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VOL.42, NO. 2
ETHNOMUSICOLOGY
1998
SPRING/SUMMER
of the Word
265
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266
XVIII.
266. Qara jol taiiri man.
I, the black god of fortunes
267. Synuqynyn sapar man.
That which is broken in you I put back together.
268. iuzukirjinulajur man.
That which is torn in you I bind back together.
In the above quotations the term yol denotes "a god of fate" (cf. Shcherbak et al. 1969), most probably two idols, each boasting different attributes
and functions. Constantly moving, the god on a piebald horse resembles
Manichean Zervan, who, in Iranian tradition, was believed to be the patron
saint of eternally passing, infinite time. Researchers associate the god of the
black road with evil Erlic who, in Altaic people's beliefs, inflicts diseases
and misfortunes on people (Stebleva 1976:117-118). The journey to meet
gods or spirits who exercise control over the course of earthly events and
Man's fate combined the spatial dimension of traveling (sacrificial pilgrimage to a place of worship) and the religious-spiritual aspect. Shamans possessed the secret knowledge about the roads leading to all kinds of supernatural beings. They regularly traveled to the other, secret reality, hidden
away from normal perception, in search of solutions to a range of practical and existence-related problems their communities were beset with.
Shamans' ecstatic journeys form the core of shaman rituals in all cultures
the world over (Eliade 1994; cf. also Wierciniski 1989; Wasilewski 1979).
It has to be noted here that the Altaic people believed that a black road led
to Erlic and that there were seven obstacles on that road representing seven increasingly difficult stages of the journey. Ket shamans traveled along
seven roads, each going in a different direction. A beginning shaman had
to find his own and only road out of the seven (Alekseenko 1981; Eliade
In the belief of the Tuvinian people shamans journeyed
1994:232-239).
along twelve roads, the hardest one leading to the underworld (Dyakonova 1981). The road and journey concept represents the very essence of
religious experience in shamanic practices of the Buryats (Mikhailov 1987;
Eliade 1994:130), the Yakuts (Eliade 1994:235), and the Kazakhs (Castagne 1930:53-151). In Turkmen tradition the making of a sacrificial offering
to a god (spirits) before a shaman began his medical ritual was called huday
yoly (literally: the road of god) (Basilov 1986:100).
The metaphorical extension of the term yol to include music was
achieved through shamanic rituals enriched with theatricals and music, and
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of the bagsys
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of profound creative inspiration. The listeners who follow the bag?y during this magic journey prompt him with the words "baqla-ver," meaning
"begin."In old Turkish the word "basla" (from bas = head, beginning) also
meant "to show the way" (Tryjarski 1993:173-174).
The poetry-and-music
concert
Since time immemorial epic tales have been recited to musical accompaniment. Adding music and rhythm to recitation has been closely related
to the structure of the poetic language of the tales and has performed a
mnemonic function, making it easier for singers to memorize the vast repertory, which sometimes includes tens of thousands of lines. On the the
hand, music highlights and strengthens the sacral dimension of both the
epic tale and its narration. The oldest form of adding the musical element
to narrationis beyond doubt rhyhmicised melorecitation, preserved till the
present day, such as in the performance of the KirghizManas. As the composition of epic tales developed, and prose and poetry grew separate, the
music layer graduallybecame autonomous. Musicallyarrangedin an increasingly exquisite way, the verses and songs became separate pieces contrasting with the prose episodes in the narration.The Oghuz epic tale from The
Book of Korkut was one of the first to be recited in this way, and so were
all dessans preserved in Turkmen epic tradition to the present day. The
increasingly expressive musical arrangements of the verses within a dessan resulted in the emergence of a wide song repertory, which with time
became more and more autonomous and began to function independently of the original source and the narrative content.
Songs taken from dessans, to which were added verses written by
outstanding Turkmen poets since approximately the eighteenth century,
are presented by tirmecy bag?ys during concerts lasting several hours,
which, just like the recitation of a dessan, are referred to as yol. In Turkmenistan, the bag?ys's performances of poety and music are perceived in
terms of traveling which has a status and a goal similar to those of the recitation of epic tales, a magic journey in space and time. Beginning his concert, the bag?y becomes a traveler who is searching for the "right road"
which he finds only after some time, after singing several or even a dozen
songs. The Turkmen equivalent of the word "song"is "aydym" (in northeastern Turkmenistan another term, nama, is also used). Turkmen bag?ys
sing "songs"(aydymlar), which generally means "vocal pieces with lyrics."
However, the song in which a bag?ys finds his road is referred to as yol. In
this context yol refers to the aesthetic-emotional value of the performance.
Yol means a well performed or beautifully sung song, a song through which
the baggy chooses the right road which takes him to the destination of his
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271
musical journey. Every song sung by the bag?y may become a yol, although
this very special moment of acquiring the right spiritual-condition and creative inspiration cannot be predicted. This is the reason why no one can
guess beforehand how many songs (aydymlar) and how many "truesongs"
(yollar) the bag?y will manage to perform during a concert.
The dramatic structure of epic narration, based on the concept of the
shaman's journey to increasingly remote worlds inhabited by supernatural
beings, has become for Turkmen bag?ys the model of purely musical performances, which are based on the general pattern of "journeying"into the
innermost recesses of the tonal space. Penetration of the tonal space, which
in Turkmen tradition is associated with a gradual buildup of emotional tension to reach the culmination in the finale, is done by raising the pitch of
the instrument (dutar) which accompanies the bag?y during a concert. At
the beginning of a performance the musicians tune the dutars to the lowest possible pitch, adjusting them to the lowest register of their voices. Now
and again they raise the pitch by a quarter or half tone, which the listeners
welcome because they wait for the buildup of expression and, consequently, emotional tension of the concert (Zerafiska-Kominek1990). This is why
a frequent tuning of the dutar is considered to be an element of bag?y art.
Some experienced masters believe that the instrument's pitch should be
raised approximately seven times during a concert. In practice, however,
this rule is not observed and the dutar may be tuned with varying frequency during a concert. Figure 1 shows the way five bag?ys tuned their dutars.
The singers are marked with Roman numerals while Arabic numerals mark
consecutive songs performed during the concert. The "steps"illustrate the
retuning of the dutars.
Despite the fact that during a concert the dutar may be tuned several
times and the buildup of the absolute pitch is a continuous process, in
theory Turkmen musicians distinguish only three main tunings: (1) low (pes
fekim, literally "the weakest stretching of the strings"), (2) middle (orta
fekim, literally "the medium stretching of the strings"),(3) high (beik fekim,
literally"the strongest stretching of the strings").However, there are no clear
divisions between the tuning ranges of the dutar. The three tunings have
their equivalents in three stages of the "journey"in the tonal space. The
lower zone of the tonal space is used in the first phase of the concert. In
the second and third phase the musical events move up to the middle and
higher zone. The three tunings and the three corresponding phases of the
concert are associated in Turkmen theory with the three stages of the magic
journey and three types, or spheres, of emotions. The first phase serves as
an introduction and preparation for taking "the right road." This happens
in the second phase of the concert, which is also the longest. The third
phase means reaching the destination, finding ecstatic fulfillment at the
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272
Figure 1. The tuning of the dutar during a concert played by five bag?ys.
V
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Ethnomusicology,
Spring/Summer
1998
with a range equaling a fourth or a fifth and usually based on single melodic-motivic material, songs with two segments and a joint range reaching an
octave and with melodic-motivic material different for each of the segments,
and songs whose three segments exceed an octave. The type of structure
is closely correlated with the position of the song along the bag?y's musical journey. One-segment "narrow" structures occur in the low song group,
two-segment structures (medium range) occur in the medium high group,
and three-segment structures are typical of high songs. This structural rule
does not correspond to the formal structure of songs, although they are
closely interrelated. The form of the bag}y's songs depends primarily on
the verse form and on the way verse fragments are musically arranged.
To sum up: bag?ys can be said to know two basic techniques correlated with each other, designed to realize the concept of the musical journey
in the tonal space: the raising of the absolute pitch by tuning the dutar, and
the widening of the song range. The theoretical pattern of the musical structure of a bag?y's concert is shown in Fig. 2. The horizontal axis represents
the dutar neck with thirteen frets providing the chromatic scale of the instrument. The vertical axis shows the conventional set of tones organized
from the lowest to the highest. The points on this axis indicate the tunings
of the dutar, chosen by the bag?y, whose absolute pitch is of no practical
consequence because the tuning standard is qualitative in nature and relative to the zone. The horizontal lines represent the consecutively performed
songs.
SONGS
SONGS
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Yomut-Gklefi yoly, 0owdur yoly, Ata yoly,3 Arsary yoly, Salyr-Saryk yoly,
Ahal-Teke yoly, Damana yoly, Kazanjyk yoly. The last one is also referred
to as the Yomut style (southwestern Turkmenistan).
Except for the Persian term damana (literally "the foot of a mountain"),
all other names are ethnonyms and seem to signify the differentiation of
styles according to tribal criteria. However, the history of Turkmen, especially the permanent reorganization of their family/tribal structure, inevitably led to the blending of traditions and a gradual disappearance of differences that may have existed before. Two conventional kinds of musical
behavior can presently be distinguished, each being relatively stable, recognizable, and repeated in performances (Uspenski and Belaiev 1928): the
Yomut-Gkleii style (northeastern Turkmenistan) and the Salyr-Saryk style
(southeastern Turkmenistan) (Niewiadomska-Bugaj and Zerafiska-Kominek
1997). In southeastern Turkmenistan the instrumental section consists of
one, two, or, exceptionally, three dutars. This extremely soft-toned instrument repeats the melodic line of the song and keeps up its rhythm. The
bag?y gently plucks the strings to produce a beautiful sound. In the northeast of the country the dutar is played as a rhythmic instrument in place of
drums which have never been used in Turkmenistan. The bag?y's playing
is sharp, and the tones of the dutar are short and dry. The melody of the
song is set by the gyjak (spike-fiddle), always slightly ahead of the other
instruments. In southern Turkmenistan the gyjak is used by back-up groups.
Its high and shrill sound frequently dominates performances in the north,
increasing their intonational and melodic precision. An important element
differentiating the northern and the southern style is the internal tempo of
the sound events. Melismatic intensity, the glissando, "sobbing" combinations of sounds, which upset the rhythmic pulse, and the protracted, vibrating tones account for the fact that the internal tempo and the density
of events are perceived as slow or very slow in southeastern-type performances. A strongly syllabic use of the text, a multitude of additions (embellishments, exclamations, etc.) and the purposefully distinct rhythm, typical of the northeastern style, all add up to a fast or very fast tempo.
One of the greatest peculiarities of the bag?y's vocal art is a whole
wealth of sound effects which may be traced back to shamanic spell-casting practices. These effects largely depend on the individual preferences
and tastes of bag?ys, although general conventions are also important here.
It would be impossible to list and to systematize all vocal sounds which are
heard in Turkmen music. They can roughly be divided into three types: (1)
murmurs (hoarseness of the voice, sighs, humming), (2) calls/exclamations,
and (3) barking/hiccuping effects which in Turkmenistan are onomatopoeically referred to asjuk-juk. Murmurs and cries are typical primarily of the
northeastern style. The southeastern style bag?ys are rather restrained and
make the effects sound more "musical" by producing them at a definite
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279
for the most heterogeneous performances.Manyalternatebetween the northeastern and the southeastern style in the course of one concert.
The most important influence on the overall tonal impression of the
bag?y's musical and poetic creation is beyond doubt his personality and artistic individuality, both of which prevail over the "tribal,"local, or regional stylistic convention. The performances of singers who claim to represent
the same style may largely differ in many important respects. A significant
role in shaping the individual styles of bag?ys' musical journeys is played by
the greatest masters/teachers (halypa) who create new "roads"and "directions" (yollar), which their disciples subsequently develop and modify.
Conclusion
In Turkmen musical terminology the word yol has eight meanings:
(1) The bag?y'spath through life. A person becomes a bag?yafter being
elected by supernatural powers and his path through life (or "road"),just
like the road of a shaman, differs from the lives of ordinary mortals. The
very essence of electing a bag?y is a gift he receives "from above" for making magic journeys, whose aim is to establish contact with the supernatural reality. The bag?y's main occupation is telling epics and performing
music and poety concerts.
(2) The bag?y's professional specialization. Turkmen bag?ys are divided into epic tellers (dessancy bag?y), who travel along the dessan road
(dessan yoly) and singers (tirmency bag?y), who travel along the "song
collection" (tirme yoly). This division is a result of the development of
Turkmen-language classical poetry, which began to flourish in the eighteenth century. Many of the greatest poets themselves were also bag?ys.
They represented a new group of "collectors"(tirmecy bag?y) who may not
have been known before.
(3) The epic tale and its recitation. The epic tale (dessan) is called
"road,""journey,"or "greatjourney" because of its genetic links with religious myths. Thus the narration of epics was closely related to shamans'
religious experiences during their magic journeys.
(4) The poetry-and-music concert. There is an analogy between the
way the bag?y's concert, which originated from epic narration, and the
recitation of the dessan are perceived: both are compared to a journey or
moving in a definite direction with a definite aim. In this context the road
concept takes on a new, metaphorical meaning, that of a tonal space organized from the lowest to the highest tone. In theory the tonal space is divided into three different-level zones represented by three tunings of the
dutar and having different emotional intensity.
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Ethnomusicology,
Spring/Summer
1998
(5) The songs. The singer is a traveler searching for the "right" road.
Yollar are the songs of "the only road" which leads the singer to his destination. The term yol relates to the emotional-aesthetic quality of performance.
(6) The system of organizing the songs. The system of sequencing the
songs is based on two main, interrelated rules: the songs move from the
lowest to the highest in the tonal space, and the songs move from the narrowest range to the widest.
(7) Song structure. In Turkmen theory the song structure is referred
to in terms of register segments. There are songs with one, two, or three
segments, which, accordingly, have a narrow, medium, or wide range. The
second rule concerning the concert structure also determines the sequence
of songs which corresponds to their internal structure. One-segment songs
precede those with two segments which precede songs having three segments. In practice this means that each following song is more complicated than the preceding one.
(8) Style of performance. Yol meaning "style" determines the way the
journey is effected, or, in a broad sense, the way the bag?y behaves musically. The style concept includes a very wide repertory of gestures and
technical (mainly vocal) means of performance, which constitute the most
important factor shaping the Turkmen music idiom. The various components of the style and the criteria of its "tribal," local, or regional differences are not verbalized in Turkmen tradition and, to a large extent, are treated individually by performers. The style of performance provides the main
element of artistic imaginativeness which prevails over the more general
convention in the bag?y's musical journeys.
Notes
1. In this article all Turkmen terms are given in their original form, in accordance with
the new rules of Latin writing adopted for the Turkmen language in 1993.
2. There are two places of the Baba Gammar'sworship in Turkmenistan. One is in the
Kopet Dag Mountains, twenty kilometers south of the village of Many?, near A?gabat. The
other, more popular, is Baba Gammar's grave on the Murgap bank in Yoloten etrap. This is
the usual site of Turkmen bag?ys'pilgrimage. The place of A,yk Aydyfi'sworship is in a desert,
not far from Ak Depe etrap in northeastern Turkmenistan.
3. The Yomut-G6klefi, 4(owdur, Ata styles are closely related to each other. They form a
musical-stylistic feature distinctly characteristic of Turkmen Khorezm and this is why they are
marked as one on the map.
References
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Baskakova, N. A., et al. (eds.). 1968. Turkmensko-russkiy slovar. Moskva: Sovetskaya entsiklopedia.
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Ethnomusicology,
Spring/Summer
1998
Zeraiska-Kominek, Slawomira. 1990. "The Classification of Repertoire in Turkmen Traditional Music."Journal of the Society for Asian Music 31(2):90-109.
. 1992. "The Turkmen bakhshy Shaman and/or Artist."In European Studies in Ethnomusicology: Historical Developments and Recent Trends,edited by Max Peter Baumann,
Artur Simon, and Ulrich Wegner, 303-317. International Institute for Traditional Music,
Berlin: Florian Noetzel Verlag Willhelmshaven.
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