Structural vibrations: Part I Basic

theory and testing

Clive Williams BSc

PhD MICE CEng

Dr Williams is a Senior Lecturer in the

Department of Civil and Structural
Engineering at Polytechnic South West
(formerly Plymouth Polytechnic). After
gaining his doctoratefor his thesis on the
performance ofstructures he worked for
Taylor Woodrowfor two years on
vibrational problems. The last eight years
have been spent at Plymouth where he has
been engaged upon teaching, research and
consultancy and has been awarded three
prizesfor papers written. He is a member of
the Institution of Civil Engineers and on the
British Standards Committee on Vibration
Effects on Building Structures.

Synopsis
Vibrations are becoming more of a
problem in structures due to the changing
nature of both the structure and the load
ing. This paper gives a brief outline of the
nature of vibrations and some of the
factors to be considered in their
measurements and analysis. It is meant to
be a basic introduction for the surveyor or
engineer aware that he may have a prob
lem with vibrations in a structure but who
does not normally deal with vibrations. It
is by no means a comprehensive docu
ment on vibrations, but a selection of
references are provided should the reader
wish to go further into the subject.
Part II of this paper, which will be
published in a later issue of this Journal,
will provide a bridge between theory and
practice. It will cover the types of dynamic
loads, human response to vibration, pos
sibility of damage and some industrial case
studies.

Introduction
Vibration problems in structures have
increased recently due to the nature of
both the structures and the loading. Struc
tures have become more 'slender' gener
ally, and also lighter in weight which may
make them more susceptible to dynamic
loading. Also, more rigorous analysis
based on computers has allowed struc
tures to be designed which are more flex
ible.
Economic forces have reduced safety
factors over the years, and, together with
increasing sophistication in construction
techniques, have led to a general decrease
in the stiffness of structures. The desire of
designers to achieve more aesthetic struc
tures has also had its effect.
Dynamic loading may come in many
obscure forms and the engineer has to
assess the impact on his structure when
both the structure and the loading can be
complex.
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(0.25T) after maximum displacement and

maximum acceleration at 180 (0.5T) after
maximum displacement.

New loading regimes may cause prob

lems with structures previously unaffected
by vibrations. The loading may be relevant
for a short time only, eg new construction
nearby, but may have significant effects on
occupants and the structure or equipment
in the structure. The problem may be one
where the effects are permanent, eg new
road or installation of machinery.

Amplitude analysis

Vibration signals are also sometimes

quoted as Root Mean Squared (RMS). The
signal (which is a function of time [f(t)]) is
time averaged to give the mean square
value and then the square-root taken.

Simple signal theory

Vibration occurs when a system
responds to some excitation which can be
in the forms shown in Figure 1. Simple
harmonic is the easiest form to analyse.
The period of motion (T) is the time taken
for a point to return to the same repeatable position in motion. Often the fre
quency (f) is quoted more, which is the
number of cycles per second and is named
Hertz (Hz)
f=

RMS=

The RMS value is used as a quantity as

it has a direct relationship with the energy
content of the vibration. Figure 2 shows
the relationship for a simple sinusoidal
signal.
The decibel (dB) can be used to present
amplitude data and is the ratio of one
level with respect to another number, ie

where (T) is in second(s).

Complex periodic excitation occurs

where the vibration contains more than
one frequency and the amplitudes for
each separate frequency may be different.
There is often confusion over amplitude,
zero to peak values should be quoted
rather than peak to peak. These ampli
tudes are quoted in displacement (x),
velocity
or acceleration
There is a
simple relationship between them for
sinusoidal motion:

reference level: dB = 20

log10

A change of 20 dB means a change of a

factor of 10 in amplitude.

Frequency analysis

The frequency components of a signal

can be represented in a vibration fre
quency spectrum. A pure simple harmonic
signal will have only one frequency com
ponent while a complex harmonic will be
of the form shown in Figure 3.
One of the most powerful descriptive
methods is Fourier analysis which permits
any periodic curve, no matter how com
plex, to be considered as a combination of
pure sinusoidal curves with harmonically
related frequencies.
The study of the frequency components
of random vibrations is often dealt with in
terms of Power Spectrum Density (PSD)
and the amplitudes in Probability Density
Functions (for further details see reference
1).

Displacement at any time (t), x= a sin t

where (a) is the amplitude
and () the circular natural frequency
in radians/s = 2f
Velocity at any time (t), = a cos t
Acceleration
at
any
time
(t)
= a2 sin t
...

f2(t)dt.

= x)2.

Neglecting the phase relationship of

signals, then:
velocity
= x
acceleration
= x2.
The relationship in phase of the signals is
that the maximum velocity occurs 90
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Structural systems
The factors which govern how a struc
ture (system) will react to a given dynamic
input force are numerous. One of the
basic factors is stiffness and the location of
the elements in a structure. Generally the
higher the stiffness, then the higher the
natural frequencies but the response will
still depend on the type of dynamic load
ing. (Part II will cover this aspect.) New
structures have become more flexible and
thus generally produce larger deflections
from static loading, but obviously these
are limited by design. However, this may
make them more susceptible to dynamic
loading, for example, taller, more flexible
buildings have lower natural frequencies
and the wind has a greater loading at
lower frequencies.
The mass, and the distribution of mass
around the structure, are important to the
response to dynamic loading. Generally
heavy older structures will have higher
frequencies associated with them. For
ground vibration, particularly earth
quakes, then mass located high up in the
structure is undesirable. Also the distribu
tion of the mass when considering tor

sional vibrations is important, ie the

geometrical centre of mass relative to the
centre of stiffness.
The type of ground and foundation
details will have an effect on a building's
response. This ground/structure inter
action2"4 can be complex to model but is
often represented as a spring/damper
system. 56 The soil type will not only affect
the structural response but also the way in
which ground vibrations are propagated.
The damping (see 'Damping' below) for a
building on a softer soil will generally be
higher than one built on rock.
The type of construction, whether it be
frame, shear wall, a combination of these,
or loadbearing masonry, etc will give dif
ferent dynamic characteristics. The mode
shape (dynamic deflected shape) for the
fundamental mode of a frame and shear
wall type building (or combination) is
shown in Figure 4. The magnitude of
height and span will also be important.
The chosen materials for a building will be
significant as they will affect some of the
factors such as stiffness, mass and damp
ing. Steel buildings are generally lighter in
weight than reinforced concrete and
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masonry, so they will have lower natural

frequencies.

Naturalfrequencies
All systems have natural frequencies of
vibration. The most simple is the single
degree of freedom (SDOF). This occurs
when a single mass can have its movements
defined in one co-ordinate direction. This
system would have only one natural
frequency at which it would vibrate if set
in free' motion. If any system can be
simplified to a SDOF then analysis
becomes simple. However, systems are
made up of many masses which can move
in many directions and this obviously
complicates analysis, creating systems
possessing multi-degrees of freedom.
Figure 5 shows a mass on a spring
allowed to move in one direction. The
natural frequency can be calculated from
the equation:

assemblages of springs and masses at dis

crete points. A simply supported beam is a
continuous system composed of an infinite
number of masses and springs so theo
retically it has an infinite number of
degrees of freedom and thus modes
(natural frequencies). However, it can be
adequately described by using a limited
number of its modes. The various modes
are dynamically independent (orthogonal
or 'normal' modes) so that the response
can be synthesised by adding modal solu
tions computed independently.
Analysis can be simplified by obviously
simplifying the analytical model to a
usable number of degrees of freedom.
Also empirical formulae may help in the
analysis, although care must be taken in
applying these formulae to different situa
tions.
Finite element analysis79 can be used
for dynamic analysis. However, it can be
an expensive process, and even with a fine
mesh with many nodes and members it
can often be inaccurate due to modelling
and assessing the effects of factors such as
infill panels, beam/column connections,
and properties of modulus, Poisson's ratio.
Figure 6 shows the finite element mesh for
an 11 storey building10 which has over 300
nodes and 900 members. However, the
lowest natural frequency (the funda
mental) can be better estimated from the
equation:

f=
where (k) is the stiffness in N/m and (m) is
the mass in kilograms.
Similarly the torsional natural fre
quency can be found for a SDOF system
from:
f=
where (kT) is the torsional stiffness in Nm/
rad and (I) is the moment of inertia in kg/
m2.
If high damping is present this may
alter the natural frequency. However, for
structures this is not usually the case but
the change in frequency can be calculated
from:
fd=f(l 2 ) 1 / 2
where (fd) is the dampened natural fre
quency and ( zeta), the ratio of critical
damping.
Multi-degree of freedom systems are
more complex to analyse but are often
considered as systems which behave like

f=10/N
where (N) is the number of storeys!?
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L3. The fundamental

approximates to

Further work on this has been carried out

by Ellis.11
The calculation of the natural frequen
cies of beams and structural components
can be obtained approximately from a
number of empirical formulae which can
be found in various papers.1215 As an
example, one approximation for a
uniform cantilever beam is to take a
quarter of the mass of the beam as if it
acts at the end and use a stiffness of 3EI/

frequency

then

f=

Further natural frequencies of beams

with different end conditions and having
uniform cross-section and uniformly distri
buted load, can be found from Table 1
and the equation:

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Table 1
Factors for calculating natural frequencies and mode shapes for a uniform beam

f=

For structures it is convenient to assume

that damping is a force which resists
motion and is proportional to the velocity
of motion (viscous damping). Structures
are under-damped systems where the
vibration takes the form of a number of
cycles before the motion ceases. A struc
ture with a higher damping means it
would come to rest more quickly, ie with
fewer cycles. A special case of damping is
called critical damping.

where: (E) is the Elastic Modulus;

(I) the second moment of area;
(L) the length of the beam;
(p) the mass per unit length;
(A) the coefficient from Table 1.
The lower natural frequencies are the
most important for structures as a whole
However, components of a structure,
which will generally have higher natural
frequencies than the whole structure, may
be excited locally depending on the
dynamic load. For further reading on the
calculation of natural frequencies see
references 14 and 1618.

Cc=2
This occurs when a body comes to rest
with no oscillations; if it had any less
damping then it could 'overshoot' and
have a slight oscillation. The damping in a
structure is often expressed in terms of
ratio of critical damping (zeta), defined
as the damping in a system divided by the
critical damping. Often it is expressed as a
percentage, ie 100. Another factor
which is sometimes quoted is the logarith
mic decrement (), this is related to by

Damping
In practice all structures in motion dis
sipate energy and when in free motion the
amplitude will decay from the initial
value. The rate of this decay is dependent
on the damping value which is due to frictional effects in joints, dissipation in soil
and hysteresis losses in the material.

= 2.
Damping is important in calculating the
response of structures to loadings and
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It is very difficult to predict what the

damping of a structure will be; the best
way is probably by comparison with data
from similar structures. Table 2 shows
values of damping (percentage of critical)
for shear wall structures.19 Further work
on damping can be found in refer
ences 19-21.
Response

The response of a structure is depen

dent on the dynamic loading (frequencies
and amplitudes) and the structural system,
as discussed in the section on 'Structural
systems' above.
each separate mode normally has a differ
ent damping value associated with it. The
values can also vary depending on the
amplitude or strain rate.
Values can be calculated from struc
tures if a free vibration decay trace at each
frequency can be obtained. Figure 7 shows
a typical decay trace from which the aver
age damping value can be calculated from
the equation

Response to simple harmonic loading

Considering the case of a single degree
of freedom subject to a sinusoidal force F,
where F=Fo sin ft, where (f ) is the
circular forcing frequency in radian/s, and
(Fo) is the peak force. The forcing
frequency in Hz (ff)=f /2.
The response is dependent on the
damping and can be represented as shown
in Figure 8. The horizontal axis is the ratio
of () forcing frequency to natural fre
quency. The vertical axis is the Dynamic
Amplification Factor (DAF) sometimes
called Magnification Factor. This can be
said to be the amplification due to the
loads being dynamic rather than static,
such that the dynamic
amplitude
(ad) = asDAF where (as ) is the static ampli
tude.

where (x0) is the initial amplitude, (xn) is

the amplitude (n) cycles later.
There are other methods of 'estimating'
the damping values such as 'half power
points', and auto correlation. Details can
be found in Harris and Crede.22

Table 2
Damping ratios for various stress levels for shear wall buildings
Stress
level

Foundation
classification

Damping
ratio %

Belowyield

Rigid
Some flexibility

0.7 to 1.0
1.3 to 1.5

No cracking or slippage

yield

Rigid
Some flexibility

1.2 to 1.5
2.0 to 2.5

Slight cracking

Yield

Rigid
Some flexibility

2 to 4
5 to 7

Cracking at certain points

Elastoplastic

Some flexibility

8 to 12

Considerable cracking

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If problems arise due to resonance in a

structure, an engineer may consider stiff
ening the structure to reduce the ampli
tude. This would be satisfactory for static
loading but may make the situation worse
in the case of dynamic loading. Stiffening
of the structure would increase the natural
frequency and may then move the
frequency (f) closer to the forcing fre
quency (ff), thus increasing the DAF.
There would be a reduction in the equiva
lent static deflection and by stiffening the
structure some mass would be added, but
one should take care when considering
the solution to resonant effects.
The form of loading is often nonsinusoidal, such as shock loading, wind,
traffic and earthquake. The analysis can be
complex and many and varied forms of
analysis are available. For further reading
see references 5 and 22-27. Part II of this
paper will contain more information on
the various forms of loading.
Transducers
A transducer is a device which converts
the vibration into a signal which is pro
portional to a parameter of the motion
experienced. The parameter could be dis
placement, velocity or acceleration and
the transducer should accurately repro
duce the frequencies present in the
motion. The signal is often amplified then
recorded.
For low frequency measurement it is
possible to use transducers which are nor
mally used for monitoring static loads.
However, care should be taken that the
frequency range of the transducer covers
those which may be present.
Vibrations are usually recorded by
accelerometers or velocity transducers, the
latter could be seismometers, seismo
graphs or geophones, depending on the
application. Generally
accelerometers
have a higher frequency range than
velocity transducers and are lighter in
weight.
There are many factors capable of pro
ducing spurious results, some of these are:
transducer mounting, acoustic noise, tem
perature fluctuations, humidity, cable

The peak in the curves shown on Figure

8 is dependent on the damping in the
system. At zero damping the system would
continue to absorb energy from a continu
ous sinusoidal force until failure occurred
as no energy would be dissipated. The
diagram is derived from the equation:
DAF or
When the forcing frequency coincides (or
is near to) the natural frequency then we
get the state of resonance. This has caused
many failures of structures in the past.
Design of vibration sensitive structures is
therefore directed at removing the natural
frequencies of the structures away from
forcing frequencies present. At resonance
ie ff=f, (or f= ), = 1, then
DAF =
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length and noise effects, electrical ground

loops, cross-axis sensitivity, electro
magnetic
interference,
power-supply,
amplification source and calibration.
Reference to manufacturers' literature is
necessary for further details.

Small velocity sensors need to be rigidly

attached to the structure or on a heavy
block. Larger devices are available which
are free-standing. They have advantages:
ie a strong signal is generated, and they
are often of a rugged construction. Some
devices can operate down to 1 Hz while
others operate up to 5000 Hz.12,31
A typical seismometer36 can be used for
monitoring ground or building vibrations
from 1 to 175 Hz. It contains a magnetic
mass of 1.2 Kg and has a total weight of
3.5 Kg. Typical calibration figures are 0.48
volts/mm/s. Used with an amplifier modu
lator system they can operate over long
distances with attenuation or amplification
depending on the size of motion present.

Accelerometers

Miniature accelerometers, which weigh

between 0.5 and 2.5 gm, are widely avail
able. They can monitor vibrations up to
100 kHz and 10,000 g so they are generally
used for shock measurements in mechani
cal engineering. Care should be exercised
with calibration, cable noise and vibration,
and installation or mounting.
The piezoelectric type is commonly
used for high frequency and high accelera
tion, and produces a signal which is pro
portional to the acceleration from the
force exerted on a piezoelectric material.
Servo accelerometers are useful for
monitoring building vibrations. These are
transducers which have a small inertial
mass which uses an 'electrical' spring that
does not possess the disadvantages asso
ciated with mechanical springs. A typical
servo-drive accelerometer 28 may have a
range of 2 g, output of 2.5 volts per g
and linear frequency range of 0 to 80 Hz.
These obviously vary depending on the
type of accelerometer and the manufac
turer. The accelerometer can be easily
mounted on a heavy metal block and then
moved to various positions on the struc
ture. Calibration is simply carried out by
tilting the accelerometer through known
angles (tilted through 90 the accelero
meter will give an output equivalent to g).
For use on unlevel surfaces it may be
necessary to compensate for a large dc off
set signal before amplifying. Further infor
mation can be found in references 12 and
29-35.

Vibration testing

An experimental vibration survey is

undertaken to obtain information on the
response of a structure or machine, the
nature of dynamic loading, or to gain
information on the structure itself from a
known dynamic load.
Generally, industrial problems are in
the first category, where it is important to
find the levels of vibration and the range
of frequencies involved from some inter
nal or external source of vibration.
Specialist testing and research may
obtain further information by applying
known excitation, say from a hammer or a
forced vibrator. These studies are known
by the name of experimental modal
analysis.37 Testing is also carried out to
justify theoretical studies.
Field testing

In common with other forms of field

testing, vibration testing may be subject to
difficulty due to the lack of a controlled
environment. Careful planning of the test
procedure is necessary if accurate and
relevant results are to be obtained.
Selection of the transducer for the
required amplitude (linear response) and
frequencies to be measured is needed, so
some knowledge or study of these param
eters is required prior to the field test.

Velocity sensors

This type of transducer transmits a volt

age, which is proportional to velocity, pro
duced by the movement of an armature (a
coil of wire on a core) mounted in a
magnet. The coil remains in position while
the spring-mounted magnet moves.
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equipment available for the reduction of

vibration data. Manufacturers produce a
wide range of equipment and systems to
perform data analysis. The costs vary
depending on the sophistication required,
but costs can rise up to 100,000.

Locations of transducers in order to

obtain relevant data need planning.
Placing a transducer at a node point
would produce little data and give the
wrong impression of the structure's per
formance. If comparisons are being made
to International Standards, or reference
material, then it may be necessary to
monitor the vibrations entering the struc
ture as well as those in the structure.

Conclusion
Part I of this paper has attempted to
present the basic factors involved in the
study of structural vibrations. There are
many points which have been omitted but
generally factors which an engineer should
be aware of have been noted.
Part II of this paper will give details of
types of dynamic loading such as piling,
blasting and wind. The possibility of struc
tural damage, the effects of vibration on
people and some case studies of vibration
in structures will be discussed.

Data recording
It is preferable to have data recorded in
a permanent form which can be repro
duced accurately for analysis at a later
date. A paper strip chart or XY plotter
would provide only basic amplitude data
from complex signals. Care should be
exercised with these devices because of
their very low frequency response, which
is often below 10 Hz. Ultra violet (UV)38
recorders provide a much higher fre
quency response, typically up to 2 kHz,
but again no detailed signal analysis of
the data can be performed.
Tape recorders are versatile tools for
recording data so that later analysis in the
laboratory is possible. The AM tape
recorders are sometimes used as they are
relatively cheap, but they have limited low
frequency range and can suffer from accu
racy of reproducing frequencies present
in the original signal. The FM tape
recorders are much more accurate and
operate over a large frequency range
down to dc level. However, developments
are expensive and heavy.
Data can be recorded digitally on com
puters or optical discs. Computers have
limits on data storage if high frequencies
are being recorded over long time periods.
However, developments are being made in
that computers can now be used for nearly
every type of structural vibration. Data can
also be transferred easily to main frame
computers for full signal analysis to be
performed.

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