CH 7

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence
by Kathleen Stassen Berger
Seventh Edition
Chapter 7
The First Two Years:

Psychosocial
Development
Slides prepared by Grand Rapids
Community College
What does psychosocial mean?
Psychosocial development is the

combination of emotional and social
development.
During infancy, interactions with sensitive,

responsive caregivers foster psychosocial
development.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Emotional Development in Infancy
The First Year

At
birth: distress and contentment
Social
smile appears around 6 weeks
Anger (as early as 4 months)

Fear
Stranger wariness
Separation anxiety
Can
anyone
relate to
this one?
JOURNAL-COURIER / TIFFANY HERMON / THE IMAGE WORKS
Emotional Development in
Infancy (cont.)
The Second Year

Fear
and anger, laughing and crying become

more discriminating
New
emotions appear: pride, shame,

embarrassment, guilt
These emotions require a sense of self
Dot-of-rouge experiment
Self Awareness
The realization that one is a unique person

separate from others
Emerges around 15-18 months

Measured
by reaction to dot of rouge on face

Is the prerequisite for pride, guilt, shame,
embarrassment, jealousy, empathy
Make it Real: Pride and Shame
Have you ever heard a caregiver put

down a young child? Explain.
In what specific ways can caregivers

foster a young childs sense of pride?
Make a list.
Pride and Shame
It seems that building self-esteem results

not from praising young children, but from
enabling them to accomplish things that
make them feel proud.
(Berger, 2005)
Theories about Caregiving
There are several theories of how the

interaction between caregiver and infant
shapes the infants behavior, personality,
and relationships with others.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud believed that conflicts during the

oral and anal stages shaped the infants
later personality.
Example: Too strict toilet training may

lead to an anal retentive personality.
Erik Eriksons First Two

Psychosocial Stages
Trust vs. Mistrust: quality of care in the

first year shapes the infants view of the
consistency and predictability of the world
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt = basic

need to gain self-rule or feel ashamed that
it doesnt happen
Behaviorism
Infants emotions and personality are

molded as parents reinforce or punish
childs spontaneous behavior.
Social referencing strengthens learning by

observation.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Theory states that infants

form a concept of what to expect from
people.
The result is a working model, a set of

assumptions about relationships.
Example: An infant learns to expect

that people can be trusted (or not).
Epigenetic Theory
Epigenetic theory holds that child-rearing

practices shape inborn predispositions.
Example: A naturally fearful infant

becomes less fearful in the context of a
supportive parent who encourages
bravery.
Temperament: An Example Of
Epigenetic Theory
Temperamental traits originate in ones

genes, but are influenced by experience.
Examples: Infants differ in their reactions

to new situations (fearful or bold); some
infants cry easily, others seem born
tough.
Temperament (cont.)
CORROON AND COMPANY / MONKMEYER
Measuring Temperament
The NYLS relied on parent reports and

direct observations to categorize infants as:
EASY
(40%)
SLOW TO WARM UP (15%)
DIFFICULT (10%)
HARD TO CLASSIFY (35%)
Temperament and Caregiving
It is important to appreciate each childs

unique temperament.
Goodness of fit: the match between

the childs temperament and the
environment
This
is especially important for a child with

a difficult temperament
Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural theory places a strong

emphasis on the role of the entire social
context on infant development.
Ethnotheory states that child-rearing

practices (e.g., co-sleeping or not) are
embedded within each culture or ethnic
group.
Make it Real: Ethnotheory
The text describes the reaction of Mayan

parents to their 18-month-old sons refusal
to wear pants; this is contrasted to how
Western parents might react.
After reading the passage, think about your

own reaction. How much are your thoughts
influenced by your culture?
Proximal and Distal Parenting
A study of West African and Greek parents

found differences in infant-caregiver play.
West African mothers were more likely to use

proximal parenting (keeping the infant
physically near), whereas Greek parents
used distal parenting (physically distant).
Proximal and Distal Parenting (cont).
The researchers found that proximal

parenting at 3 months predicted more
compliant behavior at 1 yrs; whereas
distal parenting predicted greater selfrecognition (a sign of independence).
The Development of Social Bonds
Synchrony:
coordinated
interaction
between
caregiver and
infant that
starts the
process of
attachment
MYRLEEN FERGUSON CATE / PHOTO EDIT
Early Emotional Responses
Interactions between caregiver and infant

are crucial for emotional development
(i.e., synchrony).
Still face technique = studying

synchrony by assessing infants reaction
when caregiver halts synchronous
behavior(infants dont like it!).
Attachment
Attachment is a close emotional bond

between infant and caregiver(s) that
develops gradually over the first year of life.
Signs of Attachment
It is easy to know if a parent is attached to

an infant (they pull out the wallet full of
pictures, talk lovingly about the infant, etc.).
But how do we know how the infant feels

about the parent?
Signs of Attachment
Infants show their desire to be with a

caregiver through:
contact-maintaining behaviors (e.g.,

smile, hold on to person), and
proximity-seeking behaviors (e.g., crawl

toward person).
Measuring Attachment
Mary Ainsworth measured attachment

through the Strange Situation
Performed
when infant is around 1 year old
Results
have correlated with child outcomes

later in life
Measuring Attachment
Strange Situation is a laboratory

procedure assessing:
Exploration
of the toys
Reaction to caregivers departure
Reaction to caregivers return
Categories of Attachment
Secure Attachment =
Yes,
explore toys
May cry upon caregiver leaving
Happy to see caregiver return
Long-term outcomes are positive (e.g.,

good social skills, well-liked, happy kids)
Insecure-Resistant Attachment:
Little
to no exploration of toys
Cry when caregiver leaves
Remains upset (cry/anger) upon
caregivers return
Long-term outcomes include

dependence (especially for girls) or
aggression (especially for boys)
Insecure Avoidant Attachment

Yes,
explores the toys

Doesnt cry when caregiver turns
Avoids or ignores caregiver upon return
Attachment Categories
Disorganized Attachment
Infant
demonstrates bizarre, inconsistent

behavior toward the parent
Infants in this category may have been
abused or neglected
Outcomes for them are often negative
Secure Attachment is
Likely When:
The parent is:

sensitive
to childs needs
responsive to signals
engages in infant-caregiver play
not overly stressed
And when the infant is easy

Attachment Over Time
An infant can change attachment status

over time, especially if the social setting
changes.
Examples:
divorce, abuse, remarriage
Overall, secure attachment in infancy is

associated with positive outcomes later
in life.
Make it Real: Attachment
Think of someone you know who has

difficulty in relationships (could be you).
How might early attachment experiences
influenced his or her ability to form
connections with others?
Social Referencing
Looking to others for cues for how to feel,

especially in a new situation
Example:
If a caregiver shows fear of a

situation, the infant likely will too!
This shows that emotions can be learned
Referencing Mothers
A study by Kochanska (2001) found that in

general, infants and toddlers obey their
mothers requests, especially if the mother
was convincing in her tone and choice of
words.
(Yes, toddlers do have the ability to obey!)
Referencing Fathers
Fathers today spend considerable time

with their children, and research is just
beginning to document the importance of
this relationship.
Make it real: Referencing Fathers
In what ways do you think fathers interact

with infants differently than mothers?
Referencing Fathers (cont.)
Fathers tend to:

Be
more encouraging of infant exploration

Engage in more physical, noisy, emotional play
Engage in teasing
Infants tend to:

Comply
with fathers commands more often
Infant Day Care
As more infants spend time in nonparental

care, the question of the effects of that
care on child development continues to be
debated.
The most comprehensive study to date is

conducted by the NICHD Early Child Care
Research Network
Types of Infant Day Care
Family day care: children cared for in

home of a paid caregiver
Center day care: several paid providers

care for children
Our textbook author suggests that center

care may be the best option, but even
licensed centers vary in quality!
Some Results of the

NICHD Study
Even 40 hours a week of infant child care

had considerable less influence than the
mother-infant relationship on child
outcomes.
Secure attachment was just as likely

among infants in center care as those
raised at home.
More Results
Quality of child care is important.
How time is spent when the infant is home

is important as well.
Infant Day CareWho can

afford it?
Infant day care is often more expensive

than care for a toddler or preschooler.
Higher-income homes are more likely to

use center care, due to the cost.
Some countries (not the U.S.) have

government funded care for all children.

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The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence

by Kathleen Stassen Berger

The First Two Years:

What does psychosocial mean?

Psychosocial development is the

During infancy, interactions with sensitive,

Emotional Development in Infancy

The First Year

birth: distress and contentment

smile appears around 6 weeks

Anger (as early as 4 months)

JOURNAL-COURIER / TIFFANY HERMON / THE IMAGE WORKS

The Second Year

and anger, laughing and crying become

emotions appear: pride, shame,

The realization that one is a unique person

Emerges around 15-18 months

by reaction to dot of rouge on face

Make it Real: Pride and Shame

Have you ever heard a caregiver put

In what specific ways can caregivers

Pride and Shame

It seems that building self-esteem results

Theories about Caregiving

There are several theories of how the

Freud believed that conflicts during the

Example: Too strict toilet training may

Erik Eriksons First Two

Trust vs. Mistrust: quality of care in the

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt = basic

Infants emotions and personality are

Social referencing strengthens learning by

Cognitive Theory states that infants

The result is a working model, a set of

Example: An infant learns to expect

Epigenetic theory holds that child-rearing

Example: A naturally fearful infant

Temperamental traits originate in ones

Examples: Infants differ in their reactions

CORROON AND COMPANY / MONKMEYER

The NYLS relied on parent reports and

Temperament and Caregiving

It is important to appreciate each childs

Goodness of fit: the match between

is especially important for a child with

Sociocultural theory places a strong

Ethnotheory states that child-rearing

Make it Real: Ethnotheory

The text describes the reaction of Mayan

After reading the passage, think about your

Proximal and Distal Parenting

A study of West African and Greek parents

West African mothers were more likely to use

Proximal and Distal Parenting (cont).

The researchers found that proximal

The Development of Social Bonds

MYRLEEN FERGUSON CATE / PHOTO EDIT

Early Emotional Responses

Interactions between caregiver and infant

Still face technique = studying

Attachment is a close emotional bond

It is easy to know if a parent is attached to

But how do we know how the infant feels