Escolar Documentos
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Cultura Documentos
9.2 SPACE
Escape
Velocity
o The
ini1al
ver1cal
velocity
of
a
projec1le
in
order
to
escape
the
gravita1onal
eld
of
a
body.
The
object
needs
to
be
supplied
with
kine1c
energy
equal
to
its
posi1ve
GPE.
The
velocity
required
to
reach
innity
such
that
when
it
does,
there
is
no
KE
le\.
Calculated
by
lejng
kine1c
energy
equal
posi1ve
GPE,
and
simplifying
from
there.
v
=
(2GM
/
r)
Only
depends
on
mass
of
planet
and
its
radius.
o Newtons
Concept
Newton
reasoned
that
the
faster
a
cannonball
was
red,
the
longer
its
trajectory.
He
then
reasoned
that
there
must
be
a
speed
at
which
when
red,
the
cannonball
would
travel
all
around
the
Earth
and
come
back
to
its
star1ng
point
(orbit).
Finally,
he
deduced
that
if
it
was
red
faster
than
this
speed,
it
would
leave
Newtons
Concept
Newton
reasoned
that
the
faster
a
cannonball
was
red,
the
longer
its
trajectory.
He
then
reasoned
that
there
must
be
a
speed
at
which
when
red,
the
cannonball
would
travel
all
around
the
Earth
and
come
back
to
its
star1ng
point
(orbit).
Finally,
he
deduced
that
if
it
was
red
faster
than
this
speed,
it
would
leave
the
Earth.
Rocket
Launches
o The
downward
momentum
of
exhaust
gas
provides
the
upwards
impulse
to
propel
the
rocket.
o Conserva1on
of
momentum
means
that
impulse
of
an
object
equals
the
nega1ve
of
the
impulse
of
the
applied
force,
and
using
Newtons
third
law,
the
force
of
the
gases
equals
the
upward
force
on
the
rocket.
o Air
force
pilots
have
vision
problems
at
around
4g,
and
8g
causes
unconsciousness.
3g
was
considered
the
highest
possible
g-force
which
was
s1ll
safe.
However,
astronauts
can
survive
20g
in
launch
if:
They
are
lying
down
(keeps
blood
in
brain),
face
upwards
(eyes
dont
o
o
o
o
Rockets
o Structure
of
Rockets
Solid
Propellant
one
chamber
with
aluminum
powder,
ammonium
perchlorate
and
an
iron
oxide
catalyst,
which
form
chains
when
ignited,
crea1ng
energy.
Liquid
Propellant
two
chambers,
one
with
liquid
hydrogen
and
the
other
with
liquid
oxygen.
There
needs
to
be
a
pump
to
mix
the
liquids.
o Types
of
Orbit
Low
Earth
Orbit
spy
satellites,
space
shu=les,
Hubble
telescope.
Between
250km
and
1000km,
high
enough
to
avoid
destruc1ve
atmospheric
fric1on.
Satellite
orbital
periods
between
90min
and
5
hours.
They
are
also
lower
than
Van
Allen
Belts:
belts
of
trapped
radia1on
due
to
the
magne1c
eld
of
the
Earth.
Aects
lives
and
electrical
equipment.
Geosynchronous
Orbit
communica1ons
satellites.
Period
of
the
orbit
is
24
hours.
If
over
the
Equator,
it
is
a
geosta1onary
orbit,
which
means
that
it
remains
over
the
same
point
throughout
its
orbit.
o Approximately
35,800km
height.
o Placed
at
the
edge
of
the
Van
Allen
belts.
Low
Al1tude
Polar
Orbit
LEO
around
the
poles
(along
longitude)
Langrangian
Point
Orbit
An
area
in
space
where
the
gravita1onal
eld
of
two
objects
interact
such
that
a
satellite
can
maintain
a
stable
orbit.
L1,
a
Langrangian
point
a
hundredth
of
the
way
to
the
Sun,
orbits
the
Sun
with
the
same
period
as
the
Earth,
always
being
in
the
same
posi1on
rela1ve
to
the
two.
Good
for
solar
wind
observing
satellites.
o Orbital
Decay
If
a
satellite
slows
down,
it
loses
al1tude.
Total
energy
=
-GmM/2r,
and
so
if
it
loses
energy,
r
must
decrease.
Orbital
Decay
is
the
loss
of
al1tude
caused
by
fric1on
in
the
atmosphere
slowing
the
satellite
down.
As
it
goes
lower,
decay
occurs
faster,
and
under
250km,
the
satellite
has
only
a
few
hours
le\,
in
which
it
undergoes
severe
fric1on
and
could
vaporize.
o Re-Entry
Astronauts
wan1ng
to
come
back
to
Earth
will
re
rockets
in
the
same
direc1on
in
order
to
slow
themselves
down
and
lose
al1tude.
This
must
be
very
precise
in
order
to
achieve
op1mum
re-entry
angle.
Too
shallow
and
the
spacecra\
will
just
skip
o
the
atmosphere.
Too
steep
and
the
spacecra\
may
burn
up
due
to
intense
fric1on.
o For
the
Apollo
re-entry,
this
op1mum
angle
was
5.2
-
7.2.
Modern
cra\
are
built
with
wings
to
oer
some
degree
of
control
for
re-entry.
Extreme
heat
is
caused
by
fric1on
conver1ng
the
spacecra\s
huge
kine1c
energy
into
heat.
There
is
always
a
point
between
two
masses
when
gravity
is
equal
in
both
direc1ons,
causing
a
zero
gravity
point
to
occur.
Both
masses
in
the
system
exert
an
a=rac1on
force
on
the
other
mass.
In
the
case
of
a
planet
and
a
satellite,
the
planet
is
so
much
more
massive
that
the
eect
of
the
satellite
is
not
felt.
This
follows
from
F
=
ma.
Newtons
Law
of
Universal
Gravita1on
Every
object
in
the
universe
a=racts
every
other
object
with
gravita1onal
force.
Directly
propor1onal
to
their
masses,
inversely
propor1onal
to
their
distance2.
F
=
Gm1m2
/
d2
It
is
an
inverse
square
law,
so
when
distance
doubles,
force
quarters.
On
Earth,
strength
of
gravity
is
aected
by
al1tude,
posi1on
on
Earths
surface,
area
on
Earth
(e.g.
equator
or
poles)
and
type
of
material
under
the
Earth.
Universal
Gravita1on
and
Space
Travel
Can
be
used
to
derive
equa1ons
on
orbital
veloci1es
and
gravita1onal
poten1al
energy.
Responsible
for
weightlessness
and
also
causes
the
slingshot
eect.
Stability
of
the
force
enables
accurate
calcula1ons,
e.g.
calcula1ng
launch
windows.
The
expenses
and
huge
engines
of
rockets
are
for
overcoming
the
gravita1onal
force.
The
constant
for
Keplers
Third
Law
is
derived
by
equa1ng
two
dierent
deni1ons
for
orbital
velocity:
v
=
(GM
/
r)
and
v
=
2r
/
T.
Slingshot
Eect
An
increase
in
velocity
gained
by
a
spacecra\
by
entering
the
gravita1onal
eld
of
a
planet
as
it
ies
past
it.
It
requires
li=le
expenditure
of
fuel.
Also
known
as
the
gravity-assist
maneuver.
Non-contact
elas1c
collision
between
a
spacecra\
and
a
planet
resul1ng
in
rota1onal
kine1c
energy
from
the
planet
being
transferred
to
the
spacecra\
as
kine1c
energy.
This
means
that
the
planet
actually
loses
a
negligible
bit
of
velocity.
The
closer
a
spacecra\
gets
to
a
planet,
the
more
the
gravita1onal
force
and
the
greater
the
speed
increase.
Maximum
gain
is
twice
the
planets
orbital
speed,
when
the
spacecra\
and
planet
approach
each
other
head
on.
The
speed
of
the
spacecra\
rela1ve
to
an
observer
on
the
planet
does
not
change,
but
rela1ve
to
the
Sun,
it
does.
This
is
because
if
the
planet
is
moving
le\
at
U,
and
the
spacecra\
moves
right
at
v,
the
spacecra\
rst
appears
to
be
moving
towards
the
planet
at
U
+
v,
and
when
it
swings
behind
the
planet
and
does
a
U-Turn,
it
gains
the
velocity
of
the
planet
too,
and
it
moves
at
2U
+
v
(2U
more
than
it
was
before),
but
s1ll
at
U
+
v
rela1ve
to
the
planet,
as
the
planet
is
also
moving
at
U
in
the
same
direc1on.
Entering
the
gravita1onal
eld
of
a
planet
from
a
dierent
angle
results
in
a
velocity
gain
using
the
same
principle,
but
it
would
always
be
less
than
2U.
A
reverse
slingshot
eect
can
be
used
to
decelerate
a
spacecra\.
The
slingshot
eect
also
changes
the
direc1onal
velocity
of
the
spacecra\.
Michelson-Morley
Experiment
Aim
was
to
detect
rela1ve
mo1on
between
Earth
and
aether.
A.
A.
Michelson
and
E.
W.
Morley
reasoned
that
just
as
you
know
you
are
moving
in
a
boat
by
watching
water
rush
past
you,
the
Earth
must
leave
an
aether
wind
as
it
travelled
at
30km/s
through
the
aether.
A
boat
going
against
the
current
2km
and
back
with
the
current
2km
will
nish
a\er
a
boat
going
perpendicular
to
the
current
back
and
forth
2km
each.
They
used
this
principle,
shining
one
light
ray
into
the
aether
wind
and
reec1ng
it
back,
and
ring
another
ray
perpendicular
to
the
aether
wind
and
also
reec1ng
it
back.
They
then
rotated
the
apparatus
90
and
did
it
again.
Both
rays
would
end
up
in
a
telescope,
where
1me
dierence
would
be
observed.
The
apparatus
was
suspended
on
mercury
to
reduce
external
eects.
The
telescope
uses
interference
to
detect
shi\s
and
it
is
called
an
interferometer
Presence
of
an
aether
wind
would
cause
a
shi\
in
interference
pa=erns
when
the
90
rota1on
results
are
interposed.
No
such
interference
occurred
(which
was
large
enough
to
be
a=ributed
to
the
Earths
mo1on),
and
the
presence
of
aether
was
only
accepted
because
people
felt
it
needed
to
be
there.
In
1905,
Einstein
showed
otherwise.
Null
results
were
obtained,
and
no
conclusion
could
be
drawn.
The
failure
of
this
experiment
divided
scien1sts,
and
made
the
scien1c
world
more
open
minded,
and
many
scien1sts
readily
accepted
Einsteins
Special
Rela1vity.
Special
Rela1vity
Laws
of
physics
are
the
same
in
every
iner1al
frame
of
reference,
everyone
experiences
the
same
value
of
c,
independent
of
their
mo1on,
and
the
aether
is
superuous.
Space1me
Newtonian
physics
made
1me
absolute,
and
speed
and
distance
rela1ve.
Einstein
changed
this,
making
speed
absolute
and
1me
and
distance
rela1ve.
This
led
to
space
and
1me
being
merged
into
a
space1me
con1nuum.
o Events
now
have
a
four
dimensional
posi1on
in
a
frame
of
reference.
Lorentz
Transforma1on
Galilean
transforma1on
equa1ons:
o x
=
x
vt,
y
=
y,
z
=
z,
t
=
t,
showing
that
distance
observed
is
rela1ve.
o Works
quite
well
in
everyday
mo1on,
as
nothing
even
gets
remotely
close
to
the
speed
of
light.
Lorentz
Transforma1ons,
abiding
with
special
rela1vity:
o x
=
x
vt
/
(1
v2/c2),
y
=
y,
z
=
z,
t
=
(t
vx/c2)
/
(1-
v2/c2)
o These
were
made
prior
to
special
rela1vity,
and
were
actually
aimed
to
model
light
transmission
in
aether.
o The
deni1on
for
space
(x)
depends
on
1me
(t)
and
vice
versa.
This
supports
the
single
concept
of
space1me.
Used
to
be
a
part
of
the
Earths
arc
passing
through
Paris,
and
also
dened
as
the
length
between
two
marks
on
a
bar,
which
were
replicated
and
distributed
around
the
world.
Now,
the
meter
is
dened
as
1/299,792,458
of
the
distance
light
travels
in
one
second
in
a
vacuum,
as
the
speed
of
light
is
always
constant.
Also,
a
second
is
dened
as
the
1me
for
9,129,631,770
oscilla1ons
of
a
caesium-133
atom.
Rela1vity
of
Simultaneity
Einstein
claimed
that
when
we
state
the
1me
of
an
event,
we
are
making
a
judgment
about
simultaneous
events.
If
we
say
the
bell
rings
at
8:52,
we
are
saying
that
8:52
on
the
clock
and
the
bell
ringing
are
simultaneous
events.
Rela1vity
of
simultaneity
is
that
events
are
not
necessarily
simultaneous
in
all
frames
of
reference.
A
train
carriage
is
travelling
at
close
to
the
speed
of
light,
and
a
lamp
is
switched
on
in
the
middle
of
the
carriage.
The
front
and
back
doors
are
light
operated.
When
the
lamp
is
switched
on,
the
person
inside
the
train
sees
both
doors
open
at
the
same
instant,
as
light
takes
the
same
amount
of
1me
to
travel
from
the
lamp
in
the
middle
to
both
doors.
An
observer
on
the
pla{orm,
however,
sees
it
dierently.
A\er
the
light
has
been
emi=ed,
the
Rela1vity
of
Length
Length
contrac1on
is
observed
in
the
same
direc1on
as
velocity.
If
the
lamp
1me
scenario
is
changed
to
make
it
from
the
front
wall
to
the
back
wall,
the
person
inside
the
carriage
sees
the
light
travel
2M
distance,
where
M
is
the
length
of
the
carriage.
However,
since
the
train
moves
while
light
is
being
emi=ed,
the
person
on
the
pla{orm
sees
light
take
longer
to
reach
the
front
wall
and
shorter
to
reach
the
back
wall.
Lv
=
Lo
(1
v2/c2)
As
1me
dila1on,
this
works
both
ways,
i.e.
the
person
in
the
train
will
see
the
length
of
the
pla{orm
contract
too.
If
a
0.99c
spaceship
sailed
past
Earth,
we
would
see
a
ying
speck,
and
people
in
the
spacecra\
would
no1ce
a
1ny
dot
(Earth)
zooming
past
them.
This
only
works
when
length
is
being
measured
parallel
to
direc1on
of
rela1ve
mo1on.
The
proper
length
is
always
greater
than
the
observed
length.
Rela1vity
of
Mass
As
the
speed
of
an
object
increases,
its
mass
rela1ve
to
a
dierent
iner1al
frame
increases.
At
speeds
close
to
c,
mass
becomes
so
huge,
and
1me
dilates
such
that
a
force
has
even
less
1me
to
act,
that
further
accelera1on
is
not
possible,
resul1ng
in
nothing
bearing
mass
being
able
to
out-speed
light.
m
=
m
/
(1-
v2/c2)
v
o
When
velocity
gets
extremely
high,
the
force
being
applied
must
also
add
energy
in
the
form
of
kine1c
energy,
but
as
well
as
this,
it
also
increases
mass.
Einstein
saw
this
equivalence
and
redened
energy
as
E
+
mc2.
k
o At
rest,
E
=
mc2.
This
is
called
an
objects
rest
energy.
Small
amount
of
mass
yields
a
large
amount
of
energy,
as
seen
in
a
nuclear
bomb
SPACE PRACS
Pendulum Swing
o We attached a 1m string to a clamp, and a clamp to a retort stand. We then
attached a 50g mass to the end of the string, and let it hang over the edge of a
table.
This is essentially a make-do pendulum.
o We then raised the pendulum to an angle of around 45 to the vertical, and let
it fall.
o We timed how long it took to do 10 swings, and divided it by 10 to get the
average time for one swing.
We repeated this 3 times and averaged out our period T for one swing.
Gravity was then calculated using.
T is in seconds, l is in metres.
o We then repeated the experiment for lengths 95cm, 90cm, 85cm and 80cm, and
averaged all our results for g to get a final result.
Our average g was 9.71ms-2, and the discrepancy could be attributed to
human calculation error in timing the swing accurately.
sin@.
o Therefore, F = BIL sin@.
The force is at a maximum when the conductor is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, as @ = 90, and sin@ = 1. It is zero when the conductor
is parallel to the magnetic field, as @ = 0, and sin@ = 0.
o Forces Between Parallel Conductors
Two current-carrying conductors parallel to each other and a finite
distance apart will experience a force due to interacting magnetic fields.
Using right hand grip rule, we find that they attract if the currents are
going the same way, and they repel if the currents are going in opposite
directions. They are either repelled or attracted with the same
magnitude force, in opposite directions.
The strength of the magnetic field, B = k I/d, where k = 2.0 x10-7, I is
the current in amperes and d is the perpendicular distance between the
wires in metres.
Equating this with F = BIL sin@, gives the equation of the force of one
conductor on the other: F/L = kI1I2 / d, where I1 and I2 are the currents
in the conductors, and L is the length of the conductor in the magnetic
field. Force per unit length is usually asked for (N/m).
Note the force on the other conductor (if there are only two),
will be equal and opposite.
There can be more than two parallel conductors, in which case
the force of each on the other must be added to find the net
force on each.
o Torque
Torque is the turning effect of a force acting on an object.
Anything that turns in any direction (up, down, left, right etc)
has been subject to torque, e.g. turning on the tap.
It is the product of the tangential component of the force and the
distance away from the axis of rotation, and also depends on the angle
at which the force is applied.
= Fd sin@
This shows that the further away from the point of rotation, the
less force that needs to be applied to make the system turn.
o This is why long spanners are more efficient than shorter
ones.
Torque is maximum when the force is applied perpendicular to
the line joining the point of force and the pivot axis.
Back EMF
Because when a motor turns, there is a changing flux in the
area; EMF is induced to resist the change. The current is in the
opposite direction to the supply current, so this induced EMF is
called back EMF, as it resists supply EMF.
o Back EMF limits the maximum current in the coils and
therefore the maximum speed of the motor for any
particular supply EMF.
The faster the coil rotates the more back EMF, as more flux is
being cut per second.
When back EMF equals supply EMF, net EMF is zero, and
there is no current and therefore no force on the coil. This
makes the armature rotate at a constant speed.
A large supply current can burn out the motor due to short
circuiting. As the motor continues to turn, back EMF helps to
cut down a high net current, so the motor is safe. If the motor is
overloaded and turns too slowly, back EMF is reduced, and if
net current goes too high, the motor could burn out.
o To stop the motor burning out when it is initially started
(as back EMF will be 0 for an instant), it is connected to
a resistor to reduce current. The resistor then drops to
0 as the motor starts to produce back EMF.
o Need for External Circuits
A conductor moving through a magnetic field will experience induced
EMF, and electrons will move to one end, making the ends positive and
negative. While still moving, the rod will continue to experience EMF,
but nothing else will move, because the electrostatic force is in
equilibrium with electrostatic force. This means that a conductor
experiences a momentary current.
If the conductor was connected to the other end via an external circuit,
the electrons could flow from the negative end to replace the deficiency
at the positive end, and a continuous current would flow.
o Eddy Currents
Induced currents can also occur in metal objects and sheets.
An eddy current is any current that is induced due to relative motion
between the conductor and magnetic flux.
On solid metal sheets, eddy currents are circular, whirling currents. It is
as if the current is a loop in a magnetic field, and the direction of the
eddy current can be found the same way as the direction of current in a
loop by using Lenzs Law.
The free valence electrons in metal sheets experience a force
when in relative motion to magnetic flux. They move to resist
the change in flux, by trying to negate this change. This is how
the direction of eddy currents can be found.
Switching Devices
Eg. Metal detectors. A very high frequency AC current is
supplied to a coil. When a metal object is brought near the coil,
it gets induced eddy currents due to the magnetic field. This
produces a magnetic field, which interacts with the coils
magnetic field, placing a load on the coil. The frequency of the
current lowers, and if it falls below a certain threshold, an alarm
is switched on.
Eddy currents can be useful, like in generators, induction cooktops and
electromagnetic braking.
They can also be a nuisance, such as in motors and transformers, eddy
currents are induced in iron cores, and cause even more back EMF and
lose energy due to heating effects.
Eddy currents can be limited by placing lamination sheets in
iron cores. This reduces the size of the eddy currents, as instead
of large currents flowing along the whole core, there can only
be smaller ones in each laminated part.
currents are induced in iron cores, and cause even more back EMF and
lose energy due to heating effects.
Eddy currents can be limited by placing lamination sheets in
iron cores. This reduces the size of the eddy currents, as instead
of large currents flowing along the whole core, there can only
be smaller ones in each laminated part.
Electromagnetic Braking
As a metal wheel rotates through a magnetic field, eddy currents
are produced in the wheel, and interact with the external field to
reduce the wheels motion, as per Lenzs Law.
As the wheel slows down, the eddy currents reduce in
magnitude, and the slowing effect is less. This allows for much
smoother braking. Electromagnetic braking can be used in
trains and trams with electromagnets being on the tracks, as
well as in rollercoasters.
Disadvantage doesnt work well at low speeds.
Induction Cooktops
Eddy currents increase the temperature of metal as the moving
charges and atoms collide.
Induction heating is very bad in motors, but is useful in
cooktops and furnaces
An AC coil produces an alternating magnetic field. On top of
this, is a ceramic plate, which heats up only a little bit, making
it much safer to be around. The magnetic field induces eddy
currents in any metal container placed on the ceramic plate.
This then heats up the container, thus cooking the contents.
o Gas cookers lose much heat to the atmosphere, being
43% efficient, but induction cookers are 80% efficient.
They are also much safer.
Induction Furnaces
The edge of the furnace is a coil encased in a material with an
extremely high melting point. The alternating current in the coil
produces magnetic fields which induce eddy currents in the
metal. This heats up the metal, and makes it melt. It also
produces a stirring effect in the liquid metal, making the
production of alloys much easier. They are cleaner and more
efficient than flame furnaces.
o DC Currents always flow in the same direction, although magnitudes can vary.
o DC generators have a similar setup to AC generators, although they use a split
ring commutator to make the current flow in one direction, whereas an AC
generator uses slip rings.
o A DC generator will have unsmooth, jumpy current flow, as the current will be
fluctuate between high and zero at the frequency of the rotors rotation. To
compensate for this, more coils can be used, where each coil is equally
separated. This requires more splits in the split ring commutator, but one coils
zero EMF will be superimposed over another coils maximum EMF, producing
smoother, more powerful current. This is called increasing the phases of the
motor, i.e. two phase, three phase.
o DC generators are used over AC generators where things like batteries require
recharging.
Power Stations
o As power station generators produce typical outputs of 22kV, they have a
different setup. The rotor is a DC supplied electromagnet, and provides the
external magnetic field and rotates 50 times a second. The stator has a pair of
coils mounted at opposite ends on an iron armature, and this carries the AC
output to the load.
o These generators are often three phase, with three pairs of coils with each coil
60 apart. This increases the efficiency and output of the generator system.
Impacts of AC Generators
o Society
Positive People can live in the country as power can be transmitted,
and there is no need to live next to power plants. Skilled job
opportunities in mass production have increased. New machines can
Impacts of AC Generators
o Society
Positive People can live in the country as power can be transmitted,
and there is no need to live next to power plants. Skilled job
opportunities in mass production have increased. New machines can
create cheaper products for improved living and leisure. Enabled use of
low voltage communications (phones) and high voltage leisure systems
(TV). Also allowed the use of handheld systems for better access to
data and news etc.
Negative Much less unskilled jobs has increased unemployment and
welfare payments, pollution from fossil fuel plants has caused asthma
and other health problems, causing expenses and reduced quality of
life. 50Hz current can also cause electrocutions. People also think that
magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiation from power stations can
cause health problems, and tend to live away from them, but there is no
evidence for this.
o Environment
Negative Removal of natural habitats in order to build enormous
power plants has destroyed ecosystems and removed wildlife habitats
and vegetation. Power lines are aesthetically unappealing, and also
pose a threat to flying animals. Gas pollution has led to thermal
pollution, acid rain and air pollution due to sulphur and nitrogen
releases, as well as contributing to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Pollution also affects waterways and affects marine life.
Hydroelectricity dams have also lead to flooding of forests and towns.
9.3.4 Transformers
o Transformers are devices which increase or decrease AC voltage.
wet or dirty. Water and dirt can serve as a conducting line, so it is important
that the insulators are free from these.
o Power towers are also a fair distance apart to prevent sparking between towers.
9.3.4 Transformers
o Transformers are devices which increase or decrease AC voltage.
o They increase the voltage for the transmission of current across long power
lines with minimal power loss. They decrease voltage when power comes to
homes and industries. They can also increase or decrease voltage for specific
appliances, like phones or TVs.
o Transformers consist of a primary coil and a secondary coil, both wrapped
around a laminated soft iron core. A current flows in the primary coil, and
produces a magnetic field, which induces a current in the secondary coil. This
can only work with AC, as there is a constantly changing flux, unlike DC.
o Depending on the number of turns in the secondary coil relative to the primary
coil, the voltage will be stepped up or down in proportion.
o Step-Up Transformers increase output voltage, Step-Down transformers
decrease output voltage.
More loops in the secondary coil steps up the voltage, and less loops in
the secondary coil steps down the voltage.
o Transformers are designed such that nearly all the flux produced from the first
coil threads passes through the second coil.
For a 100% efficient transformer, Np / Ns = Vp / Vs, where N is number
of turns.
o Conservation of Energy
When voltage increases, there has to be some sort of trade off,
otherwise this would violate the conservation of energy.
You cannot get more energy out of a transformer than you put into it.
Some energy will always be lost due to eddy currents forming
in the iron core and heating up, but they are reduced due to
lamination of the core. The output energy is therefore always a
little bit less than input energy.
Assuming a 100% efficient transformer, PP = PS. This means VPIP =
V S IS .
Therefore, NP/NS = IS/IP, as now it is inversely proportional.
o Reducing Heat Loss in Transformers
Eddy currents are induced in the iron core of the transformer, and make
it heat up. This creates energy loss due to thermal resistance of the
metal. Furthermore, resistive heating of the wires causes heat loss too.
This is reducible by using a coolant.
To reduce this, instead of using an iron block, many iron layers with
laminations are attached to each other, so the magnetism threads the
whole way, but eddy currents are forced to form in small amounts on
each layer, as opposed to filling the whole core.
Also, ferrites can be used for the core, which are complex compounds
of iron, oxygen and other metals. These are good transmitters of
magnetic flux but are poor electrical conductors, so eddy currents are
reduced.
Preventing Overheating
Heat vents, dark coloured casing, having transformers above
ground, providing a circulating coolant to the system.
o The Need for Transformers in Power Transmission
Power loss due to heating in transmission lines is given by I2R, and the
lower the voltage, the higher the current. Therefore, if electricity is
transmitted at 240V, there would be massive energy loss.
In NSW, voltage is therefore stepped up from 23,000V at power
generators to 330,000V for transmission, reducing power loss
exponentially.
o AC Induction Motors
A current is induced in the rotor coil from the changing stator magnetic
field, and this current produces its own magnetic field which interacts
with the original magnetic field, producing torque.
This is why there cannot be DC induction motors, as the magnetic flux
would not change.
The stator is usually a pair of electromagnets on opposite sides of the
casing, each carrying AC current and producing an alternating
magnetic field.
The simplest induction motor is the squirrel cage motor.
It resembles the wheel people use to exercise their pet mice or
squirrels. There is no current supplied to the rotor, it gains
current only by induction; there is no contact. Squirrel cage
motors are the most common induction motor, and are found in
power drills, vacuum cleaners and hair dryers.
o Advantages and Disadvantages of Induction Motors
Advantages reliable (no contact between parts as there are no
brushes or commutators), simple and cheap, can be used in many
different industries, economical and efficient, self-starting, quiet
running.
Disadvantages they have a low power factor for light loads, meaning
mechanical power produced is low compared with electrical power
consumed. They are fixed speed machines (this can be changed by
connecting the axle to a gearbox), the starting torque is very low, so
heavy loads take a while to get moving, and the speed drops when the
load is increased.
o Structure of Induction Motors LEARN DIAGRAM IN BOOK
Stator
The stator is a cylindrical casing with pairs of electromagnets
opposite each other and equally spaced. Three-phase has 3 pairs
of magnets, each magnet 60 apart, and each pair one sixth of
the cycle out of phase with each other. This creates an evenly
rotating (or alternating for single phase) magnetic field, as every
half cycle, the current alternates for each pair of electromagnets.
Three phase induction motors are connected to three phase
supply lines, which supply this out-of-phase AC current.
The magnetic field rotates or alternates at 50 times per second.
Squirrel Cage Rotor
Consists of a number of aluminium or copper conducting bars,
joined together at the ends with end rings, to complete the
circuit. It resembles a cylindrical cage.
These bars and rings are encased within a laminated soft iron
armature to concentrate magnetic field and increase induced
current.
The armature is mounted onto a shaft which passes out the end
of the motor.
Operation of AC Induction Motors
The magnetic field rotating creates relative movement between
the rotor and the magnetic flux. This induces a current in the
rotor, which creates a magnetic field.
Using the right hand push rule, the torque can be found to
always push the rotor in the same direction as the rotating
magnetic field, i.e. the rotor and the magnetic field rotate in the
same direction.
Slip
o If the rotor and the magnetic field rotate at the same rate,
then there will be no relative movement, and the motor
would not run.
magnetic field, i.e. the rotor and the magnetic field rotate in the
same direction.
Slip
o If the rotor and the magnetic field rotate at the same rate,
then there will be no relative movement, and the motor
would not run.
o When operating under a load, the rotor slows down to
spin slower than the magnetic field. This difference in
speed is called slip speed.
o When working under a load, and the rotor slows down,
the greater relative speed means more flux will be cut,
and the induced current and torque will increase,
bringing the motor back to its speed again.
Power
o Power is the rate of doing work, and work is done when
energy is transferred from one type to another,
o Induction motors are low power, as they produce less
mechanical energy compared to the input electrical
energy. This is due to the lost energy used in
magnetizing the working parts and creating induction
currents.
o They are unsuitable for use in heavy industry, as the
power loss will be economically hefty, but they are very
suited to domestic appliances where loss of power is not
significant.
Modelling
a
Transformer
o We
connected
a
solenoid
and
a
resistor
in
series
to
a
power
pack,
from
the
AC
terminals.
o Next
to
this
solenoid,
we
placed
another
solenoid
with
more
coils
such
that
they
were
as
close
as
possible,
but
not
touching.
We
then
connected
this
solenoid
to
a
voltmeter.
o We
turned
the
power
pack
on
to
4
volts.
We
no1ced
that
the
voltage
shown
on
the
voltmeter
was
6
volts,
showing
that
the
magne1c
eld
of
the
rst
solenoid
induced
an
EMF
in
the
second
solenoid,
and
stepped
it
up
because
there
were
more
coils.
In
actual
fact,
there
were
around
3
1mes
more
coils
on
the
secondary
solenoid,
but
there
wasnt
3
1mes
the
voltage
due
to
not
all
the
ux
being
used
to
induce
EMF
in
the
secondary
solenoid.
chamber of these ions, and tried it again, this time noticing a deflection.
They were attracted to the positive plate, so they were negative
particles.
o Electric Fields on Cathode Rays
Electric Fields are regions in space where a charged particle
experiences a force.
Represented by field lines from positive to negative. Force on a
particle is equal to the strength of the field multiplied by the
charge on the particle. Felec = q*E.
o A uniform electric field has equally space lines, and the
closer that field lines are together, the stronger the field.
Field lines are always perpendicular to wherever they
start and end.
Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.
On an isolated positive charge, the field radiates outwards. On
an isolated negative charge, the field comes into the particle.
Oppositely charged plates produce an electric field from the positive
plate to the negative plate. It signifies the path a positive test charge
would follow if placed in the electric field.
It is uniform between parallel plates, and the strength of the electric
field is given by
E = V/d or E = F/q. The strength is measured in
N/C or V/m.
Conventional current flows from positive to negative (big line to small
line on the circuit diagram), and so the positive plate has a high electric
potential compared to the negative plate. This difference in potential is
the voltage, and the distance between them is also factored when
calculating the strength of the electric field.
If cathode rays are directed through an electric field, they are attracted
to the positive plate, as they are negative particles, and go opposite to
field lines. Charged particles in an electric field follow a trajectory, and
projectile motion equations apply to them.
Also, W (work) = qV = (mv2)/2
o Magnetic Fields on Cathode Rays
A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnet experiences a
force.
Moving charges create their own magnetic field, and when moving in
an external magnetic field, these interacting fields create the force on
the particle.
The force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is Fmag = Bvqsin,
where B is the magnetic field strength, v is the velocity of the particle,
q is the charge of the particle, is the angle between the planes of B
and v, and F is the force in Newtons.
This means if the charge is not moving, or if it is moving parallel to the
magnetic field, there will be no force.
When cathode rays move through a magnetic field, right hand push rule
is used to give the direction of the force. The thumb points in the
opposite direction to the velocity of the cathode rays, as the thumb
corresponds to conventional current, which is positive ion movement,
so for negative particles, it is the opposite way.
The path of a charged particle in a magnetic field is circular, as the
force is always perpendicular. This means that if we equate magnetic
and centripetal force, we get an equation for the radius of the path: r =
mv / qBsin.
o Charge to Mass Ratio of an Electron
Thomson used deflected cathode rays using an electric field, and
straightened their path using a magnetic field. He equated the two
forces and found the velocity of the rays to be v = E / B, considerably
slower than the speed of light.
He accelerated the cathode rays by using two anodes with slits,
o Also then, .
Intensity would now be determined by number of photons as
opposed to strength of the electric field.
The photon idea was then used by Einstein to explain the photoelectric
effect.
His contribution was very important, as Plancks ideas were radical and
were only theoretical, so quantum theory was not readily accepted.
When Einstein proved the photoelectric effect using quantum
theory, scientists opened up to it more and saw its validity.
o Einstein stated that an electron is ejected when it absorbs a photon with energy
= hf.
Work is required to separate an electron from metal, and this minimum
energy required is the Work Function. It depends on the type of metal.
Einstein then stated that hf = Kmax + W, so Kmax = hf W.
This means that when f <= W/h, then kinetic energy is zero, so
the electron will not be emitted. This explains the cut-off
frequency.
He also said that increasing intensity will increase photons, so more
electrons will absorb a photon, thus increasing liberated electrons and
therefore photocurrent.
One photon releases one electron, given the photon is higher than
threshold frequency.
Photon theory also accounts for the absence of delay, as the electron
absorbs a clump of energy all in one go, and not over time as classical
theory stated.
o Stopping Voltage
One photon releases one electron, given the photon is higher than
threshold frequency.
Photon theory also accounts for the absence of delay, as the electron
absorbs a clump of energy all in one go, and not over time as classical
theory stated.
o Stopping Voltage
When no voltage is applied to the phototube, a current still flows.
However, when a certain negative potential is applied to the
photocathode, it can stop the electrons in their path, and bring current
to zero. The stopping voltage is then used to work out the maximum
kinetic energy of the electrons, using Kmax = eVstop, where e is the
charge of an electron.
o Applications of Photoelectric Effect
The evacuated tube for initial experiments is called a photocell, but
currents produced were much too small to be used commercially.
A photomultiplier tube was then produced, which had specially coated
surfaces, called dynodes between the anode and the cathode.
Because they were between the cathode and anode, electrons
would get attracted towards successive dynodes and collide
with them.
An electron colliding with a dynode would then release more
electrons, and then these electrons would collide with the next
dynode releasing even more electrons, and finally the anode
would receive a large amount of electrons, and register a large
current.
o This makes the photomultiplier tube very sensitive to
extremely low levels of light.
The photomultiplier tube is used in astronomy, nuclear physics and
medicine.
Positron Emission Topography A chemical attaches itself to
tumour cells and emits two gamma photons. These photons are
picked up by a ring of photomultipliers around a patient, and
are converted to electric signals by the photomultipliers. A
computer then calculates the time difference between gamma
photons and maps out the tumour in the body.
Night vision devices. Also semiconductors if we broaden our
definition of photoelectric effect to mean light electricity (this
is because electrons in the semiconductor dont actually leave
the solid).
This effect is the basis for photovoltaic cells (solar panels).
o Einstein, Planck and Politics
Einstein was a pacifist, and believed that politics and science should be
separate, and that science should be used for the betterment of
humanity.
Einstein was not taken seriously during WWII, and received
harsh criticism from anti-Semitic physicists. He fled to the USA
when WWII was imminent.
Politics can limit science, as how Einsteins discoveries while in
Germany remained unrecognized by the world due to antiGerman attitudes, but after he defected to America, they
awarded him the Nobel Prize.
Politics can also aid science, as Einsteins choice to defect
caused him to participate in weapons development, which led to
his invention of the atomic bomb.
Planck believed that science should be pursued in order to know more,
and believed that it was up to governments to decide what would
happen with scientific discoveries.
Planck and many other scientists signed a manifesto to support the
German War regime. Einstein and a few other scientists signed a
counter manifesto opting for peace.
Planck was pressured to join the Nazi party and to research for
o Electrical conduction occurs because some electrons in the solid have gained
enough energy to be in the conduction band, and are no longer localised to an
atom; they are now shared between atoms and move freely.
In a solid, ions are not free to move, so only electrons carry charge.
o For a conductor, the valence bands and conduction bands overlap. For an
insulator, the forbidden energy gap is very large, and for a semiconductor, the
gap is there, but small.
Semiconductors
o Semiconductors are all group IV elements.
o Most semiconductors have energy gaps of less than 5eV.
Silicon is 1.14, Germanium is 0.67 and diamond is 5.4eV.
Electrons in semiconductors jump the gap by obtaining thermal energy.
This can be provided by heating the semiconductor.
At absolute zero, there is no thermal energy, so the
semiconductor will behave as an insulator.
o Electrons and Holes
When an electron moves to the conduction band, it leaves an absence in
the valence band, called a positive hole. When a potential difference is
applied, electrons move towards the positive end, and fill in these
holes. This results in the apparent motion of the hole towards the
negative end.
So now free electrons moving to the positive end and valence electrons
moving to fill in holes both contribute to electric current.
The charge on a hole can be thought of as equal and opposite to
an electron.
o Modelling a Semiconductor
Electron movement in a doctors surgery, there is a line of patients
(electrons) sitting on a chair. When the doctor comes (positive
potential), one electron moves out of the line, and then creates a vacant
chair (hole), which all the electrons shuffle into one by one.
An n-doped semiconductor would have an extra person pushing
all the other ones along, till the first one gets dislodged out of
their seat.
o Germanium and Silicon
The first semiconductors were germanium, and they were extremely
rare and expensive and lost some conducting properties at high
temperatures.
The reason was that no other semiconductor of a suitable purity could
be obtained at lower costs.
When a cheap method of purifying silicon was discovered, it
replaced germanium as the main semiconductor material, as it
was much cheaper and more abundant.
o Doping
At normal temperature, the average electron has 0.026eV energy, and
the energy gap for silicon is 1.14eV. This means that only extremely
few electrons are going to be that much above the average to actually
jump the gap and conduct.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one with no impurities, but the energy
o Doping
At normal temperature, the average electron has 0.026eV energy, and
the energy gap for silicon is 1.14eV. This means that only extremely
few electrons are going to be that much above the average to actually
jump the gap and conduct.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one with no impurities, but the energy
gap in a semiconductor can be lowered by doping it with other atoms.
Semiconductors where conduction is mostly by impurities are
called extrinsic.
Doping involves adding a group 5 element to the silicon lattice in a 1 in
200,000 concentration to make n-doped silicon, or adding a group 3
element in the same concentration to make p-doped silicon.
N-doped will have one extra electron in a conduction level, and
p-doped will have an extra hole which other valence electrons
can fill. Both help conducting electricity.
Electrons in the conduction are more mobile than electrons in the
valence band, so n-doped semiconductors conduct slightly better than
p-doped semiconductors.
All doped semiconductors are neutral, they are not charged.
o N-Doped
These impurities are called donor impurities. On an energy band
diagram, the donor level is a chain of electrons just under the
conduction band.
Four of the valence electrons bond in the silicon lattice, the other is
free.
o P-Doped
These impurities are called acceptor impurities. On an energy band
diagram, the donor level is a chain of holes just above the valence
band.
Three of the electrons bond in the silicon lattice, and a hole exists in the
fourth place.
Semiconductor Devices
o P-N Junction
These are used in nearly all electronic devices like microprocessors,
remotes etc.
Involves a continuous semiconductor crystal where the doping abruptly
changes from n-type to p-type.
This forms the simplest electronic device, the diode.
o It allows current in only one direction (electrons in n fill
up holes in p).
o This CONEVNTIONAL current flows from the p to the
n.
The electrons in the n side want to diffuse into the p-side, and vice
versa for the holes.
Diffusion is a property of all randomly moving particles, and
involves them moving from areas of high concentration to
lower concentration.
o The energy for diffusion comes from thermal energy, so
at absolute zero, diffusion does not occur and p-n
junctions will not operate.
In the diffusion region, the movement of these electrons and holes
results in the formation of a current. Also, the p-side gets more
negative, and the n-side gets more positive, so an electric field forms.
This eventually stops the flow of charge.
cathode and the anode, such that only electrons could pass
through it.
o This device is called the triode.
o He found that by placing a potential difference on the
grid, the electrons could be stopped, accelerated even
more, or controlled somewhere in between.
This can be used to amplify current and voltage, and the
invention of the triode and thermionic devices (valves)
pioneered the electronics revolution.
Shortcomings of Thermionic Devices
They were very large (compared to 5mm2 integrated circuits),
less efficient due to heat energy being used, limited life, more
expensive to produce due to vacuum tube, less reliable, easily
breakable, take time to warm up, and require large voltages to
run as an amplifier.
o More portable valves were soon invented, but they
needed 12-D batteries to power them.
The transistor, invented by William Shockleys team, addressed
all these issues.
Transistors
Most common is the bipolar transistor, which is an n-p-n
junction. The ends are called the emitter and the collector, and
the p in the middle is called the base.
Initially, no charge can flow due to the depletion regions
between each junction.
o If a positive potential is applied to the base with respect
to the emitter, it weakens the field, and allows some
electrons to pass. When the electrons enter the base,
they are accelerated towards the collector due to the
electric field that is already there.
o Because the junction is so thin, these electrons pass
through into an external circuit.
Depending on the size of the applied voltage, the
size of the current produced can be controlled.
The current supplied to the base to create the potential
difference is much less than the current it lets through, so
transistors are current amplifiers.
Bipolar transistors can also be p-n-p.
Transistors, compared to valves, are smaller, use less power, are
more robust, have longer operating times, are cheaper, require
less maintenance, can be mass produced, and yet they perform
an equivalent job.
o Impact of Transistors
Transistors have allowed the improvement and development of
technologies such as cars, radios, phones, games, music, movies,
changes in lifestyles, ease of transport, uses in medicine, and basically
any electronically sophisticated areas.
Also, we have increased dependence on computers due to the invention
of transistors. People aer spending too much time on computers,
causing health problems, unskilled work availability has decreased, and
people are too reliant on micro-processing devices, i.e. when computers
fail, then individuals and businesses can hardly function.
9.4.4 Superconductivity
o A crystal is a 3D regular arrangement of atoms. One type is the cube crystal
which is repeated over and over, such as that of NaCl. There are 14 types of
crystal arrangements.
o Metals have a crystal lattice structure.
Interference occurs when diffraction at two different locations results in
waves that overlap. The slits or edges which cause this diffraction are
o Examples of Superconductors
Mercury Metal element TC = 4.15K
Nb3Ge Compound TC = 23K
YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) Ceramic TC = 92K
o Type I and Type II
High magnetic fields will negate the superconducting state of a
material.
The character of the transition from superconducting to normal
distinguishes the types.
Type I at a certain critical magnetic field intensity, the
superconductor suddenly starts to behave like a normal conductor, and
gains an internal magnetic field.
Type II they have two critical magnetic field intensities. At the first
one (BC1), a partial internal field forms, but superconducting properties
are still maintained. At (BC2), it starts to behave like a normal
conductor.
o Magnetic Levitation
Meissner Effect
When an external magnetic field is applied to a superconductor
and an ideal conductor under their critical temperatures, the
field penetrates the interior of the ideal conductor, but the
superconductor creates an equal but opposite field which
completely cancels out the first one, so it has no interior field.
Switching off the field will induce eddy currents in the ideal
conductor due to Lenzs law, but in the superconductor, it just
returns to its original state of no magnetic field inside or outside
it.
Magnetic Levitation
When a permanent magnet is placed over a superconductor, it
induces eddy currents in the superconductor. Because of the
Meissner effect, an exact opposite field is created. This field
causes a repulsive force due to interacting magnetic fields,
which balances out the weight force of the magnet. Since net
force is zero, the magnet hovers over the superconductor.
o However, the magnet must be thrust at the
superconductor first. Why?
Vortex States and Flux Pinning
Extremely stable levitation occurs in type two superconductors,
between BC1 and BC2.
In this state, the superconductor has filaments of normal
conductor regions with swirling electric currents, called
vortices.
o The rest of the material is still superconducting, and an
external magnetic field can penetrate only through these
vortices.
When the magnet is thrust at the superconductor, and if it is
strong enough to create a field between the critical strengths,
then the vortex state is created.
o The magnetic field produced by these vortices together
magnet over the superconductor, and slightly thrust it towards the surface. The
magnet could then levitate over the superconductor without support.
If he nudged the magnet, it would still levitate. If he changed the angle
of the magnet, it would still levitate.
o He then physically lifted the magnet away, and the superconductor actually
followed the magnet upwards as if held by invisible strings. He then placed the
system on a separate table, away from the liquid nitrogen in the ceramic plate.
As the superconductor heated up again, the magnet slowly and
smoothly started falling towards the superconductor and eventually
softly landed on its surface.
Rutherford-Bohr Model
o Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden fired alpha particles at extremely thin gold
foil. They found that while most passed straight through, some were deflected
from their path, and 1 in 8000 actually got knocked backwards.
They then proposed a new model of the atom over Thompsons model,
and stated that atoms were mostly empty space, and they contained a
tiny central nucleus which was positive (hence deflection of alpha
particles), and electrons randomly orbited this nucleus.
o Rutherford proposed the nucleus was 10-15 m in diameter. Einsteins analysis of
Brownian motion later showed that the atom was 10-10 m in diameter and the
nucleus contained 99.9% of the mass. This meant that each linear dimension of
and stated that atoms were mostly empty space, and they contained a
tiny central nucleus which was positive (hence deflection of alpha
particles), and electrons randomly orbited this nucleus.
Rutherford proposed the nucleus was 10-15 m in diameter. Einsteins analysis of
Brownian motion later showed that the atom was 10-10 m in diameter and the
nucleus contained 99.9% of the mass. This meant that each linear dimension of
the nucleus was 100,000 times smaller than that of the atom.
Limitations
The model failed to explain what the nucleus was made of, how the
orbiting electrons are arranged, and why these electrons dont spiral
into the nucleus.
Quantized Energy
To model a blackbody spectrum, Planck formulated his theory of
energy of vibrations of atoms only being in discrete amounts, E = nhf,
where f is the frequency of light emitted and n is the quantum number,
and is a positive integer.
Einstein took this one step further, and applied it to light, stating that
vibrational energy of particles could only change by a multiple of hf,
and therefore light also obeyed the equation E = hf. These discrete
packets of light were later named photons.
Spectral Analysis
Absorption spectra when white light is passed through a cool gas,
the electrons of atoms absorb certain wavelengths depending on the
element, and become in the excited state. They then release a photon in
a random direction to come back to ground state. The net effect is that
certain wavelengths will be depleted from the original white light
continuous spectrum. These will appear as a series of dark lines when
seen through a spectroscope.
Emission Spectra opposite of absorption, produced when a gas is
already excited and emits photons of certain wavelengths. This can be
seen as coloured lines on a black background through a spectroscope.
The emission spectrum is what is seen during flame tests etc.
Emission spectra are like the fingerprint of atoms, and the visible
spectrum of hydrogen was analysed heavily due to it being the simplest
atom.
Johann Balmer did a detailed study on the visible emission
spectrum for hydrogen- the Balmer series.
Johannes Rydberg generalised Balmers analysis to the
equation:
o , where nF is the final state of the electron and nI is the
initial state of the electron.
o R is the Rydberg Constant, which is 1.097 x 107.
The Balmer series of emission is from other shells to shell 2, so
nF in the Balmer series is always 2, and nI = 3,4,5...
o nI cannot be 1, as this obviously must be an absorption.
Others such as Lyman then discovered spectral lines for nF = 1,
and over 8 years, found the remaining lines in the Lyman series.
o For the Lyman series, because of the large energy drop
to shell 1, emitted light is ultraviolet.
Note that when jumping a small amount of shells, the energy is
less, so wavelength is more. So therefore the longest
wavelength emitted in a certain series is when nF + 1 = nI.
Bohrs Postulates
Bohr saw Balmers equation and was able to link it to Einstein and
Plancks theory of quantised light.
He proposed that electrons were the emitters and absorbers of the light
in blackbodies and in any material, and that quanta of light were
absorbed with electrons moving between discrete energy levels.
Bohr used quantization of energy and angular momentum to come up
with three postulates:
Electrons exist in stable orbits called stationary states. The
lowest stationary state (closest to nucleus) is called ground
state.
The standing wave stable orbits of electrons with quantum numbers 1,2,3,4....
nucleus) neutron has a half life of 10.3min, and it is speculated that all protons have an
average half life of 1032 years, but this has not been ascertained due to the nature of this length
of time and the difficulty in observing decay from such a small particle.
Section 2: Conservation Laws and Chadwicks Discovery of the Neutron
Ernest Rutherford first predicted the existence of a neutral particle with the same mass of a
proton, and he named this the neutron. In 1930, Bothe and Becker found a highly penetrating
radiation similar to gamma rays being produced when beryllium was bombarded with alpha
particles. They knew there was too much energy for it to be just gamma rays, so they
concluded a new type of particle must have been involved. In 1932, Joliot and Curie then
performed a similar experiment and let the radiation hit paraffin. They observed that protons
got dislodged out of the paraffin. Using the laws of conservation of energy and momentum,
they deduced that if the radiation was gamma, then the gamma rays had to be of energy
50MeV. This could not be so, as the energy of the incident alpha particles were only 5MeV!
Two weeks after Joliot and Curie published their paper concerning the possible violation of
conservation of energy; Chadwick saw it and performed his own experiment of bombarding
beryllium with alpha particles. This time he observed the deflection of hydrogen and nitrogen
nuclei when exposed to this new radiation, and applied laws of conservation of energy and
momentum to try and determine the nature of the radiation. He deduced that it had a mass
1.15 times the proton, so it was probably a particle and possibly a neutron. Many physicists
at first didnt believe that these laws of conservation would apply to nuclear processes, and
one staunch anti-believer was Bohr, who refused to accept Chadwicks deductions for another
four years (1936).
Section 3: Transmutations
A nuclear transmutation is the changing of an element or isotope into a new one with different
chemical and physical properties. It can be a result of natural radioactive decay, or by
bombarding isotopes with high energy particles. Two forms of nuclear transmutations are
nuclear fission, where a larger nucleus is split into smaller particles, and nuclear fusion, where
two smaller particles are fused together to form a larger nucleus.
Section 4: Describe Nuclear Transmutations due to Natural Radioactivity
Radioactive decay or emission is a natural process involving transmutations. In 1903, Ernest
Rutherford and Frederick Soddy theorized that radioactive emission was a result of
radioactive transformations. The parent atom would split into two, and emit an alpha () or
beta () particle, accompanied by energy as gamma radiation, and leave a daughter atom with
different physical and chemical properties to the parent atom. A nuclide is a particular nucleus
with certain numbers of protons and neutrons. A nuclide is an isotope of another nuclide if
they both have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. Alpha decay involves a
helium nucleus being emitted, and always decreases atomic number by 2, and mass by 4 amu.
However, beta decay involves the conversion of a nucleon to its opposite plus another lepton
(commonly a neutron proton + electron), and so it could increase or decrease atomic
number by 1, but its mass will remain constant. Beta decay can be electron emission (neutron
to proton, electron and antineutrino), positron emission (proton to neutron, positron and
neutrino) or electron capture (proton and electron to neutron). When the nucleus just has too
much energy, it falls to a lower energy state and emits accompanying gamma radiation.
Section 5: Fermis Initial Observation of Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus, and it occurs naturally every day in
radioactive substances such as Uranium-238. After the discovery of the neutron by James
Chadwick, Fermi set out to bombard many elements with them to see the results. He showed
that high energy neutrons could collide with the nucleus and knock out a proton, but at low
energies, the neutron would spend more time in collision with the nucleus, and could be
absorbed into it. When the latter occurred, the nucleus was often unstable, and split into twonuclear fission. Fermi bombarded many new elements with neutrons and found that many
times, electron emission beta decay occurred. He predicted that if he bombarded uranium with
neutrons, he could produce new elements. He did this, and found product nuclides with new
that high energy neutrons could collide with the nucleus and knock out a proton, but at low
energies, the neutron would spend more time in collision with the nucleus, and could be
absorbed into it. When the latter occurred, the nucleus was often unstable, and split into twonuclear fission. Fermi bombarded many new elements with neutrons and found that many
times, electron emission beta decay occurred. He predicted that if he bombarded uranium with
neutrons, he could produce new elements. He did this, and found product nuclides with new
chemical and physical properties, and he assumed he had fused particles to create transuranic
elements. However, in reality he had caused artificial nuclear fission, and the new nuclides he
produced were unstable isotopes of already known elements such as barium, radium and
lanthanum.
Section 6: Pauli, the Neutrino and Beta Decay.
Alpha radiation was found to have set kinetic energies all the time. However, a pressing
conundrum of the time was that after such extensive study of beta radiation, an entire
spectrum of energy values of beta particles could be detected. Many would have relatively
small kinetic energies, most would be around 2-3MeV and some would even go up to 11MeV,
as shown in the diagram below.
Wolfgang Pauli set out to find why different beta particles of the exact same transmutation
had different energy levels. He concluded that there must be another particle which
accompanies the release of the beta particle, and that it must be neutral to conserve charge,
and that it would hardly interact with matter. This particle would only be discovered
experimentally in 1953, and it is called the neutrino. Pauli reasoned that the energy released in
beta decay would be shared by the beta particle and the neutrino, so that the kinetic energy of
the neutrino in a particular transmutation would be equal to the maximum possible kinetic
energy of a beta particle minus the actual kinetic energy of the beta particle. This would
explain why the energy of the beta particles had so much variance.
Section 7: Radiation from a Wilson Cloud Chamber
A Wilson Cloud Chamber is a device used to detect charge radiation, such as alpha and beta.
It consists of an enclosed chamber which is super saturated with alcohol vapour, with a clear
Perspex cover on top, a black metal plate on the bottom, and under the metal plate, there is
often dry ice and foam insulation. A radioactive source is connected into the chamber. Before
turning it on, the Perspex is rubbed to charge it with static and attract dust particles that may
affect the detection of radiation. Then the source is switched on, and within a few minutes,
streaks should be visible against the black plate, showing that a charged radioactive particle
has gone through. It works by the charged particles ionizing the atoms in the super saturation.
Because of the nature of the system, the vapour then begins to condense on these ions, thus
creating a cloud which follows the path of the charged particle as a trail.
Section 8: Electrostatic and Gravitational Forces
The electrostatic force is the force of repulsion between two protons in the nucleus, and
gravitational force is the force of attraction between all nucleons in the nucleus. From
calculations, we can determine that the electrostatic force is around 1.239 x 1036 times
stronger than the gravitational force. Of course, this is not because the electrostatic force is
unimaginably strong; the gravitational force is just extremely weak because the mass of the
particles is so small. The electrostatic force contributes much more than the gravitational
force between nucleons. The strong nuclear force explains why protons remain together in
atoms. Neutrons and protons dont have electrostatic forces between them, as the neutron is
uncharged.
Section 9: The Strong Nuclear Force
The strong nuclear force was needed to explain why protons in the nucleus were not repelled
from each other due to the electrostatic force of repulsion between them. The strong nuclear
atoms. Neutrons and protons dont have electrostatic forces between them, as the neutron is
uncharged.
Section 9: The Strong Nuclear Force
The strong nuclear force was needed to explain why protons in the nucleus were not repelled
from each other due to the electrostatic force of repulsion between them. The strong nuclear
force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces of nature, the others being
electromagnetic force, gravitational force and weak nuclear force. Through experiments
between 1930 and 1950, certain characteristics of the strong nuclear force have been
identified. The strong nuclear force is independent of charge, so neutrons and protons
experience it the same way. It can only act over short distances, around 1 x 10-15 m, or the
diameter of a nucleus, as otherwise, the nucleus would attract random nucleons that would be
floating around. The force also only acts between adjacent nucleons, found through observing
nuclear stability. The force is at a maximum around 1.3 x 10-15 m apart, and under 0.5 x 10-15
m, the force quickly becomes quite repulsive. The strong force is operated by two particles,
and is therefore in two parts. The first is the gluon, which glues quarks together in all
hadrons. This is the first part of the force, called the residual strong force. The second part
holds nucleons together, and it involves adjacent nucleons that are close enough to participate
in meson transfer. Mesons are hadrons comprised of two quarks (unlike baryons which have 3
quarks). The mesons which are continuously transferred between adjacent particles, sort of
like a ping pong ball being hit back and forth, keeps nucleons together, but only at these small
distances.
Synchrotron
A ring shaped evacuated tube, with a series of magnets along it,
and one or more alternating power sources, producing an
electric field in that region of the tube.
o The magnets (usually superconductors), keep the
particle in its circular path, and the alternating power
Synchrotron
A ring shaped evacuated tube, with a series of magnets along it,
and one or more alternating power sources, producing an
electric field in that region of the tube.
o The magnets (usually superconductors), keep the
particle in its circular path, and the alternating power
source accelerates the particle whenever it passes it.
The LHC at CERN has a circumference of 27km. It has 1232
superconducting magnets, and has accelerated opposing proton
beams at 7TeV each, resulting in a 14TeV collision. This means
that the protons collided at 3m/s less than the speed of light.
Particle Detectors
Records the explosion of particles as a result of accelerated
collision.
Consists of various sub-detector parts:
Tracking Devices
o Detects and reveals the trajectory of the particles. This
provides information about the particles momentum.
Early detectors included cloud chambers, but now
computers are used to reconstruct the path.
o Muons are commonly detected this way.
Calorimeters
o Stops and absorbs particles in order to measure their
energy level.
o Electromagnetic calorimeters are positioned close to the
collision, and measure energy of light particles like
electrons and photons.
o Hadronic calorimeters measure energies of heavier
particles made of quarks (hadrons), including protons,
neutrons, pions (a meson).
o Calorimeters cannot stop muons or neutrinos.
Particle Identification Detectors
o Identifies the type of particle using either Cherenkov
radiation (emitted when a particle travels faster than the
speed of light in that medium) or transition radiation
(emitted when a charged particle crosses the boundary
between certain materials).
o The Standard Particle Model
In 1964, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig proposed quarks as the
constituents for the family of particles called hadrons.
Hadrons would be divided into mesons (a quark and anti-quark
pair) and baryons (three quarks).
In 1967, the electro-weak theory (unifying electromagnetic and weak
forces) was proposed, and in 1969 the first evidence of quarks was
observed.
In 1970-1973, the Standard Model was formulated, and since then,
every single component of the model has been identified except for the
Higgs boson and graviton.
The Higgs boson is the hypothetical particle that gives other
particles mass.
The graviton is a boson which causes gravity.
o Components of the Standard Model
Quarks 12 types.
Six varieties or flavours of quarks. The charge quarks in
increasing mass are up, charm and top. The charge quarks in
increasing mass are down, strange and bottom.
o Proton is up/up/down, and neutron is up/down/down.
First generation is up/down, second generation is
charm/strange, third generation is top/bottom.
Quarks also have a colour charge, which is red, blue or green.
There are also anti-quarks, which are and in charge, and have
colours of antired, antiblue or antigreen.
o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg
Leptons 12 types.
There are the -1 charge leptons and the neutral leptons. The -1
charge in increasing mass are: electron, muon and tau. The
neutral particles in increasing mass are electron neutrino, muon
neutrino and tau neutrino.
o Antileptons have a charge of +1 or 0.
1st generation is electron/electron neutrino, 2nd generation is
muon/muon neutrino, and 3rd generation is tau/tau neutrino.
Bosons 5 types
Force particles, which transmit the fundamental forces of
nature.
Gluons for strong force; photons, W+, W-, Z0 for electroweak
force; gravitons for gravitational force; and Higgs boson for
mass (not explicitly a force).
Bosons have integer spins whereas quarks and leptons have
non-integer spins.