DIRECTED INVESTIGATION

COMPLEX NUMBERS, POLYNOMIALS & ITERATIONS

PART B Completed Outside of Class Time

Introduction
The aim of Part B is to explore the behavior of the number sequences produced by the iterative
process known as Newtons Method by applying it to different mathematical situations.
Given a polynomial function f(x), the zeroes of the function occur solutions of the equations f(x) = 0.
Mathematical formulas exist to find these solutions for polynomials of order 4 and below, such as
the quadratic formula, cubic formula and quartic formula, however for polynomials of order 5 or
greater, no such formula exists.
In this case mathematical methods are used to produce an approximation of a zero of the
polynomial. The iterative process being explored in this Investigation is Newtons Method, which
involves guessing an initial value believed to be close to the zero, and applying an algorithm that
results in a number sequence that converges to a zero of the specified function. The method
achieves this by using the gradient of the tangent to f ( x ) to calculate an x-intercept that is closer
to the actual zero. This process is then repeated starting with the new value, each iteration giving a
closer approximation to the zero than the last. The number sequence produced by this method
The zero that the sequence targets varies with the initial value according to a fractal pattern of
convergence regions but usually converges to the zero with value closest to the initial guess.
Through Part B the convergence of number sequences created by Newtons Method iterations from
polynomial while comparing their behavior with convergence regions graphed by computer
software.
In Part A of the investigation, an approximation to a zero of
four iterations of Newtons formula, starting with

x0 1 .

f ( x) x 3 8

was to be found by using

a) The regions of convergence using Newtons Method are displayed below. Clearly explain, in
your own words, what the diagram is showing you.

The regions of convergence of Newtons Method for the function f ( x )=x 38 are represented in the
Argand plane diagram above. The zeroes of the function occur when f ( x )=0 , the values of x that
cause this are represented by the yellow dots. These yellow dots are situated at the 3 zeroes of the
function which are x=1 3 i and x=2 and are located in regions shaded a particular colour,
in this case cyan blue or red. These coloured regions illustrate which zero and starting point will
iterate to using Newtons Method. In this diagram the zero at x=2 is surrounded by a region shaded
dark blue which represents the field of all starting values which converge to x=2. This also happens

for all starting points in cyan and red regions which converge to x=1+ 3i and x=1 3 i
respectively. These shaded regions have boundaries that form a fractal with increasingly smaller
sections of the 3 attraction regions but still influence the convergence of the iterations.
Display the orbit plot for the iterations of Newtons Method for
sufficient results to clearly determine the behaviour.

f ( x) x 3 8 using x0 1 i . Give

Newtons Method has the formula:

x n+1=x 0

f ( x 0)
f ' ( x 0)

Substituting the given function into the algorithm gives:

x 038
x n+1=x 0
3 x 02
Using a starting point of

x n+1=(1i)

x 0=1i gives the iterative process

( 1i)38
3(1i)2

The results of iterations using this formula are recorded in the table below and can also be
displayed as an orbit plot.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
560

Value after

xn

1.0+1.0i
0.66666667+0.66666667i
0.44444444-2.55555556i
-0.07676321-1.56989679i
-1.12544359-1.15190657i
-0.77418818-1.79586687i
-0.9948382-1.70419899i
-0.99993352-1.7324538i
-0.99999994-1.73205086i
-1.0-1.73205081i
-1.0-1.73205081i
-1.0-1.73205081i
-1.0-1.73205081i
-1.0-1.73205081i
-1.0-1.73205081i
-1.0-1.73205081i

The orbit plot has been constructed by plotting the points of

The number sequence produced starting from x 0=1i converged to a value of x= -1.01.73205081i after 9 iterations and stayed constant through 560 iterations calculated by the plotting
software. This providing an approximation of a zero at x= -1.0-1.73205081ifor the given function. It is
also noted that this value is accurate to 10 significant figures to x=1 3 i , therefore it is likely
x=1 3 i is a zero of the function f ( x )=x 38 .

2.Consider the function

f ( x) x 4 16

a) What are the exact values of the zeroes of f (x)

f ( x )=x 4 +16

The zeroes of
i.e. when

occur when

f ( x )=0

x +16=0
x 4=16
Converted to Polar Form:
4

x =16 cis( + k 2 )
1 /4

x=[ 16 cis( +k 2 ) ]

Using DeMoivres Theorem:

x=2 cis

( + k4 2 )
x=2 cis

3
5
7
, 2 cis
, 2 cis
, 2 cis
4
4
4
4

3
3
5
5
7
7
x=2(cos +isin ) , 2(cos
+isin
) , 2(cos
+isin
) , 2(cos
+isin
) ,
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
x=2(

1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
+ i) , 2(
+ i) , 2(
+
i) , 2( +
i) ,
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2

x=2(

1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
+ i) , 2(
+ i) , 2(
+
i) , 2( +
i) ,
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
x= 2+ 2i , 2+ 2 i, 2 2i , 2 2 i

Exact value of zeroes of

f ( x ) are:

x= 2 2 i

b) Clearly explain what happens to iterations of Newtons Method if you start with:
i)

an initial value of

x0 2 2i .

Newtons Method has the formula:

x n+1=x 0

f ( x 0)
f ' ( x 0)

Substituting the given function into the algorithm gives:

4

x n+1=x 0

x 0 +16
3
4 x0

Iterations of this process using initial value x 0=2+2 i were calculated using computer software,
yielding the number sequence in the following table.

Value after

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
560

xn

2.0+2.0i
1.625+1.625i
1.45179506+1.45179506i
1.41564781+1.41564781i
1.41421574+1.41421574i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i

x 0 :2+2 i

2+ 2 i

Diagram 1

Value after

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
560

xn

1+1i
1.75+1.75i
1.49908892+1.49908892i
1.42115354+1.42115354i
1.41426423+1.41426423i
1.41421357+1.41421357i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i

The number sequence produced by Newtons Method for the

f ( x) x 4 16

x =2+2 i

0
function
from a starting point of
converges to a value of x=1.41421356+1.41421356i and remains
constant for all calculated iterations. Given that this value is equal
2+ 2 i to nine significant figures, the conjecture can be

made that the number sequence is converging to the

f ( x) x 16 found in question 2a.

2+ 2 i

an exact zero of

This is supported by the position of x 0 in the attraction fields of

the given function as graphed by the computer program and
displayed in Diagram 1. The initial value is clearly situated in the
attraction field of the zero 2+ 2 i , shaded dark blue in the
diagram. This explains the converging behavior of the number sequence.

x 1 i

i) an initial value of 0
.
In the previous question applying Newtons Method for the function
iterative process:

x n+1=x 0

x 04 +16
4 x 03

Iterating from the initial value

f ( x )=x +16

x 0=1+i produces the following table of results:

Diagram 2

yielded the

 2+ 2 i
x 0 :1+i

By the 6thiteration, the number sequence produced from a starting value of x 0=1+i converged
to a value accurate to nine significant figures to the exact function zero of x= 2+ 2i . It is
reasonable to assume the sequence was targeting this zero, which can again be explained from the
functions attraction fields. As illustrated in Diagram 2, the starting value is situated in a large region
of the attraction field of zero x= 2+ 2i , shaded grey in this diagram and so will converge to the
zero as found in the table of results.
c) Investigate (in detail using both computer software and algebra) what happens to the
iterations of Newtons Method if you start with an initial value of
positive number.
The behavior of Newtons Method Iterations from a starting value of

x0 k ki

x0 k ki

for k being a

can be investigated

in a variety of ways, such as the number sequence produced in terms of variable k , the number
sequence produced for various values of k as well as the attraction fields of

f ( x )=x 4 +16 .

The first iteration in terms of k can be found algebraically:

Newtons Method has the formula:

x n+1=x 0
Substituting

f ( x 0)
f ' ( x 0)
f ( x )=x 4 +16

into the algorithm gives:

x 04 +16
x n+1=x 0
4 x 03
x 0=k + ki the first iteration is given by the equation:

From the starting value of

(
(

x 1=(k +ki )

(k +ki) +16
3
4 (k + ki)

x 1=(k +ki)

4 k 4 +16
8 k 3 i8 k 3

8k
( 3 i8 k )(k + ki) + 4 k 4 16

x 1=
3

x 1=

8 k 4 i8 k 4 +8 k 4 i 28 k 4 i+4 k 4 16
3
3
8 k i8 k

8 k 4 i8 k 48 k 4 8 k 4 i+ 4 k 416
x 1=
8 k 3 i8 k 3
16 k 4 + 4 k 416
x 1=
3
3
8 k i8 k
x 1=

3 k 44
3
3
2 k i2 k

Converting to Polar form:

3k
( 4 +4 )cis
( 8 k 3 ) cis 3
4
x 1=

x 1=

3 k 4+ 4

cis
3
4
8 k

This shows the first iteration for all values of

given by the value of

3 k4 + 4
8 k3

. As

k occurs on the line of

and has a modulus

4

is any positive number there are an infinite number of

possible moduli so all possible locations for this first iteration is given by a line in the direction

from the origin and so have the form k+ki also. The first iteration showed that a value of this form

, as a result all iterations will have the form kcis

4
4
4
.This is shown below on an Argand Diagram along with the attraction fields of f ( x )=x +16 .

will iterate another on the same line of

A[100 x 100] Argand Diagram (3) suggest that all possible values of the first iteration of
x 0=k + ki for all positive k occur in the region of attraction for the zero of x= 2+ 2i as
shaded grey. This appears to be the case for small values of k as shown by another attraction
field graph (Diagram 4) with dimensions [0.2x 0.2].

Diagram 3

Diagram 4

For this to be true, all initial values in form x 0=k + ki must converge to the zero x= 2+ 2i
which can be tested by substituting various positive values of k and finding the resultant number
sequences.
It is noted that the zero
lies on

x= 2+ 2i

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
171
172
560

k =1 10

the line of

= 1 E6

Value after x n

holds1E-6+1E-6i

k =1 106
1E6
Value after x n

k = 8

Value after x n
this
0
2.82842712+2.82842712i
of the 1E21+10E21i
1E6+1E6i
1
2.16551452+2.16551452
small and
7.5 E20+7.5
1 E20i
7.5 E5+7.5 E5i
2
1.72260878+1.72260878i
explored,
5.625 E20+5.625
E20i
2
5.625 E5+5.625 E5
3
1.48758865+1.48758865i
irrational
4.21875
E20+4.21875
E20i
3
4.21875 E5+4.21875 E5i
4
1.41946607+1.41946607i
numberE20+3.164062
3.164062
E20i 3.164062 E5+3.164062 E5i
4
5
1.41424264+1.41424264i
tables
2.373047 E20+2.373047
E20i 2.373047 E5+2.373047
5
E5i

also.To investigate if

true for inaccurate guesses

functions zero, extremely
large values for k will be
as well as when k is an
number.The resulting
sequences are listed in the
below.

6
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.779785 E20+1.779785
E20i 1.779785 E5+1.779785
6
E5i
7
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.334839 E20+1.334839
E20i 1.334839 E5+1.334839 E5i
7
8
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421397+1.41421397i
8
1.001129 E5+1.001129 E5i
9
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
50
1.41421378+1.41421378i
10
1.41421356+1.41421356i
1.41421356+1.41421356i
51
1.41421356+1.41421356i
56
1.41421356+1.41421356i
The
56
1.41421356+1.41421356i
0
sequences
0

resultant number
of the positive values for
k tested
all converged to the predicted zero of
6
.
Using
an
initial
value
of
(
x 0= 1 10 ) +(1 106 )i , 172 iterations of Newtons
x= 2+ 2i
Method were required before the results converged to a value accurate to 9 significant figures of
6
6
x= 2+ 2i . This also occurred for x 0=( 1 10 ) +(1 10 )i after 51 iterations and it was
found x 0= 8+ 8 i converged toward x= 2+ 2i after 6 iterations. All continued to
converge for a large number of iterations. From these results it can be deduced that all for all
positive values of k , initial values in form x 0=k + ki when iterated using Newtons Method for
the function

f ( x) x 4 16 , will converge to the zero of x= 2+ 2i .

3.Consider the function

a

f ( x) x 4 16

What are the exact values of the zeros of f (x)

The zeroes of
i.e. when

f ( x )=x 4 16

x 416=0
x 4=16
Converted to Polar Form:
4

x =16 cis(0+k 2 )

occur when

f ( x )=0

1/4

x=[ 16 cis(k 2 ) ]

Using DeMoivres Theorem:

x=2 cis

( k2 )
x=2 cis 0 , 2 cis

3
, 2 cis , 2 cis
2
2

3
3
+isin
) ,
x=2 , 2(cos +isin ) , 2(cos + isin ) , 2(cos
2
2
2
2
x=2 , 2(0+i) , 2(1) , 2(0i) ,

x=2,2 i , 2,2i
Exact value of zeroes of

f ( x ) are:

x= 2, 2i
d) Clearly explain what happens toiterations of Newtons Method if you start with:
ii) an initial value of

x0 2 2i .

Newtons Method has the formula:

x n+1=x 0

f ( x 0)
f ' ( x 0)

Substituting the given function into the algorithm gives:

x 0416
x n+1=x 0
4 x 03
Iterations of this process using initial value x 0=2+2 i
yielding the number sequence in the following table.

were calculated using computer software,

Value after

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
45
46
121
122
560

xn

2.0+2.0i
1.375+1.375i
0.64657682+0.64657682i
-3.21453818-3.21453818i
-2.38079825-2.38079825i
-1.71149629-1.71149629i
-1.08415474-1.08415474i
-0.02837534-0.02837534i
4.377002 E4+4.377002 E4i
0.15605935+0.15605935i
-262.98888016-262.98888017i
0.00000001-2.00000001i
0.0-2.0i
0.0-2.0i

Diagram 5

Using computer software it was calculated that the number sequence produced only converged
after a very significant number of iterations. For the first 45 iterations, the real and imaginary parts
of the values are equal, accurate to at least 8 sig.figs according to the computer software and
therefore lie on the line of

Value after

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
42
43
98
99
560

xn

1.0+1.0i
-0.25-0.25i
63.8125+63.8125i
-47.85937115+47.85937115i
35.89451924+35.89451924i
26.92086781+26.92086781i
20.1905996+20.1905996i
15.14282821+15.14282821i
11.35683316+11.35683316i
1.59017331+1.59017331i
0.94393524+0.94393523
2.0000289-0.00000473i
2.0-0.0i
2.0-0.0i

with polar form

cis cis

It is noted that the initial value,

of the basins of attractive which appears to run in the direction of

as shown in Diagram 5.After 45 iterations the real and
cis

imaginary components of the iterations diverge, giving values

diverging from the boundary line, and toward zero x=2i .
This divergence from the line of

Iterating from the initial value

cis

may be the result of

rounding by computer software. Consequently the number

sequence produced by Newtons Method for the function
f ( x )=x 4 16 from a starting point of x 0=2+2 i converges
to a value of x=2 i after 121 otherwise chaotic iterations. This
value remains constant for all subsequent iterations.

x 1 i .

iii) an initial value of 0

In the previous question applying Newtons Method for the function
iterative process:

x 0416
x n+1=x 0
4 x 03

is positioned on a boundary line

f ( x )=x 4 16 yielded the

x 0=1+i produces the following table of results:

The number sequence produced by Newtons Method for the function

starting point of x 0=1+i only converges to a value
of x=2 after the high number of 99 otherwise
chaotic iterations. This value remains constant for all
subsequent iterations. As in the previous question,
the starting value also occurs on the fractal boundary
line of

cis

4
f ( x )=x 16 from a

which the first 45 iterations lie on

because the real and imaginary parts of the values

are equal accurate to at least 8 significant figures.
After this the real and imaginary components of the
iterations slowly diverge, giving values diverging from
the boundary line, and toward zero x=2 . It is
possible this occurs due to rounding errors in the
computer software.
b

Investigate (in detail using both computer

software and algebra) what happens to
iterations of Newtons Method if you start with
an initial value of
positive number.

x0 k ki

(k +ki)4 16
4 (k + ki)3

4 k 4 16
8 k 3 i8 k 3

x 1=(k +ki)

for k being a

x 0=k + ki the first iteration is given by the equation:

From the starting value of

x 1=(k +ki)

8k
( 3 i8 k 3 )(k + ki) + 4 k 4 + 16

x 1=
x 1=

8 k 4 i8 k 4 +8 k 4 i 28 k 4 i+4 k 4 + 16
8 k 3 i8 k 3

x 1=

8 k 4 i8 k 48 k 4 8 k 4 i+ 4 k 4 +16
3
3
8 k i8 k

x 1=

16 k 4 + 4 k 4 +16
8 k 3 i8 k 3

x 1=

3 k 4 +4
2 k 3 i2 k 3

Converting to Polar form:

Diagram 6

3k
( 44) cis
( 8 k 3 ) cis 3
4
x 1=

x 1=

3 k 4

cis
3
4
8 k
This shows that for any initial guess in form

x0 k ki

first iteration will have its exact value on the line of

cis

for k being a positive number, the

. As k
4

is any positive

number there are an infinite number of possible moduli so all possible locations for this first
iteration is given by kcis

cis

. Because of this it can be shown the 2nd iteration also lies on

4

.
4

Using an initial value of x 0=kcis

x 2=(kcis )
4

4
) 16
4
3

4(kcis )
4

(kcis

:
4

Using DeMoivres theorem:

4
kcis
kcis
kcis
+16 cis 0
(
)(
)
(
4
4 )
4
x=
2

4 kcis

3
4

+16 cis 0
4
3
4 kcis
4

4 k kcis kcis
x 2=

x 2=

16
5
cis 2 cis + 3 (cis
)
k
4
4 4k
4
4k

x 2=

4 k2
4 k2
k
k
16
16
+
i

i
3
3
3
3
3
4 2 k 4 2 k
4 2 k 4 2 k
4 2 k 4 2 k 3

x 2=

4 k k 16 4 k k16
+
i
3
3
4 2 k
4 2 k

( )

( )

x k ki

This shows the second iteration also has the form 0

which was previously shown to
iterate to a value of the same form also. For this reason it is proven that all iterations produced from
a starting value of
line

cis

x0 k ki

from Newtons Method of the function

f ( x )=x 4 16 will lie on the

.The zeroes of this function were earlier shown to be x= 2, 2i , all of which do not

occur on the line

kcis

therefore the iterations of Newtons Method will not converge to

them.Newtons Method also possesses the property of converging initial guesses at a greater rate
the closer they are to the real root of a given function.
Newtons method may converge slowly at rst. However, as the iterates come
closer to the root, the speed of convergence increases.
University of Pittsburgh. 2009. Rootnding for Nonlinear Equations
This property can be used to prove that the iterations provided by the Jim Rolf software used is
incorrectly converging to the zero and contradicting the algebra shown above. The two initial
guesses of x 0=1+i and x 0=150+150 i were iterated to produce the two tables below:

Value after

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
98
99

xn

Value after

1.0+1.0i
0
-0.25-0.25i
1
63.8125+63.8125i
2
-47.85937115+47.85937115i3
35.89451924+35.89451924i4
26.92086781+26.92086781i5
20.1905996+20.1905996i 6
15.14282821+15.14282821i7
11.35683316+11.35683316i8
2.0000289-0.00000473i 95
2.0-0.0i
96

xn

150+150i
112.4999997+112.4999997i
84.37499908+84.37499908i
63.28124764+63.28124764i
47.46093179+47.46093179i
35.59568949+35.59568949i
26.69674494+26.69674494i
20.02250615+20.0225061
15.01675503+15.01675503
1.99999979+0.00000068i
2.0-0.0i

The above tables show that an initial

guess of x 0=150+150 i which is
significantly further from a root of the
function, converges to the root of x=2
after 96 iterations compared to a
greater number of 98 for the initial
x
=1+i
guess of
. This is clear violation of the properties of Newtons Method by the Jim Rolf
0
software, highlighting its inaccuracy and limitations. It also backs up the notion that the incorrect
convergence is due to the software rounding off iterations.

f ( x) x 5 1

1. Consider the function

Investigate (in detail using both computer software and algebra) what happens to iterations
of Newtons Method if you start with an initial value of
number.
The behavior of iterations of Newtons Method in the form

x0 kcis( 5 )

x0 kcis( 5 )

for k being a positive

for the function

f ( x )=x 51 can be investigated by finding the first iteration In the general terms of k .
Newtons Method has the formula:

x n+1=x 0
Substituting

f ( x 0)
f ' ( x 0)
f ( x )=x 51 into the algorithm gives:

x 1
x n+1=x 0 0 4
5 x0
x 0=k + ki the first iteration is given by the equation:

From the starting value of

) 1

5
x 1=(kcis )
4
5

5(kcis )
5
(kcis

Using DeMoivres theorem:

k cis1 cis 0
x 1=(kcis )
5
4
4
5 k cis
5

x 1=

x 1=

x 1=

((

4
5

)( kcis 5 ))k cis +1 cis 0

5

5 k 4 cis

4
5

5 k 5 cis k 5 cis1 cis

4
5 k 4 cis
5
(4 k 51)cis
4
4
5 k cis
5

x 1=

5 k 4 cis

4 k 51

cis
4
5
5k

The above calculation shows that the iterations of Newtons Method from a starting value of

kcis
5
kcis

will continue to have values on the line of cis

will converge to the zero of function

. This suggests that the iterations of

5

f ( x) x 5 1 that lies on this line. The exact zeroes

of this function can be found using the roots of unity.

Using the function

f ( x) x 5 1 , the zeroes are given when f ( x )=0

x 1=0
x 5=1
x [cis ( k 2 ) ]

1
5

Using DeMoivres Theorem:

x=cis

( k 25 )

x=1, cis

( 25 ) , cis ( 45 ) , cis ( 65 ) , cis ( 85 )

cis

None of the exact zeroes of the function have a value on the line

kcis

previously shown that all iterations from a starting value of

however it was

also have the form kcis

.
5

When the value for k becomes negative the iterations cross the origin and enter into the 3rd
quadrant on the line
point of

kcis

x 0=.5 cis

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
560

kcis

6
5

will converge to the zero of cis

Value after

as shown in Diagram 7. For this reason iterations from a starting

( 65 )

x 0= 5 cis

xn

Value after

for the function

5
xn

0
1.80901699+1.31432778i
1
1.44074146+1.04675994i
2
1.13650621+0.82572009i
Diagram
3 7
0.8676588+0.63039102i
4
0.5718282+0.41545751i
5
-0.19080745-0.13862973i
For this
true, all initial values in
6 to be-52.44484487-38.10341018i

0.4045085+0.29389263i
-2.26524758-1.64579871i
-1.81483049-1.31855153i
-1.458254-1.05948354i
-1.1819312-0.85872328i
-0.98106303-0.71278402i
-0.85967264-0.62458874i
-0.81464518-0.59187437i
-0.80909423-0.58784136i
-0.80901701-0.58778526i
-0.80901699-0.58778525i
-0.80901699-0.58778525i

f ( x )=x 51

form

x0 kcis( 5 )

must

6
converge
to-41.95587591-30.48272815i
the zero x=cis
which can be tested by
7
5
8
-33.56470075-24.38618253i
substituting
various
positive values of k and finding the resultant

number sequences. To investigate if this holds true for even

28
-0.80901703-0.58778528i
inaccurate
guesses
of the functions zero, extremely small and large
29
-0.80901699-0.58778525i
values for k will
be explored, as well as when k is an irrational
56
-0.80901699-0.58778525i
number. The resulting number sequences
are
listed in the tables below. This is supported by the
0

kcis
basins of attraction which are green along the
line of
x =50
cis
0

6
, however there are points where
5

boundary lines converge that are shown as black dots. It was found that an initial value in this zone
still converged to

cis

6
.
5

Value after

xn

0
40.45084972+29.38926261i
1
32.36067975+23.51141007i
2
25.88854374+18.80912801
3
20.71083483+15.0473023i
4
16.56866749+12.03784156i
5
13.25493307+9.63027258i
6
10.60394421+7.70421644i

These tables of values show that7 for the tested

initial values in form x o=kcis
, the number
8.48314989+6.16336917i
5
8
6.78650653+4.93068561i
sequences produced using Newtons
Method
converged to a value of x o= -0.80901699-0.58778525i
30
-0.80901702-0.58778527i
after a low number of iterations. It
that this value is accurate to 8 significant figures of the
31is noted-0.80901699-0.58778525i
6

56
-0.80901699-0.58778525i
zero x=cis
which supports
the notion
that all initial values in form x o=kcis
will
0
5
5

converge to this zero for the given function. For the most inaccurate initial guess of x 0=50 cis

the number sequence converged after 29 iterations, suggesting this convergence is due to
Newtons Method and not rounding error like previous questions.

Conclusion
It has been shown in Question 1 that iterations of Newtons Method from an initial value located in a
basin of attraction will converge to the zero of the basin it occurs in. This was shown in Question 1
where the Newtons Method iterations of f ( x )=x 38 behaved according to the basins of
attraction and converged to a function zero of x=1 3 i.
In Question 2 the iterations produced by Newtons Method from the function f ( x )=x 4 +16 were
investigated from a starting value in form x 0=k + ki for k being any positive number. Using
algebraic methods it was determined that all iterations from this starting value were also in this form

. This allowed the number sequence to converge from x o= 8 cis

and
4
4

to the exact function zero x=2 cis

that lie on the line of
. This convergence
4
4

with a value of kcis

x o=cis

also obeyed the basins of attraction with both starting values occurring in the region for zero

x=2 cis

.
4

Question 3 dealt with iterations from initial values in form x 0=k + ki for the even order function
f ( x )=x 4 16 which now lie on the boundary line of attraction regions. Once again it was
determined algebraically that all iterations from this value had an argument of

and never leave

. It was also found that the exact zeroes of the function f ( x )=x 4 16 were
4

x= 2, 2i , none of which have an arg of

. As a result of this the number sequence
4

the line of

produced by Newtons Method was unable to converge to a zero, instead the values iterated
chaotically in the form

x=kcis

including negative

values. When k became negative the

origin is crossed and the iterations entered the third quadrant on the line of

5
.
4

The Jim Rolf computer software converged these starting values to zeroes of f ( x )=x 4 16 after
a great number of iterations, however this was shown to be a result of the program rounding values.
For each iteration the software rounded the exact value, giving a result off the boundary line of

, eventually landing in an attraction basin and converging to a zero.

4

Question 6 required investigating the behavior of Newtons Method iterations from an initial value of

x o=kcis

for a function of odd order f ( x )=x 51 . It was shown algebraically that the

including negative k where the iterations

5
6
entered the third quadrant and had values of kcis
. Using unity roots the exact zeroes of the
5
6
function were found including cis
which the iterations of Newtons Method converged to. This
5

6
is because this value was the only zero that occurred with the form kcis
as cis
can also
5
5

be written as cis
.
5
iterations starting from this value had the form

kcis

It is noticed that the Newtons Method all iterations for functions of order 4 from an initial value

. For the order 5 function of f ( x )=x 51 it was shown that

4

all iterations remained in the same form if a starting value of kcis

was used. It can also be
5

shown that this occurs for the function f ( x )=x 38 from a starting value of kcis
. From this
3
it is possible to make the conjecture that a function with the order of n when iterated using

Newtons Method from a starting value of kcis

will only have iterations occurring in form
n

( n+1)
kcis
or in the third quadrant on the opposite argument with a value in form kcis
.
n
n
kcis

also had a form of

kcis

From the results of Question 2 and 3 the conjecture can be expanded to address the behavior of
iterations of Newtons Method according to their initial value.

x n+ c (where c is the constant), iterations of Newtons

Method from a starting value of kcis

will converge to the closest function zero that is a multiple
n

of cis
.
n
For an even order function with form

This is supported by the behavior of the iterations in Question 2.

Using an even order function with form
value of x 0=kcis

x nc

the iterations of Newtons Method from a starting

will not converge to a zero as the function has no zeroes on the line of

, therefore the iterations which only occur on this line can never converge to a zero. Instead
n

the number sequence will have chaotic values in the form kcis
occurring in the first and third
n
cis

quadrants. This is supported by the behavior of iterations in Question 2.

Odd order functions in form

x nc

will have iterations from initial value

the origin and converge to a zero on the line of

was shown that for the function

x 0=.5 cis

, x 0=50 cis
and
5
5

Iterations from starting value of

that cross

(n+1)
. This holds true for Question 4 where it
n

f ( x) x 5 1 , iterations of Newtons method from

x 0= 5 cis
kcis

the function zero with on the line of

6
converged to the function zero of cis
.
5
5

for odd order functions in form

x n+ c will converge to

. If this conjecture holds true the function

when iterated using Newtons Method from any initial value in form
the zero cis

x 0=kcis

x 0=kcis

. This is shown occur using computer software in diagram 8.

5

Diagram 8

f ( x )=x 5 +1

will converge to

These conjectures conclude the summary of findings for Part B of the Complex numbers,
Polynomials and Iterations Directed Investigation.