Fundamentals of Motion Control:

Motion control consists in moving a load in a given period of time with a very high
level of accuracy.
There are different characteristics linked to motion.
The first is Movement, which can be defined by the following points:
Initial position
Final position or target position
Speed and acceleration
Type of trajectory
Then there is Performance, for which the following points are important
Static and dynamic performance
Accuracy
Speed
Stability
There is also Position, which can be
Absolute
Or Relative
All business sectors are concerned by these applications, which may be simple or
relatively complicated.
We can draw two axes: the Y axis representing Performance (i.e. position accuracy,
speed, acceleration and torque) and the X axis representing the complexity of the
movement..

Speed drives are used for simple motion applications like Pumps, Fans, Hoisting
devices, Compressors, etc.
They can be qualified as simple as the only signal controlled is speed.
At the other end of the scale there is Digital control. This is for more complex
applications such as robots, control systems and very high performance machines.
Digital control is used for robots and machine tools for example. In this kind of
application, the complexity is proportional to the number of drives to be
coordinated. For example, a robot with 6 axes requires 6 drives that need to be
controlled simultaneously.

Motion control is somewhere between the two.

It is used for general applications with single and multiple axes requiring accurate
and quick response time positioning.
For example, motion control applications cover Materiel handling, Component
assembly, Palletizers, Handling cranes, Packaging machines, etc.
2 signals have to be controlled in motion control: position and speed.
The following presentations focus on the field of Motion Control.

Here you can see the main components of a Motion Control System:
The Motion Controller
The Drive
The Motor

The Positioning Feedback System

The Mechanical Load
The Human Machine Interface
The Motion Controller co-ordinates movements and calculates the target position
and speed.
The Drive supplies and converts electrical energy for the motor and ensures
regulation.
The Motor converts the electrical power into mechanical power.
The positioning feedback system supplies the drive with the position and speed of
the motor.
The Mechanical Load is in charge of performing a given task.
The human machine interface makes it possible to monitor and set up the system.
It is an optional component, which may be used to enter data into the application,
feed back information (about speed, faults, etc.) and input set points.
This interface is generally installed by an automation engineer.
Some examples of machines with position control are Flying shears, Packaging
applications, Material handling systems, Rotating blades, Machine tools, etc.

Here is a first example of XYZ positioning: the transtocker. The three x, y and z
movements are coordinated to move and position tubs in the right place in the
warehouse. Here the parameter to be controlled is position.

In this application, the objective is to cut a moving strip of paper into equal sections,
however fast the strip of paper is moving. Here, the key part of the application lies
in the synchronization of the two axes.

A third example of a machine tool is a Laser cutting machine. The three x, y and z
movements are coordinated to cut out complex parts. This application requires
calculation of the trajectory.

This last example shows a handling machine that can wind and unwind products.
The machine must ensure regular winding in order to guarantee product quality. In
this application, it is the torque and speed that need to be controlled.

How does a system behave in relation to what is required of it (the green curve)?
Two opposing responses are possible.
A very fast response but with an overrun and oscillations (in purple)
A slow response with no overrun (in orange)

Each application has its own response covering its response time, overrun and
accuracy.
Good movement control provides the necessary adjustment flexibility to obtain an
optimal response (in black).
Lets now describe the key components of a motion system, starting with the Motion
Controller.
The motion controller has two roles: it supervises and controls.
Its basic function is to manage the control sequence of the application and to
send information to the drive.
For example, this involves going to a given position, at a given speed, and then
coming back.

It can control one or more drives and therefore supervise and synchronize the
different movements.
The motion controller can be a PLC, a PC, a dedicated calculator, etc.
There are some systems where the motion controller (the sequence) is included in
the drive and others where positioning is performed by the controller.

The controller coordinates the sequence of single-axis or multi-axis movements

programmed by the operator. It defines the path of movement, or trajectory, by
looking at the position in relation to time and generating the speed set point.
For example:
For Movement 1: the Axis moves from the X0 position to the X1 position with a V1
speed set point
For Movement 2: the Axis moves back to its previous X0 position with a V2 speed
set point.

Linear axes are axes with limited movement. The limits are given by limit switches
or by a mechanical end stop.
In the case of a simple linear axis, the motion controller initializes movement and
then ensures travel from point A to point B
Axis motion between Xa and Xb is limited by a lower and higher limit.

Infinite axes are axes that are basically rotating so the general notion of limited
movement does not apply.
The drive has the job of converting electrical energy from the electrical network
(power supply) for the motor.
It controls voltage and frequency and regulates different values: torque, speed and
position.
The drive operates according to three regulation loops in a cascade formation:

The Torque loop provides the motor with the energy required to drive the system at
a certain speed.
The speed loop provides the torque loop with the torque setpoint to reach the right
speed. It answers the question: How much torque is needed to get where I want to
go at the right speed?
The position loop provides the speed loop with the speed profile needed to reach
the position setpoint.

Motor
Because it is mechanically linked to the load, the motor acts as a converter,
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy.
There are five main categories of motor:
Synchronous or AC brushless
DC brushless
Asynchronous
Stepping
ICLA
Synchronous or AC brushless

There are a number of advantages and drawbacks to each type of motor.

The advantages of the synchronous motor are that it is compact and has a low level
of inertia because of the permanent magnets in the rotor. It is therefore highly
dynamic and is able to very quickly reach high speeds. Its drawbacks are that it has
a complex ordering system, there are no existing standards, it is costly and cannot
be controlled without a sensor.
Synchronous motor is called also AC Brushless motor
Drives for AC Brushless motors use Sinusoidal Commutation device.
DC brushless

DC brushless motors have also permanent magnets in the rotor

The associated drives use a trapezoidal commutation device.
As the drive for DC brushless motors does not generated a very complicated signal,
a low resolution encoder will suffice to relay the rotor position to the drive in order
to commutate itself
The drive for DC brushless motors does not produce a torque ripple as low as
sinusoidal one, but the circuits are not as complex, so it is cheaper.
Asynchronous

The advantages of the asynchronous motor are that it is robust, it is more

economical and has standardized fixing mechanisms and flanges.
Its drawbacks are its size , lack of dynamism due to the weight of the rotor (inertia),
the control of the torque is not easy (slipping).
Stepping

The stepping motor has the advantage of being easy to control. Its drawback is its
lack of power.
ICLA

The ICLA solution comprises a Brushless DC motor with integrated electronics

It offers a number of advantages.
It is flexible thanks to a significantly smaller amount of wiring.
It is compact and therefore offers a High level of Electromagnetic Compatibility
(EMC) thanks to the integrated wiring
It is modular, which means less time spent debugging, and the product range is
much wider.
Less space is taken up in the control cabinet and the demand on the cooling system
is smaller.
Safety is ensured by integrated Power Removal technology, which does away with
the need for external contactors
It is also advantageous in terms of price: expansion planning costs are lower, for
both machines that are manufactured manually or automatically.
Its drawbacks are as follows:
It needs more space than a single motor
Should a failure occur, the whole component has to be changed.
Wet area applications are restricted by the degree of protection.
The feedback system
The feedback system is a key element in the chain. It continually provides the drive
and sometimes the controller with information about the position of the motor rotor
or the mechanical parts.
Positioning accuracy is strongly linked to the quality of the sensor.

If there is no sensor, the system is said to be in an open loop, with position and
speed being estimated based on a calculation. In this case, the positioning is much
less precise.
The majority of motion control and digital control applications require feedback.

The position sensor is generally fixed to the motor axis. It provides the motor shaft
position.
There are 3 types of position sensor:
A Resolver is a system that sends back analog information about the position of
the rotor.
An Incremental encoder is an optical system that sends back digital information
about the relative position of the rotor
An Absolute encoder is a System that sends back both digital and analog
information about the absolute position of the rotor.
The common feedback parameters are:
Resolution, accuracy and repeatability
The basic types of sensors are introduced in the Motor & Feedback sequence.
Conclusion

We shall conclude the first part of this sequence with two questions: The first is
what is servo control?
This is the management of the different regulation loops in the system to reach the
target as quickly as possible with a maximum level of accuracy.
The second is what is a regulator ?
The regulation loop compares the feedback with the setpoint and controls the drive
in order to eliminate the error.
The correction method is most often based on the Proportional and Integral (PI).
Specific filters can also be applied for the correction.
Regulation will be looked at more closely in the following sequences.

AC SERVO MOTOR DRIVES

The AC servomotor belongs to the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor family.

It is made up of a stator and a rotor.

The stator has three symmetrical phase windings like an asynchronous motor. They
are internally connected in a star formation. The common point is not available.
The rotor has permanent magnets.
There is an air gap between the stator and the rotor.
The magnetic field is produced in this air gap thanks to the permanent magnets.

We shall now explain how maximum torque is obtained with an AC servomotor.

The torque is proportional to the rotor field x stator field x phase shift between
them.
The torques mathematical expression is shown: M = K1 . |Hr| . |Hs| . sin
The torque, K1, is constant. It depends on the motor.
The rotor field, Hr, is created by the magnets and is constant too.
The stator field, Hs, is proportional to the current in the stator windings.
The phase shift between the rotor and the stator fields, , increases with the torque
on the shaft.

Let us use the complete formula: M = K1 . |Hr| . |Hs| . sin

It is important to remember that:
The rotor field Hr is constant (because it comes from the permanent magnets).
The angle theta is maintained equal to 90, therefore: sin theta =
1.
The stator field Hs is proportional to the current in the windings.
So, the formula to express the torque is simplified as M = K I where I is the motor
current.
The 90 angle between the stator and rotor fields ensures maximum torque.

Servo Drive
To make sure maximum torque is achieved, the servodrive needs to know the
position of the rotor.
This is why a position sensor is used.

The purpose of the position sensor is to allow the servodrive to maintain the stator
field perpendicular to the rotor field.
It does this by controlling the phase of the motor current according to the rotor
position.
The drive can then calculate the speed and, if necessary, the axis position.
The motor position sensor is generally a resolver or a similar type of sensor.
In some cases, the resolver can be used as a position sensor for the application.

AC SERVO MOTOR COMPONEMTS

This picture shows the main components of an AC servomotor: connectors, optional
holding brake, position sensor, magnets, windings, flange and housing.
AC servomotor efficiency is very good.
The power loss on the rotor is very low while the power loss on the stator can be
easily dissipated into the ambient air.

The intrinsic performance of an AC servomotor is mainly linked to the properties of

the permanent magnet material.
In the past, the magnets were made of steel. Unfortunately, these had a very low
energy level and were often demagnetized.
Today, in order to manufacture permanent magnets, steel has been replaced with
other materials such as Neodymium Iron-Boron, which is the second generation of
rare earth magnets.
AC servomotors often come with a holding brake to be supplied from the outside.
When the brake is not supplied with energy, the rotor is blocked.
Holding brakes are designed as standstill brakes and are not suitable for repeated
operational braking.
Torque speed curve

The AC servomotor torque-speed curves are important to size the motor.

Once the AC servomotor has been chosen, the level of torque mainly depends on
the associated servodrive, because it controls the motor current. The maximum
voltage delivered by the servodrive sets the peak torque according to the speed.

To size the AC servomotor, it is important to take into account the applications

cycle to see whether it will work in the continuous operating area or in the
intermittent operating area.
Sizing will be studied in greater detail in a future module.
Mechanical gear box or Planetary Reducers:
The gearbox and, in particular, the planetary reducers.
To have a stable system, it is often necessary to reduce the inertia of the application
reflected to the motor shaft.
For this, mechanical gearboxes or reducers are mounted on the motor. These are
often planetary reducers.
The speed of the motor is divided at the reducer output, so the torque is higher than
that on the motor shaft.
Planetary reducers are designed for the specific needs of AC servomotors.
They come in several sizes and several reduction ratios.
For a given planetary reducer model, the speed ratio can range from 3:1 to 40:1

GBX reducer:

ENCODER TECHNOLOGIES USED FOR POSITION FEEDBACK

There are three types of technology available: the resolver, the incremental encoder
and the absolute encoder.
i)

Resolver
A resolver is a very basic device with no electronic or optical
components. It has no frame and is fitted directly on to the
motor shaft. It is a good solution for general purpose
applications.
If the resolver has two poles, it gives an absolute position of the
angle within only one revolution.
It is basically a rotating transformer fed with a carrier frequency
E (for instance 5 V at 8 KHz).
A primary winding is located in the rotor and there are two
secondary windings in the stator.

The two secondary windings of the stator give signals based on the carrier
frequency modulated by the angle of the rotor.
A and B signals are demodulated inside the drive to obtain Sine and Cosine
signals.

The position is then calculated using these two voltages.

The servodrive uses the position information to calculate the speed.
The position feedback can also be used by the position loop inside the servodrive or
by the applications external controller.

The mechanical angle position of the resolver must be set up when it is mounted or
replaced.
ii)

Incremental encoder
An incremental encoder provides a relative position.
Heres how it works:
The disc of an incremental encoder has 2 types of track.
It has one or several outside tracks (channels A and B), comprising a
known number of equal angular steps that are alternately opaque and
transparent. The known number of equal angular steps is the resolution.
It also has an inside track comprising a single window, which is used as
the set point and triggers re-initialisation with each revolution.

Operation of the photosensitive components (i.e. the LEDs +

photosensitive diodes) is based on a real-time differential optical reading:
- the photosensitive components of tracks of A and B are offset so that
each will simultaneously read only its respective slot (channels A and B
are electrically offset by 90),
- the electronic components operate according to the principle of real-time
differential measurement.
The rising edge of Channel B occurs before or after the rising edge of
Channel A depending on which way the motor rotates.

This is how the servodrive is able to determine the direction of motor

rotation.

iii)

absolute encoder
An absolute encoder has a high number of discs, which define the
absolute position for a single revolution or for several revolutions.

Lets now take a look at how an absolute encoder works.

The disc of an absolute encoder comprises several concentric tracks,
equally divided into alternate opaque and transparent segments.
The inside track is half opaque and half transparent and delivers the Most
Significant Bit (MSB) of the code based on the encoder position.
The outside track corresponds to the Least Significant Bit (LSB) and
provides the final accuracy. It has a number of points corresponding to the
encoders resolution.

Each track has its own transmitter and receiver. The multiturn absolute
encoder, in addition to providing the digital position within the revolution,
also provides the total number of revolutions.

For each angular position of the shaft, the disc provides a code. Following
one complete revolution of the encoder, the same coded values are
repeated.
The code can either be binary or gray.

Binary coding
The binary code can be used directly by processing systems
(programmable controllers for example) in order to execute calculations or
comparisons, but it has the drawback of having several bits which change
state between 2 positions.

Gray coding
The Gray code offers the advantage of changing only one bit between 2
consecutive numbers.
Using an absolute encoder to detect position offers a number of
advantages
An absolute encoder continuously provides a code that is an image of the
actual position of the moving part being monitored.
On power-up, or restart following a supply failure, the encoder provides
data that is directly exploitable by the processing system.

Motion control loops

The Servo Drive has three possible operating modes. We shall focus on these during
this session:
- The Torque Control Mode
- The Velocity Control Mode
- And the Position Control Mode

Lets start with the Torque Control Mode. This mode can be used in a
winding/unwinding machine to adjust and regulate the web tension. If the torque set
point increases, the force in the web increases as illustrated here.
The torque setpoint is a current that is proportional to the motor torque .
Only the current loop is activated.
The current regulator parameters depend on the electrical parameters of the motor.
The servo drive already knows the motor parameters.
In most cases, the current regulator is automatically set and so the user does not
need to make any adjustments.
Now lets move on to the Velocity Control Mode.
This mode can be used in machines where very high speeds are required
The speed setpoint is a reference to be followed by the motor.
Both the current and speed loops are activated.
The speed regulator is a PI regulator (proportional plus integral actions).
In practice, it is tuned or adjusted to ensure the control system behaves in the right
manner. In other words, to ensure:
stability,
steady-state accuracy
transient response
frequency response.

The PI regulator ensures the motors speed is stable and accurate.

It uses two input data:
The speed reference and the speed feedback.
It also uses two setting parameters:
- The proportional gain or Kp : used to optimise the response time.
- And the Integral gain or Ki = 1/Ti: used to stabilise the system and improve
accuracy.
Ti is the integral time in milliseconds.
These two gains are used to correct, cancel or reduce errors when the feedback is
not equal to the reference.
Lets start with the proportional action.
The proportional action is adjustable thanks to the Kp gain, which has no units.
Lets have a look at how the system responds when we act on the Kp gain.

The systems response is divided into two states: a transient state and a steady
state.
In the transient period:
You can see that the higher the Kp, the shorter the systems response time. Kp
makes it possible to increase the systems speed of response. If Kp increases too
much, the system becomes unstable.
In the steady-state period:
You can see from the curves that the higher Kp is, the smaller the speed error. The
speed error is never cancelled when a proportional gain only is applied.
There will always be a speed error in both the transient and steady-state periods.
This problem can be solved by applying an integral gain.
Let us now focus on the Integral action. It is based on the mathematical operator
integral related to time.
The Integral action is adjusted according to the integral time (Ti).

The systems response time is influenced by the gain settings but also by the
reference speed.

Lets have a look at the curve:

1. How does the integral action setting influence the systems response?
You can see that the shorter Ti is, the smaller the integral action.
The Integral action tends to cancel the static error.
2. How does the speed reference influence the systems response?
Depending on how fast the speed reference is, the integral gain is not constant.
During the transient period, the integral gain drops.
In steady-state conditions, the integral gain is infinite. So, there is no speed error in
steady-state conditions.
Its time to look at Proportional-Integral action.
The overall gain results from the combined proportional and integral gain.

During the transient period, it is the proportional gain that ensures system stability
and rapidity.
In steady-state conditions, it is the integral gain that ensures system stability and
accuracy.
This is a block diagram showing the velocity regulator.
The acceleration and deceleration ramps reduce speed reference dynamics.
This also helps to limit overshooting and improve stability by increasing the front
rise time of the speed reference.

The desired speed response is when the set-point is reached with acceptable:
- rise-time
- overshoot
- settling time
- accuracy (static error)
The best possible response is based on a compromise between these four values.
The rise time is the time taken to rise from 10% to 90% of the response to a step
input.

The peak overshoot is the maximum amount by which the output exceeds the input
in response to a step, expressed as a proportion of the step height.

The settling time is the time taken to settle to within 5% of the new steady output
after a step applied to the input.

The accuracy (or static error) is the difference between the output and the input in
steady-state conditions.

Remark: The well-tuned servo system should not have any static error for a step
change in the speed reference or in the load torque.
To implement the position loop, the current loop and speed loop must firstly be
correctly tuned.
It is essential to tune the regulation loops to the servo motor and its load. Tuning
sets the gains of each loop. It can be done automatically or manually.
Many digital AC servo drives also have an auto-tune mode that estimates the value
of load inertia and initially sets the tuning parameters to reasonable values for user
specified targets such as low, medium or high response.
The auto-tune values usually provide a stable system that is often sufficient for the
application or at least serves as a starting point for fine-tuning by the user.

Tuning has a direct effect on the systems bandwidth.

The bandwidth is the ability of a speed drive, combined with a motor and its load, to
follow a quickly varying setpoint: in our case, this is the speed reference.
This diagram shows the bandwidth characteristic: the frequency value read when
the gain is -3dB.
Furthermore, the bandwidth increases in accordance with the proportional gain (Kp)
of the speed loop.
Generally, the bandwidth of the speed loop must be at least 3 times the bandwidth
of the position loop. This prevents the position loop from overshooting.

Unfortunately, real loads connected to the servo system rarely behave like perfectly
inert loads. Real loads can be subject to friction, damping, compliance, backlash,
variable inertia and other possible non-linearities.
This is why tuning the AC Servo System gives the best results when the actual load
is linked to the AC Servo System.
Older control systems required a tachometer on the motor to provide speed
feedback as well as a resolver or encoder for position feedback.
In modern systems with powerful microprocessors, it is possible to have only one
feedback device for position and speed.
To calculate the speed, the position is derived.

Motor sizing with respect to the servo drive and the motion profile
If the motor and drive are incorrectly sized for the desired motion profile no amount
of tuning will yield the desired results.

Earthing and cable shielding connections

Great care must be taken when following the earthing and shielding procedures in
the servo drive product installation manual.
If there is excessive system noise, the system must be detuned (low bandwidth) so
that it is not excited by high frequency noise (cause of permanent instabilities).
The applications mechanical parts
Ensure that there is minimum flexibility in the mechanical system and that
couplings are tight. If the system is not well-designed from a mechanical point of
view, this will produce resonance requiring the system to be detuned.
Let us now turn to the position control mode.
The position setpoint defines the position to be reached or followed by the
application. It is a target position or trajectory.
This is the most widely used mode and it applies to all applications with axis
positioning.

In position control mode, the 3 loops are activated.

The regulation loops are organised in a cascade formation.
The position loop delivers the speed setpoint to the speed loop that, in turn, delivers
the current reference to the current loop.
The motor current generates the necessary torque to reach the desired speed.
Position control applications fall into 2 basic categories:
- Point-to-point
- Contouring
Point-to-point applications are not usually concerned with path control but with
move time, setting time and the velocity profile.
In general, contouring applications follow a path. They require the actual position to
follow the command position in a very predictable manner and a high level of
mechanical rigidity to reject the effect of any load torque disturbances.

Tuning of motion system

Hello and welcome to this sequence on Tuning a Motion System.
This module explains why and how a motion system is tuned so that it behaves in
the right way, i.e. so that it operates in a stable manner.
A motion systems instability is characterised by oscillations that can be observed
and corrected.
The tuning operation is necessary to adjust the speed loop. This ensures that the
motion system operates in a fast, stable and accurate manner.
It is essential for the current loop to be properly set before tuning the speed loop.
The commonly used reference signal for tuning the speed loop is a square wave.
Frequencies can be excited in the motion system. If there is a stability problem, this
is usually shown by a square wave.
This method is based on a temporal analysis.

Temporal analysis using a square wave reference is the main method used to tune
motion systems because it covers a very large spectrum of frequencies ranging
from low to high frequencies.

A motion system must work properly with the entire application. It must take into
account the applications needs and minimize the consequences of interference.
An applications needs are generally:
Responsiveness
Stability
And Rigidity
Responsiveness describes the ability of a system to react to a reference change.
A systems responsiveness is usually measured using the settling time.
High gains make systems more responsive.

Stability describes the margin according to which a servosystem does not fall into
self-sustained oscillation.
A system must have a reasonable margin of stability.
Stability is commonly measured by overshoot and settling time in response to a
square wave.
High gains often make systems unstable.

Rigidity describes the ability of a servo system to overcome load torque

disturbance.
The way the system reacts in terms of speed makes it possible to estimate system
rigidity.
High servo gains make systems more rigid.

Mechanical resonance can be provoked by the oscillation frequency of the speed.

This happens when the speed oscillation frequency matches the resonance
frequency of the mechanical parts.
High gains increase the risk of amplifying the resonance frequency.

Noise sensitivity describes the extent to which a servo system amplifies a source of
noise.
Common noise sources are feedback resolution and Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI) received through the command.
Noise sources generate heat, vibration, torque disturbance and acoustic noise.
High gains increase noise sensitivity.
Noisy systems require some kind of compromise.

Here is a general method to be followed by users when tuning the speed loop:
Use step commands such as a square waveform and do not saturate the current
loop
1) Set the proportional action:
Cancel Integral action and apply a low Proportional gain
Increase the proportional gain in steps of about 20% to obtain a square response.
Monitor stability
When you see overshoot, reduce the gain.
2) Set the integral action with the previous proportional gain:
Start with a high integral time to ensure stability.
Reduce the integral time in steps of about 20%
Monitor stability
Stop when the overshoot is about 10%
Once you have followed these steps your speed loop will be tuned!
Many digital AC servo drives have an auto-tune mode that estimates the value of
load inertia and initially sets the tuning parameters to reasonable values for userspecified targets such as low, medium or high response time. The auto-tune values
usually provide a stable system that is often sufficient for the application or at least
serves as a starting point for fine-tuning by the user.
If the auto-tuning step does not provide satisfactory results, the user can then
optimize tuning himself.
The first Auto-Tuning step involves the entire application including the mechanical
parts.
Dont forget that the current loop must be set first.

The current loop regulator parameters are automatically adjusted according to the
following motor characteristics: Inductance L and resistance R.

This is how auto-tuning works:

Firstly, the current is measured at constant speed in order for the servodrive to
calculate the load torque ( M.load).
Next, the servo drive applies a constant current so that the motor provides the load
with a constant torque (M).
The acceleration torque is the difference between the motor torque (M) and the load
torque (M load).
This results in a linear increase in speed (w).
The servo drive then calculates the inertia (J) of the system.

In the second step the user optimizes the speed loop of the the servo drive.
As seen previously, the temporal analysis is very helpful because it shows up any
problems immediately.
To perform this operation, a software tool is used with the servo drive.

The software also includes an oscilloscope function that provides the results of
tuning by displaying curves.
Each time the user changes one parameter, a gain for instance, he can see the
result immediately.
Before starting a measurement:
Check that the current loop is set properly (this usually involves checking that the
right motor has been selected).
Check that the speed set point used is compatible and not dangerous for the
application: waveform, level, polarity, frequency and moving distance.

The user should proceed as follows:

First, tune the speed loop proportional gain.
Second, tune the speed loop integral time.
Finally, tune the position loop gain.

For each gain:

- Start with a low gain to ensure stability.
- and increase this gain until it causes a problem such as instability.
After measuring the parameters:
Check that the motor current does not reach the servo drive current limitation.
Keep in mind that it is acceptable for the current loop to be saturated for a few
milliseconds.

The upper limit of the proportional gain depends on the systems components, i.e.:
- The drive,
- The feedback,
- The drive may have certain limits with respect to:
The sampling time
The filters used
The slow current loops
and sensitivity to noised the mechanical parts.
The same applies to the feedback system:
- Resolver-to-digital conversion is like a filter
- And low resolution encoders generate noise.
The temporal analysis reveals any problems relating to the systems response.
However, if there are several causes of instability, it is difficult to locate each one.
This is the case, for instance, when several resonance frequencies are excited in the
motion system, as shown in the picture.

To perform a more in-depth investigation, frequency analyses must be carried out

using the frequency analysis with a software tool.
The aim of frequency analysis is to observe the motion systems response in
relation to the frequency of the speed set point signal.
A sine signal is sent as a speed set point and is compared to the sine feedback.
The amplitudes of each sine signal and the phase shift between them are
measured.
These measurements, from low frequencies up to high frequencies, are made step
by step by the software tool.

Once the step-by-step frequency measurements are finished (starting with low
frequencies and moving up to high frequencies), the software tool displays the bode
diagrams.
A bode diagram shows, depending on the frequency, the evolution of:
the magnitude of the system in decibels: the feedback compared with the
reference
and the phase between the feedback and the reference in degrees.
The systems behaviour is shown clearly and, at this stage, it is important to check
the stability criteria.

With a closed speed loop configuration:

The stability criteria depend mainly on a safety margin, also called the phase
margin m(phi-m), at a specific value of magnitude: -3dB (minus 3 Decibels),
m must be located between -180 and 0.
To achieve this, the speed loop must first be adjusted with the proportional gain.
The frequency at -3 dB is the bandwidth of the system.
A -180 value corresponds to a completely unstable system.
The most typical example of which is an oscillator!

With an open speed loop configuration:

The phase margin at 0 dB must also be checked. However, it is physically
impossible to open the loop in a real application.
To overcome this, the software tool generally calculates the results for an open loop
configuration too.
In practice, a phase margin of at least 45 has to be kept.

This is necessary because the system must have good stability with an open loop
configuration, BEFORE the loop is closed. Otherwise, it will be impossible to ensure
stability with a closed loop configuration!

Tuning a motion system

Temporal analysis using a square wave reference is the main method used to tune
motion systems because it covers a very large spectrum of frequencies ranging
from low to high frequencies.

A motion system must work properly with the entire application. It must take into
account the applications needs and minimize the consequences of interference.
An applications needs are generally:
Responsiveness
Stability
And Rigidity
Interference usually comes from:
Mechanical resonance
And sensitivity to noise
Responsiveness describes the ability of a system to react to a reference change.

A systems responsiveness is usually measured using the settling time.

High gains make systems more responsive.

Stability describes the margin according to which a servosystem does not fall into
self-sustained oscillation.
A system must have a reasonable margin of stability.
Stability is commonly measured by overshoot and settling time in response to a
square wave.
High gains often make systems unstable.

Rigidity describes the ability of a servo system to overcome load torque

disturbance.
The way the system reacts in terms of speed makes it possible to estimate system
rigidity.
High servo gains make systems more rigid.

Mechanical resonance can be provoked by the oscillation frequency of the speed.

This happens when the speed oscillation frequency matches the resonance
frequency of the mechanical parts.
High gains increase the risk of amplifying the resonance frequency.

Noise sensitivity describes the extent to which a servo system amplifies a source of
noise.
Common noise sources are feedback resolution and Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI) received through the command.
Noise sources generate heat, vibration, torque disturbance and acoustic noise.
High gains increase noise sensitivity.
Noisy systems require some kind of compromise.

Here is a general method to be followed by users when tuning the speed loop:
Use step commands such as a square waveform and do not saturate the current
loop.
1) Set the proportional action:
Cancel Integral action and apply a low Proportional gain
Increase the proportional gain in steps of about 20% to obtain a square response.
Monitor stability
When you see overshoot, reduce the gain.
2) Set the integral action with the previous proportional gain:
Start with a high integral time to ensure stability.
Reduce the integral time in steps of about 20%
Monitor stability
Stop when the overshoot is about 10%
Once you have followed these steps your speed loop will be tuned!
Many digital AC servo drives have an auto-tune mode that estimates the value of
load inertia and initially sets the tuning parameters to reasonable values for userspecified targets such as low, medium or high response time. The auto-tune values
usually provide a stable system that is often sufficient for the application or at least
serves as a starting point for fine-tuning by the user.
If the auto-tuning step does not provide satisfactory results, the user can then
optimize tuning himself.
This is how auto-tuning works:
Firstly, the current is measured at constant speed in order for the servodrive to
calculate the load torque ( M.load).
Next, the servo drive applies a constant current so that the motor provides the load
with a constant torque (M).
The acceleration torque is the difference between the motor torque (M) and the load
torque (M load).
This results in a linear increase in speed (w).
The servo drive then calculates the inertia (J) of the system.

In the second step the user optimizes the speed loop of the the servo drive.
As seen previously, the temporal analysis is very helpful because it shows up any
problems immediately.
To perform this operation, a software tool is used with the servo drive.
The software tool makes it possible to:
- generate the speed set point signal,
- and optimize the speed loop.
The software also includes an oscilloscope function that provides the results of
tuning by displaying curves.
Each time the user changes one parameter, a gain for instance, he can see the
result immediately.
Before starting a measurement:
Check that the current loop is set properly (this usually involves checking that the
right motor has been selected).
Check that the speed set point used is compatible and not dangerous for the
application: waveform, level, polarity, frequency and moving distance.

The user should proceed as follows:

First, tune the speed loop proportional gain.

Second, tune the speed loop integral time.
Finally, tune the position loop gain.
For each gain:
- Start with a low gain to ensure stability.
- and increase this gain until it causes a problem such as instability.
After measuring the parameters:
Check that the motor current does not reach the servo drive current limitation.
Keep in mind that it is acceptable for the current loop to be saturated for a few
milliseconds.
The upper limit of the proportional gain depends on the systems components, i.e.:
- The drive,
- The feedback,
- And the mechanical part
The temporal analysis reveals any problems relating to the systems response.
However, if there are several causes of instability, it is difficult to locate each one.
This is the case, for instance, when several resonance frequencies are excited in the
motion system, as shown in the picture.

To perform a more in-depth investigation, frequency analyses must be carried out

using the frequency analysis with a software tool.

The aim of frequency analysis is to observe the motion systems response in

relation to the frequency of the speed set point signal.
A sine signal is sent as a speed set point and is compared to the sine feedback.
The amplitudes of each sine signal and the phase shift between them are
measured.
These measurements, from low frequencies up to high frequencies, are made step
by step by the software tool.

Once the step-by-step frequency measurements are finished (starting with low
frequencies and moving up to high frequencies), the software tool displays the bode
diagrams.
A bode diagram shows, depending on the frequency, the evolution of:
the magnitude of the system in decibels: the feedback compared with the
reference
and the phase between the feedback and the reference in degrees.
The systems behaviour is shown clearly and, at this stage, it is important to check
the stability criteria.

With a closed speed loop configuration:

The stability criteria depend mainly on a safety margin, also called the phase
margin m(phi-m), at a specific value of magnitude: -3dB (minus 3 Decibels),
m must be located between -180 and 0.
To achieve this, the speed loop must first be adjusted with the proportional gain.
The frequency at -3 dB is the bandwidth of the system.
A -180 value corresponds to a completely unstable system.
The most typical example of which is an oscillator!

With an open speed loop configuration:

The phase margin at 0 dB must also be checked. However, it is physically
impossible to open the loop in a real application.
To overcome this, the software tool generally calculates the results for an open loop
configuration too.
In practice, a phase margin of at least 45 has to be kept.

This is necessary because the system must have good stability with an open loop
configuration, BEFORE the loop is closed. Otherwise, it will be impossible to ensure
stability with a closed loop configuration!

Here is an example of typical bode diagram plotting in two cases:

for a no-load system
and for an on-load system.
System stability must first be studied with an open loop configuration.
Let us first look at the result for a motor with no load:
The first magnitude spike at around 2 kHz is caused by shaft resonance, i.e. torsion
oscillation between the motor shaft and the feedback system.
The phase drops through the critical 180 line.
This means that the loop magnitude at this frequency must be less than 0 dB,
otherwise the system oscillates.

Secondly, lets add an external load which degrades both the magnitude and phase
characteristics.
The overall magnitude is reduced due to the higher level of inertia

The amplitude of the second spike depends on the compliance or rigidity of the
coupling between the motor and the load.
A springy coupling will produce a large spike.
So, it is necessary to reduce the magnitude to prevent oscillation, resulting in
poorer system stiffness and slower response.
This is why it is important to use a rigid coupling between the motor and the load.

Let us now consider some adjustments with a closed loop configuration and observe
how tuning with a PI regulator inside the servo drive cancels oscillation and
overshoot.
1) The proportional gain Kp is too high and there are permanent speed oscillations.
The bode diagram shows two peaks corresponding to these oscillations.

2) Kp is reduced to prevent instability. There is still an overshoot on speed.

The bode diagram shows that the bandwidth is now lower.
The overall magnitude is lower too.

3) The integral time Ti is increased to have less magnitude at lower frequencies.

This can be seen on the bode diagram.
As the speed loop gain is reduced at low and medium frequencies, there is no more
overshoot shown on the time curves.

Acceleration and deceleration ramps prevent higher system frequencies from being
provoked and thus help to prevent instability. When the servo drive is connected to
an external position controller, these ramps are not used. The external controller
manages them.

This low pass filter is adjusted by the user.

It is helpful when there is noise on the speed set point.
Keep in mind that the low pass filter will introduce additional phase shift in the
system.
This filter is used when the resonance frequency of the motor and load is amplified.
The frequency of this filter can be programmed to cancel or minimise gain at the
resonance frequency.
This current control filter is programmed by the user and can be very useful when
the speed loop gain has to be high causing a certain amount of instability. Do not
lower the frequency of this filter more than necessary as this will introduce
additional phase shift into the speed loop and hence reduce stability.

Positioning Trajectory Homing

Hello and welcome to the Positioning Trajectory Homing session.
This module explains how a trajectory can be generated to drive a movement and
ensure good positioning. We will describe the main types of different movements,
from simple to complex.
Here is a summary of the different points we shall be looking out during this
session:
Movements
Positioning-trajectory
Homing.
Lets start with movements according to a cam profile.
Mechanical cams are used to ensure that a movement is implemented according to
a profile trajectory based on the cam profile.
The profile trajectory is determined in relation to the position of an axis.
The master is the axis.
The slave is the ruler.
The ruler follows the profile trajectory.

Mechanical cams have a certain number of drawbacks owing to:

- Their inflexible system
- And wear on mechanical components.
Today, most trajectories are driven by programmable logic controllers or PLCs.
Lets have a look at this example:
Regarding the master:
The cam is replaced by the PLC.
Regarding the slave:
The ruler is replaced by the servodrive + the motor + the load
One controller can manage several movements.
This is a multi-axis configuration.

Now lets see the basic architecture of a positioning motion system.

Profile trajectories can be configured and stored in the controller by the user.
The controller generates the setpoint according to the profile trajectory.

The servodrive controls the speed of the motor. The trajectory of the load follows
the profile trajectory.
The position of the load is sent back to the controller for the position loop.

The servodrive controls the movement with its position loop.

The controller manages the sequential mode of the machine (run/stop, safety
features, faults, etc.).
The trajectories can be either inside the servodrive or the Lexium Controller.

In this architecture, the controller is master, calculates the trajectories and

transmits the setpoints to the servodrives.

Instead of a controller, it is possible to use a PC with a control card inside it. This
offers the same functions as those of the controller.

There are two types of motion application:

The single-axis motion application
and the multi-axis motion application
Lets start with the single axis movement.
With single axis movements, the trajectory is defined by the speed profile and the
position target.
The axis accelerates from position X0 to reach the steady speed S1.
Close to the position target X1, the axis decelerates to stop at X1.

In the multi-axis family, there are different types of motion.

You can find movement with interpolation, without interpolation and contouring.
In multi-axis motion with interpolation, the movements are:
- either linear,

- or circular.

Linear interpolation is required for multi-axis movement from one point to another
following a straight line.

The controller determines the speeds on each axis so that the movements are
coordinated.
True linear interpolation necessitates the ability to modify acceleration.
Several controllers use pseudo linear interpolation based on pre-calculated
acceleration profiles.

Circular interpolation is the ability to move a load around a circular trajectory. It

means that the controller has to change the acceleration in real time and in the
most continuous manner possible.

In multi-axis motion without interpolation, you can have synchronized or

simultaneous movements.

In the case of synchronized movements, the axes can move together or not.
Here, the axes do not move together
Here, the axes move together.
The difference between synchronized movement and simultaneous movement is
that simultaneous movement is unsynchronized.
In this case, the axes can also move together or not.

With contouring, the controller changes the speeds on the different axes so that the
trajectories pass smoothly via pre-determined points.
In contouring, the speed is defined along the trajectory and can be constant, except
during starting and stopping.

Home is a reference point that defines the position zero.

Home is indicated by closing or opening a switch.
By opening a switch, it is possible to detect wire breakage.
The controller seeks the switch after power-on in a homing routine.
The actual zero reference point is typically offset from the switch so that the switch
is not constantly activated.
The position of a switch is not accurate and can vary from machine to machine
resulting in inconsistent home reference positions.
It is often not desirable for the zero set point to be physically located on the home
switch. As motion often occurs around the zero position, the home switch would be
subject to wear and tear.

A home offset can be used to define the zero set point point at a point offset from
the actual home switch.
The homing process can be summarized as follows:
The home command is activated and the controller initiates motion in the
programmed direction at programmed speeds.
The programmed directions are LIMN (negative direction limit) or LIMP (positive
direction limit).
When the home switch is detected, the controller continues to move at a slow speed
to feedback null.

Homing by feed-to-positive-stop requires the machine to move slowly in the

programmed direction until a physical hard stop is detected. Normally the current
that the sevodrive can deliver to the motor is limited to protect the machine.
Feed-to-positive-stop is clearly a slow process and is typically done just once during
commissioning of the machine.
It is typical for the motor to be equipped with an absolute feedback device that can
track position over multiple revolutions even after power is removed from the
system. Once the zero coordinate position is defined, it is not necessary to re-home
the machine after each power-on.
Home switches generate additional cost and reduce system reliability.

Homing is also a waste of time as the system must be homed after every power
cycle.
Clearly it is advisable to define limits beyond which the machine cannot go.
There are two kinds of end-of-travel limits: hardware and software.
Hardware limits are physical switches (LIMN and LIMP), which typically initiate an
Emergency Stop routine.

Software limit switches are only active once the zero position has been defined.
A distance from the zero position is programmed in each direction of motion beyond
which the machine should not travel
It is preferable for the controller not to pass through a software limit before
decelerating, but actually to anticipate the limit and decelerate to a stop on the
limit.
At this point further motion in that direction would be inhibited.

Motion Sizing
During this session, we shall look at the following points:
- Motor and drive sizing,
- Mechanical transmissions,
- And braking resistor sizing.

Here, we can see the model of a motion control system.

The definition of a servo motor starts with the correct sizing. This includes:
- defining the application : its mechanical parts and required performance and
functional features,
- and choosing the servo motor and servo drive.

Only once sizing has been carried out can the regulation loops be set and the servo
system integrated in the automatic control system of the installation.

To describe the basic approach, lets have a look at how the servo motor controls
the load directly.
In this simple example, the motor is directly coupled to the load, symbolized by a
friction torque and inertia.
The torque and speed are therefore the same for the load and the motor.

The loads required speed profile is shown on this diagram.

The first thing to do is determine the torque required on the motor shaft for the load
to follow the speed profile.

It is then possible to determine some very important information about the motor
shaft:
- The peak torque
- And the root mean square, or r.m.s., torque, also called the equivalent thermal
torque.
The cycle time, ti, is the time in seconds.
And a cycle time equal to t1+t2 + t3 + t4

The following information can also be determined:

- The peak speed - And the average speed (Savg)
Next, it is necessary to check that these operating points are compatible with the
torque/speed curves of the motor connected to the servo drive.
This is because the torque-speed characteristics also depend on the servo drive.

Once the servo motor has been chosen, a servo drive that is compatible with this
motor is selected from the list provided in the catalogue. At this stage, the main
servodrive selection parameters are as follows:
- The supply network,
- The continuous torque,
- And the peak torque.
Now lets have a look at how to define motor size.
1 - The average speed (Savg) and the thermal torque (Meq) must be in the area
delimited by curve 1
2 - Check that the peak torque and speed do not exceed the area delimited by curve
2.
It is important to keep in mind that the physical size and cost of a motor mainly
depend on the motors rating torque.

We shall now turn our attention to mechanical transmissions.

Most applications are more complex than just a direct link between the motor and
the load.

Conventional transmission systems usually comprise the following:

Couplings,
Belt pulleys,
Gears,
Conveyors,
Leadscrews
Or racks and pinions.

A reducing gear such as a transmission system based on belt pulleys or a gearbox is

used to:
- Reduce reflected inertia,
- Increase torque and decrease speed,
- Use smaller motors or optimize the way they are used,
- Reduce load disturbance.
There are different types of reducing gears, notably for parallel mechanical links
(belt pulleys) aligned with the motor, as shown in the diagram.
It must be remembered that the total inertia, torques and speeds must be
considered with respect to the motor shaft.
To calculate the torque, we need to know the inertia of all of the mechanical
components reflected to the motor shaft. This provides results that can be used to
define the size of the servo motor.
For a high-performance system, the general rule is to define a size that ensures that
the inertia reflected to the motor shaft is equal to that of the motor.

As well as the inertia of the application itself, the inertia of the other components
such as the couplings, belt pulleys, and gearboxes, must also be added in the case
shown.
Total inertia reaching up to 10 times that of the motor is suitable as long as the
mechanical transmission is rigid enough.
Let us now have a look at how the different types of mechanical transmission
influence speed, torque and inertia.
In the case of a gearbox:
Ratio: R = radius r2 / radius r1
The load speed = motor speed / R
The motor torque = load torque / R
The inertia reflected to the motor shaft = total inertia / R

In the case of a leadscrew:

The pitch represents the number of turns per millimeter and the lead the number of
millimeters per revolution.
Load velocity is inversely proportional to the pitch, i.e. K1/p
Load torque seen by the motor is inversely proportional to the pitch, i.e. K2/p
Load inertia reflected on the motor shaft is inversely proportional to the square of
the pitch, i.e. K3/p

For belt drives and rack-and-pinions:

The key parameter is the radius r of the pulley or pinion.
The load velocity is proportional to the radius, = Ka.r
Without any change to linear speed, the load torque seen by the motor is
proportional to the radius, = Kb.r
The load inertia seen by the motor is proportional to the square of the radius, = Kc
r

Software such as Lexium Sizer is available to help the user.

It is very useful.
1. To select the mechanical systems used and associated characteristics.

2. To define the profile of the speed, torque and trajectory.

3. To display the torque/speed curves.

4. To select the optimum servo drive with the servo motor.

braking resistor
To conclude this overview of sizing methodology, lets see when a braking resistor is
used and how this resistor should be defined.
During braking or deceleration, kinetic energy is absorbed by the drive thanks to DC
capacitors. The mechanical energy (1/2 J w) is converted in electrical energy (1/2
CU) across the diodes of the power bridge. This energy is stored by the capacitors
and induces an increase of the DC bus voltage according to this formula: where
- E generated is the mechanical energy
- C, the capacitors value
- and (U2-U1), the difference of DC voltage square between the beginning and the
end of the deceleration.
If the kinetic energy is too high, the limit value of the DC voltage is reached and an
external braking resistor dissipates the exceeded energy.

The technical characteristics of a braking resistor are as follows

Value in Ohms
The minimum acceptable ohm value depends on the size of the drive.
Peak power
This depends on the ohm value and the DC bus voltage on the drive.
Continuous power
The duty cycle of the application has an influence on this.
To define the braking resistor, we need to know:
- the total inertia of the system,
- the speed profile of the application.
Resistor calculations can be performed according to the following guideline. This is
based on a single axis, i.e. one servo drive with a servo motor that drives an
application.
The calculation consists of six steps that we are going to develop right now.
In Step 1:Plot the speed torque curves versus time for the entire motion cycle.

In Step 2:
Identify each generator mode section from the plot, where the drive is decelerating
the load, or where the speed and torque have opposite signs.

In Step 3:
Calculate the energy of the deceleration in each generator mode section. E
generated = 1/2 J (2- 1)

In Step 4:
Calculate the energy dissipated by the braking resistor.
For this, subtract the servo drive energy absorption capability from the energy of
the deceleration.
E dissipated = E generated - E absorbed by capacitors
In Step 5:
Calculate the Pmax power of each deceleration by dividing the dissipated energy by
the deceleration time.
P max = E dissipated / t deceleration.
Step 6:
Calculate the continuous power dissipated by the braking resistor.
P continuous = (E1dissipated + E2dissipated +) / M cycle
For step 6, refer to the servo drive characteristics table if you have to use an
external braking resistor.

Applications of servo drives

During this session, we shall look at the following examples of applications:
- Grouping and ungrouping,
- and a rotary knife.