Journal of Thermal Science Vol.23, No.

3 (2014) 239245

DOI: 10.1007/s11630-014-0701-y

Article ID: 1003-2169(2014)03-0239-07

Study on an Undershot Cross-Flow Water Turbine

Yasuyuki Nishi1, Terumi Inagaki1, Yanrong Li1, Ryota Omiya2 and Junichiro Fukutomi3
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ibaraki University, 4-12-1 Nakanarusawa-cho, Hitachi-shi, Ibaraki, 316-8511,
JAPAN
2. Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ibaraki University, 4-12-1 Nakanarusawa-cho, Hitachi-shi, Ibaraki,
316-8511, JAPAN
3. Institute of Technology and Science, The University of Tokushima, 2-1 Minamijosanjima-cho, Tokushima-shi, Tokushima, 770-8506, JAPAN
Science Press and Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, CAS and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

This study aims to develop a water turbine suitable for ultra-low heads in open channels, with the end goal being
the effective utilization of unutilized hydroelectric energy in agricultural water channels. We performed tests by
applying a cross-flow runner to an open channel as an undershot water turbine while attempting to simplify the
structure and eliminate the casing. We experimentally investigated the flow fields and performance of water turbines in states where the flow rate was constant for the undershot cross-flow water turbine mentioned above. In
addition, we compared existing undershot water turbines with our undershot cross-flow water turbine after attaching a bottom plate to the runner. From the results, we were able to clarify the following. Although the effective head for cross-flow runners with no bottom plate was lower than those found in existing runners equipped
with a bottom plate, the power output is greater in the high rotational speed range because of the high turbine efficiency. Also, the runner with no bottom plate differed from runners that had a bottom plate in that no water was
being wound up by the blades or retained between the blades, and the former received twice the flow due to the
flow-through effect. As a result, the turbine efficiency was greater for runners with no bottom plate in the full rotational speed range compared with that found in runners that had a bottom plate.

Keywords: Water Turbine, Cross-Flow Turbine, Open Channel, Performance, Flow Visualization

Introduction
In recent years, global warming and other environmental and energy issues such as the depletion of fossil
fuels are becoming increasingly significant. Therefore, it
is important to realize the effective utilization of renewable energy sources, including hydroelectric energy,
which is a high-density energy possessing characteristics
such as low cost per unit power output and excellent
supply stability.

Water turbines used in hydroelectric power generation

can be broadly classified as water turbines for use in
pipes with high and low heads, and those for use in open
channels with low and ultra-low heads. The water turbines used in pipes are the main-stream in hydroelectric
power generation and are used in large-scale centralized
power generation involving water storage reservoirs,
balancing reservoirs, and pipelines. However, it is currently difficult to carry out new construction due to a
decline in suitable construction locations and the concern

Received: December 2013

Yasuyuki Nishi: Associate Professor
www.springerlink.com

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Nomenclature
B
channel width (m)
b
runner width (m)
D
runner diameter (m)
Fr
Froude number
g
gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
H
effective head (m)
h
depth of water (m)
n
rotational speed (min-1)
P
power (W) = 2nT/60
Q
flow rate (m3/s)
T
torque (Nm)
v
absolute velocity (m/s)
that such construction may affect the surrounding ecosystem. This has led to transitions from large-scale centralized power generation to decentralized power generation, whereby small-scale hydroelectric energy plants left
unutilized until recent years are now being actively utilized [1-5]. However, water turbines used in pipes heavily
rely on auxiliary equipment such as water pipelines and
casings. Therefore, the possible installation sites are limited, further increasing construction costs.
In contrast, the water turbines for use in open channels
are used in locations such as agricultural water channels
and small-scale rivers because these turbines require almost no auxiliary equipment and can be directly installed
in open channels. This approach minimizes the burden on
the environment while boasting excellent serviceability.
However, these turbines had been mainly used as a
source of motive force until now and thus are characterized by low turbine efficiency and excessive outer diameters relative to the water depth; design methods are
far from being established. Therefore, aiming to develop
a water turbine for use in open channels that is also suitable for ultra-low heads, we focused our attention on
runners in cross-flow turbines [5-8] used in intermediate
and low heads as a water turbine for pipes. An advantage
of this type of turbine is that it can efficiently acquire
energy because the water flow is received twice (once at
the runner inlet side and once at the runner outlet side)
due to the water flowing through the center. Normally,
these turbines are equipped with guide vanes or casings.
Recently, cross-flow runners have also been applied in
open channels, and there have been reports of their application as undershot water turbines [9] with a casing
and overshot water turbines [10-11] without casings.
However, there have been no examples provided where
such runners have been used as undershot water turbines
without a casing, so the performance of such water turbines is not certain.

J. Therm. Sci., Vol.23, No.3, 2014

Greek letters
b
blade angle ()

clearance between runner and side walls (m)

clearance between runner and floor (m)

turbine efficiency = P/gQH

fluid density (kg/m3)

Subscripts
1
inner circumference of runner
2
outer circumference of runner
3
upper stream
4
lower stream

Therefore, in this study, we have performed tests [12]

on cross-flow runners set up as undershot water turbines
in an open channel with a dramatically simplified design
with no casings. In this report, we describe the experimental investigation of flow fields and performance of
the above mentioned cross-flow water turbine in states
where the flow rate is constant. In addition, we also attached a bottom plate to the runner and compared our
undershot cross-flow water turbine with the typical undershot water turbine.
Experimental Apparatus and Method
The two types of test runners used in this study are illustrated in Figs. 1(a) and (b), and their specifications are
presented in Table 1. Fig. 1(a) shows an open runner with
no bottom plate such as that seen in a cross-flow runner,
while Fig. 1(b) shows a closed runner that possesses a
bottom plate such as that seen in the runners of typical
undershot water turbines. The presence of the bottom
plate is the only difference between these two runners,
and both runners have the following dimensions: runner
outer diameter D1=180 mm, runner width b=240 mm,
clearance between runner and side walls =5 mm, and
clearance between runner and floor =5 mm. Other
specifications for these runners were determined by referring to a typical cross-flow runner [5] used for pipes.
A summarized illustration of the experimental apparatus is shown in Fig. 2. The equipment used in this experiment consisted of an open-air circulation water tank
that was used to simulate an open channel. The experiment was conducted under a condition setting with the
flow rate set to Q=0.003 m3/s. The flow rate Q was
measured using an electromagnetic flow meter. The load
on the water turbine was altered using a load machine,
and the rotational speed n and the torque T were measured using an electromagnetic pickup and a torque meter,
respectively, from which we obtained the output power P.

Yasuyuki Nishi et al.

Study on an Undershot Cross-Flow Water Turbine

Fig. 1
Table 1

Specifications of runner
Outer Diameter: D1

180 mm

Inner Diameter: D2

120 mm

Inlet Angle: b1

30

Outlet Angle: b2

90

Runner Width: b

240 mm

Side Clearance:

5 mm

Bottom Clearance:

5 mm

Number of Blade: Z

24

241

Test runners

upper stream water depth h3, the measured lower stream

water depth h4, and the flow rate Q via the following
equations.
v3 Q Bh3
(1)
v4 Q Bh4

(2)

We used a 100 mW semiconductor-excited laser sheet

as a light source to visualize the flow around the runner
by illuminating the central cross-section of the runner
width from the bottom of the runner. The thickness of the
laser sheet was approximately 1 mm. In this experiment,
we used a 1920 1080 pixel digital camera as the photographic device to take pictures at a shooting speed of 60
fps from a direction that is perpendicular to the central
cross-section of the illuminated runner width.

Experimental Results and Discussion

Fig. 2 Experimental apparatus

Water depth was measured at 2 points, upstream and

downstream from the runner: the upper stream water
depth h3 and the lower stream water depth h4. These
depths were derived through measurements obtained at a
distance of 2D1 from the center of the runner in both the
upstream and downstream directions. Measurements at
each location were obtained from a point on the wall
surface and from the center point of the channel width
(B=0.25 m). Additionally, both the upstream and downstream flow velocities were obtained using the measured

Comparison of Water Turbine Performance

Fig. 3 shows the correlation between the rotational
speed n and both the upper stream water depth h3 and the
lower stream water depth h4 with regard to both the open
runner and closed runner. Additionally, the upper stream
Froude number Fr3 and the lower stream Froude number
Fr4 are shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b), respectively. Here, the
upper stream Froude number Fr3 and the lower stream
Froude number Fr4 are obtained using the following respective equations.
Fr3 v3 gh3
(3)
Fr4 v4

gh4

(4)

In Fig. 3, h3 decreased as the rotational speed n increased, whereas h4 increased with an increase in rotational speed. In other words, the actual head became
smaller as the rotational speed increased. This is thought
to be due to the low resistance to the flow produced by
the runner itself when the rotational speed increases. Although h4 was slightly larger for the closed runner in the
low rotational speed range, the h4 values for both runners
were relatively close to each other. However, h3 was lar-

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J. Therm. Sci., Vol.23, No.3, 2014

ger for the closed runner compared to the open runner,

and was approximately 58.5%69.7% larger at identical
rotational speeds. The actual head was considerably larger for the closed runner due to the afflux for the upper
stream water depth. However, the h4 for the open runner
rapidly increased in the high rotational speed range to
around n=2324 min1, and continued to remain almost
completely constant even when the rotational speed was
further increased. Here, as shown in Fig. 4(b), Fr4 for the

open runner was Fr4<1, and we found that the flow transitioned from a supercritical flow to a subcritical flow. In
contrast, Fr4 for the closed runner was Fr4>1 in the full
rotational speed range, and the flow was supercritical,
and not dependent on the rotational speed. Additionally,
as shown in Fig. 4(a), although Fr3 increased with increasing in rotational speed for both of the runners, it
remained at Fr3<1. Therefore, the flow was subcritical
and was not dependent on the rotational speed of either
of the runners.
Fig. 5 shows the upper stream velocity head hv3 and
lower stream velocity head hv4 for both the open and
closed runners, respectively. Fig. 6 shows the effective
head H. Here, the effective head H was obtained using
the following equation.
H h3 v32 2 g h4 v42 2 g
(5)
As shown in Fig. 5, hv4 was larger for the open runner
when n21 min1, and was larger for the closed runner
when n21 min1. In contrast, hv3 was about 2.512.88
times larger for the open runner compared to the closed
runner. However, hv3 was extremely small in comparison
to h3 in that the size was approximately 2.4%5.0% for

Fig. 3 Correlation between the rotational speed and both the

upper stream water depth and the lower stream water depth

Fig. 5 Correlation between the rotational speed and the velocity head

Fig. 4

Correlation between the rotational speed and the

Froude number

Fig. 6 Correlation between the rotational speed and the effective head

Yasuyuki Nishi et al.

Study on an Undershot Cross-Flow Water Turbine

the open runner and 0.6%0.8% for the closed runner.

Therefore, for each of the runners, the velocity head was
small and the potential head was dominant with regard to
the specific energy for the upper stream.
Additionally, by looking at the effective head H in Fig.
6, we can see that the H for the closed runner is 2.64
3.25 times larger in the full rotational speed range compared to the closed runner. This was due to the large size
of the actual head, and was particularly due to hv4 being
small in the low- and full-rotational speed ranges, even
though hv3 for the closed runner was also small, as mentioned previously.
The torque T, power P, and turbine efficiency for
both the open runner and the closed runner are displayed
in Figs. 7(a), (b), and (c). As shown in Fig. 7(a), the
torque T decreased with increases in the rotational speed
for each of the runners. Upon comparing the torque T for
both runners, we found that T was larger for the closed
runner in the low rotational speed range when n14
min1, and was larger for the open runner in the low rotational speed range when n14 min1. Correspondingly,
the power P shown in Fig. 7(b) was larger for the closed
runner when n14 min1, and displayed its peak power
output when n=8 min1. The peak power output for the
open runner was smaller compared to that for the closed
runner. However, P was considerably larger for the open
runner in the high rotational speed range. By looking at
the turbine efficiency , we can see that for both turbines were at their peak values in a rotational speed range
close to where their peak power output was produced.
The peak value of for the open runner was approximately 0.226, which was approximately 2.40 times
higher compared to that determined for the closed runner.
Additionally, for the open runner was higher in the full
rotational speed range in comparison to that for the
closed runner.
From the above, although the effective head for the
open runner was small, because the turbine efficiency
was high, it therefore had an increased power output in
the high rotational speed range. In contrast, we can deduce that the power output for the closed runner increased in the low rotational speed range because of the
large effective head, despite the low turbine efficiency.
Comparison of the Flow Fields
Figs. 8(a), (b), and (c) show the results obtained from
visualizing the flow fields for the closed runner and Fig.
9(a), (b), and (c) show the results obtained from visualizing the flow fields for the open runner. Figs. 8(a), (b),
and (c) show the intake of water and air by the closed
runner at the runner inlet side irrespective of the rotational speed, and we were able to verify the air bubbles
being retained in the gaps between the blades. These air
bubbles enlarged as the rotational speed increased. Addi-

243

Fig. 7

Performance curves

tionally, water was carried upward by the blades at the

runner outlet side, and the amount of water being carried
upward increased as the rotational speed increased. Both
the retention of these air bubbles and the water being
carried upward are thought to be contributing factors to
the decrease in turbine efficiency.
In contrast, as shown in Figs. 9(a), (b), and (c), because there was no bottom plate for the open runner, we
were unable to observe any air bubble retention in the
gaps between the blades. Additionally, no water was carried upward by the blades at the runner outlet side, and
because the flow was able to pass through the runner, we

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J. Therm. Sci., Vol.23, No.3, 2014

Fig. 8 Flow fields for the closed runner

Fig. 9 Flow fields for the open runner

were able to confirm that the blades were being acted

upon at one point on the runner inlet side and at one point
on the runner outlet side. This is believed to be the reason
for the significant improvement in the turbine efficiency
for the open runner compared to that of the closed runner.
However, the disturbances in the flow passing through
the runner worsened as the rotational speed increased.
Therefore, the shape of the blades must be optimized to
further increase performance.

plate had a larger afflux for the upper stream water depth
in comparison to that found for the closed runners that
did not possess a bottom plate, the actual head also became larger.
2. The velocity head was small and the potential head
was dominant with regard to the specific energy of the
runner upper stream in each of the runners.
3. Although the upper stream velocity head for the
closed runner was small, the actual head was larger, and
in particular, the lower stream velocity head was small in
the low rotational speed range. Therefore, the effective
head for the closed runner was 2.643.25 times larger in
the full rotational speed range compared to the open runner.
4. Although the effective head for the open runner was
small, because the turbine efficiency was high, the power
output increased in the high rotational speed range. In
contrast, although the turbine efficiency for the closed
runner was low, the power output increased in the low
rotational speed range due to the effective head being
large.
5. Air bubbles were retained in the gaps between the
blades because of water and air intake on the runner inlet

Conclusions
We applied a cross-flow runner to an open channel as
an undershot water turbine, with an aim to significantly
simplify the structure and eliminate the casing. We conducted an experimental investigation of the flow fields
and the performance of water turbines in states where the
flow rate is constant for the above mentioned undershot
cross-flow water turbine, and conducted the same for a
comparison case where a bottom plate was attached to
the runner. From the investigation and comparison results,
we have determined the following:
1. Because the closed runners that possessed a bottom

Yasuyuki Nishi et al.

Study on an Undershot Cross-Flow Water Turbine

side of the closed runner, and water was carried upward

by the blades on the runner outlet side. These trends were
observed to be more prominent with increase in rotational speed.
6. No water was carried upward by the blades nor
were the air bubbles retained in the gaps between the
blades for the open runner, and the flows were received
twice due to the occurrence of the flow-through effect.
As a result, the turbine efficiency for the open runner
increased more in the full rotational speed range compared to the closed runner.

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