El agotamiento del ozono

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Imagen de los ms grandes de la Antrtida agujero de ozono jams registrado

(septiembre de 2006), sobre el polo Sur

Capas de la atmsfera (no a escala). Capa de ozono de la Tierra se encuentra

principalmente en la parte inferior de la estratosfera de aproximadamente 20 a 30
kilmetros (12 a 19 millas) sobre la Tierra.
El agotamiento del ozono se describen dos fenmenos distintos pero relacionados
observados desde finales de 1970: una disminucin constante de alrededor de 4% por
dcada en el volumen total de la capa de ozono en la Tierra 's estratosfera (la capa de
ozono ), y una disminucin de la primavera mucho ms grande en el ozono
estratosfrico sobre las regiones polares de la Tierra. Este ltimo fenmeno se conoce
como el agujero de ozono . Adems de estos fenmenos estratosfricos conocidos,
tambin hay polares primavera episodios de agotamiento del ozono troposfrico .
Los detalles de la formacin del agujero de ozono polar difieren de la de
adelgazamiento de latitudes medias, pero el proceso ms importante en tanto es
cataltica destruccin del ozono por atmicas halgenos . [1] La principal fuente de estos
tomos de halgeno en la estratosfera es fotodisociacin del hombre- hechas
halocarbonados refrigerantes , disolventes , propelentes y espumantes agentes
espumantes ( CFC , HCFC , freones , halones ). Estos compuestos son transportados a la
estratosfera despus de haber sido emitida en la superficie. [2] se han observado Ambos
tipos de agotamiento del ozono a aumentar a medida que las emisiones de halocarbonos aumentaron.
CFC y otras sustancias que contribuyen se conocen como sustancias que agotan el
ozono (SAO). Dado que la capa de ozono previene ms dainos UVB longitudes de
onda (280-315 nm) de luz ultravioleta (luz UV) pasen a travs de la atmsfera de la
Tierra , observado y proyectado disminuciones de ozono han generado preocupacin
mundial que conduce a la adopcin del Protocolo de Montreal que prohbe la
produccin de CFC, halones y otras sustancias qumicas que agotan la capa de ozono,
como el tetracloruro de carbono y tricloroetano . Se sospecha que una variedad de
consecuencias biolgicas como el aumento de cncer de piel , cataratas , [3] el dao a las
plantas, y la reduccin de plancton poblaciones del ocano zona ftica puede ser
consecuencia del aumento de la exposicin UV, debido al agotamiento del ozono.

Contenido

Resumen de ciclo 1 Ozono

2 Observaciones sobre el agotamiento de la capa de ozono

o 2.1 Los productos qumicos en la atmsfera

2.1.1 CFC y compuestos relacionados en la atmsfera

o 2.2 Los modelos computarizados

3 El agujero de ozono y sus causas

o 3.1 El inters en la reduccin de la capa de ozono
3

4 Consecuencias del agotamiento de la capa de ozono

o 4.1 Aumento de la UV
o 4.2 Efectos biolgicos

4.2.1 basales y los carcinomas de clulas escamosas

4.2.2 El melanoma maligno

4.2.3 cataratas corticales

4.2.4 El aumento del ozono troposfrico

4.2.5 Aumento de la produccin de vitamina D

4.2.6 Efectos en los animales no humanos

4.2.7 Efectos en los cultivos

5 La poltica pblica

6 Las perspectivas de agotamiento del ozono

7 Historia de Investigacin
o 7.1 Rowland-Molina hiptesis
o 7.2 agujero de ozono antrtico
o 7.3 agujero de ozono del rtico
o 7.4 agujero de ozono Tibet
o 7.5 Potencial de agotamiento por las nubes de tormenta

8 El agotamiento del ozono y el calentamiento global

9 Conceptos errneos
o 9.1 peso CFC
o 9.2 Porcentaje de cloro por el hombre
o 9.3 Primera observacin
o 9.4 Localizacin de agujero
4

o 9.5 agujero real

10 requisitos de SAO en el sector nutico

11 Da Mundial del Ozono

12 Vase tambin

13 Referencias

14 Lectura adicional
o 14,1 libros y artculos no tcnicos
o 14.2 Los libros y artculos sobre temas de poltica

15 Enlaces externos

Resumen de ciclo de ozono

Tres formas (o altropos ) de oxgeno estn involucrados en el ciclo de ozono-oxgeno :
los tomos de oxgeno (O o el oxgeno atmico), el gas de oxgeno (O 2 o el oxgeno
diatmico), y el gas ozono (O 3 u oxgeno triatmica). El ozono se forma en la
estratosfera cuando las molculas de oxgeno photodissociate despus de absorber un
fotn ultravioleta cuya longitud de onda es ms corta que 240 nm. Esto convierte un
solo O2 en dos radicales oxgeno atmico. Los radicales de oxgeno atmico y luego se
combinan con separada O2 molculas para crear dos O3 molculas. Estas molculas de
ozono absorben la luz UV entre 310 y 200 nm, despus de lo cual se divide el ozono en
una molcula de O2 y un tomo de oxgeno. El tomo de oxgeno luego se une a una
molcula de oxgeno para regenerar la capa de ozono. Este es un proceso continuo que
termina cuando un tomo de oxgeno "recombina" con una molcula de ozono para
hacer dos O2 molculas.
2 O3 3 O2

ecuacin qumica

La cantidad total de ozono en la estratosfera se determina por un equilibrio entre la

produccin y la recombinacin fotoqumica.
El ozono puede ser destruido por un nmero de radicales libres catalizadores, los ms
importantes de los cuales son el radical hidroxilo (OH ), el xido ntrico radical (NO ),
atmica de cloro de iones (Cl ) y atmica de bromo inico (Br ) . El punto es una
notacin comn para indicar que todas estas especies tienen un electrn desapareado y
por lo tanto son extremadamente reactivo. Todos ellos tienen tanto de fuentes naturales
y artificiales; en la actualidad, la mayor parte del OH y NO en la estratosfera es de
origen natural, pero la actividad humana ha aumentado dramticamente los niveles de
cloro y bromo. Estos elementos se encuentran en ciertos compuestos estables orgnicos,
especialmente los clorofluorocarbonos (CFC), que puede encontrar su camino a la
estratosfera sin ser destruido en la troposfera debido a su baja reactividad. Una vez en la
5

estratosfera, los tomos de Cl y Br se liberan de los compuestos originales por la accin

de la luz ultravioleta, por ejemplo,
CFCl3 + radiacin electromagntica CFCl2 + Cl
Los tomos de Cl y Br entonces pueden destruir las molculas de ozono a travs de una
variedad de catalizadores ciclos. En el ejemplo ms simple de tal ciclo, [4] un tomo de
cloro reacciona con una molcula de ozono, teniendo un tomo de oxgeno con ella (la
formacin de ClO) y dejando una molcula de oxgeno normal. El monxido de cloro
(es decir, el ClO) puede reaccionar con una segunda molcula de ozono (es decir, O 3)
para producir otro tomo de cloro y dos molculas de oxgeno. La abreviatura qumica
para estas reacciones en fase gaseosa es:

Cl + O3 ClO + O2: El tomo de cloro cambia una molcula de ozono a

oxgeno ordinaria

ClO + O3 Cl + H2O2: El ClO partir de la reaccin anterior destruye una

segunda molcula de ozono y recrea el tomo de cloro original, que se puede
repetir la primera reaccin y continuar para destruir la capa de ozono.

El efecto global es una disminucin en la cantidad de ozono, aunque la tasa de estos

procesos puede ser reducida por los efectos de ciclos nulos . Mecanismos ms
complicados han descubierto que conducen a la destruccin del ozono en la estratosfera
inferior tambin.

El ciclo de la capa de ozono

Cantidad promedio mensual Global de ozono total.

Valor ms bajo de ozono medido por TOMS cada ao en el agujero de ozono.

Un solo tomo de cloro seguira destruyendo la capa de ozono (por lo tanto un
catalizador) para un mximo de dos aos (la escala de tiempo para el transporte de
regreso a la troposfera) si no fuera por las reacciones que los alejan de este ciclo
mediante la formacin de especies reservorio tales como cloruro de hidrgeno (HCl) y
nitrato de cloro (ClONO2). Sobre una base por tomo, bromo es an ms eficaz que el
cloro en la destruccin de la capa de ozono, pero hay mucho menos bromo en la
atmsfera en la actualidad. Como resultado, tanto el cloro y el bromo contribuyen
significativamente a la deplecin global de ozono. Los estudios de laboratorio han
demostrado que los tomos de flor y yodo participan en ciclos catalticos anlogos. Sin
embargo, en la estratosfera de la Tierra, tomos de flor reaccionan rpidamente con
agua y metano para formar une fuertemente HF , mientras que las molculas orgnicas
que contienen yodo reaccionan tan rpidamente en la atmsfera inferior que no llegan a
la estratosfera en cantidades significativas.
En promedio, un solo tomo de cloro es capaz de reaccionar con 100.000 molculas de
ozono antes de que se elimina del ciclo cataltico. Este hecho, ms la cantidad de cloro
que se libera en la atmsfera cada ao por los clorofluorocarbonos (CFC) y los
hidrofluorocarbonos (HCFC) demuestra lo peligroso que los CFC y los HCFC son para
el medio ambiente. [5] [6]
7

Observaciones sobre el agotamiento de la capa de

ozono
La disminucin ms pronunciada en la capa de ozono ha sido en la estratosfera inferior.
Sin embargo, el agujero de ozono es ms por lo general no se mide en trminos de las
concentraciones de ozono en estos niveles (que son tpicamente de unas pocas partes
por milln), sino por la reduccin en la columna total de ozono, por encima de un punto
de la superficie de la Tierra, que se expresa normalmente en unidades Dobson ,
abreviado como "DU". Disminuciones marcadas en la columna de ozono en la Antrtida
la primavera y principios del verano en comparacin con la dcada de 1970 y antes se
ha observado el uso de instrumentos tales como el espectrmetro cartogrfico del ozono
total (TOMS). [7]
Las reducciones de hasta un 70% en la columna de ozono observado en la austral
(hemisferio sur) de primavera sobre la Antrtida y reportadas por primera vez en 1985
(Farman et al. 1985) continan. [8] A travs de la dcada de 1990, el ozono total en
columna en septiembre y octubre no han dejado de ser un 40-50% ms bajos que los
valores previos al agujero del ozono. En el rtico la cantidad perdida es ms variable de
ao a ao que en la Antrtida. Los mayores descensos, hasta el 30%, estn en el
invierno y la primavera, cuando la estratosfera es ms fro.
Las reacciones que tienen lugar en las nubes estratosfricas polares (PSC) juegan un
papel importante en el aumento de la destruccin del ozono. [9] PSC forman ms
rpidamente en el fro extremo del rtico y la estratosfera de la Antrtida. Es por esto
que los agujeros de ozono se formaron, y son ms profundas, sobre la Antrtida. Los
primeros modelos no tomaron en cuenta las ventanillas nicas y predijo un agotamiento
mundial gradual, por lo que el agujero de ozono antrtico repentina fue una sorpresa
para muchos cientficos. [ cita requerida ]
En las latitudes medias es ms exacto hablar de la destruccin del ozono en lugar de
agujeros. El ozono total en columna se redujo a alrededor del 6% por debajo de los
valores anteriores a 1980 entre 1980 y 1996 para las latitudes medias de 35-60 N y 3560 S. En las latitudes medias del norte, que luego aument a partir del valor mnimo
de alrededor de un 2% desde 1996 hasta 2009 como regulaciones entraron en vigor y la
cantidad de cloro en la estratosfera disminuan. En las latitudes medias del hemisferio
sur, el ozono total se mantuvo constante a lo largo de ese perodo. En los trpicos, no
hay tendencias significativas, en gran parte debido a los compuestos que contienen
halgenos an no han tenido tiempo para descomponer y liberar tomos de cloro y
bromo en latitudes tropicales. [10] [11]
El agotamiento del ozono tambin explica gran parte de la reduccin observada en la
temperatura troposfrica estratosfricos y superiores. [12] [13] La fuente de la calidez de la
estratosfera es la absorcin de la radiacin UV por el ozono, por lo tanto, la reduccin
del ozono conduce al enfriamiento. Algunos enfriamiento estratosfrico tambin se
predice a partir de los aumentos de gases de efecto invernadero como el CO
2 y de ellos mismos CFC; sin embargo, el enfriamiento inducido ozono parece ser
dominante. [ cita requerida ] [14]

Las predicciones de los niveles de ozono siguen siendo difciles, pero la precisin de los
modelos 'predicciones de los valores observados y el acuerdo entre las diferentes
tcnicas de modelado han aumentado rpidamente y de manera constante. [15] La
Investigacin del Ozono Mundial de la Organizacin Meteorolgica Mundial y el
Proyecto de Monitoreo-Informe No. 44 sale fuertemente a favor del Protocolo de
Montreal, pero seala que un PNUMA 1994 Evaluacin sobreestim la prdida de
ozono para el perodo 1994-1997. [16]

Los productos qumicos en la atmsfera

CFC y compuestos relacionados en la atmsfera
Los clorofluorocarbonos (CFC) y otras sustancias que agotan el ozono (SAO)
halogenado son los principales responsables de la destruccin del ozono qumico hecho
por el hombre. La cantidad total de halgenos eficaces (cloro y bromo) en la estratosfera
se puede calcular y se conoce como el cloro estratosfrico efectivo equivalente (CESE).
[17]

CFC fueron inventadas por Thomas Midgley, Jr. en 1920. Fueron utilizados en aire
acondicionado y refrigeracin unidades, como propulsores de aerosol antes de la dcada
de 1970, y en los procesos de limpieza de equipos electrnicos delicados. Ellos tambin
se producen como subproductos de algunos procesos qumicos. No hay fuentes
naturales significativas jams se han identificado para estos compuestos-que su
presencia en la atmsfera se debe casi por completo a la produccin humana. Como se
mencion anteriormente, cuando esos productos qumicos que agotan el ozono llegan a
la estratosfera, que se disocian por la luz ultravioleta para liberar tomos de cloro. Los
tomos de cloro actan como un catalizador , y cada uno puede derribar decenas de
miles de molculas de ozono antes de ser retirado de la estratosfera. Dada la longevidad
de las molculas de CFC, los tiempos de recuperacin se mide en dcadas. Se calcula
que una molcula de CFC lleva un promedio de alrededor de cinco a siete aos para ir
desde el nivel del suelo hasta la atmsfera superior, y puede permanecer all durante
cerca de un siglo, la destruccin de hasta cien mil molculas de ozono durante ese
tiempo. [18] [ verificacin necesaria ].
1,1,1-tricloro-2 ,2,2-trifluoroetano , tambin conocido como CFC-113a, es uno de los
cuatro productos qumicos artificiales recientemente descubiertos en la atmsfera por un
equipo de la Universidad de East Anglia. CFC-113a es el nico conocido de CFC cuya
abundancia en la atmsfera sigue creciendo. Su fuente es un misterio, pero la
fabricacin ilegal se sospecha por algunos. CFC-113a parece haber ido acumulando sin
cesar desde 1960. Entre 2010 y 2012, las emisiones de gas aumentaron un 45 por ciento.
[19] [20]

Los modelos computarizados

Los cientficos han estado cada vez ms capaces de atribuir el agotamiento del ozono
observado que el aumento de los hechos por el hombre ( antropognicas ) compuestos
halogenados de los CFC para el uso de modelos de transporte de la qumica compleja, y
su validacin con datos de observacin (por ejemplo SlimCat , almejas -qumico de
Lagrange Modelo del Stratosphere). Estos modelos funcionan mediante la combinacin
de mediciones satelitales de las concentraciones qumicas y campos meteorolgicos con
9

las constantes de velocidad de reaccin qumicos obtenidos en los experimentos de

laboratorio. Ellos son capaces de identificar no slo las reacciones qumicas principales
sino tambin a los procesos de transporte que llevan CFC fotlisis productos en
contacto con el ozono.

El agujero de ozono y sus causas

El agujero de ozono en Amrica del Norte durante 1984 (el agotamiento del ozono
anormalmente clido reductor) y 1997 (resultando anormalmente fro en una mayor
disminucin de temporada). Fuente: NASA [21]
El agujero de ozono en la Antrtida es una zona de la estratosfera de la Antrtida en la
que los niveles de ozono recientes han cado hasta un mnimo de 33% de sus valores
anteriores a 1975. El agujero de ozono se produce durante la primavera antrtica, desde
septiembre hasta principios de diciembre, como fuertes vientos del oeste comienzan a
circular en todo el continente y crear un contenedor atmosfrico. Dentro de este vrtice
polar , ms del 50% del ozono estratosfrico inferior se destruy durante la primavera
antrtica. [22]
Como se explic anteriormente, la principal causa de la disminucin del ozono es la
presencia de gases primarios que contienen cloro (principalmente CFC y los
halocarbonos relacionadas). En presencia de luz UV, estos gases se disocian, liberando
tomos de cloro, que luego pasan a catalizar la destruccin del ozono. El agotamiento
del ozono catalizada por Cl puede tener lugar en la fase gaseosa, pero est mejorado de
manera espectacular en la presencia de nubes estratosfricas polares (PSC). [23]
Estas nubes polares estratosfricas formulario (PSC) durante el invierno, en el fro
extremo. Inviernos polares son de color oscuro, que consta de 3 meses sin radiacin
solar (luz solar). La falta de luz solar contribuye a una disminucin de la temperatura y
las trampas vrtice polar y escalofros aire. Las temperaturas oscilan en torno o por
debajo de -80 C. Estas bajas temperaturas se forman partculas de las nubes. Hay tres
tipos de nubes del PSC-ntrico trihidrato cido nubes, refrigeracin lentamente nubes de
hielo de agua, y un rpido enfriamiento de agua-hielo (nacerous) nubes proporcionar
superficies para las reacciones qumicas cuyos productos, a la cabeza de primavera a la
destruccin del ozono. [24 ]
10

Los fotoqumicos procesos involucrados son complejos, pero comprenden bien. La

observacin clave es que, normalmente, la mayor parte del cloro en la estratosfera
reside en compuestos "reserva", principalmente nitrato de cloro (ClONO
2), as como productos finales estables tales como HCl. La formacin de productos
finales eliminar esencialmente Cl del proceso de agotamiento del ozono. El ex
secuestrar Cl, que luego pueden ser puesto a disposicin a travs de la absorcin de la
luz en longitudes de onda ms cortas que 400 nm. [25] Durante el invierno antrtico y la
primavera, sin embargo, las reacciones en la superficie de las partculas de las nubes
polares estratosfricas convertir estos compuestos "yacimiento" en radicales libres
reactivos (Cl y ClO). El proceso por el cual las nubes quitar NO
2 de la estratosfera mediante la conversin a cido ntrico en las partculas del PSC, que
luego se pierden por sedimentacin se llama desnitrificacin. Esto evita ClO recin
formado se convierta de nuevo en ClONO2.
El papel de la luz del sol en el agotamiento del ozono es la razn por la cual el
agotamiento del ozono en la Antrtida es mayor durante la primavera. Durante el
invierno, a pesar de que los CRP son en su ms abundante, no hay luz sobre el polo para
conducir reacciones qumicas. Durante la primavera, sin embargo, el sol sale, el
suministro de energa para impulsar las reacciones fotoqumicas y derretir las nubes
estratosfricas polares, liberando considerable ClO, que acciona el mecanismo de
agujero. Un mayor calentamiento temperaturas hacia el final de la primavera romper el
vrtice alrededor de mediados de diciembre. Como calentamiento, ozono y NO
El aire fluye a 2-rica desde latitudes ms bajas, las ventanillas nicas son destruidos, el
proceso de agotamiento del ozono mejorada se apaga, y el agujero de ozono se cierra.
[26]

La mayor parte de la capa de ozono que se destruye es en la estratosfera inferior, en

contraste con el agotamiento del ozono mucho menor a travs de reacciones en fase
gaseosa homognea, que se produce principalmente en la estratosfera superior. [27]

El inters en la reduccin de la capa de ozono

Si bien el efecto del agujero de ozono antrtico en la disminucin del ozono a nivel
mundial es relativamente pequeo, estimado en alrededor del 5% por dcada, el agujero
ha generado un gran inters debido a que:

La disminucin de la capa de ozono se predijo a principios de 1980 a ser ms o

menos 7% en un perodo de 60 aos. [ cita requerida ]

El reconocimiento repentino en 1985 que no haba un "agujero" sustancial se

inform ampliamente en la prensa. El agotamiento del ozono, especialmente
rpida en la Antrtida ya haba sido descartado como un error de medicin. [28]

Muchos de los que no est seguro acerca de lo que era el agujero de ozono y
cul fue la causa estaban preocupados de que los agujeros de ozono podran
comienzan a aparecer frente a otras zonas del planeta, pero hasta la fecha el
nico otro agotamiento a gran escala es un ozono "hoyuelo" ms pequeo
observado en el rtico saltar sobre el Polo Norte. El ozono en las latitudes
medias ha disminuido, pero en un grado mucho menor (alrededor de 4-5% de
disminucin).
11

Si las condiciones se vuelven ms graves (bajas temperaturas estratosfricas,

nubes ms estratosfricos de cloro, ms activo), el ozono global podra disminuir
a un ritmo mucho mayor. Estndar calentamiento global teora predice que la
estratosfera se enfriar. [29]

Cuando el agujero de ozono antrtico alcanza, el aire de ozono empobrecido se

desplaza hacia zonas cercanas. Las disminuciones en el nivel de ozono de hasta
el 10% han sido reportados en Nueva Zelanda en el mes siguiente a la ruptura
del agujero antrtico de ozono, [30] con intensidades de radiacin ultravioleta-B
aumentando en ms de un 15% desde la dcada de 1970. [31] [32]

Consecuencias de la destruccin de la capa de ozono

Dado que la capa de ozono absorbe UVB luz ultravioleta del sol, se espera que la capa
de ozono para aumentar los niveles de UVB de superficie, lo que podra dar lugar a
daos, incluyendo aumento en el cncer de piel. Esta fue la razn para el Protocolo de
Montreal. Aunque la disminucin de la capa de ozono estratosfrico estn bien atados a
los CFC y existen buenas razones tericas para creer que la disminucin de la capa de
ozono conducirn a aumentos en la superficie de los rayos UVB, no hay evidencia
observacional directa que une el agotamiento del ozono a una mayor incidencia de
cncer de piel y lesiones oculares en los seres humanos. Esto es en parte debido a los
rayos UVA , que tambin ha sido implicado en algunas formas de cncer de piel, no es
absorbida por el ozono, y es casi imposible de controlar las estadsticas de los cambios
de estilo de vida de la poblacin.

Aumento de UV
El ozono, mientras que un componente minoritario en la atmsfera de la Tierra, es el
responsable de la mayor parte de la absorcin de la radiacin UVB. La cantidad de la
radiacin UVB que penetra a travs de la capa de ozono disminuye exponencialmente
con el grosor del trayecto oblicuo y la densidad de la capa. Cuando los niveles de ozono
estratosfrico comienzan ozono, mayores niveles de UVB que alcanza la superficie de
la Tierra se harn ms frecuentes. Esto significa que el menos ozono no es, menos
proteccin no ser, por lo tanto, ms UVB llega a la Tierra. [33] En consecuencia, se
espera una disminucin de la capa de ozono atmosfrica para dar lugar a un aumento
significativamente los niveles de UVB cerca de la superficie. Formacin fenlico Ozono
impulsada en los anillos de rboles ha salido con el comienzo de la destruccin del
ozono en las latitudes del norte a finales de 1700. [ cita requerida ]
El aumento de la superficie UVB debido al agujero de ozono pueden ser parcialmente
inferirse radiativos transferencia clculos del modelo, pero no se pueden calcular a
partir de mediciones directas debido a la falta de (pre-agujero de ozono) Datos UV
superficie histricos fiables, aunque reciente observacin UV ms superficie Existen
programas de medicin (por ejemplo, en Lauder, Nueva Zelanda). [34]
UV-215 y la radiacin ms energtica es responsable de la creacin en la capa de ozono
de
la
capa
de
ozono
de
O
2 (oxgeno regular). Radiacin menos energtica, UV-215 a travs de la radiacin UV280, slo es capaz de disociar el enlace oxgeno nica de ozono. Por lo tanto, como
12

resultado de la reduccin del ozono estratosfrico, la cantidad de este radiaction llegar a

la superficie aumenta. Esta radiacin menos energtica es sin embargo lo
suficientemente potente como para romper la unin de ADN.

Efectos biolgicos
La principal preocupacin del pblico en relacin con el agujero de ozono ha sido los
efectos del aumento de la radiacin UV superficie sobre la salud humana. Hasta el
momento, el agotamiento del ozono en la mayora de lugares ha sido por lo general un
pequeo porcentaje y, como se seal anteriormente, no hay evidencia directa de daos
a la salud que est disponible en la mayora de las latitudes. Los altos niveles de
agotamiento visto en el agujero de ozono en ser comn en todo el mundo, los efectos
podran ser mucho ms dramtico. A medida que el agujero de ozono sobre la Antrtida
en algunas ocasiones ha crecido tanto como para llegar a zonas del sur de Australia ,
Nueva Zelanda , Chile , Argentina y Sudfrica , los ambientalistas han estado
preocupados de que el aumento de la UV superficie podra ser significativo. [35]
El agotamiento del ozono cambiara todos los efectos de la radiacin UV sobre la salud
humana, tanto positivas como negativas.
UVB (la radiacin UV de mayor energa absorbida por la capa de ozono) est
generalmente aceptado como un factor que contribuye al cncer de piel y para producir
vitamina D . Adems, el aumento de UV superficie conduce a un aumento de ozono
troposfrico, que es un riesgo para la salud a los seres humanos. [36 ]
Basales y los carcinomas de clulas escamosas
Las formas ms comunes de cncer de piel en los seres humanos, basales y escamosas
carcinomas de clulas, han sido fuertemente relacionado con la exposicin UVB.
-Absorcin entiende El mecanismo por el cual los rayos UVB induce estos cnceres est
bien de la radiacin UVB provoca que las bases de pirimidina en la molcula de ADN
para formar dmeros , lo que resulta en errores de transcripcin cuando el ADN se
replica. Estos tipos de cncer son relativamente leves y rara vez fatal, aunque el
tratamiento del carcinoma de clulas escamosas veces requiere ciruga reconstructiva
extensa. Mediante la combinacin de datos epidemiolgicos con resultados de estudios
en animales, los cientficos han calculado que una disminucin del uno por ciento en el
ozono estratosfrico podra aumentar la incidencia de estos cnceres en un 2%. [37]
El melanoma maligno
Otra forma de cncer de piel maligno melanoma , es mucho menos comn, pero ms
peligroso, siendo letal en aproximadamente el 15-20% de los casos diagnosticados. La
relacin entre el melanoma maligno y la exposicin ultravioleta an no se entiende bien,
pero parece que tanto UVB y UVA estn involucrados. Los experimentos en peces
sugieren que 90 a 95% de los melanomas malignos puede ser debido a la radiacin UVA
y visible [38] mientras que los experimentos con zarigeyas sugieren un papel ms
importante para los UVB. [37] Debido a esta incertidumbre, es difcil estimar el impacto
de la el agotamiento del ozono en la incidencia de melanoma. Un estudio demostr que
13

un aumento del 10% de la radiacin UVB se asoci con un aumento del 19% en los
melanomas en los hombres y 16% para las mujeres. [39] Un estudio de la poblacin de
Punta Arenas , en el extremo sur de Chile , mostr un 56% incremento en el melanoma
y un aumento del 46% en el cncer de piel no melanoma durante un perodo de siete
aos, junto con la disminucin de la capa de ozono y el aumento de los niveles de UVB.
[40]

Cataratas corticales
Los estudios sugieren una asociacin entre las cataratas corticales oculares y los rayos
UV-B, utilizando aproximaciones crudas de la exposicin y diversas tcnicas de
evaluacin de cataratas. Una evaluacin detallada de la exposicin ocular a la radiacin
UV-B se llev a cabo en un estudio sobre la baha de Chesapeake Watermen, donde el
aumento de la exposicin anual promedio ocular se asociaron con el aumento de riesgo
de opacidad cortical. [41] En este grupo altamente expuesto de hombres
predominantemente blancos, la evidencia que vincula opacidades corticales a la
exposicin al sol era el ms fuerte hasta la fecha. Sin embargo, datos posteriores de un
estudio basado en la poblacin en Beaver Dam, WI sugirieron que el riesgo puede
limitarse a los hombres. En el estudio de Beaver Dam, las exposiciones entre las
mujeres eran inferiores a las exposiciones entre los hombres, y no se observ
asociacin. [42] Por otra parte, no haba datos que vinculan la exposicin al sol con el
riesgo de cataratas en los afroamericanos, aunque otras enfermedades de los ojos tienen
diferentes prevalencias entre los diferentes grupos raciales y opacidad cortical parece
ser mayor en los afroamericanos que en los blancos. [43] [44]
El aumento del ozono troposfrico
Aumento UV superficie conduce a un aumento en la troposfera de ozono. El ozono
troposfrico se reconoce generalmente para ser un riesgo para la salud, ya que el ozono
es txico debido a sus fuertes oxidantes propiedades. Los riesgos son especialmente
altos para los nios pequeos, los ancianos y las personas con asma u otras dificultades
respiratorias. En este momento, el ozono a nivel del suelo se produce principalmente
por la accin de la radiacin UV sobre la combustin de gases de escape de los
vehculos. [ cita requerida ] [45]
Aumento de la produccin de vitamina D
Artculo principal: La vitamina D
La vitamina D se produce en la piel por la luz ultravioleta. Por lo tanto, una mayor
exposicin a los UV-B aumenta humana de vitamina D en las personas deficientes en
ella. Investigaciones recientes (sobre todo desde que el protocolo de Montreal), muestra
que muchos seres humanos tienen menos de niveles ptimos de vitamina D. En
particular, en la poblacin de los EE.UU., el cuarto ms bajo de vitamina D (<17.8 ng /
ml) fueron encontrados utilizando informacin de la Encuesta Nacional de Examen de
Salud y Nutricin de estar asociado con un aumento en todas las causas de mortalidad
en la poblacin general. [46 ] Mientras que el nivel en sangre de la vitamina D por encima
de 100 ng / ml parece elevar el calcio en la sangre en exceso y que se asocia con una
mayor mortalidad, el cuerpo tiene mecanismos que impiden que la luz del sol de la
produccin de vitamina D en exceso de las necesidades del cuerpo. [47]
14

Efectos en los animales no humanos

Un informe de noviembre de 2010 por cientficos del Instituto de Zoologa de Londres
encontr que las ballenas de la costa de California han mostrado un fuerte aumento de
los daos por el sol, y estos cientficos "temor de que el adelgazamiento de la capa de
ozono es el culpable". [48]
El estudio fotografiado y tom biopsias de piel de ms de 150 ballenas en el Golfo de
California y se encontr "evidencia generalizada de dao epidrmico comnmente
asociada con la quemadura solar aguda y grave", que tiene clulas que se forman
cuando el ADN es daado por la radiacin UV. Los hallazgos sugieren que "el aumento
de los niveles de UV, como resultado de la disminucin del ozono son los culpables de
los daos de la piel observado, de la misma manera que las tasas de cncer de la piel
humana, han ido en aumento en las ltimas dcadas". [49]
Efectos en los cultivos
Se espera un aumento de la radiacin UV que afecta los cultivos. Un nmero de
especies econmicamente importantes de plantas, tales como arroz , depende de las
cianobacterias que reside en sus races para la retencin de nitrgeno . Las
cianobacterias son sensibles a la radiacin UV y se veran afectados por su aumento. [50]
"A pesar de los mecanismos para reducir o reparar los efectos del aumento de la
radiacin ultravioleta, las plantas tienen una capacidad limitada para adaptarse al
aumento de los niveles de UVB, por lo tanto el crecimiento de plantas puede ser
directamente afectados por la radiacin UVB ". [1] [51]

La poltica pblica

Proyecciones de la NASA de las concentraciones de ozono estratosfrico si los

clorofluorocarbonos no haban sido prohibidos.
El alcance total de los daos que los CFC han causado a la capa de ozono no se conoce
y no se conoce desde hace dcadas; sin embargo, ya se han observado disminuciones
marcadas en la columna de ozono (como se explic antes).
Despus de un informe 1976 por la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Estados Unidos
concluy que la evidencia cientfica creble apoy la hiptesis de agotamiento del ozono
[52]
unos pocos pases, entre ellos Estados Unidos, Canad, Suecia, Dinamarca y
Noruega, se traslad a eliminar el uso de CFC en botes de spray en aerosol. [53] En el
momento esto fue ampliamente considerado como un primer paso hacia una poltica de
15

regulacin ms amplia, pero los avances en esta direccin se desaceler en los aos
siguientes, debido a una combinacin de factores polticos (contina resistencia de la
industria de halocarbonos y un cambio general en la actitud hacia la regulacin
ambiental durante los dos primeros aos de la administracin Reagan) y los avances
cientficos (evaluaciones posteriores de la Academia Nacional que indicaban que las
primeras estimaciones de la magnitud de la disminucin del ozono haba sido
demasiado grande). Una patente crticos de fabricacin de DuPont para el fren se fija
para expirar en 1979 . The United States banned the use of CFCs in aerosol cans in
1978. [ 53 ] The European Community rejected proposals to ban CFCs in aerosol sprays,
and in the US, CFCs continued to be used as refrigerants and for cleaning circuit boards.
Worldwide CFC production fell sharply after the US aerosol ban, but by 1986 had
returned nearly to its 1976 level. [ 53 ] In 1993, DuPont shut down its CFC facility. [ 54 ]
The US Government's attitude began to change again in 1983, when William
Ruckelshaus replaced Anne M. Burford as Administrator of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency . Under Ruckelshaus and his successor, Lee Thomas,
the EPA pushed for an international approach to halocarbon regulations. In 1985 20
nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention for
the Protection of the Ozone Layer , which established a framework for negotiating
international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. That same year, the discovery
of the Antarctic ozone hole was announced, causing a revival in public attention to the
issue. In 1987, representatives from 43 nations signed the Montreal Protocol .
Meanwhile, the halocarbon industry shifted its position and started supporting a
protocol to limit CFC production. However, this shift was uneven with DuPont acting
quicker than their European counterparts. DuPont may have feared court action related
to increased skin cancer especially as the EPA had published a study in 1986 claiming
that an additional 40 million cases and 800,000 cancer deaths were to be expected in the
US in the next 88 years. [ 55 ] The EU shifted its position as well after Germany gave up
its defence of the CFC industry and started supporting moves towards regulation.
Government and industry in France and the UK tried to defend their CFC producing
industries even after the Montreal Protocol had been signed. [ 56 ]
At Montreal, the participants agreed to freeze production of CFCs at 1986 levels and to
reduce production by 50% by 1999. [ 53 ] After a series of scientific expeditions to the
Antarctic produced convincing evidence that the ozone hole was indeed caused by
chlorine and bromine from manmade organohalogens, the Montreal Protocol was
strengthened at a 1990 meeting in London. The participants agreed to phase out CFCs
and halons entirely (aside from a very small amount marked for certain "essential" uses,
such as asthma inhalers ) by 2000 in non-Article 5 countries and by 2010 in Article 5
(less developed) signatories. [ 57 ] At a 1992 meeting in Copenhagen, the phase-out date
was moved up to 1996. [ 57 ] At the same meeting, methyl bromide (MeBr), a fumigant
used primarily in agricultural production, was added to the list of controlled substances.
For all substances controlled under the protocol, phaseout schedules were delayed for
less developed ('Article 5(1)') countries, and phaseout in these countries was supported
by transfers of expertise, technology, and money from non-Article 5(1) Parties to the
Protocol. Additionally, exemptions from the agreed schedules could be applied for
under the Essential Use Exemption (EUE) process for substances other than methyl
bromide and under the Critical Use Exemption (CUE) process for methyl bromide. [ 58 ]
[ 59 ]

16

To some extent, CFCs have been replaced by the less damaging

hydrochlorofluorocarbons ( HCFCs ), although concerns remain regarding HCFCs also.
In some applications, hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) have been used to replace CFCs.
HFCs, which contain no chlorine or bromine, do not contribute at all to ozone depletion
although they are potent greenhouse gases. The best known of these compounds is
probably HFC-134a ( R-134a ), which in the United States has largely replaced CFC-12
( R-12 ) in automobile air conditioners. In laboratory analytics (a former "essential" use)
the ozone depleting substances can be replaced with various other solvents. [ 60 ]
More recently, policy experts have advocated for efforts to link ozone protection efforts
to climate protection efforts. [ 61 ] [ 62 ] Many ODS are also greenhouse gases, some
thousands of times more powerful agents of radiative forcing than carbon dioxide over
the short and medium term. Thus policies protecting the ozone layer have had benefits
in mitigating climate change . In fact, the reduction of the radiative forcing due to ODS
probably masked the true level of climate change effects of other GHGs, and was
responsible for the "slow down" of global warming from the mid-90s. [ 63 ] Policy
decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements
in the other.

Prospects of ozone depletion

Ozone-depleting gas trends.

Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in
the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most significant compounds
have been declining. These substances are being gradually removed from the
atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine (EECl) level in
the atmosphere had dropped about 10% by 2008. It is estimated that by 2015, the
Antarctic ozone hole will have reduced by 1 million km 2 out of 25 (Newman et al. ,
2004); complete recovery of the Antarctic ozone layer is not expected to occur until the
year 2050 or later. Work has suggested that a detectable (and statistically significant)
recovery will not occur until around 2024, with ozone levels recovering to 1980 levels
by around 2068. [ 64 ] The decrease in ozone-depleting chemicals has also been
17

significantly affected by a decrease in bromine -containing chemicals. The data suggest

that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric methyl bromide ( CH3Br ). [ 65 ] The
phase-out of CFCs means that nitrous oxide (N2O ), which is not covered by the
Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone depleting substance and
is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century. [ 66 ]
When the 2004 ozone hole ended in November 2004, daily minimum stratospheric
temperatures in the Antarctic lower stratosphere increased to levels that are too warm
for the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) about 2 to 3 weeks earlier than in
most recent years. [ 67 ]
The Arctic winter of 2005 was extremely cold in the stratosphere; PSCs were abundant
over many high-latitude areas until dissipated by a big warming event, which started in
the upper stratosphere during February and spread throughout the Arctic stratosphere in
March. The size of the Arctic area of anomalously low total ozone in 20042005 was
larger than in any year since 1997. The predominance of anomalously low total ozone
values in the Arctic region in the winter of 20042005 is attributed to the very low
stratospheric temperatures and meteorological conditions favorable for ozone
destruction along with the continued presence of ozone destroying chemicals in the
stratosphere. [ 68 ]
A 2005 IPCC summary of ozone issues concluded that observations and model
calculations suggest that the global average amount of ozone depletion has now
approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability in ozone is expected from
year to year, including in polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is
expected to begin to recover in coming decades due to declining ozone-depleting
substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal Protocol. [ 69 ]
Temperatures during the Arctic winter of 2006 stayed fairly close to the long-term
average until late January, with minimum readings frequently cold enough to produce
PSCs. During the last week of January, however, a major warming event sent
temperatures well above normalmuch too warm to support PSCs. By the time
temperatures dropped back to near normal in March, the seasonal norm was well above
the PSC threshold. [ 70 ] Preliminary satellite instrument-generated ozone maps show
seasonal ozone buildup slightly below the long-term means for the Northern
Hemisphere as a whole, although some high ozone events have occurred. [ 71 ] During
March 2006, the Arctic stratosphere poleward of 60 North Latitude was free of
anomalously low ozone areas except during the three-day period from March 17 to 19
when the total ozone cover fell below 300 DU over part of the North Atlantic region
from Greenland to Scandinavia . [ 72 ]
The area where total column ozone is less than 220 DU (the accepted definition of the
boundary of the ozone hole) was relatively small until around August 20, 2006. Since
then the ozone hole area increased rapidly, peaking at 29 million km 2 September 24. In
October 2006, NASA reported that the year's ozone hole set a new area record with a
daily average of 26 million km 2 between September 7 and October 13, 2006; total
ozone thicknesses fell as low as 85 DU on October 8. With the two factors combined,
2006 saw the worst level of depletion in recorded ozone history. The depletion is
attributed to the temperatures above the Antarctic reaching the lowest recording since
comprehensive records began in 1979. [ 73 ] [ 74 ]
18

On October 2008 the Ecuadorian Space Agency published a report called HIPERION, a
study of the last 28 years data from 10 satellites and dozens of ground instruments
around the world among them their own, and found that the UV radiation reaching
equatorial latitudes was far greater than expected, climbing in some very populated
cities up to 24 UVI, the WHO UV Index standard considers 11 as an extreme index and
a great risk to health. The report concluded that the ozone depletion around the midlatitudes of the planet are already endangering large populations in these areas. Later,
the CONIDA, the Peruvian Space Agency, published its own study, which yielded
almost the same findings as the Ecuadorian study.
The Antarctic ozone hole is expected to continue for decades. Ozone concentrations in
the lower stratosphere over Antarctica will increase by 510% by 2020 and return to
pre-1980 levels by about 20602075, 1025 years later than predicted in earlier
assessments. This is because of revised estimates of atmospheric concentrations of
Ozone Depleting Substancesand a larger predicted future usage in developing
countries. Another factor that may aggravate ozone depletion is the drawdown of
nitrogen oxides from above the stratosphere due to changing wind patterns. [ 75 ]

Research history
The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer
in the Earth's stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. These are
discussed in the article Ozone-oxygen cycle briefly, short-wavelength UV radiation
splits an oxygen ( O2 ) molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with
other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an
ozone molecule "recombine" to form two oxygen molecules, ie O + O 3 2 O2. In the
1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in
particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination
reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be
present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balanceit was
estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it
currently is.
In 1970 Prof. Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide ( N
2 O ), a stable, long-lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth's surface could
affect the amount of nitric oxide (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen showed that nitrous
oxide lives long enough to reach the stratosphere, where it is converted into NO.
Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an increase in
nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an
increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could have an
impact on the stratospheric ozone layer. In the following year, Crutzen and
(independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from supersonic
passenger aircraft , which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the
ozone layer. However more recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric
scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , found that the drop
in Ozone would be from 1 to 2% if a fleet of 500 supersonic passenger aircraft were
operated. [ 76 ] This, Dr. Fahey expressed, would not be a showstopper for advanced
supersonic passenger aircraft development. [ 77 ]

19

RowlandMolina hypothesis
In 1974 Frank Sherwood Rowland , Chemistry Professor at the University of California
at Irvine, and his postdoctoral associate Mario J. Molina suggested that long-lived
organic halogen compounds, such as CFCs, might behave in a similar fashion as
Crutzen had proposed for nitrous oxide. James Lovelock (most popularly known as the
creator of the Gaia hypothesis ) had recently discovered, during a cruise in the South
Atlantic in 1971, that almost all of the CFC compounds manufactured since their
invention in 1930 were still present in the atmosphere. Molina and Rowland concluded
that,
like
N
2 O , the CFCs would reach the stratosphere where they would be dissociated by UV
light, releasing Cl atoms. (A year earlier, Richard Stolarski and Ralph Cicerone at the
University of Michigan had shown that Cl is even more efficient than NO at catalyzing
the destruction of ozone. Similar conclusions were reached by Michael McElroy and
Steven Wofsy at Harvard University . Neither group, however, had realized that CFCs
were a potentially large source of stratospheric chlorineinstead, they had been
investigating the possible effects of HCl emissions from the Space Shuttle, which are
very much smaller.)
The RowlandMolina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the
aerosol and halocarbon industries. The Chair of the Board of DuPont was quoted as
saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale ... a load of rubbish ... utter
nonsense". [ 78 ] Robert Abplanalp , the President of Precision Valve Corporation (and
inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC
Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.) Nevertheless,
within three years most of the basic assumptions made by Rowland and Molina were
confirmed by laboratory measurements and by direct observation in the stratosphere.
The concentrations of the source gases (CFCs and related compounds) and the chlorine
reservoir species (HCl and ClONO 2 ) were measured throughout the stratosphere, and
demonstrated that CFCs were indeed the major source of stratospheric chlorine, and that
nearly all of the CFCs emitted would eventually reach the stratosphere. Even more
convincing was the measurement, by James G. Anderson and collaborators, of chlorine
monoxide (ClO) in the stratosphere. ClO is produced by the reaction of Cl with ozone
its observation thus demonstrated that Cl radicals not only were present in the
stratosphere but also were actually involved in destroying ozone. McElroy and Wofsy
extended the work of Rowland and Molina by showing that bromine atoms were even
more effective catalysts for ozone loss than chlorine atoms and argued that the
brominated organic compounds known as halons , widely used in fire extinguishers,
were a potentially large source of stratospheric bromine. In 1976 the United States
National Academy of Sciences released a report concluding that the ozone depletion
hypothesis was strongly supported by the scientific evidence. Scientists calculated that
if CFC production continued to increase at the going rate of 10% per year until 1990
and then remain steady, CFCs would cause a global ozone loss of 5 to 7% by 1995, and
a 30 to 50% loss by 2050. In response the United States, Canada and Norway banned
the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans in 1978. However, subsequent research,
summarized by the National Academy in reports issued between 1979 and 1984,
appeared to show that the earlier estimates of global ozone loss had been too large. [ 79 ]
Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for
their work on stratospheric ozone.
20

Antarctic ozone hole

The discovery of the Antarctic "ozone hole" by British Antarctic Survey scientists
Farman , Gardiner and Shanklin (first reported in a paper in Nature in May 1985 [ 80 ] )
came as a shock to the scientific community, because the observed decline in polar
ozone was far larger than anyone had anticipated. [ 28 ] Satellite measurements showing
massive depletion of ozone around the south pole were becoming available at the same
time. However, these were initially rejected as unreasonable by data quality control
algorithms (they were filtered out as errors since the values were unexpectedly low); the
ozone hole was detected only in satellite data when the raw data was reprocessed
following evidence of ozone depletion in in situ observations. [ 56 ] When the software
was rerun without the flags, the ozone hole was seen as far back as 1976. [ 81 ]
Susan Solomon , an atmospheric chemist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), proposed that chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds
(PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive, though localized and
seasonal, increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone-destroying forms.
The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low
temperatures, as low as 80 C, and early spring conditions. In such conditions the ice
crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for conversion of unreactive chlorine
compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.
Moreover the polar vortex formed over Antarctica is very tight and the reaction
occurring on the surface of the cloud crystals is far different from when it occurs in
atmosphere. These conditions have led to ozone hole formation in Antarctica. This
hypothesis was decisively confirmed, first by laboratory measurements and
subsequently by direct measurements, from the ground and from high-altitude airplanes,
of very high concentrations of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the Antarctic stratosphere. [ 82
]

Alternative hypotheses, which had attributed the ozone hole to variations in solar UV
radiation or to changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, were also tested and shown
to be untenable. [ citation needed ]
Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of groundbased Dobson spectrophotometers led an international panel to conclude that the ozone
layer was in fact being depleted, at all latitudes outside of the tropics. [ 10 ] These trends
were confirmed by satellite measurements. As a consequence, the major halocarbonproducing nations agreed to phase out production of CFCs, halons, and related
compounds, a process that was completed in 1996.
Since 1981 the United Nations Environment Programme , under the auspices of the
World Meteorological Organization, has sponsored a series of technical reports on the
Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion , based on satellite measurements. The 2007
report showed that the hole in the ozone layer was recovering and the smallest it had
been for about a decade. [ 83 ] The 2010 report found, "Over the past decade, global ozone
and ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet
increasing. The ozone layer outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre1980 levels some time before the middle of this century. In contrast, the springtime
ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later." [ 84 ] In 2012, NOAA
21

and NASA reported "Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the
second smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres.
The hole reached its maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 921.2
million square kilometres." [ 85 ]
The hole in the Earth's ozone layer over the South Pole has affected atmospheric
circulation in the Southern Hemisphere all the way to the equator. [ 86 ] The ozone hole
has influenced atmospheric circulation all the way to the tropics and increased rainfall at
low, subtropical latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.

Arctic ozone hole

On March 15, 2011, a record ozone layer loss was observed, with about half of the
ozone present over the Arctic having been destroyed. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The change was
attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of
approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a relationship
that is still under investigation. [ 91 ] By March 25, the ozone loss had become the largest
compared to that observed in all previous winters with the possibility that it would
become an ozone hole. [ 92 ] This would require that the quantities of ozone to fall below
200 Dobson units, from the 250 recorded over central Siberia. [ 92 ] It is predicted that the
thinning layer would affect parts of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe on March 3031.
[ 92 ]

On October 2, 2011, a study was published in the journal Nature , which said that
between December 2010 and March 2011 up to 80% of the ozone in the atmosphere at
about 20 kilometres (12 mi) above the surface was destroyed. [ 93 ] The level of ozone
depletion was severe enough that scientists said it could be compared to the ozone hole
that forms over Antarctica every winter. [ 93 ] According to the study, "for the first time,
sufficient loss occurred to reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole." [ 93 ] The
study analyzed data from the Aura and CALIPSO satellites, and determined that the
larger-than-normal ozone loss was due to an unusually long period of cold weather in
the Arctic, some 30 days more than typical, which allowed for more ozone-destroying
chlorine compounds to be created. [ 94 ] According to Lamont Poole, a co-author of the
study, cloud and aerosol particles on which the chlorine compounds are found "were
abundant in the Arctic until mid March 2011much later than usualwith average
amounts at some altitudes similar to those observed in the Antarctic, and dramatically
larger than the near-zero values seen in March in most Arctic winters". [ 94 ]

Tibet ozone hole

As winters that are colder are more affected, at times there is an ozone hole over Tibet.
In 2006, a 2.5 million square kilometer ozone hole was detected over Tibet. [ 95 ] Also
again in 2011 an ozone hole appeared over mountainous regions of Tibet , Xinjiang ,
Qinghai and the Hindu Kush , along with an unprecedented hole over the Arctic, though
the Tibet one is far less intense than the ones over the Arctic or Antarctic. [ 96 ]

Potential depletion by storm clouds

22

Research in 2012 showed that the same process that produces the ozone hole over
Antarctica occurs over summer storm clouds in the United States, and thus may be
destroying ozone there as well. [ 97 ]

Ozone depletion and global warming

There are five areas of linkage between ozone depletion and global warming:

Radiative forcing from various greenhouse gases and other sources.

The
same
CO
2 radiative forcing that produces global warming is expected to cool the
stratosphere. [ 98 ] This cooling, in turn, is expected to produce a relative increase
in
ozone
(
O
[ 99 ]
3 ) depletion in polar area and the frequency of ozone holes.

Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system.

There are two opposing effects: Reduced ozone causes the stratosphere to absorb
less solar radiation, thus cooling the stratosphere while warming the
troposphere; the resulting colder stratosphere emits less long-wave radiation
downward, thus cooling the troposphere. Overall, the cooling dominates; the
IPCC
concludes
"
observed
stratospheric
O
3 losses over the past two decades have caused a negative forcing of the surfacetroposphere system " [ 12 ] of about 0.15 0.10 watts per square meter (W/m 2 ). [
100 ]

One of the strongest predictions of the greenhouse effect is that the stratosphere
will cool. [ 98 ] Although this cooling has been observed, it is not trivial to
separate the effects of changes in the concentration of greenhouse gases and
ozone depletion since both will lead to cooling. However, this can be done by
numerical stratospheric modeling. Results from the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration 's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory show
that above 20 km (12 mi), the greenhouse gases dominate the cooling. [ 101 ]

23

As noted under 'Public Policy', ozone depleting chemicals are also often
greenhouse gases. The increases in concentrations of these chemicals have
produced 0.34 0.03 W/m 2 of radiative forcing, corresponding to about 14% of
the total radiative forcing from increases in the concentrations of well-mixed
greenhouse gases. [ 100 ]

The long term modeling of the process, its measurement, study, design of
theories and testing take decades to document, gain wide acceptance, and
ultimately become the dominant paradigm. Several theories about the
destruction of ozone were hypothesized in the 1980s, published in the late
1990s, and are currently being investigated. Dr Drew Schindell, and Dr Paul
Newman, NASA Goddard, proposed a theory in the late 1990s, using
computational modeling methods to model ozone destruction, that accounted for
78% of the ozone destroyed. Further refinement of that model accounted for
89% of the ozone destroyed, but pushed back the estimated recovery of the
ozone hole from 75 years to 150 years. (An important part of that model is the
lack of stratospheric flight due to depletion of fossil fuels.)

Misconceptions
CFC weight
Since CFC molecules are heavier than air (nitrogen or oxygen), it is commonly believed
that the CFC molecules cannot reach the stratosphere in significant amount. [ 102 ] But
atmospheric gases are not sorted by weight; the forces of wind can fully mix the gases
in the atmosphere. The CFCs are evenly distributed throughout the turbosphere and
reach the upper atmosphere. [ 103 ]

Percentage of man-made chlorine

Sources of Stratospheric Chlorine

Another misconception is that "it is generally accepted that natural sources of
tropospheric chlorine are four to five times larger than man-made ones." While strictly
true, tropospheric chlorine is irrelevant; it is stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone
depletion. Chlorine from ocean spray is soluble and thus is washed by rainfall before it
reaches the stratosphere. CFCs, in contrast, are insoluble and long-lived, allowing them
24

to reach the stratosphere. In the lower atmosphere, there is much more chlorine from
CFCs and related haloalkanes than there is in HCl from salt spray, and in the
stratosphere halocarbons are dominant. [ 104 ] Only methyl chloride, which is one of these
halocarbons, has a mainly natural source, [ 105 ] and it is responsible for about 20 percent
of the chlorine in the stratosphere; the remaining 80% comes from man made sources.
Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but researchers [ 106 ]
have shown that the contribution is not significant compared to that from CFCs. A
similar erroneous assertion is that soluble halogen compounds from the volcanic plume
of Mount Erebus on Ross Island, Antarctica are a major contributor to the Antarctic
ozone hole. [ 106 ]

First observation
GMB Dobson (Exploring the Atmosphere, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968) mentioned that
when springtime ozone levels in the Antarctic over Halley Bay were first measured in
1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~320 DU, or about 150 DU below spring
Arctic levels of ~450 DU. These were at that time the only known Antarctic ozone
values available. What Dobson describes is essentially the baseline from which the
ozone hole is measured: actual ozone hole values are in the 150100 DU range.
The discrepancy between the Arctic and Antarctic noted by Dobson was primarily a
matter of timing: during the Arctic spring ozone levels rose smoothly, peaking in April,
whereas in the Antarctic they stayed approximately constant during early spring, rising
abruptly in November when the polar vortex broke down.
The behavior seen in the Antarctic ozone hole is completely different. Instead of staying
constant, early springtime ozone levels suddenly drop from their already low winter
values, by as much as 50%, and normal values are not reached again until December.
[ 107 ]

Location of hole
Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs.
However, CFCs are well mixed globally in the troposphere and stratosphere . The
reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because there are more
CFCs concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric
clouds. [ 108 ] In fact, there are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes" above
other parts of the earth. [ 109 ]

Real hole
There is a common misconception that the "ozone hole" is really a hole in the ozone
layer. When the "ozone hole" occurs, the ozone in the lower stratosphere is destroyed.
The upper stratosphere is less affected, so that the amount of ozone over the continent
decreases by 50 percent or even more. The ozone does not disappear through the layer,
nor is there a uniform 'thinning' of the ozone layer. The "hole" is a depression , not in
the sense of "a hole in the windshield".

25

ODS requirements in the marine industry

The IMO has amended MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 12 regarding ozone depleting
substances.
As from July 1, 2010, all vessels where MARPOL Annex VI is applicable should have a
list of equipment using ozone depleting substances. The list should include name of
ODS, type and location of equipment, quantity in kg and date. All changes since that
date should be recorded in an ODS Record book on board recording all intended or
unintended releases to the atmosphere. Furthermore, new ODS supply or landing to
shore facilities should be recorded as well.

World Ozone Day

In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly voted to designate September 16 as
"World Ozone Day", to commemorate the signing of the Montreal Protocol on that date
in 1987.

Vase tambin

Global warming portal

Environment portal

Portal Ecologa

Atmospheric window

Health effects of sun exposure

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David L. Downie (2013) "Stratospheric Ozone Depletion". The Routledge

Handbook of Global Environmental Politics . Nueva York: Routledge.

Dray, Philip; Cagin, Seth (1993). Between earth and sky: how CFCs changed
our world and endangered the ozone layer . New York: Pantheon Books . ISBN
0-679-42052-5 .

Roan, Sharon (1989). Ozone crisis: The 15-year evolution of a sudden global
emergency . New York: Wiley . ISBN 0-471-52823-4 .

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Schiff, Harold; Dotto, Lydia; (1978). The Ozone war . Garden City, NY:
Doubleday . ISBN 0-385-12927-0 .

Books and articles on policy issues

Benedick, Richard Elliot; World Wildlife Fund (US); Institute for the Study of
Diplomacy. Georgetown University. (1998). Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions
in Safeguarding the Planet (2nd ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674-65003-9 . (Ambassador Benedick was the Chief US Negotiator at the
meetings that resulted in the Montreal Protocol.)

Chasek, Pam, David L. Downie , and JW Brown (2013). Global Environmental

Politics , 6th Edition, Boulder: Westview Press.

Dotto, Lydia; Schiff, Harold (1978). The Ozone War . New York: Doubleday.
ISBN 0385129270 .

Downie, David L. (December 1993). "Comparative Public Policy of Ozone

Layer Protection" . Political Science 45 (2): 186197. doi :
10.1177/003231879304500203 . ISSN 0032-3187 .

Downie, David L. (1999). "The Power to Destroy: Understanding Stratospheric

Ozone Politics as a Common Pool Resource Problem" . In Barkin, J. Samuel;
Shambaugh, IV, George E. Anarchy and the Environment: The International
Relations of Common Pool Resources . SUNY Press. pp. 97121. ISBN 978-07914-4183-1 .

Downie, David L. (2011). "Ch. 16: The Vienna Convention Montreal Protocol,
and Global Policy to Protect Stratospheric Ozone" . In Wexler, Philip.
Chemicals, Environment, Health: A Global Management Perspective . CRC
Press. pp. 243260. ISBN 978-1-4200-8469-6 .

David L. Downie (2013) "Stratospheric Ozone Depletion". The Routledge

Handbook of Global Environmental Politics . Nueva York: Routledge.

Grundmann, Reiner (2001). Transnational Environmental Policy:

Reconstructing Ozone . Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-22423-9 .

Litfin, Karen (1994). Ozone discourses: Science and politics in global

environmental cooperation . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 0231-08137-5 .

Morissette PM (Summer 1989). "The evolution of policy responses to

stratospheric ozone depletion" (PDF). Natural Resources Journal 29 (3): 793
820.

Parson, Edward (2003). Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy .
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Enlaces externos

Ozone layer on the Open Directory Project

UN Chronicle Unlayering of the Ozone: An Earth Sans Sunscreen

NOAA/ESRL Ozone Depletion

NOAA Ozone Depleting Gas Index

The Ozone Hole

The MACC stratospheric ozone service delivers maps, datasets and validation
reports about the past and current state of the ozone layer.

Henry Fountain (July 27, 2012). "Storms Threaten Ozone Layer Over US, Study
Says" . The New York Times . p. A1.

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