). The factor
CPRF of the numerical calculation is 0.62.
The Jumeirah Lake Tower is situated in Dubai, U.A.E. A first study of different
foundation systems has been evaluated for:
pile foundation
combined pile-raft-foundation
The maximum settlements of the building on piles add up to 4.5 cm. The maximum settlements of the building on CPRF add up to 6.9 cm.
behaviour. Calculations can be carried out with numerical methods, such as the
Finite-Element-Method. This successful design and construction has been verified by many structures including many high-rise buildings and bridges.