Você está na página 1de 287

BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI I

Sintesi I
DUELEONI

03 BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI


1.

SITE WORK
Soil: The stability of a building depends on the bearing capacity of the soil upon which it sits
Soil Types: Rock: solid material that forms the crust of the earth.
Slate and shale : fine textured soft rock.
Boulders : rock detached from the bedrock of which they were once a part.
Hardpan: consolidated mixture of gravel, clay, and sand.
Sand : loose granular rock particles about .002 inch to 1/4 inch in size.
Silt : fine-grained sedimentary material deposited from running water.
Clay : fine-grained, firm cohesive material formed from the decomposition and hydration of certain rock.
Quicksand : mixture of sand and moving water that is completely unsuitable for construction.
Gravel : granular rock particles ranging in size from 1/4 inch to 3-1/2 inch.

Borings
Auger borings : up soil samples two- to four-inch diameter pipe that is driven into the soil.
Core borings : diamond drill into solid material
Dry sample borings : drive pipe with a special split sampling pipe at the tip instead of a drill.
Test Pits :Test pits are simple excavations that permit direct visual inspection of the actual soil conditions.
Soil Load Tests : employing a loading platform.
Soil Properties
Specific gravity: determine void ratio.
Grain size: estimate permeability, frost action, compaction, and shear strength.
Grain shape: estimate shear strength.
Liquid and plastic limits: obtain compressibility and compaction values.
Water content : to obtain compressibility and compaction values.
Unconfined compression: (in cohesive soils), to estimate shear strength.
Soil and Site Problems
Settlement : As dead load is added to the structure, it compresses the soil beneath the footings,
reducing the void volume and causing settlement. Settlement must be uniform.

Frost Action: freezing heaves ground and places stress on a building's foundation.
Earth Movement: prevalent condition with clay subsoils. Clays swell when wet and shrink when dry.
Soil Drainage: presence of moisture can lead to reduction of a soil's load bearing capacity.
Water Table : level below which all soil is saturated with ground water.
Drainage : directing water away from all structures.

Soil Modification
Soil can be altered in a variety of ways in order to improve its consistency,dependability, and bearing capacity.
1. Deepening or increasing the bearing area of the footing improves bearing capacity.
2. Drainage improves physical characteristics of soil.
3. Undesirable material should be removed and replaced with compacted granular materials.
4. Cover compressible it with a porous layer of sand, gravel, or crushed rock and blending it into the natural material.
Artificial hardpan-type soil material.
5. Soil compactation by heavy machinery, such as sheepsfoot rollers.

Site Preparation
Clear all undesirable materials
Plant material to remain
Corner stakes, placed in the ground to locate building lines :

Earthwork
Excavation : removal of existing soil to permit construction of the foundation and substructure.
Grading work : alteration of a site's contours.
Rough grading : addition or removal of earth prior to the start of construction.
Finish grading : final distribution of earth at the conclusion of construction.
Grading
Rough grading : addition or removal of earth prior to the start of construction.
Finish grading : final distribution of earth at the conclusion of construction.

Backfill
removed.

earth that is replaced around a foundation or retaining wall after the concrete forms have been

2.

FOUNDATIONS: Part of Building's structure that transmits it's loads to Soil. Footing part of a foundation
to spread load over large area of soil.

Shallow Foundations : For strong bearing capacity Soils.


Shallow spread footings
Column footing : square or rectangular pad of concrete
Wall footing : continuous spread footing
Mat footing : large footing under the entire building
Raft foundation : used when soil conditions are poor
Boat footing : placed at a depth such that weight of soil removed from excavation is equal to load of Building.
Deep Foundations : For insufficient bearing capacity surface soils.
Pile : transfer the load to soil by skin friction between pile and the surrounding soil, or by end bearing.
Boat Footing : Caissons , Box-like structures used where very wet or soft soils are encountered.
Temporary Supports
Sheeting : Temporary wall of wood, steel, or precast concrete to retain soil around an excavation.
Bracing : Brace the sheeting to resist the soil pressure.
Underpinning : Used for existing foundations: Needle beams or Pipe cylinders
Site Improvement Bearing
Roads
Walks
Fences
Walls
Lighting
Asphalt Paving : Bituminous paving products, sub-base course of crushed stone or gravel cover bybase
course of finer aggregate.

Asphaltic concrete: Asphalt cement and graded aggregates.


Cold laid asphalt : Composed of cold liquid asphalt and aggregates.
Asphalt macadam : Base of crushed stone, gravel, or slag compacted smooth. Sprayed with asphalt emulsion or hot
asphalt cement

Other Paving Materials


Brick paving : Very popular and durable.
Stone cobbles : Decorative effect.

widened

Granite setts : Small, rectangular or square blocks of granite set on cement mortar.

Flagstones : Thin slabs of slate, bluestone, or soapstone.


Grade Changing Devices
retaining wall

3. CONCRETE
Concrete = fine aggregate + coarse aggregate + port-land cement + water
Hydration:

Chemical reaction, causes hardening of the concrete.

Romans Pozzolana
Composition of Concrete
Cement = adhesive substance
Portland Cement :
Type I:
Standard, For all purpose use.
Type II: Modified, For slow setting and less heat.
Type III: High Early strength, For quick setting and early strength.
Type IV: Low Heat , For very slow setting.
Type V : Sulfate Resisting, For alkaline water and soils
Aggregates
fine aggregate : Diam.
coarse aggregate: to 1-1/2 inches in diameter
maximum aggregate size = 1/3 the thickness concrete slabs
Admixtures: alter certain characteristics. Accelerators, Air-entraining agents, Retarders, Waterproofing,
Water reducing, Workable Agents

Concrete Mix Design


Proportioning: optimum combination of ingredients
Unit of Volume for Concrete = cubic foot ( 150 lbs/ cubic ft)

1:3:5 mix = one part cement + three parts fine aggregate+ five parts coarse
aggregate

Water-Cement Ratio = number of gallons of water for each sack (94 lb) of
Cement
Strength
compressive strength = strength 28 days after being placed
MIXING : concrete is mixed in a plant, a truck, or a combination of both
.Ready-mixed concrete : Mixed completely at a central mixing plant. must be placed within one and a
half hours after water is added to the mix.

Transit-mixed concrete :

Concrete is mixed completely in a truck mixer

Formwork : molds into which the concrete is placed and held in shape until it has hardened and developed
sufficient strength to support its own weight.
job-constructed
prefabricated units: standard lumber, plywood, metal, fiberboard, paper pulp.
Form ties : metal devices used to prevent concrete forms from spreading.
Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension
Concrete and reinforcing steel are compatible materials: Same coefficient of
thermal expansion
Reinforcing steel:
round bars
#3 (3/8-inch diameter),
#11 (1-3/8-inch diameter)
#14 (1-3/4-inch diameter)
#18 (2-1/2-inch diameter)
Welded wire fabric (WWF): steel wires welded at all points of intersection
WWF 6 x 6 W2.9 x W2.9 = 6 on center in each direction w/ cross-sectional
area of 2.9 100 or 0.029 square inches
Rebar Support Devices: Adequate coverage to protect it from corrosion

Lightweight Concrete
Structural Lightweight Concrete
lightweight aggregates: expanded shale or clay 90- 115
pounds per cubic foot .

Insulating Lightweight Concrete : Used primarily for thermal insulation in roof construction.
Thermal insulation
Expanded materials : perlite or vermiculite
Placement of concrete : concrete must be placed evenly, continuously, andmost importantin a manner that
avoids segregation of the aggregates.

Vertical drops : max. 4-0


Testing : In or PRACTICE and PLACING

CONCRETE used on a project has the required quality.

Slump test: Consistency, workability


Cylinder test: Compressive strength
Kelly ball test: Measures workability
Impact hammer test: Strength
Tests for air content: Volume of air in Mix
Curing
Maintaining proper humidity and temperature: 50 to 70 degrees.
Concrete joints
Construction joints: joints between two successive concrete pours
Keyed
Stepped horizontal
Roughened and keyed vertical

Expansion joints: allow free movement of adjacent parts


Required: Buildings > 200-0 Long, at joints of building wings, Addition of new
buildings.
Control joints: To allow for shrinkage of large areas. Induces cracking to occur
along the joint.

Isolation joints
Slab on grade and columns or walls, to move independently
Prestressed Concrete : concrete placed in compression by applying a tensile force to prestressing steel

before the external loads are applied. cause stresses in the concrete that are opposite in direction from those caused
by the external loads.

Placed in compression
Pretensioning
Posttensioning
Precast Concrete : Casting of concrete members at a location other than its final position in the structure.
Floor & roof systems : Precast planks that may be used with precast beams, joists, and purlins
Tilt-up construction : Casting a wall panel in a horizontal position and then tilting it to its final vertical position.
Lift-slab construction :Casting floor and roof slabs of a multistory building, one upon another, with a membrane
or bond-breaking agent between, to prevent bonding of the separate slabs.

Tube-slab: Paper tube fillers are embedded in the section to obtain a flat ceiling with no exposed beams.
Concrete finishes
Walls and ceiling
Floors
Terrazzo
3. MASONRY
Brick: Rectangular masonry unit molded from clays and shales, dried, and fired in a kiln.
Molding methods:
1. Soft mud process: Molds into which moist clay is pressed by hand or machine into rectangular molds.
2. Stiff mud process: Forces the mixture through a die, extruding clay ribbon that is cut into bricks by tightly
stretched wires

3. Dry-press process: Dry mixture that is pressed into gang molds by plungers under high pressure
Brick types:
Common brick: Grade SW (Severe weathering)
Grade MW (Moderate weathering)
Grade NW (No weathering)
Face brick

Grade FBX. Perfection in size, color and texture.


Grade FBS. Greater size variation and wide color range.
Grade FBA. Nonuniform in size, color and texture
Backup brick: Inferior Quality
Paving brick: Very Hard and dense
Fire brick : Great resistance to high temperatures

Sewer brick : Low absorption brick for use in sewerage and storm drains
Adobe brick : Mixture of natural clay and straw
Nail-on brick :Flat brick generally used on interiors where solid masonry cannot be structurally supported.
Hollow brick

Brick Nomenclature
Surfaces: Face, Side, Cull, End and Bed
Cut shapes: Half, Three Quarters, quarter closer, king closer, queen closer, split
Placement: Header, stretcher, bull header, bull stretcher, soldier, sailor.
Bricklaying: Manual Process. Bricks should be laid when the temperature is between 40 and 90F, for
best results. Bricks should always be set in a full bed of mortar with mortar solidly filling all vertical head
joints.

Brick bonding:
Patterns: Flemish bond, English bond, Cross bond, Common bond, Running
bond, stacked bond.
Veneering: Exposed masonry that is attached, but not structurally bonded, to the backing.
Efflorescence: White, powdery deposit on the masonry surface caused by soluble salts in the units or in
the mortar.

White, powdery deposit on masonry caused by soluble salts.


Expansion Joints:

Place every 200-0

CONCRETE MASONRY concrete bricks, concrete blocks, concrete tile,


cast(concrete) stone
STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE
Structural clay tiles: Hollow, burned-clay masonry units with parallel cells .Used for interior partitions, or, in
combination with other masonry, as back up for exterior walls.

Architectural terra cotta: Clay tile that is available in various colors, textures, and shapes .Multicolored
decorative designs.

Ceramic veneer : Terra cotta available in large face dimensions, thin sections, and a variety of natural and

glazed finishes.

GYPSUM BLOCK : Solid or cored units manufactured from gypsum plaster.

GLASS BLOCK : Used where light transmission, glare, or solar heat must be controlled, or where
a specific decorative effect is desired.

4. STONE: Original natural materials used in construction by prehistoric people


Classification: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic
Stone Forms: Rough stone, Rubble stone, Dimension stone, Flagstone, Monumental
stone, Fieldstone, Crushed stone, Stone dust,
Properties of natural stone:
Strength, Porosity, Absorption, and Permeability
Stone Masonry:
Rubble masonry: Natural
Ashlar masonry: Shaped
Coursed: continuous horizontal joints
Random
Bond stone: stone with its longest dimension perpendicular to the wall face.
MORTAR: portland cement, sand, lime, and water
MORTAR JOINTS: Exterior surface of mortar joints, which is exposed to the weather, is finished to make the
masonry more waterproof and/or to achieve a specific aesthetic appearance

Masonry accessories: anchors, ties, reinforcing, fillers, wire mesh,

5. WOOD: Only building material that grows and is renewable


TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION:

Wood: Hard fibrous substance lying beneath the bark of trees.


Lumber: Wood that has been sawn into construction members.
Timber: Lumber that is five inches or larger in its least dimension.
Softwood: needle-leaved conifers used for framing, sheathing, bracing,
Hardwoods: broad-leaved deciduous trees used for flooring, paneling, interior trim,

and furniture.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Wood: 70 % cellulose, 18 to 28 % lignin

Stronger in compression than tension


Wood is much stronger when the load is applied parallel to the grain
Shear, wood is very strong perpendicular to the grain
SEASONING OF WOOD: minimize shrinkage, lumber should be seasoned (dried) before installation, until it
reaches the moisture content it will have in service. Lumber that has been seasoned has less tendency to shrink, is also
stronger, liter in weight than unseasoned lumber. Seasoned lumber is less susceptible to warping; more resistant to
fungi, decay, and insects; and has greater nail-holding power and ability to hold paint.

10

air drying
kiln drying
CUTTING AND SAWING LUMBER:

Plain-sawed in hardwoods: Tangent to the annual rings


Slash-grained :
Quartersawed : Radially to rings

Characteristics of plainsawed lumber:


Distinct grain pattern
May twist, cup, and wear unevenly
Tends to have raised grain
Shrinks and swells more in width, less in thickness
Less waste in cutting, and therefore less expensive

Characteristics of quatersawed lumber:


Relatively even grain pattern
Wears evenly with less warpage
Shrinks and swells more in thickness, less in width
More waste in cutting and therefore more costly
WOOD DEFECTS:
Natural defects: Those resulting from natural causes:
Knot: branch embedded in a tree and cut through in manufacture
Check: pitted area sometimes found in cedar and cypress
Pitch pocket : opening between growth rings containing resin
Manufacturing Defects: Those arising from the seasoning or processing of lumber.
Check: or Peck-Lengthwise grain separation caused by seasoning
Split : Lengthwise separation of wood extending from one face to another
Wane : Lack of wood on the edge or corner
Warp: Shrinkage distortion of a plane surface; includes bow, crook, cup, and twist
GRADING LUMBER:

Grading for strength: By Machine


Visual grading: number, size, type, location of visible, defects, such as knots,
shakes, and wane.
Machine stress rating: lumber is subjected to bending,
Values of modulus of elasticity (E).

11

Allowable fiber stress (f)


Softwood Grades:
National Bureau of Standards : Based on use, size, and manufacturer.
Yard Lumber : For general construction
Factory and Shop Lumber : For remanufacture into products such as sash and doors.
Lumber size:
Boards: Graded for apperance and for finish carpentry , and trim. Graded SELECT and COMMON
Dimension lumber: Structural lumber, used for load-bearing members and graded for strength.
Timbers: (Idem)
Select lumber:
A and B grades (highest quality grade)
C and D (paint grade)
Common lumber: grades 1 to 5
Dimension lumber: load-bearing members : joists, planks, light framing, decking
Timbers: Beams , Stringers, Post, Timbers.
Rough Lumber: Has visible saw marks
Dressed Lumber: Planed smooth to uniform sizes
Worked Lumber: dressed and then tongue-and-grooved, shiplapped, or shaped to a Pattern
Hardwood Grades: Based on amount of clear, usable lumber in a piece.
First, Seconds, Selects, Sound, Wormy
1,2,3A,3B
Lumber Sizes: Specified according to its nominal dimensions, which are the rough or unfinished sizes.
Nominal Sizes: 2x4 ( 1 1/2 x 3 1/2)
Board foot: Conventional, standard unit in which a board foot is defined as a nominal 1" x 12" board one foot in
length. All Lumber is measured, computed, and priced in board feet.

12

6. PLYWOOD
Plywood: manufactured wood panel: several thin wood veneer sheets permanently bonded together
with adhesive under high pressure, with the grain of each ply perpendicular to the grain of the adjacent plies. provides a strong
backing for finish materials, and is widely used in construction as wall and roof sheathing, subflooring, underlayment, and
formwork.Resisting lateral loads from wind to earthquake.

Center ply = Core


Outer plies = face and back
Sizes: 4'x8' Sheets, 5/16 to 1 1/8 thick

Classification:
Interior : Depending on the type of adhesive used
Exterior : Depending on the type of adhesive used
Softwood: Depending on the species of the face veneers . Primary Plywood used for Construction.
Hardwood: More expensive than softwood plywood. Used for decorative applications, paneling, cabinet work, face veneers
on doors,

Overlay: Covered with resin-fiber overlay


Marine: Stained and ready to use
Patterned Sheets: Grooved, roughsawn, etc.
Plywood Grading: quality of veneers
A(best) to D (poorest).
Grade AD = A (front) D(back).
Species of Wood: group 1 species (strongest) group 5 species (weakest)
Un sanded Plywood Panels : roof sheathing, subflooring, wall sheathing
Marked w/ span rating:
32/16 = 32 (32 o.c. roof span) / 16 ( 16 o.c. floor joist span)

7. MISCELLANEOUS PANELS
Pressed fiber boards: Wood or other fiber mixed with a binder and pressed into a flat sheet. used for concrete forms,
cabinets, doors, wall paneling, partitions, decking, and insulation.

Hardboard: Wood fibers that have been highly compressed under heat and pressure into dense, durable boards.
Basic
Prefinished: Tempered, Standard, Service Standard

13

Fiberboard: Manufactured from waste paper, wood pulp, and fibers.Used for acoustical tile, sheathing, and
interior wall finishes.

Flakeboard: Composed of large wood flakes bonded together with synthetic resins under pressure.
Particleboard: Dry-formed of wood particles bonded together with synthetic resin.
Beadboard: Insulating board consisting of a core of small, expanded polystyrene beads with heavy paper
laminated to both sides.

Plastic laminates: Base of phenolic resin impregnated haft paper over which a patterned sheet is
applied.

8. GLUED LAMINATED LUMBER: Structural members are fabricated from layers of wood
that are bonded with adhesives, in which the grain of all layers is approximately parallel longitudinally.

Layers of wood bonded with adhesive to 1 tk.


Glulam: Industrial Grade, Architectural Grade, Premium Grade
Specify Laminated Timbers:
Type of Adhesive
Stress grade required
Appearance grade desired
Joints: scarf joist, finger joints
Laminated Decking:
Layers of kiln-dried lumber bonded together with adhesive.

14

9.

WOOD PRESERVATION
Insects: Drainage to minimize moisture, good ventilation, impervious concrete foundations, metal strips.
Decay: Keep wood dry and well ventilated, or completely submerged in water so that air is excluded. Use
decay-resistant species, such as redwood. Pressure treat wood. Preservatives: Oil-borne solutions, Waterborne
solutions

Fire: Impregnation with a chemical solution, such as ammonium phosphate, or use of a surface treatment, such
as intumescent paint.

10.

WOOD FRAMING
Platform framing: Studs are one story in height and the floor joists bear on the top plates of the wall
below.

Balloon framing: Wall studs are continuous for the full height of the building, usually two stories, from the
foundation to the top plates under the roof rafters.
Plastic laminates:
Exterior
Interior
Nails , Spikes , Screws , Bolts , Pins , Metal connectors, Adhesives
Nails: Common Nails, Box Nails, Finish Nails

11. FINISH WOODWORK:


Millwork :shop-fabricated items, such as door and window frames, stairways, paneling, etc., which are fabricated in
a mill and delivered to the job, ready for installation.

Wood trim, molding, ornamental shapes:


Wood siding and paneling

12.

METALS : substances that are characterized by their luster, opaqueness, hardness, ability to
con-duct heat and electricity, and by their superior ability to resist deformation.

Bronze Age
Industrial Revolution:
Pierre Franois Henri Labrouste
Eiffel Tower

15

William Le Baron Jenney


CHARACTERISTICS:
Strength
Toughness
Corrosion resistance
Appearance
Cost
Methods of forming, joining, and handling Ferrous metals
Non-ferrous metals
DETERIORATION:
Tarnish : Surface discoloration,
Corrosion : Rust
Galvanic action :

Deterioration that occurs when different metals, or alloys, are in contact.

1.Aluminum
2. Zinc
3. Iron and Steel
4. Stainless Steel Tin
5. Lead
6. Brass
7. Copper
8. Bronze
9. Gold
FORMING METAL :Process by which extracted metal transformed into a useful product that has a hed shape.
Casting: pouring molten into a mold of the required shape and wing it to cool.
Forging: Hammering hot metal
Pressing: From Sheets
Drawing : Into wires or tubes.

16

Extruding: Forcing a hot mass of metal through an opening that has the shape of the required section.
Mechanical Properties of Metals:
Maleability : Ease of hammering
Ductility : Ease of drawing
Toughness : Resistance to fracture
Hardness : resistance to abrasion
Ferrous Metals:
Iron: Pig Iron, Wrought Iron, Cast Iron.
Steel: Production Methods: 1. Open Hearth Process, 2. Basic Oxygen Process 3.
Electric Furnace Process.
Methods of Work:
1. Rolled
2.Drawn
3.Bent
4.Cast
5. Joint Revits
6.Bolts
7. Screws
8.Welds
Steel Types: Steel is an alloy of iron that contains no more than 2 percent carbon.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Structural Steel: structural purposes, containing varying amounts of carbon and other elements.
Alloy Steel: containing other elements that are added to provide special properties. Stainless Steel
Weathering Steel: containing up to one half of 1 percent copper.
Heat Treated Steel :reheated and cooled slowly, or annealed, for improved workability.
Case-hardened Steel : with a hard, high carbon surface produced by a special process.

Non-Ferrous Metals:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Aluminum: Obtained from bauxite by electrolytic method.


Copper: Ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.
Brass: Alloy of copper and zinc.
Bronzes: Alloy of copper and tin.
Lead : Heavy, soft, toxic metal of low strength.
Zinc : Low-strength corrosion-resistant metal
Monel: Nickel-copper alloy

Metal Finishes: Finishes are applied to metals for appearance or for protection from corrosion.

17

Mechanical:
1. Grinding
2. Polishing
3. Sandblasting
4. Hammering
Applied Coating:
1. Electroplating
2. Enameling
3. Spraying
4. Dipping
5. Sherardizing
Anodizing: Metal finish applied to aluminum .
Galvinizing : Coating of zinc is applied by immersing the steel in a bath of molten zinc.
Use of Metal in Construction:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Structural: structural steel, reinforcing bars and mesh for concrete, and wire rope.
Hollow Metalwork:doors, bucks, partitions, panels, windows, mullions, curtain walls, and panel systems that incorporate other materials, such as glass, stone, plastic,
Miscellaneous Metal Work: Stairs, railings, fencing, gratings, rough hardware, ladders.
Ornamental Metalwork: plaques, letters, finish hardware, railings, screens, grilles, expansion joint covers, etc.
Flashing:base and cap flashing, gutters and leaders, spandrel and through-wall flashing,copings, termite shields.
Miscellaneous:rough hardware, nuts and bolts, rivets, screws, nails, washers, inserts, hangers, anchors, wire.

Structural Steel in Construction: fabrication and erection of hot-rolled members manufactured from medium
carbon steel

W : Wide Flange and Columns:


S : American Standard Beams
C: American Standard Channels
L: Angles
WT: Tees
Tubing
Bars
Plates
Plate Girders
Built-up Columns
Truss Chords

18

Rigid Bents
Cable and Tent Structures:
Space Frames and Domes:
Light weight Metal Framing:

Open Web Joists:


Metal Decking:
Corrugated
Ribbed
Cellular Form
Composite Decking

13. THERMAL AND MOISTURE PROTECTION


GROUND WATER CONTROL:
Surface Water :Ponds and other surface accumulations of water, caused by rain,thawing ice, or snow
Ground Water : Water contained in the voids and crevices under the earth's surface
Ground Water Table: Level below which earth saturated with water
Moisture Sources:

Permeable:Capable of being penetrated by water without causing rupture or displacement


Pervious: Permitting leakage or flow of water through cracks, leaks, or other openings
Water-resistant : Having no openings larger than capillary pores that permit leakage of water
Water-repellent: Incapable of transmitting water by capillary action, but able to transmit water under pressure
Waterproof: Completely impervious to water, whether under pressure or not

DAMPPROOFING: Consists of the materials and methods that prevent moisture from penetrating a building at or below
grade.Cannot resist Hydrostatic Pressure.

Damp-proofing treatments:
Asphalt base coatings
Cement plaster

19
Liquid silicones or other plastics
Preventive measures:
Draining surface water
Granular fill under a concrete slab on grade
Polyethylene film vapor seal over the granular fill
Footing Drains
WATERPROOFING: Materials and methods that prevent water under hydrostatic
pressure from penetrating those parts of a building in direct contact with the earth.

Membrane waterproofing: Asphalt-Saturated Felt Layers


Water Stops: Metal, Plastic Devices in Walls.
PRECIPITATION CONTROL:

Precipitation is the most common and predictable source of moisture that can

damage a structure, and its control depends on the form and type of roofing used.

Roofing: describes the materials and methods used to weatherproof the exterior top surface of a
structure.

Type of roof and slope of roof:


Slope = Ratio Vertical Rise and Horizontal Projection
SQUARE: Unit of measure used to express roof surface area and is equal to 100 square feet.
WEIGHT: varies considerably and can affect the design, structure, and cost of the roof
DURABILITY: function of its inherent quality,climatic conditions and the manner in which the material is installed
COST: varies substantially and generally corresponds to its durability
PERSONAL PREFERENCE: relates to appearance - materials that are the most attractive and preferred also tend to
be the most expensive.

ROOFING MATERIALS:
1. Asphaltbuilt-up, shingles, and roll
2. Woodshingles and shakes
3. Metalsheet, corrugated, and strip
4. Clay, cement, and slatetiles
5. Glass and plasticsheets
6. Plasticliquid coatings

20
7. Asphalt
8. Asphalt and coal-tar pitch
9. Built-up roofs
10. Asphalt strip shingles
11. Asphalt roll roofing
12. Wood shingles
13. Corrugated metal sheets
14. Clay
15. Cement
16. Slate
17. Glass and Plastic
18. Plastic coatings

CONDENSATION CONTROL: Another source of moisture, in addition to ground water and precipitation, is the condensation
of water vapor.

Relative humidity: ratio of the amount of water vapor the air contains to the maximum amount it could contain
Vapor barriers: aluminum foil, various types of sheet plastic, asphalt-saturated felt
THERMAL CONTROL: Heat is gained or lost by a building by these processes, and the purpose of
thermal control is to slow down heat gain or loss in order to produce comfortable interior temperatures while
conserving energy.

Heat Transmition:
Conduction:materials or objects are in direct contact.
Convection:occurs in a fluid medium,such as air or a liquid.
Radiation: takes place between two objects not in contact and not shielded from each other.
Thermal insulation: R values in square foot-hour-degree Fahrenheit per BTU
Roof insulation:
1. above the roofing membrane
2. between the membrane and the roof deck
3. below the roof deck

21
FLASHING: material used to provide a seal and prevent water penetration at joints exposed to
the weather, intersections of different materials, and expansion or contraction joints.

Seal and prevent water penetration at joints


Flashing:
Concealed: Sheet metal, Fabrics, Plastic
Exposed: Aluminum, Copper, Galvanized steel, Zinc, Lead, or Terne.

14. Windows and Doors


DOORS:
Movable Barriers permit or prohibit access to a structure
Classification:
Location: interior door, entrance doors
Function: fire door, acoustical door
Method of Operation: swinging door, revolving door
Physical : paneled door, louvered door
Type Material : hollow metal door, screen door
Door Hand :
Convention

WINDOWS:
Glazed openings constructed in a wall.
Basic types:
Residential,
Commercial
Industrial
Monumental.
Materials:
Wood windows
Clad windows
Aluminum windows
Steel windows
Stainless steel windows
Replaceable windows
Screens

22
Door and window systems
Storefront work
Curtain walls
Skylights
GLASS:
Ceramic material
Plate glass
Annealed glass
Single-strength glass
Double-strength glass
Float glass
Patterned glass
Tempered glass : heat treated for increased resistance to impact stresses
Insulating glass: two or more sheets of glass separated by a hermetically sealed air space
Heat-absorbing glass: tinted to absorb a high degree of solar radiation
Reflective glass: reflective film laminated between two sheets of clear glass, or thin film of metal oxide on the
surface of the glass.

Laminated glass: composed of a plastic sheet sandwiched between two glass layers, all bonded
under heat and pressure.

Wired glass: placing wire mesh in the middle of glass during the manufacturing process
Butt-joint glazing: glass sheets with conventional head and sill frames, with no vertical mullion
Mirrored glass: glass with a metallic reflective coating applied to one surface
Psychiatric glass: (one-way glass) is seen as a mirror on one side and is transparent on the other side.
Structural glass: opaque and used for exterior building panels.
Corrugated glass: used for decorative partitions, or in its wired form, for skylights and roof panels
GLAZING PLASTICS:
Acrylics
Polycarbonates
Polyesters
Polystyrenes

15. FINISH WORK


Methods, Materials, and Treatments that comprise the interior and exterior finished
surfaces of a building.
Interior finishes: Floor Finishes: paving, planking, carpeting.
Wall finishes: paneling, veneering, tiling
Ceiling finishes: plastering, painting, acoustical treatment
Exterior finishing: Entire exterior surfaces, wall covering, ornamentations, paints.

23

PLASTER WORK:
Cementitious material: Portland Cement + Sand + Water
Portland cement plaster :for exterior plaster or stucco
Gypsum and lime plaster: for interior plaster
Acoustic plaster : provides acoustical treatment for walls and ceilings
Bonding plaster : used on interior concrete walls and ceilings
Fire-resistant plaster : provides fire resistance for steel and other materials
Keene's cement plaster : contains lime putty for hard, water-resistant finish
Lightweight plaster: contains vermiculite or perlite aggregates for fire resistance
Bases: Concrete, Masonry, Lath
Metal lath : sheet metal or wire fabric into which a base coat of plaster is keyed
Lathing board: gypsum mixed with water, hardened and dried, and sandwiched between two sheets of heavy,
porous paper, which provides adhesion for the plaster.

Veneer plaster: dense plaster applied in a thin coat over gypsum lath
Gypsum board:
Prefabricated form of plaster = gypsum plaster core reinforced with paper, 4-foot widths,
6 to 12 feet in length, 1/4 to 5/8 inch in thickness.
Regular board: Surfacing for walls and ceiling
Backing board : Backing for other materials, such as acoustical tile
Insulating board : Aluminum foil laminated to one side, which serves as reflective insulation and vapor barrier.
Type X board : For fire-resistive rating.
Moisture-resistant board : Backing for ceramic tile in high moisture areas.
Decorative board : Prefinished with decorative paper or vinyl in various textures, patterns, and colors
Ceramic tiles: set on floor, wall, or ceiling areas to provide permanent, waterproof,durable, and easily
maintained finish surfaces.

Small, flat units composed of clay or clay mixtures


Vitrification: measure of tile density
Non-vitreous tile : moisture absorption rate between 7 and 15 percent
Semi-vitreous tile: moisture absorption rate between 3 and 7 percent
Vitreous tile: less than 3 percent of its weight in moisture
Impervious tile repels: repels almost all moisture and dirt
Finishes: Glazed (glassy, waterproof surface produced by ceramic material fused on their faces.),Unglazed
(derive their color and texture from the clays used in their manufacture)

Ceramic mosaic tile:unglazed, semi-vitreous, and less than six square inches in area
Quarry tile: Unglazed units, made by the plastic process, and nearly impervious to moisture, dirt, and stains
Inlaid
Faience
Handmade tiles

Porcelain tile: impervious tilewithout a clay backing and is suitable for exterior applications
Glass tile : made from glass that can be "tumbled" to ease the edges and sometimes has color coatings,

24

such as gold foil, on the back.

Terrazzo tile: manufactured tile consisting of an aggregate and cement matrix similar to terrazzo

PLASTICS:

FLOORING: surface on which people or equipment move within a building


ceramic tile
terrazzo
concrete
Cork
Rubber
Carpet
Wood
Brick
Wood Flooring: oak, maple, birch, beech, pecan
Strips, Planks
Expansion: sufficient expansion space must be provided at a floor's perimeter.
Strip flooring: applied over a wood subfloor or on spaced wood sleepers fastened by blind nailing
Plank flooring: laid in random widths with a V-groove where the board edges meet
Parquet flooring: prefabricated squares, either solid strips held together with splines or plywood veneers, and they
are available unfinished or prefinished, with square or tongue-and-groove edges.
Solid block flooring: end-grained blocks that have been treated with creosote against moisture and decay.
Mortar-set flooring: any masonry material that is set and utilized as a finish floor surface. Brick: normally laid
in a mortar setting below the subfloor.

Slate: durable, attractive, and expensive, slightly rough or relatively smooth,rigidly rectangular or completely irregular.
Stone flooring: Slate, imestone ,sandstone , granite, marble. Stone for flooring is about one inch thick with a
relatively smooth surface.

Poured-in-Place Flooring:
Terrazzo: concrete topping consisting of marble chips in a cement or synthetic resin binder, ground and polished to a
smooth finish. Has tendancy to crack.

Magnesite: seamless floors (magnesium oxychloride) are made from a composition of magnesium oxide, sand, and
magnesium chloride, which forms a plastic material that is troweled to a smooth finish.

Elastomeric Floors: floors are composed of clear urethane resins applied as a liquid over an elastomer
underlayment.

Rubberized Floors: floors consist of several layers of various neoprene compositions troweled over a
waterproof latex membrane.

Paint-Type Flooring:
activator.

floor finishes consist of a synthetic resin (epoxy, urethane, polyester, etc.) and an

25
Resilient Flooring Materials: materials are laid over smooth wood or concrete subfloors and cemented in
place with mastic cements.

Vinyl : available in sheet or tiles and may be used above or below grade.
Asphalt Tile: lacks resilience.
Linoleum: durable, resilient, easily maintained and relatively inexpensive, considering its long life.
Rubber : made of synthetic rubber.
Cork : highly resilient, resistant to staining, durable, and easily maintained, excellent acoustical properties.
Carpeting: installed directly over a plywood subfloor or a concrete slab.
classified by material (acrylic fibers, nylon, polyester, wool)
by texture (low pile, high pile).

Acoustical Work: Acoustics, the science of sound and its control,


Acoustical Tiles: manufactured from wood, mineral, or glass fibers with perforated, textured, or patterned
surfaces that allow sound to penetrate.

Acoustical Panels: perforated steel aluminum, fiberboard, or hardboard, which is backed with a soft, soundabsorbing batt or blanket.

Prefabricated Tiles and Panels: nailed or cemented to a solid backing surface.


Wet Materials: acoustical plaster and mineral-fiber products to which a binding agent

is added.

Paints:
classified by location (exterior enamel)
by the material on which they are applied (wood stain)
by their finish (semigloss enamel)
by their unique characteristics (lacquer).

Pigmented Coatings: white pigment, to which color may be added, and a vehicle. house paints, metallic
paints, colored lacquers, water-based paints, and synthetic resin paints.

Enamels: pigmented paints that use varnish as the vehicle.


Baked Enamels: always factory-applied, as they require a controlled temperature of between 200 and 300 F to
harden.

Clear Coatings: protect and beautify surfaces without obscuring their natural appearance.
Varnishes: using volatile solvents such as turpentine and mineral spirits have been replaced by polyurethanes and
acrylic modified urethane coatings.

Clear Sealers: systems that prepare surfaces for another finish.


Stains: have a pigment content that is lower than opaque paints. They do not obscure the natural grain of wood or
substrate. Low viscosi and deep penetration;

Bituminous Coatings: made from coal tar and asphalt, used as a protective coat for submerged ferrous metal
and for waterproofing masonry materials.

Coal Tar Pitch Coatings: melted to a fluid for application.


Asphalt Coatings: available as paints, enamels, and emulsions.
Miscellaneous Coatings:
Cement Coatings: Portland cement and, occasionally, lime
Fire-Resistant Coatings: do not support combustion
Rust-preventive paints and primers: rust-inhibitive qualities, low permeability to corrosive elements, and
low water absorption.

Antibacterial and Insecticidal Paints:produced by adding counteracting ingredients to the paint.


Epoxy Coating: resist chemicals, moisture, or stains.
Specialty Coating:

16. Vertical Transportation

26

Stairs: most common means of vertical circulation between floors of a building, and their design is dictated by
considerations of safety and convenience.Vertical distance between landings may not exceed 12 feet.

Riser + Tread = 17 to 17.5 inches


Riser x Tread = 70 to 75 inches
2 Risers + Tread = 24 to 25 inches
Fire Stairs:for emergency exiting, and their number is controlled by the occupancy of the building and the occupant
load of each floor, as specified in the building code.

Monumental Stairs:Referred to as decorative stairways, are often used in larger


buildings to connect the main floor to a mezzanine or second floor.

Residential Stairs: Governed by more lenient regulations.


Ramps: Inclined walkways that allow easy vertical transition between different levels. RAMP for handicapped have a maximum rise of
30 inches, and landings must be at least five feet long. Handrails are required on handicapped ramps if the ramp is more than six
feet long or has a rise greater than six inches.
1:2 not a ramp
1:12 Max. Slope allowed for ADA
1:15 Requires Handrails
1: 8 Max. Slope allowed by Code

Ladders:

Used for access to roofs or in utility and service areas where space is tight and traffic is minimal.

Min. 18 wide
Rungs 12 o.c.
Off set 6 from wall
Elevators:
Movable Enclosures for Vertical Transportation of people and Frieght.
Hydraulic Elevators: Low rise buildings
Electric Elevators: High rise buildings, Elevator functions by traction.
Traction machine: motor and drum assembly that moves elevator
Roping: Single wrap, Double wrap
Safety Features:
Main Break: Mounted on the motor shaft. Break is self-applying, so that the car will be stopped in the event of a power
failure.

Governor: Measures and limits the elevator speed by means of the control panel.
Car Bumpers: Located at the bottom of the shaft to stop the car if it should overtravel at low speed. Not designed to
stop a free-falling car.

27
Safety Edges
Capacity and Speed: 1.6 Times rise in feet + 360
Operating System: automatic
Architectural Considerations:
Elevator Size:
Number
Location
Traffic: Number of persons handled during a five minute peak interval.
Min. Number of Elevators =

Traffic_____________
Handling capacity of Elevator

Handling Capacity of Elevator:


Car Size: 2 sqft per person
Round Trip time: 20 to 30 seconds Interval time between elevators.
Elevator Locations: Central, easily located at Building entrances.
Door size: 3-6
Special Design Considerations:
Hospital Elevators: 5-4 x 8-4 3,500 lbs capacity

Freight Elevators: Vertical Transport Equipment, Goods, Materials


Class A General Freight
Class B Motor Vehicle Garage Elevator
Class C Industrial Truck Loading
Service Elevators:Passenger elevators that have been modified to handle oversize loads or hand trucks.
Sidewalk Elevators: Freight or supply lifts that rise to an upper level by opening hatch doors
located in the ground floor.

Dumbwaiters:
Hoisting and Lowering Devices for vertical transportation of materials and supplies.
Max. 9 sqft size.
Max. 4 ft Hgt.
Capacity 500 lbs

28
Vertical conveyors:
Distribute continuous flow of material (never people) throughout multistory buildings.
Escalator: Mechanical device on which passengers are transported along an incline from one floor to another.
Moving stairway.
Rating: Speed of Operation = Feet/minute
Nominal Width = 32 to 48
Moving Ramps: Form of vertical transportation. Continuous tread.
Continuous moving Tread : 40 wide. 150 Inclination , Speed 140 to 180 Feet/min.

17 BUILDING CODES
Governmental Requirements with specific tasks related to Public Health, Safety,
Welfare.
Allowable Size of Building: Area, Height, based on degree of danger
Type of Occupancies: Specific type of concern
Type of Construction: Structural materials are classified as noncombustible or combustible.
Fire Rating and Protection: Highest rated structure, Type IA.
Means of Egress: Continuous and unobstructed path of travel from any occupied portion of a facility to a public way.
Materials and Methods
USE AND OCCUPANCY:
Group A - Assembly
Group B - Business
Group E - Educational
Group F - Factory
Group H Hazardous
Group I Institutional
Group M Mercantile
Group R Residential

29
Group S Storage
Group U Utility
Type of Construction:
Non Combustible Construction
Combustible Construction
Fire Rated Construction
Building Volume Area and Height:

Fire:
Flame Spread:
Class A : Flame Spread 0 to 25 :Stairs
Class B: Flame Spread 26 to 75 :Corridors
Class C: Flame Spread 76 to 200 : Institutional, Dwelling Units
Means of Egress:
Exit Access: Door in Office Suite
Exit : Door into Fire exit
Exit Discharge : Door from Egress to Street
Occupancy Loads:
Tables of Model Code
Business: Max. 100 sqft / Occupant = Gross Sftg
Educational = Net Floor Area
Occupancy Load for a 3,000 sqft Office = 3,000 = 30 occcupants
100
Egress Width:
Egress Width = Occupant Load Factor x (Occupant Type) Min. 2 Exists
N. of Exists
Separation of Exists = One h Max. Diagonal Space or Floor requiring 2 Exists
Travel Distance to closest Exit : 200 ft Building w/out sprinkler, 250 Building w/
sprinkler

30
Egress through Intervening Spaces:
Not Allowed to Intervene w/ an exit Path: Kitchens, Storage Rooms, Closets, Toilet Rooms,
Bathrooms, Other Dwelling Units.
Corridors: Min. 44 wide, Dead ends Max. 20 feet long.
Exists: Exit is that part of egress that either takes the occupant from the building or floor to a vertical exit enclosure (stair), an
exit passageway, a horizontal exit, or an exterior exit ramp or stairway.

Vertical Exit Enclosures: Interior Exit Stairways and ramps, min. 1 hour fire rated.
Exit Passageways: serve connect multiple Vertical exit enclosures
Horizontal Exists: Divide a building or Floor into separate compartments w/ 2 Hour Fire
Rated partition, separating floor from interior wall to exterior wall.
Exterior exit Ramps and Stairs: For buildings with max 6 stories or max. 75 ft hgt.
Exit Discharge: Door leading from any vertical exit enclosure to public street.
ADA ACCESS:
Access Routes
Access Entrances
Parking and Passenger Loading facilities
Dwelling and Sleeping Units
Special Occupancies
Toilet and Bathing Facilities
Kitchens
Drinking Fountains
Elevators
Lifts
Storage
Service Facilities
Controls

Operating Mechanisms

31

Hardware, Recreational Facilities, Signage


Federal Standards and Requirements: U.S. Government standards and requirements that impact building
design and construction.

OSHA: Occupancy Safety and Health Act: specific requirements for the workplace that include stairs, railings,
ladders, and protection of openings.

Safety Glass Standard:


Fair Housing Act : Part of the nondiscrimination laws
Americans with Disabilities Act : Part of the nondiscrimination laws
Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards : Provides requirements for construction under four specific
federal government agencies including the United States Postal, Department of Defense, General Services Administration.

State Building Codes: Adopted one of the model code families with little revision.
City Building Codes: Enforcement of the code is typically left to building officials in each community.
Planning and Zoning Codes: Restrict specific areas in the community to certain types of building
occupancies (commercial, residential, light industrial, etc.).

Specific Local Interests and Conditions.


Restriction Building Types
Fire Codes and Fire Zones:
18 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN: philosophy of designing physical objects, the built environment and services to
comply with the principles of economic, social, and ecological sustainability.
Principles of Sustainable Design:

1. Earths Ecosystem (Earths Crust and Atmosphere: 5 miles deep and 5 miles up) finite
amount of Natural Resources.
2. Thermodynamics: Energy cannot not be created or destroyed. All is contained in the
ecosystem.
3. All forms of energy tends to seek equilibrium and therefore disperse.
Need of preservation of Beneficial Natural Elements and diminish or extinguish natural
resources contaminated with toxins and destructive human practices.
Principles:
1. Substances from the Eraths Crust must not systematically Increase in the ecosphere.
2. Substances that are manufactured must not systematically increase in the atmosphere.

32
3. Productivity and Diversity of nature must not be systematically diminished.
4. There must be a fair and efficient use of resources to meet human needs.
Sustainable Site Planning and Design:
Site Selection: Depends on:
Cost
Adjacency to Utilities
Transportation
Building Type
Zoning
Neighborhood Compatibility
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Adjacency to Public Transportation


Flood Plains
Erosion, Fire, Land Slides
Sites with high Slopes or Agricultural Use
Solar Orientations, Wind Patterns
Landscape Site Conditions

Alternative Transportation
Reduction of Site Disturbance
Storm Water Management:
1. Provide on-site infiltration of contaminants.
2. Reduce impermeable Surface and allowing local aquifer recharge instead of runoff to
waterways.
3. Encourage groundwater recharge
Ecologically Sensitive Landscaping:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Install Indigenous plant material


Locate shade trees and Plants over dark surfaces to reduce heat island effect.
Replace lawns with natural grass
In dry Climates, Encourage xeriscaping. Encourage higher efficiency higher efficiency
irrigation technologies: Drip Irrigation, Rain Water Recapture, Gray Water Reuse.

Reduction of Light Pollin:

33
Open Space Preservation:
1. Promote In fill Development compact and contiguous to existing infrastructure and public
transportation opportunities.
2. Promote development that protects natural resources and provides buffers between
natural and intensive use areas.
a. Indentify natural areas
b. Provide design that enhances natural areas
c. Design to provide buffers between sensitive natural areas and areas of intensive
use.
d. Provide linkages between natural areas.
e. Links between natural areas used for walking, hiking, biking, should be constructed
of permeable and biodegradable material.
3. Establish procedures that ensure the ongoing management of natural areas as part of
strategy of sustainable design.
Ahwahnee Priciples:
Existing patterns of Urban and Suburban development seriously impair our quality of life.
1. More congestion and air pollution resulting from dependence on automobile, and loss of
precious open space.
2. Need for costly improvements to roads and public services
3. Inequitable distribution of economic resources
4. Loss of sense of community

Community Principles
1. Planning in form of complete and integrated communities containing housing, shops,
workplaces, schools, parks, civic facilities.
2. Community size designed so Housing, Jobs, Daily needs, Other activities within walking
distance between each other.
3. Activities located within walking distances of transit stops.
4. Diversity of Housing types to enable citizens from a wide range of economic levels and
age groups to live within its boundaries.
5. Business within community to provide job types for communitys residents.
6. Location and character of community to be consistent with larger transit network
7. Community to have center focus combining commercial, civic, cultural, recreational
uses.
8. Community to contain specialized open spaces in form of Squares, Greens , Parks,
whose frequent use is encouraged through placement and design.
9. Public spaces to be designed to encourage attention and presence of people at all hours
of day and night.
10. Community or cluster of community should have well-defined edge ,Agriculture belt or
wild life corridor , permanently to protect from development.

34
11. Streets , pedestrian paths, Bike paths to contribute to system of fully connected routes to
all destinations.
12. Conserve natural terrain, drainage, vegetation.
13. Conserve resources and limit waste
14. Efficient use of water through natural drainage, draught tolerant landscaping, recycling.
15. Street Orientation, Placement of Buildings, Shading to contribute to energy efficiency of
community.
Regional Principles
1. Integrate regional land use with larger transportation network built around transit
rather than freeway.
2. Region to be bounded by and provide continuous of greenbelt, wild life corridors to
be determined by natural conditions.
3. Regional institutions and services to be located in urban core.
4. Materials and methods of construction to be specific to region.

Implementation Principals:
1. General plan to be updated to incorporate above principles.
2. Local Governments to take charge of planning process. General plans to be
designated where new growth, in-fill, or redevelopment is allowed to occur.
3. Specific plan to be prepared based on these principals.
4. Plan developed through open process with visual models.

Architectural Process:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Cost : Life cycle cost, Matrix Cost,


Function
Time
Aesthetics
Sustainability
a. Use less
b. Recycle components
c. Use easily recyclable components
d. Use fully biodegradable components
e. Do not deplete natural resources

Standards for Evaluation


LEED : Leadership in Energy & environmental Design
1. Sustainable Sites
2. Water efficiency

35
3.
4.
5.
6.

Energy and Atmosphere


Materials and Resources
Indoor air quality
Innovation and Design Practice

SUSTAINABLE DESIGN PROCESS:


a. Design Team
1. Architect, Engineers with energy modeling experience
2. Landscape Architect with a specialty in native plant material.
3. Commissioning expert
4. Engineer / Architect with building modeling experience
b. Goals:
1. Initial imperatives: budget, timing, image, program necessities.
2. Subjective goals: functionality, pleasing work environment, pleasing color
schemes, landscape that complements architecture.
3. Specific goals: more open space, more natural light, less water usage,
adjacency to public transportation.
4. Specific sustainability initiatives: fewer toxins, day lighting in occupancy
spaces less energy usage, less water usage, adjacency to public transportation,
improved indoor air quality.
5. Exceed existing standards: ASHRAE, USGBC, APA
C. Research and Education:
1. Education of Client : It is critical that the client understands the sustainable process and is
sympathetic to its potential economic and environmental benefits.

2. Education of Design Team


a. Establishment of Goals:
_% reduction energy use from established norm
_Improved Lighting
_Nontoxic and low VOC paint and finish
_Increased recycled content in materials
_High-efficiency appliances
_Wood elements as certified wood products
_Day lighting in all work/occupied spaces
3. Verify extent of work:
4. Energy and Optimization Modeling:
5. Bid and specification process:
a. Simple definitions of sustainable design
b. Explanations of specific characteristics sustainable design
c. References specific regulatory agencys information
6. Suppliers that meet sustainable standards
7. Changes and Substitutions
8. Solar Design: system of using sunlight or solar radiation to supply a portion of the building's heat
energy.

36
a.

Passive Solar Design:


_ Direct Gain Systems: systems that allow solar radiation to flow directly into the space needing heat.
_Indirect Gain Systems: systems operate when the sunlight first strikes a thermal mass that is located between the
sun and the space. The sunlight absorbed by the mass is converted to thermal energy (heat) and then transferred into the living
space.

1. Architectural sun control devices: Overhangs or shading devices, Deciduous trees, shutters , vertical
projections or fins, awnings, trellises, sunscreens

2. Light-colored roof systems: Light-colored roofing materials reflect sunlight and reduce the amount of radiation
that is absorbed through the roof into the interior space.

3. Optimized building glazing system: Orientation, light transmittance factors, and U-value are all factors architects
consider in selecting glazing.

4. Lighting
a. Day lighting
_ Overhangs, fins, etc.
_Saw tooth skylight design
_Interior window shading devices
_Light shelves
5. Higher efficiency Light fixtures: light fixtures that are more efficiently designed reduce energy cost and increase comfort.
_ Lighting sensors and monitors: sense occupancy conditions.
_Lighting Models: simulate the levels of sunlight that penetrate into a building design, depending on the building location, varying
times of year, fenestration orientation, and design.

9. Benchmarking: The U.S. Department of Energy provides "benchmark" information of total energy consumption in BTUs/SF for
various kinds of buildings in the United States. Benchmark = Standards

10. Commissioning: process to ensure that all building systems perform interactively according to the intent of the architectural and
engineering design, and the owner's operating needs. HVAC and MEP systems, controls, ductworks and pipe insulation, renewable and
alternate technologies.

11. Innovative Technologies


a. Ground water aquifer Cooling and Heating: uses the differential thermal energy in water from an underground well
to cool a building during summer and heat a building in the winter.

b. Geothermal Energy: heat contained within the earth's surface causes macro-geological events tapped to produce heat for
adjacent structures.

c. Wind Turbines: Small-scale wind machines used to generate electricity can be mounted on buildings or in open space nearby.
d. Photovoltaic (PV) Systems: concept that electricity is produced from solar energy when photons or particles of light are
absorbed by semiconductors.

e. Fuel cells: electrochemical devices that generate direct current (DC) electricity similar to batteries. But, unlike batteries,
they require a continual input of hydrogen-rich fuel.

f.

Biogas: process that converts biomass, such as rapid-rotation crops and selected farm and animal waste, to a gas that can
fuel a gas turbine. This conversion process occurs through anaerobic digestionthe conversion of biomass to gas by organisms
(like bacteria) in an oxygen-free environment.

g. Small Scale Hydro: Harnessing the energy from moving water.


h. Ice Storage cooling system: Supplement a building's cooling capacity with an ice storage system. An ice storage system
has three components: a tank with liquid storage balls, a heat exchanger, and a compressor for cooling.

37

BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI II


Sintesi II
DUELEONI

03 BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI II


A. SITE WORK
1. Soil:
a. Soil Composition: Chemical decomposition rock, water, air, temperature on rock, decay
vegetable and animal matter.
b. Soil types:
_ Rock or Bedrock : strongest support for foundation of a structure.
_Hardpan: Good foundation base for buildings.
_Gravel and Sand: Coarse-grained soils , excellent drainage properties
_Silt and Clay: Careful investigation required.
_Quicksand: Unfit for foundation.
c. Soil Exploration and Testing: Methods depend on location, topography, depth of Water
table, magnitude of structural loads anticipated.
_ Test pits: excavations for direct visual inspection of actual soil conditions.
_ Soil Load Tests: Platform erected on site; Incremental Loads applied.
_Borings:
Auger Borings: 2 2.5 Samples from 50 feet dp.
Wash Borings: For compacted soils: Water forced through 2-4 pipe,
100-0 or more.
Core Borings: Diamond Drill
Dry Sample Borings: for laboratory testing. Samples taken every 5.
d. Soil Properties:
1. Specific Gravity
2. Grain Size and Shape
3. Liquid and Plastic limits
4. Water content
5. Void Ratio
6. Unconfined Compression
e. Soil and Site Problems:
1. Inadequate Bering Capacity
2. Subsurface Water
3. Shrinkage
4. Seismic Movements
5. Settlement
6. Frost Action
7. Earth Movement

2
f.

Soil Drainage : Moisture can lead to reduction of soils bearing capacity, leakage of
water into building, disintegration of building materials.
1. Water Table: Level below which soil is saturated with ground water.
2. Foundations: to be placed above Water table. Use Drain Tile System, Performed
Water Stops.
3. Drainage: To direct water away from all structures by grading or shaping contours of
site to provide gradual transition from high to low elevations.
g. Soil Modifications: Improvement of Soil Consistency , Dependability, Bearing Capacity
1. Drainage
2. Deepen, Increase bearing area of footing
3. Replace existing subsoil with compacted granular material.
h. Site Preparation:
_Clear undesirable materials
_Locate Building lines using strings or wires stretched between Batter Boards.
i. Earthwork
1. Excavation
_ Removal of existing soil to permit construction of foundation
_Permanent cut slopes: < 1.5h to 1v
_Permanent fill slopes: < 2:1
2. Grading: Alteration of Sites contours.
_Rough Grading: Prior construction
_Finish Grading: After construction
3. Backfill: Replace Earth around foundation or retaining wall after concrete forms
have been removed.
B. FOUNDATIONS
1. Foundations: Part of structure that transmits buildings load to soil.
2. Footings: Part of foundation, widened to spread load over large area of soil.
3. Shallow Foundations: When soils close to ground are of adequate strength.
_Column footing: square or rectangular pad of concrete
_Cantilever footing
_Raft foundation
_Wall footing: continuous spread footing
_Mat footing: used when soil conditions are poor
_Boat footing: placed at a depth such that weight of soil removed from excavation is equal to load
of Building

_Combined footing
4. Deep Foundations: When upper soils have insufficient bearing capacity.
_Piles: Transfer loads to soil by skin friction.
_Wood piles: Must be below permanent ground level.

3
_Precast Concrete: Prestressed
_Cast in Place Concrete: Driven with mandrel core; removed before pouring.
_Concrete filled steel pipe: Driven with steel tip , then filled with concrete.
_Structural Steel: For dense earth and heavy loads, H Section.
_Sheet Piling: May be used as a water dam.
5. Caissons and Cofferdams: Box like structures at very wet or soft soils
6. Temporary Supports
_Sheeting: Temporary wood, steel or concrete wall to retain soil around excavation. Slurry
wall.
_Bracing: Sheeting Brace to resist soil pressure. Rakers.
_Underpinning: Support existing foundations,or walls to be extended downward. Needle
Beams, Pipe Cylinders with hydraulic jacks.
C. SITE IMPROVEMENTS:
1. Roads
2. Parking
3. Walks
4. Fences
5. Lighting
6. Asphalt Paving:
_Asphalt Concrete
_Cold Laid Asphalt
_Asphalt Macadam
7. Brick Paving
8. Stones Cobles
9. Granit Setts
10. Flagstone
D. GRADE CHANGING DEVICES:
1. Shape or retain earth in order to modify finish grade of site.
2. Retaining walls
3. Battered walls
4. Cribbing
5. Riprap

4
E. CONCRETE:
Definition: Mixture of
_Fine Aggregate (sand)
_Coarse aggregate(gravel or crushed stone)
_Potland Cement
_Water
_Hardening of Concrete caused by Hydration(chemical reaction between water and which
creates heat)
1. Types of Thin Shell Rigid Frame forms:
_Thin Shell Dome
_Multiple Vaults
_Rigid Frame
_Thin shell Barrel
_Corrugated thin-shell
_Rigid Frame
2. Composition of Concrete:
a. Cement: Adhesive substance capable of uniting non-adhesive materials
_Chemically active ingredient: Portland Cement: Lime , silica , iron oxide, alumina).
_Type I: Standard
For general all-purpose use.
_Type II: Modified
For slow setting and Less Heat
_Type III: High early Strength
For quick setting and strength
_Type IV: Low Heat
For very slow setting
_Type V: Sulfate Resisting
For alkaline water and soils
b. Aggregates: Inert ingredients. Affect quality of concrete. Reduce shrinkage. Serve as a
filler. Max. size < 1/3 thickness concrete slab. min. space between reinforcing bars.
_ Fine aggregate: Sand diam. Or less
_Coarse aggregate: Gravel or crushed rock to 1 diam.
c. Admixtures: Alter certain characteristics. Achieve special qualities
_ Accelerators

Calcium Chloride

Speed up setting time

_Air entraining

Resins, fats, oils

Resist freezing action

_Retarders

Starches, sugars, acids

Slow setting time

_Waterproofing

Stearate Compounds

Decrease permeability

_Water Reducing

Organic Compounds

Reduce water content

_Workability

Powered silicas and lime

Improve workability

5
3. Concrete Mix:
a. Proportioning: Optimum combination of Mix.
_Volume: 1:3:5 Mix = 1 Part Cement + 3 Parts Fine + 5 Parts Course
b. Water-Cement Ratio
_ Gallons of Water per sack of cement
_Major factor of strength and durability.
_Max. strength = Min. water
_Excess water causes laitance
_Strength : Depends on Water-cement ratio. Strength measured after 28 days of
placement.
c. Mixing: Concrete should be uniform in appearance and evenly distributed.
_Ready mix Concrete: Mixed at central plant and transported to site.To be used 1
hours after water is added.
_Transit-mixed Concrete: Mixed in truck mix. Water added after arrival.
4. Formwork: Molds into which concrete is placed and held into shape until hardened and
develop sufficient strength to support its own weight.
Made of
_Lumber
_Plywood
_Metal
_Fiberboard
_Paper Pulp
_ Forms to be strong stiff and tight. Oil is used for coating forms before placing concrete.
5. Reinforced Concrete
_Concrete is strong in compression , weak in tension.
_Reinforcing Bars: Rebars are designated by numbers representing the bar diameter in 1/8.
_Welded Wire Fabric: W.W.F. designated by size and spacing of longitudinal and transverse
wires.
_Bars: to be adequately concrete covered, galvanized or epoxy coated against corrosion.
_Bars: may be preassembled with support devices, as high chair, continuous high chair, slab
bolster, beam bolster.
6. Lightweight Concrete:
a. Structural Light Weight Concrete:
_ Light weight aggregates made from expanded shale or clay
_90 to 110 lbs instead 150 lbs
_ Mix size coarse
_Better Insulation, More expensive
b. Insulating light weight Concrete
_By adding aggregates of expanded materials like Perlite or vermiculate .
_Weights 15 to 90 lbs.

6
_ Used for thermal insulation in roof construction.
7. Placement of Concrete
_Concrete must be placed as close as possible to its final location evenly, continuously and in
a manner to avoid segregation of aggregates.
_When placed on harden concrete , this should be moistened and prepared.
_Vertical drop limited to 4-0.
_Concrete to be compacted and consolidated by hand or vibrators to prevent reduction of its
strength and water tightness due to its air bubbles.
8. Testing
_Slump Test: Measures consistency and workability of concrete mix.
_Cylinder Test: Measures compressive strength. Cylinders are cast, laboratory cured for 7
and 28 days and tested in a crushing machine.
_Kelly Ball Test: Measures workability: 30 lb. 6 diam. Ball is dropped.
_Impact Hammer Test: Measures Strength. The rebound of a plunger.
_Tests of Air content: Measure the volume of air content in the mix.
9. Curring:
_Maintain proper humidity and temperature for 3 to 14 day period after placement to assure
satisfactory hydration of cement.
_Supply additional moisture to surface, using wet covering, covering to prevent evaporation,
or leaving moistened wood forms.
_Best curing at 50o to 70o.
10. Concrete Joints
a. Construction Joints: Horizontal or Vertical joints between two successive concrete pours.
_Keyed
_Stepped Horizontal
_Roughened and keyed vertical joints
_Use of rebar
b. Expansion Joints: Allow free movement of adjacent parts due to expansion or
contraction of concrete.
_Waterproof, watertight and filled with an elastic filler.
_Required in buildings over 200-0 long.
_Required at joints of building wings.
_Required at addition of new buildings.
c. Control Joints: Allow for shrinkage of large areas. Induces cracking to occur along the
joint.

d. Isolation Joints: Slab on grade and columns or walls, to move independently.


11. Pre stressed Concrete: Placed in compression
_More efficient and economical. Smaller Members, greater distances and loads.
_Pre Stress is applied by pre-tensioning and post-tensioning with the use of tendons (high
strength bars, single wires, wire stands).
12. Precast Concrete: Advantage of mass production, better quality control of concrete,
members can be cast and erected in all weather and faster construction
_Floor and Roof System: Pre Stressed, precast planks, used with precast beams , joists and
purlins.
_Tilt-up Construction: Cast a Wall Panel in a horizontal position and tilt it vertically.
_Lift-slab Construction: Casting slab one upon another. Breaking agents required. Lifted.
Almost all formwork is eliminated. Pipes, conduits, ducts can be installed on grade.
_Tube Slab: Paper tube filler for mechanical to be integrated. Flat ceiling.
13. Concrete Finishes
a. Walls and Ceilings: Already set on concrete.
_Rough
_Smooth
_Rubbed Finished
_Sand Blasted
_With Texture Form
_Bush Hammered
_Exposed Aggregate
_Applied Finish Stucco
_Plaster
_Ceramic
_Concrete Paint
b. Floors:
_Still plastic and workable concrete
_Wood float finish
_Steel troweled finish
_Applied texture as brooming
_Applied pigment as pigmented
_Heavy duty
c. Terrazzo: Topping material over concrete slab. Mixture of Portland Cement , Water, and
Colored Marble Granules.

F. MASONRY
1. BRICK: Rectangular masonry unit molded from clays and shales, dried and fired in a kiln.
a. Methods of Molding
_Soft Mud Process: Moist clay in rectangular molds
_Stiff Mud Process: Mixture through a Die, extruding a ribbon cut by wires.
_Dry Press Process: Most accurately formed brick. Dry mixture pressed into gang
molds.
b. Brick Types:
_Building Brick Common Brick: Most widely used 8 x 3 x 2 .
_Grade SW (severe weathering)
_Grade MW (moderate weathering)
_Grade NW (no weathering)
_Face Brick: Exposed to view. SW and MW Grade
_Grade FBX. Perfection in size, color and texture.
_Grade FBS. Greater sizes variation and wide color range.
_Grade FBA. Nonuniform in size , color and texture
_Backup Brick: Inferior quality
_Paving Brick: Very hard and dense
_Fire Brick: Resistant to high Temperature
_Sewer Brick: Low Absorbtion
_Adobe Brick: Made of natural Clay and Straw
_Nail on Brick: Used for masonry. Cannot be supported
_Hollow Brick: HBX, HBS, and HBA. SW and MW grades.
_Modular Brick: Brick courses + mortar joint = 4
c. Brick nomenclature:
_Surface: Face , Side, Cull end, beds
_Cut Shapes: Half or Bat, Three Quarter, Quarter Closer, King closer, Queen Closer, Split
or Soap
_Placement: Header, Stretcher, Bull Header (rowlock course), Bull Stretcher, (shiner
course), Soldier, Sailor
d. Brick Laying:
_ During temperatures between 400 and 900.
_ Brick should be wetted prior to setting to minimize absorption of water from mortar
and for better bonding.
_ Should be set on full bed of mortar, joints to be to .
_Reinforced Brick consists of 2 wythes of brick separated by a 2 to 4 space with vertical
and horizontal reinforcing bars.
e. Brick Bonding:
_Flemish Bond
_English Bond

9
_Cross Bond
_Common Bond
_Running Bond
_Stacked Bond
f. Veneering: Exposed masonry attached, but not structurally bonded, to the backing.
g. Efflorecence: White powdery deposit caused by soluble salts from water penetration.
h. Expansion Joints: Required in masonry structures over 200-0 long or where wings
occur. The sealant adheres to the two masonry surfaces to prevent air and water
infiltration, while permitting movement top the wall.
2. Concrete Masonry: Manufactured by consolidating stiff concrete mixture in steel molds,
cured and quickly dried.
_ Concrete Brick
_Concrete Block
_Concrete Tile
_Cast Stone
_Concrete Blocks: Modular : 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 X 15 5/8.Light, Strong and Fire Resistant.
_2-Corestretcher
_3-Corestretcher
_2 or 3 Core Corner Block
_Jamb Block
_Window Jamb Block
_Lintel Block
3. Structural Clay Tile: Hollow, burned clay units with parallel cells.
a. Types by Function:
_Back up Tile
_Facing Tile
b. Types by Orientation
_Side Construction Tile (cells horizontal)
_End Construction Tile (cells vertical)
_ Architectural Terracotta: Clay tiles in various colors, textures, shapes.
_Ceramic Veneer : Terra Cotta in Large Face dimensions , thin sections and glazed
finishes.
4. Gypsum Block: or Gypsum tile. From Gypsum Plaster , available in thicknesses 2 to 4and
standard Panels 12x 30.
_Used for Interior non-bearing partitions and fireproofing protection.
_Set with Gypsum Mortar on top of water resistant material.
5. Glass Block: Solid or Hollow
_Based on 4 Module
_Not Structural
_Limited in Area , Height and Length

10
6. Stone:
_Igneous: Granite
_Sedimentary: Limestone, Sandstone, Bluestone, Brownstone
_Metamorphic: Marble, Soapstone, Slate
7. Stone Forms:
_Rough
_Rubble Stone
_Dimension Stone
_Flagstone
_Stone Dust
_Monumental Stone
_Crushed Stone
8. Stone Masonry: Set with Portland cement masonry. Avoid moisture penetration.
_Rubble Masonry. Natural Stone
_Ashlar Masonry: Shaped and Smoothed
_Coursed: Horizontal Joints
_Un coursed or Random: No Horizontal Joints
_Bond Stone: Perpendicular to the wall face for tie
9. Mortar: To join units to each other, or their supporting members, while preventing moisture
penetration.
_Composed of Portland Cement, Lime (workability), sand and water.
_Masonry Cement or Mortar Cement may be used instead of Portland Cement.
_Types M or S: for masonry that is load bearing and / or exposed to the weather.
_Types N and O: lesser compressive strength is required.
10. Mortar Joints:
_Weathered
_V-Shaped
_Raked
_Round rodded
_Beaded
_Stripped
_Flush
_Troweled
_Squeezed or Extruded
11. Masonry Accessories:
_Strap anchors
_Dove tale anchors
_Cramp Anchors
_Pin
_Threaded Dowel
_Hangers

11
_Expansion Joints
_Water Stops
G. WOOD : 70 percent cellulose and 18 to 28 percent lignin, which is the adhesive imparting strength to the wood.
1. Terminology:
_Wood is the hard fibrous substance lying beneath the bark of trees.
_Lumber is wood that has been sawn into construction elements.
_Timber is lumber that is 5 or larger in its least dimension.
2. Classification:
_Softwood: Pine, Fir, Spruce,(evergreen). Used structurally for framing, sheathing, bracing.
_Hardwood: Maple, Oak, Sycamore (shed their leaves). Used for Flooring, Paneling, Interior
Trim, Furniture.
3. Characteristics:
_Available anywhere
_Lower cost that Concrete, Masonry, Steel structures.
_Timber structures resist fire better that unprotected steel.
4. Seasoning of Wood:
_Drying of Wood. Detailing shall allow for shrinkage or swelling.
_Air Drying: Takes several months and leaves 10% to 20% moisture.
_Kiln Drying: Takes a few days. Leaves 10% moisture.
5. Cutting and Sawing Lumber:
_Cut tangent to annual Rings: Plainsawed (hardwoods) and flat-grained or slash-grained
(softwoods).
_Radially to Rings: Quatersawed (hardwoods) and Edge-grained or Vertical-grained
(softwoods).
_Plainsawed: Grain is 0 to 45d to the wide face. Distinct grain pattern, shrinks and swells
more in width ,less in thickness and is less expensive.
_Quatersawed. Grain 45 to 90d to the wide face. Even grain pattern, shrinks and swells more
in thickness, less in width and more costly.
6. Wood Defects:
a. Natural defects : Those resulting from natural causes.
_Knot: Branch embedded in a tree and cut through in manufacture
_Check: Pitted area sometimes found in cedar and cypress
_Pitch Pocket : Opening between growth rings containing resin
_Shake: Lengthwise grain separation between or through growth rings
b. Manufacturing Defects: Those arising from the seasoning or processing of lumber.
_Check: Lengthwise grain separation caused by seasoning.
_Split: Lengthwise separation of wood extending from one face to another.
_Wane: Lack of wood on the edge or corner.
_Wrap: Shrinkage distortion of a plane surface; includes bow, crook, cup, and twist

12
7. Grading Lumber: Lumber is graded for appearance or strength depending on its end use.
a. By Use
_ Yard Lumber
_Factory and Shop Lumber
b. By Size
_Boards: Graded for appearance. Used as siding, Subflooring and trim. Types: Select and
Common.
_Dimensions: Graded for Strength. Used for loading bearing members. Types by Size:
Joists, Planks, Light framing and Decking.
_Timbers: As dimensions. Types: Beams, Stringers, Posts and Timbers.
c. By Manufacturer:
_Rough: Visible saw marks.
_Dressed or surface lumber is planed smooth to uniform size.
_Worked lumber is dressed and tongue-and-grooved or shaped to a pattern.
d. Harwood Grades. Based on amount of clear, usable lumber in a piece.
_Standard Grades:
_First
_Seconds
_Selects
_Sound Wormy
_Numbers: 1, 2, 3a and 3b
e. Lumber Sizes: Nominal Dimensions: 2x4 (1 x 3 ). Measured, computed and priced in
Board Feet : 1x12x12

8. Plywood
a. Manufactured wood panel consisting of several thin wood veneer sheets permanently
bonded together with the grain of each ply perpendicular to the adjacent.
_Center ply: Core, outer plies. Face and Back .
_Odd number of Plies for flatness.
_4x8x5/16 to 1 1/8 .
_Used as wall and Roof sheathing, subflooring, underlayment and formwork.
_Joint Types: Butt, Vee, Shiplap, Batten, Metal Tee.
b. Classification:
_Interior: moisture resistant adhesive
_Exterior: waterproof adhesive
_Softwood: for construction
_Hardwood: decorative applications
_Grades : from A to D front and back

13
9. Miscellaneous Panels
_ Hardboard
_Pre finished Hardboard. Used for exterior siding, soffits, interior walls, ceilings, cabinetry,
acoustical treatment.
_Fiber board. Acoustical tile, sheathing, interior wall finish.
_Flake board. Good acoustical properties and insulation values. Fragile.
_Particle board. Core of plastic laminate or hardwood veneer.
_Bead board. Insulating material
_Plastic Laminates or Formica. Counter tops, wall coverings and furniture.
10. Glue Laminated Lumber:
_Glulams are core weather resistant, consistent in size, appearance, and strength than
solid timber.
Appearance Grades:
a. Industrial
b. Architectural
c. Premium
Shapes:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Straight
Single Tapered Straight
Double Tapered Curved
Double Tapered Pitched
Doubled Tapered Straight
Curved and Pitched

Joints: Scarf and Finger Joint


11. Wood Preservation:
_Insects: In warm humid climates. Termites eat wood from within. Measures include proper
drainage, good ventilation and impervious concrete foundation. Use of preservatives which
penetrate the wood, are recommended instead of metal termite shields. Heavy treatment
with creosote at marine borings.
_Decay: Caused by Fungi in mild temperatures, moisture and air. Treat with preservatives,
kept well ventilated and dry.
_Preservatives: Types: Oil-borne solutions, Water-borne solutions. Pressure applied for more
effectiveness.
_Fire: Prevention by impregnating a chemical solution (ammonium phosphate) or by surface
treatment (intumescent paint).
12. Wood Framing:
_Trusses
_Built-up Girders
_Glued Laminated Beams

14
_Types of Laminated wood frames and arches: Two-hinged arch, Three-hinged arch, Threehinged frame.
_Types of Truss Rafter Types: Pitched, Flat, Scissors , Sawtooth.
_Types of Wood Wall Framing: Platform Framing (one story studs), Balloon Framing (full
height studs, two stories).
13. Wood Joining:
a. By Location:
_Exterior
_Interior
b. By Connection:
_Lap
_Shoulder
_Rabbet
_Miter
_Shoulder Miter
_Quirk Miter
_T&G Miter
_Butt
_T&G
_Ship lap
_Spline
_Fillet
_V-joint
_Batten
_Squared Splice
_Splice
_Scarf
_Mortise & Tenon
_Dado
_Dovetail
_Open Joint
_Metal Joint
_Metal U Insert
_Open Joint with Filler
b. Nails:
_Common
_Box
_Finish
14. Finish Woodwork:
_Millwork. Shop-fabricated items that need to be protected by a primer or sealer.
_Wood Trim: To cover joints. Shapes: round, round, cove, bead, crown, casing, base.

15
_Wood Siding and Paneling. Better grades of wood used. Patterns: channels, board & batt,
t&g, shiplap, bevel, rabbeted bevel, vee joint t&g, Drop t&g.
H. METALS: come from the earth, usually as metallic ores, which are metal-bearing minerals rocks. There are a few metals, however,
that found in a purer state, such as gold, silver, and copper.

1. Characteristics:
_Luster
_Opaqueness
_Hardness
_Ability to conduct Heat
_ Ability to conduct Electricity
_Alloys: combination of pure metals (lead, copper, iron)with controlled quantities of
other substances.
_Ferrous: Contain a lot of Iron, stainless steel, galvanized iron.
_Non-Ferrous: Aluminum, Copper, Zinc
2. Deterioration: Galvanic action or electrolysis occurs when different metals are in
contact and depends on the amount of moisture present.
List of metals based on Galvanic activity:

Aluminum
Zinc
Iron and steel
Stainless steel
Tin
Lead
Brass
Copper
Bronze
Gold
3. Forming Metal:
_Process by which extracted metal is transformed into useful product that has a
finish shape.
_Cast: By pouring molten metal into a mold
_Wrought: By forcibly shaping solid metal to a required form.
4. Ferrous Metals:
_Iron: Most Abundant Metal
_Wrought Iron: Used for ornamental work, grilles, pipes, outdoor furniture.
_Cast Iron: Pipes, Plumbing Fixtures, Ornamental Work, Hardware, Special Castings
_Steel: Methods of making:
a. Open hearthprocess

b. Basic oxygen process


c. Electric furnace process

16

Steel: is an alloy of iron that contains no more than 2 percent carbon. Structural steel contains about a quarter of 1
percent carbon, plus traces of various impurities.

_Steel is the most widely used structural metal in building construction.


_Used for structural framing, Concrete reinforcing bars, lathing, conduit, pipes, fixtures,
miscellaneous and ornamental work, connectors (nails, pins, bolts).
_Structural Steel : steel used for structural purposes, containing varying amounts of carbon and other elements.
_Alloy Steel: steel containing other elements that are added to provide special properties. stainless steel.
_Weathering Steel: steel containing up to one half of 1 percent copper, which develops a tightly-adherent oxide
coating when exposed to the weather.

_Heat-Treated Steel: reheated and cooled slowly, or annealed, for improved workability.
_Case-Harden Steel: steel with a hard, high carbon surface produced by a special process.
5. Non-Ferrous Metals:
_Aluminum: Light weight, good thermal and electrical conductivity and resistance to
corrosion. Used for framing, light weight structures, railings, grills, siding, curtain
walls, windows, doors, flashing, insulation, roofing, screening, hardware.
_Copper: Resistant to corrosion, electrical and thermal conductivity. Used for
electrical work, water distribution lines, roofing and flashing, and for screening
mesh.
_Brass: Resist Corrosion. Precise casting, finish hardware, plumbing, heating, ac
components and fittings.
_Bronze: Similar to brass
_Lead: Toxic, heavy, soft, weak. Corrosion resistant and workable. Used for
foundations and machinery. Rough hardware item, roofing and flashing.
_Zinc: Roof coverings, flashings and protective coatings for steel
_Monel: Roofing, flashing, countertops, sinks.
6. Metal Finishes:
_Anodizing: Metal Finish applied to aluminum
_Galvanizing: Most popular method. Zinc is applied by immersing the steel in a bath
of molten Zinc.
7. Use of Metals in Construction:
_Structural: reinforcing bars and mesh for concrete, and wire rope. Structural Framing Elements.
_Hollow Metal: doors, bucks, partitions, panels, windows, mullions, curtain walls, and panel systems that
incorporate other materials, such as glass, stone, plastic,

_Miscellaneous Metalwork: stairs, railings, fencing, gratings, rough hardware, ladders.


_Ornamental Metalwork: plaques, letters, finish hardware, railings, screens, grilles, expansion joint covers.
_Flashing: base and cap flashing, gutters and leaders, spandrel and through-wall flashing, copings, termite shields
_Miscellaneous: Miscellaneousrough hardware, nuts and bolts, rivets, screws, nails, washers, inserts,
hangers, anchors, wire.

8. Structural Steel Construction:


_Consists of the fabrication and erection of Hot-rolled members which are
manufactured from medium carbon steel.

17
_Rolled Steel Section: Beam, Column w-shape. Beam s-shape, Channel s-shape,
Channel c-shape, L-shape, tee wt-shape, t st-shape, structural tubing, bars and
plates. Built-up steel sections.
_Cable and Tent Structures: Used to cover very large areas with thin sheet material.
_Space frames and Domes: Truss structural systems which span in two directions.
_Lightweight metal framing: Light guage steel members are used. Lightweight,
incombustible, impervious to decay, warpage, shrinkage and termites.
_Open Web Joists or Bar Joists: Shop Fabricated, Standard Lightweight Trussses.
_Metal Decking: Ribbed, corrugated, cellular or flat ribbed.
_Miscellaneous and Ornamental metal: Ferrous metal used for stairs, railings, fire
escapes, gratings, and fences. Shop drawings required. Non-Ferrous metal and
stainless steel are used for decorative grills , louvers, mesh and wire cloth, metal
treillage and flag poles.
I.

MOISTURE CONTROL:
1. Ground Water Control:
_Surface Water:ponds and other surface accumulations of water, caused by rain, thawing ice, or snow.
_Ground Water: Water contained in the voids and crevices under the earths surface which flows
slowly through aquifer (permeable material).

_Ground Water Table: level below which the earth is saturated with water.
_terms in order of water tightness:
a) Permeable:Capable of being penetrated by water without causing rupture or displacement.
b) Water-resistant: Having no openings larger than capillary pores that permit leakage of water.
c) Water-repellent: Incapable of transmitting water by capillary action, but able to transmit water under pressure.
d) Waterproof:Completely impervious to water, whether under pressure or not.
2. Damp proofing: Materials and Methods which prevent moisture from
penetrating a building at or below grade. Asphalt base coatings, cement
plaster and liquid silicones are used. Draining surface water from a building,
installing a polyethylene film vapor seal and footing drains.
3. Water proofing: Materials and Methods which prevent water under
hydrostatic pressure from penetrating those parts of a building which are in
direct contact with the earth.
_Membrane waterproofing: Several layers of asphalt-saturated felt hot
mopped together with tar or asphalt pitch.
_Waterstops create waterproof construction joints in walls and floors below
grade.
4. Precipitation Control: Roofing describes the materials used to waterproof the
exterior top surface of a structure. Climate affects its durability. Roofing
needs to be fire resistant. Type of roof and slope of roof are related factors:
_Bituminous and soldered or welded materials: 0:12 to 3:12.
_Asphalt roll roofing: 1:12 to 3.5 : 12
_Asphalt Strip Shingles: 3:12 to 4:12

18
_All types of Shingles & Metals: 4:12 to 8:12
_Tile & Slate: 5:12 to 8:12
_ A SQUARE is the unit of measure used to express roof surface
_Roof Types; Shed , Gable, Intersecting Gables, Hip, Mansard, Gambrel,Flat
w/ Parapets, Sawtooth.
5. Roofing Materials:
_Asphalt. Built-up (plies), shingles and roll
_Wood. Shingles and Shakes
_Metal. Sheet, corrugated and strip
_Clay, cement and slate. Tiles. Types : Greek, Roman, Spanish, mission,
shingle, English.
_Glass and Plastic. Sheets (wire-reinforced glass and fiberglass reinforced
acrylic sheets are commonly used).
_Plastic. Liquid coatings
6. Condensation Control:
_Water Vapor moves from high to low pressure areas, usually from inside to
outside.
_Vapor Barriers: for Prevention, made from aluminum foil, various types of
sheet plastic or asphalt saturated felt.
_Vapor Barriers are installed on the warm side.
7. Thermal Control:
_Caulking and Weather Stripping (cracks and openings).
_Reflective or Insulated glass (windows).
_Thermal Insulation (wall and roof assemblies).
_Thermal Insulating Materials have thermal resistance R, thermal
conductivity K, reciprocal of R.
_Loose Fill:
Glass , mineral wool
4 thick = 3.90 R Value
_Batt or Blanket:
Glass, mineral wool
3 thick = 11.00 R value
_Board or Sheet:
Cork, Glass or fibers
1 thick = 2.75 R value
_Reflective:
Aluminum
1 air space = 1.39 R value
_Foam:
Plastics, spray type
1 panel = 6.00 R value
8. Flashing:
_Used to provide seal and prevent water penetration at joints exposed to the
weather, intersection of different materials and expansion or structural
integrity of structure.
_Provide every 125 in masonry walls, 200 in steel, concrete structures and
roofs. They are made waterproof with water stops, elastic joint sealants,
metal flashing or caulking.

19
J.

DOORS, WINDOWS AND GLASS: Classification


1. Doors: movable barriers that permit or prohibit access to a structure,
_Frames: Head, Jambs, thresholds , sills or saddles,
_Stop: Hinge and Trim
_By Location: interior and exterior
_By Function: fire door and acoustical door
_By Method of Operation: swinging, revolving, overhead, folding, sliding door.
_By Physical Type: Panel, Louvered, flush, shutter, French, Sash, Dutch, Screen, SpecialPurpose.
_By Material: Wood( hollow core, solid core, panel), Steel, Aluminum, Glass.
_Wood: Most Popular. Waterproof adhesives exterior and water-resistant adhesive in the
interiors.
_Flush: Solid Core or Hollow Core Door.
_Panel: Wood, Plywood, Glass, Fixed Wood Louvers. Sections held in place by wood stiles
and rails.
_Special Purpose: Fire, Sound, Radiation
_Steel: 14 to 20 cold rolled steel. Interiors and Exteriors
_Hollow Metal: Steel frame cover with sheet metal, (flushed or paneled). Rigid, permanent,
meet any fire rating.
_Metal Clad or Kalamein: Solid wood core covered with sheet metal.
_Aluminum: Curtain walls, Store fronts.
_Metal Security: Metal mesh or Grills.
_Fire Door: Rated from A to E. Entire assembly to be fire rated. Doors to be self hatching and
have automatic closing devices. Rating:
Fire walls or Fire areas
No glazing
_A: 3Hours
_B: 1 Hours
Vertical Enclosures
100 cm2 (4 min.)
_C: Hours
Corridors & Partitions
1296 cm2 (54max.)
_D: 1 Hours
Exterior Walls, Severe
No glazing
_E: Hours
Exterior Walls, Moderate
720 cm2 (54 max.)
_Glass: to
Thick tempered glass
_By Hand Convention: Right Hand, Left Hand, Left Hand Reverse, Right Hand Reverse,
(standing outside).
2. Door Hardware:
_ Knobs: 38 from finish floor, panic bolts: 42 from finish floor.
_Hinges: Exposed, concealed or invisible. 8 from the head. 10 from floor. Types: Mortised,
Ball Bearing, T-strap, Cabinet Pivot Hinge, Olive Knuckled, and Invisible. Full Mortise, Half
Mortise, Half surface, Full surface.
_Closers: Parallel arm type and bracket mounted type. Closing quickly and Quietly
_Locking Devices: Beveled, latch or rectangular, dead bolt. When bolt is used with a latch,
lock. Lockset types: Cylindrical, Unit, Rim, Mortise lock.
_Panic Hardware: Push Bars to extend of door width.

20
_Operating Devices: Knobs, Level handles, Pulls, Push Plates, Kick Plates, Escutcheons, etc.
Tactile finish on doors leading to hazard areas.
_Weather Stripping: To make exterior openings water tight. Interlocking or friction devices.
3. Windows: glazed openings constructed in a wall to admit light, air,
_Basic Types: Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Monumental.
_Elements: Head, Sill, Jamb, Top Rail, Bottom Rail, Stile, Muntin, Frame, Panes and Sash.
_Types: Casement , Sliding, Double Hung, Hopper, Awning, Austral, Pivoted, Folding,
Jalousie, Fixed.
_Wood: Inexpensive , durable, readily available.
_Aluminum: Possible for complex configurations ( extruded) , string , lite, durable.
_Steel: Hot rolled solid sections, or cold rolled strip steel.
_Stainless Steel: Corrosion resistant. 16 ga, 18 ga, 20 ga, 22 ga.
_Replaceable: To supersede or to be applied over an existing window.
_Screens: Wire mesh supported by rigid frames to exclude insects.
4. Door and Window Systems:
_Aluminum most common used Material
_Storefront: Metal framework sections and glass panels designed as a unit.
_Curtain Walls: Support no weight other than their own. Metal framework and glass, Plastic,
Metal or other surfacing panels. Must be waterproof, thermal and sound control, safe and
secure.
_Skylights: Types: Square, Rectangular, Pyramid, Circular Domes, Flat or Low Profile, Vent,
Continuous volt, Continuous Ridge. Frames: Aluminum, Galvanized Steel, Copper. Glazed:
glass block, wire glass, plastic panels. Must be water tight, safe have condensation drains.
5. Glass:
_Solid, super cooled ceramic material made from sand , soda lime. Stronger in compression
than in tension.
_Foamed or Cellular glass: Used as rigid thermal insulation, spun glass fibers for acoustical
and thermal insulation and textile manufacturing.
_Window Glass: Common type for small windows. AA , A and B (degree of distortion). SS
3/32 thick and DS 1/8 thick (strength) . Up to 35 sqft.
_Heavy Sheet Glass: Window glass available from 3/16 to 7/32 and larger areas.
_Plate Glass: Expensive, finest for windows
_Patterned Glass: Obscure vision & reduce light transmission. Available Tempered.
_Tempered Glass: Heat treated for increased resistance to impact stress. Stronger than plate
glass. May not be modified after manufactured( punctured).
_Insulating Glass: (Multi Glazing) Two or more sheets of glass separated by air space to
provide thermal insulation, acoustical control and an absence of condensation. May not be
altered after manufactured.

21
_Heat Absorbing or Actinic Glass. Tinted to absorb solar radiation and transmits less solar
heat and glare into a building.
_Reflective Glass: Reflects Heat and Glare, transmits less heat and glare into building
_Laminated Glass: Plastic sheet between two glass layers. When glass breaks, plastic holds
it. Types: Safety (automobile, skylites), and bulletproof glass (banks, prisons).
_Wired Glass: High resistance to impact and remains intact after breakage. Good for fire
resistance and skylites.
_Butt Joint Glazing. No vertical mullions but a clear silicone sealant forms the joint.
6.

Plastic:
_Used to replace glass
_Acrylics, Polyester, Polyestrenes
_Fire Resistance, Slow Burning
_Not as hard as glass, not as durable under weather conditions
_Expands easily
_More expensive than glass, but more resistant to fire and breakage

7. Glazing:
_Process of placing glass in windows and making weather tight joint between glass and its
frame using compounds (made from rubber , vinyl) . Clearance must be allowed between
glass and frame to be surrounded by a watertight seal of glazing compound and allow for
thermal expansion or contraction.
K. FINISH WORK:

methods, materials, and treatments that comprise the interior and exterior finished surfaces of a building.

Interior finishes: include floor finishes, such as paving, planking, and carpeting;
Wall finishes: including paneling, veneering, and tiling.
Ceiling finishes: such as plastering, painting, and acoustical treatment.
Exterior finishes: consist of the entire outside surface of a building, including wall coverings,ornamentation, and protective coatings, such as
paint.
The selection of a finish material is determined by its characteristics:

1. Stone Veneer:
_Limestone, Granite, Sandstone, Marble Veneer slabs 1 thick.
_Rough, slightly textured, smooth, or polished.
_Attached to back-up materials with metal anchors and ties and 1 thick bed.
_Durable, permanent, relatively expensive.

2. Plaster work:
_Composed of Portland cement (exterior plaster or stucco) or gypsum and lime (interior
plaster), Aggregate ( sand, vermiculite, perlite) and water. Plaster is applied in two or three
coats over a base of masonry, metal lath or lathing board.
Types:
_Portland Cement or stucco (exterior).
_Gypsum Plaster (interior)
_Acoustic Plaster Acoustics for walls and ceilings
_Bonding Plaster Interior concrete walls and Ceilings
_Fire resistant Plaster: Resistance for steel or other materials

22
_Keenes cement Plaster: Contains lime putty for hard, water-resistant finish
_Lightweight plaster: Contains vermiculite or perlite aggregates for fire resistance
_Veneer Plaster: Dense plaster thin coat over gypsum lath. Painted after 24 hours.
Bases:
_Concrete or Masonry Surfaces: must be rough and porous for good bonding
_Metal Lath: Sheet metal or wire fabric into which a based coat of plaster is keyed.Types:
Flat expanded (diamond mesh) , rib lath (flat rib or high rib) and woven wire mesh or lath.
_Lathing board: (plasterboard, gypsum lath or gyplath) composed of gypsum and water,
dried and sandwiched between two porous sheets of paper. 16x 48 , 3/8 or thick. Solid
sheets with reflective aluminum in one side for vapor and thermal control and Type X for fireresistive rating. Before plaster applied, trim shapes are set, square end casing bead , quarter
round casing bead, corner bead, bullnose corner bead, window tool, control joint base, base
screed.
_Before plaster is applied, trim shapes are set: Square End Casing Bead, Quarter round
Casing beading, Corner bead, Bullnose Corner Bead, Window stool, Control Joint Base, Base
Screed.
_Plaster should be 5/8 thick. Directly applied to wood or metal lath, over gypsum lath.
Exterior to 7/8.
_Plaster is applied in (3) coats:
(2) sand- (1) plaster
1/4 thick
a. Scratch
b. Brown
(3) sand -(1) plaster
1/4 thick
c. Finish
1 sand (1) plaster
1/8 thick

3. Gypsum Board: (sheet rock or drywall):


_Prefabricated form of plaster: faster and cleaner installation.
_4-0 width
_6 to 12 in length
_ to 5/8 thick
_Directly applied to wood or metal framework , or to concrete or masonry walls.
_Edges and Joints: Square, Beveled, Round, Tapered, Tongue and Groove
_Regular Board: Walls and Ceilings
_Backing Board: Backing for other materials as acoustical tile.
_Insulating Board: Aluminum foil laminated for reflective insulation & vapor barrier.
_Type X Board: Fire-resistant rating
_Moisture-Resistant Board: Backing in moisture areas.
_Decorative Board: Finished with decorative paper or vinyl

23

4. Ceramic Tile Work: Flat Units composed of clay or clay mixtures.


Tile Shapes:
_Bullnose
_Cove base
_Bead
_Flat Tile
_Cove
_Curb
_Cap
_Set in mortar 1 thick (Portland cement , water, and sand) grouted and pointed.
Types of vetrification:
_Non Vitreous Tile : Absorbs 7% to 15% moisture.
_Semi-Vitreous Tile : Absorbs 3% to 7% moisture.
_Vitreous Tile : Absorbs less than 3 % moisture. No dirt penetration.
_Impervious Tile : Repels all moisture and dirt.
Types of finish:
_Glazed interior tile: Non vitreous for interior applications.
_Glazed weatherproof tile. Semi-vitreous or vitreous for moderate exterior applications.
_Ceramic Mosaic Tile: Unglazed, semi-vitreous. Interior and exterior applications
_Quarry Tile: Unglazed, impervious. Weatherproof, durable, for heavy duty wear.
_Inlaid, faience, and handmade tiles.
5. Plastics:
_Plastic Sidings
_Plastic Counter Top
_Plastic Bath Tubs
_Shower Stalls Fabricated from Acrylics or Fiberglass
6. Flooring:
a. Wood Flooring: Hardwood and Softwood used. Patterns:
_Plank Flooring: Laid in random widths with a V-groove. Screwed to subfloor due to
warpage.
_Strip Herringbone
_Block Basketweave
_English Parquet
_French Parquet
_Gerogian Parquet
_Strip Flooring: Tongue and Grooved side and ends. Applied over a wood subfloor on wood
sleepers, or directly to a concrete slab using waterproof adhesive. Fastened by blind nail.

24
_Thin Block Flooring: Squared or tongue and grooved edges. Fastened by nailing od
adhesive.
_Solid Block Flooring: Treated with creosote against moisture and decay. Set in a coating of
bituminous material. Heavy Duty and Durable.
_Mortar Set Flooring: Includes any masonry material set and utilized as finish floor surface.
Brick, Slate and Stone (Limestone, Sandstone, Granite, Marble) flooring.
_Poured-in-place Flooring: Concrete, Terrazzo, Magnesite, Elastometric, Rubberized Plastic,
Paint type floors.
_Resilient Flooring: Tiles, durable, nonabsorbent, comfortable, easily maintained. Laid over
smooth wood or concrete subfloors with mastic elements. Vinyl, Asphalt, Linoleum, Rubber,
Cork.
_Carpeting: Set Directly on concrete slab or plywood sub-floor.
a. By Material:
_Acrylic Fibers
_Nylon
_Polyster
_Wool
b. By Method of Manufacture:
_Tufting
_Weaving
_Needle Punching
c. By Texture:
_Low Pile
_High Pile
7. Acoustical Work:
a. Acoustical Tiles:
_From perforated, textured or pattern wood
_Mineral or glass fibers
_Light weight
_Square, Beveled, Rabbeted, t&g Edges
b. Acoustical Panels: Perforated steel, Aluminum, Fiberboard or Hardboard backed with a
sound absorbing batt and blanket.
c. Wet Material: Acoustical plaster and mineral fiber products. Suited for irregular surfaces,
quickly installed and effective.
d. Vibration Control: Concrete, solid concrete blocks or lead used to control vibration.
8. Painting:
a. Components
_Paint: Protective coat that combines a pigment and a vehicle
_Pigments: Finely ground solids held in suspension by a vehicle. Color, hiding powder and
opacity.

25
_Vehicles: Liquid portion of a paint mixture, binder that forms the paint film, driers to speed
up formation of the film, and solvents and thinners which control consistency and aid in
drying.
_Types: By Location, By Material where applied, by their Finish, by their Unique
characteristics.
b. Pigmented Coatings: White pigments to which color is added and a vehicle.
_Enamels: Pigmented paints that used varnish as the vehicle. Resistant to weathering.
_Baked Enamels. Factory applied between 200 to 300 degrees , durable, washable, resistant
to wild chemicals.
c. Clear Coatings: Used to protect surface without obscuring them.
_ Varnish: Used a clear coating and as a vehicle for pigmented paints
_Lacquer: Tough and thin but not as durable as varnish.
_Shellac: Used as clear finish for wood work, seal knots, and pitch stains.
_Sealers: Used to prepare a surface for its final finish
_Stains: Not strictly a clear coating, it wont obscure the natural grain of wood
d. Bituminous Coatings: Made from coal Tar and Asphalt
_Coal Tar Pitch: Used to protect metal and applied by dipping. Waterproof agents
_Asphalt: Used for damproofing and waterproofing work
e. Miscellaneous Coatings:
_Cement Mortar: Used for damproofing masonry surfaces and for steel protection.
_Fire-Resistance and Intumescent Paints: Unable to support combustion. Stop heat transfer.
_Rust Preventive Paint: Rust inhibitive qualities , low permeability to corrosive and low
absorption.
_Antibacterial and Insecticidal Paints
_Organic Coatings: Plastics, rubber, other synthetics for durability and resistance to weather
/ wear
_Epoxy Coatings: Resistant to chemicals, moisture and stains
f. Paint Application: Surfaces must be clean, dry and free of all corrosion , grease or defects.
Paint to be applied between 550 and 850 F.

26
L. VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION: systems used to move people and materials vertically.
a. Stairs
_Stairs: 36 to 44 wide Rise Max. 7 and Tread min. 11
17 to 17.5 inches
_ Riser + Tread =
_Riser x Tread=
70 to 75 inches 2
_2 Risers + Tread=
24 to 25 in.
_Landings should be as long as the stair width, vertical distance between landing should not
exceed 12-0 and headroom clearance shouldnt be less than 6-8.
_Fire Stair. For emergency exit. Enclosed w/ fire resistive walls and equipped with complete fire
assemblies.
_Monumental Stairs: Handrails required if width is over 88. Rarely permitted.
_Residential Stairs: Could be narrower. Winders and spiral stairs are accepted.
b. Ramps
_ Wide as corridors leading to them.
_Handicapped are 36 wide min. , max. 30 rise & landings must be at least 5-0 long.
_Handrail required if ramp > 6-0 long or rise > 6
_1:20 (5%) or less, not considered a ramp.
_1:15 (6.7%) or more, required handrail.
_1:12 (8.3%) max. slope permitted for handicap
_1:8 (12.5%)max. slope permitted by building code
c. Ladders:
_Used to access roofs or in service areas. Min. 18 wide, rungs spaces 12 and installed 6 from
wall.
d. Elevators: movable enclosures that provide vertical transportation for people and freight.
_Hydraulic Elevators: Pushed by a Rod. Platform sits over a plunger that extends as far into the
ground as it rises. Used for low rise buildings, five stories max. with speeds between 25 and 150
feet per minute. Cost less than electric. They do not require overhead machinery or penthouse.
_Electric Elevators: Pulled up by cables. Used in 50-foot buildings or higher. 1800 feet per
minute. Traction transmits lifting power to cables that run over grooves in the machine driven
sheaves. The traction machine, which moves the elevator, could be geared (low speed
applications) or gearless (high speed applications).
_Roping: Traction machines are classified as single-wrap (cables pass only once over the sheave)
or double wrap (for additional traction , high speed).
_Safety Features:
Brake: mounted on the motor shaft , is self applying and will stop at power failure.
Governor measures the speed by actuating the safety rail clamp.

27
Car Bumpers : located at the bottom of the shaft stop car.
Safety Edges : consist of a lip that encounters a person, package, etc,door will reopen and
prevent the elevator form moving.
Electric Eye : prevents door from pinching passengers or objects.
Interlocks and leveling devices : prevent the door to open before or after the elevator is leveled.
_Capacity and Speed : 1.6 x Rise (in feet) + 350 = Rated Elevator Speed
_Operating Systems:
Single Automated Operation: Car responds to first button pressed.
Collective Operating Systems: Calls may be stored.
Selective-Collective Systems: Answers calls in the direction of travel
Fully Automated Systems:
Tall office buildings, service can be adjusted for varying traffic
conditions.
_Architectural Considerations:
1. Location: Alcove off main corridor, size and number of elevators, depend on number of floors,
population, function, volume of traffic, capacity and speed of elevator.
2. Time Intervals: Between elevators, should be 20 to 30 seconds.
3. Doors: should be 3-6 wide to allow two people in at the same time ( single speed opening,
two speed opening, single speed center opening and two speed center opening).
e. Freight Elevators: Used to transport equipment, materials and goods rather than passengers.
Hydraulic elevators are appropriate for low-rise buildings, and electric elevators are more
economical if lift exceeds 50-0. Speeds from 75 to 200 fpm.
_Class A General freight
_Class B Motor Vehicle Garage Elavator
_Class C Industrial Truck Loading
_Service Elevators:
Modified passenger elevator for oversize loads.
_Sidewalk Elevators: Rise to an upper level by opening hatch on ground floor.
_Dumbwaiters:
Small elevators 9 sqft. x 4-0 high for materials and supplies.
_Escalators:
Move large number of people from floor to floor quickly, safely and at low
cost. Made up of custom-built steel trusses and endless belt and synchronized handrail.
Standard widths 32 to 48. Travel: 120 fpm
_Moving Ramps:
Continuous treads instead of steps. Inclined 150 , and when flat are called
moving sidewalks. 40 wide. 140 to 180 fpm.

28

BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI III


Sintesi III
DUELEONI

03 BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI III


1. ADA Requirements:
_Minimum Dimensions of Elevator Cars:

2. Other ADA Dimensions:


_ Cross Slope Ramped Surface: 1:50 or 20%
_Accessible Route Changes in Level: with a 1:2 slope
_ Carpet pile thickness . max.
_1/2 maximum opening in a grating measured parallel to predominant path of
travel .
_Car Parking Stall Width: 96
_Aisle adjacent to car parking stall , 60 min. for Vans 96 min.
_Route in front of parking stalls: Min. 96
_Flared Sides of curb cut ramp, 1:10 slope max.
_Curb cut with obstructed landing less than 48 , 1:12 Max.
_Ramp with slope 1:12 to 1:16 , max. rise 30, and max. run 30-0
_Ramp with slope 1:12 to 1:20 , max. rise 30, and max. run 40-0
_ Clear Doorway width: 32
_Handrails and Grab Bars : 1 to 1 in diameter. 1 clear from wall.
3. Historic Buildings ADA Dimensions:
_One accessible route from site access to accessible entrance.
_Toilets: One facility along accessible route required. Unisex acceptable.
_Provide access to public spaces from accessible entrance and other levels where
practical.
_Displays, documents placed at 44 A.F.F.

4. Proctor Tests: Soil compacting tests.


5. Elevator Drive Mechanisms:
_Electric Elevators: Car mounted on guard rails , supported by hoisting
cables, driven by electric hoisting machinery in penthouse.
_Geared Traction Elevators: speeds up to 350 fpm . Suited for medium
rise buildings. Capacity up to 10,000 lbs.
_Hydraulic Elevators: Car support by piston, moves against fluid under
pressure. Penthouse not required. For buildings up to six stories high.
Speed: 25 to 150 fpm. Commonly used for freight in industrial and low
rise commercial buildings. Cost less than electric elevators. Single ram
capacities: 10 tons. Multiple ram capacities: 50 tons.
6. Cold Formed Steel and its use in Construction:
_Cold-Formed Steel: (CFS) made structural quality sheet steel rolled.
_Thinner, liter, easier to produce, less expensive than hot-rolled counter
parts.
_Used in load-bearing and non load-bearing framing.
7. Mortar Joints:

_ Mortar types in order of strength from greatest to least.


_Type M: Strongest at 2500 PSI. Used at or Below grade for foundation
walls, Retaining walls, Piers.
_ Type S: 1800 PSI Exterior Walls
_Type N: 750 PSI Exterior walls above grade
_Type O: 350 PSI Interior non-bearing walls

8. Brick:
_Brick Bonding: strengthening of masonry wall by interlocking individual
bricks. Wall acts as single unit.

_Brick Courses:

_Standard Nominal Dimensions Common Brick: 4x 2- 3X 8 (actual


dimensions are 3/8 smaller for mortar).
_Course: Horizontal Layer Bricks
_Wyth: Vertical Layer Bricks , one unit thick.

9. Masonry Repairs for Historic Buildings:


_Repairs done prior to cleaning to minimize moisture penetration.
_Tuck Pointing: deteriorated mortar joints
_Replacing Masonry
_Masonry Patching : with tinted matching compound.
_Epoxy injection in Cracks.
10. Masonry:
_ Concrete Masonry Units CMU: have typical nominal dimensions of 8x
8x 16, with actual dimensions less 3/8 for mortar.
_Grade N: Load bearing CMU suitable for above and below grade.
Compressive strength of 800 1500 PSI.
_Grade S: Load bearing CMU limited to use above grade only, in exterior
walls with weather protective coatings, or in walls not exposed to
moisture or weather. Compressive strength of 600-100 PSI.
_Type I: CMU with limited moisture content in order to minimize drying
shrinkage that can cause cracking.
_Type II: CMU not manufactured to specified limit moisture content.
11. Grout:
_High-slump mixture Portland Cement, Aggregates, Water, poured or
pumped into cavities in concrete or masonry for the purpose of
embedding reinforcing bars and / or increasing amount of load-bearing
material in wall. Mortar is used to fill joints between ceramic tiles or
quarry tiles.

12. Concrete
_Forms Cast-In-Place Concrete Removal: 1.Wall and Beams Sides
2. Columns 3. Supported Slabs 4. Beams.
_Forms Wall and Beam Sides , to be removed first (one day after pour) ,
since they support no load.
_ Column Forms to be removed four days after pour; forms support no
load.
_Slab Forms support weight of slabs. Remove at least 7 days after
pouring.
_Beam Forms: remove after 15 Days
_Floor Forms: remove after 28 Days.
_Form Ties: required to keep forms from spreading under fluid pressure
of newly placed concrete.
_Snap Ties: Snap off below concrete surface after stripping forms.
_She Bolts: Waler Rods
_ Minimum Cover for reinforcement concrete not exposed to ground
or weather.
_ 1 Minimum Cover when concrete exposed to earth or weather.
_2 Minimum for # 6 Bars and larger.
13. Pre and Post Tension Concrete:
_Reinforced by Pre tensioning or Post tensioning high strength steel
tendons within elastic limit to actively resist service load.
_Tensile Stresses in Tendons are transferred to concrete, placing entire
cross section of flexural member in compression.
_Resulting compressive stresses counteract the tensile bending stresses
from applied load, enabling pre stressed member to deflect less, carry a
greater load, or span a greater distance than a conventionally reinforced
member of same size , proportion, weight.

_ Pre tensioning: accomplished at precast plant. Pre stressing concrete


member is done by stretching reinforcing tendons before concrete is
cast.
_Post Tensioning: performed at building site, especially when structural
units are too large to transport from factory to site.

14. Piles vs Caissons:, when to use Sheet Pile.


_ Pile Foundation: System of end-bearing or friction piles, pile caps, tie
beams for building loads down to suitable bearing stratum.
_Cassions: cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers formed by
boring with large auger or excavating by hand shaft in earth to suitable
bearing stratum and filling shaft with concrete. Also called drilled Piles or
Piers.
_Sheet Piles: Used for flood and retaining walls.
_Permanent Sheet Piles: Used as Cutoff to control underseepage and
provide scour protection for foundations.
_Temporary Sheet Piles: Used to support excavations.
_Design Permanent or Temporary Sheet Piling: must consider lateral
deflection.
15. Needle Beaming: Temporarily supporting wall while performing repairs
or underpinning work. Cross pinning are placed under, or threaded
through holes in wall to support load. Cross Beams are placed under, or
threaded through holes in wall to support load. When work is done,
beams are removed and holes in wall patched.
16. Expansion and Control Joints
_ Control Joint: create lines of weaknesses so cracking from tensile
stresses occurs along predetermined lines.
_Space Control Joints: Exposed concrete 15-to 20 o.c. or wherever
required to break an irregular slab shape into square or rectangular
sections.
_Sawn Joint: 1/8 Wide and of Slab Depth , Filled with Joint Filler.

_Expansion Joint: Continuous unobstructed slots constructed to close


slightly to accommodate moisture expansion of brick and stone masonry
surfaces. Expansion joints should provide lateral stability across joint,
and be sealed to prevent passage of air and water
_Movement Joints: spaced every 100 to 125 along unbroken wall
lengths and:
a. At changes in Height or Thickness
b. At Columns, Pilasters, Wall Intersections
c. Near Corners
d. On both sides of openings > 6-0
e. On both sides of openings < 6-0
17. Flashing: material used to provide a seal and prevent water penetration at joints exposed to weather
_ Flashings may be made of Sheet Metal , Plastics, Elastomeric
Compound, Composite Material.
_Sheet Metal Flashing: Most durable, Most expensive.
_Copper and Stainless Steel: Best
_Galvanized Steel eventually rusts and disintegrates.
_Aluminum and Lead: Unsuitable for Flashing because react chemically
with mortar.
_Plastics: Least expensive flashing Material.
_Flashing within wall, virtually impossible to replace.
_ At Corners and other Junctions, flashings to be lapped at least 6 and
either soldered together or sealed, with suitable mastic.
_Head and sill flashings should extend well beyond jambs of opening and
should terminate in folded end dams
_Cant Strip : Is a strip of material with sloping face used to ease
transition from horizontal to vertical surface at edge of membrane roof.

18. Soils: best for Foundations, Types, Characteristics, Testing


_For Soil groups from most to least stable:
1. Gravels: Coarse aggregate or soft rock. Excellent for foundation.
2. Sand: Loose granular Rock. Finer than gravel, but coarser than silt. An
excellent foundation base.
3. Silts: Fine sedimentary material deposited by running water,
consisting of sand, clay, organic material. Stable when dry or damp.
Unstable when wet.
4. Clays: Finely ground rock , formed by decomposition and hydration of
certain rock. Expands when wet, hard when dry.
_ Four Methods of Soil Testing:
_Wash Boring: Drilling of Test Hole to locate bedrock beneath very
compact soil. Pipe driven into soil while water forces material to surface.
Can penetrate all materials other than rock.
_Auger Boring: Auger drill bit fastened to rod to bring soil to surface.
Most efficient in sand or clay because bit is easily obstructed. Limited
depth capability.
_Core Board: Intact Cylindrical sample extracted by drilling through all
types of soil including bedrock. Excellent depth capability. Test very
reliable and expensive.

10

_Test Pit: Excavation of open pit. Allows visual examination of existing


conditions and ability to intake samples for further testing. Can
determine depth of water table.
_Soil characteristics varies throughout site. Common to test number of
locations to verify bearing capacity.
19. Classical Architecture:

20. Suspended Ceiling Components:


_Grid of Main Channels or Runners, Cross Tees, Splines.
_Grid, suspended from overhead floor or roof structure, exposed,
recessed, fully concealed.
_Acoustical Tiles Removable, for replacement or for access into
ceiling space.

11

_Integrated Ceiling Systems incorporate acoustical, lighting, airhandling components into a unified hole.
_Suspension Systems, 60x 60 grid , support either Flat or Coffered
Acoustical Panels.
_Main Runners: principal supporting members of suspended ceiling
system, consisting of Sheet-Metal Tees, Channels, suspended by hanger
wires from overhead structure.
_Cross Tees: Secondary Supporting Members , usually consisting of
Sheet-Metal Tees Carried by Main Runners.
21. Environmental Impact / Green Architecture:
_Sustainability is the objective:
_Select products that are durable and energy efficient. Durable and Energy Efficient
_Use recyclable materials using fastners instead of adhesive. Use Fasteners
_Use products containing recycled content. Use Recycled Products
_Select easily maintainable materials. Use easliy maintainable Materials
_Use locally produced materials minimizing environmental impact of
transpotation. Use Locally Produced Materials
_Use appropriate materials to maximize efficiency. Use Appropriate Materials
_Minimize use hazardous natural and synthetic chemicals .Minimize Chemicals
_Embodied Energy: Result of energy expended by machinery during
construction or energy required to produce and transport building
materials. Energy Expended for Construction
_Embodied Energy: amount of energy that building will consume over a
period of several years. Energy that a Building will consume over time
22. Nail Types and Techniques: Fasteners
_ Nails are ordinarily made of uncoated steel.
_Exposed to Weather Steel: Corrosion resistant type, Hot-dipped
Galvanized, Aluminum, Stainless Steel.
_Zinc Coating on electro Galvanized nails is very thin and often damaged
during driving.

12

_Face Nailing: Strongest Method


_End Nailing: Relatively weak , primarily used holding framing members aligned
until gravity forces and applied sheathing make a stronger connection.
_Toe Nailing: Used where end nailing is not available.

13

14

23. Life Safety:


_Means of Egress:
_Exit Access: Portion of Means of Egress System that leads from any
occupied point in building or structure to Exit. Part of Building where
occupants are engaged in functions for which building was designed.
_Exit: Portion of Means of Egress System between Exit access and
Exit discharge. Allows occupants of building to move through a
protective enclosure from hazardous area to escape are.
_Exit Discharge: portion of Means of Egress System between the
termination of an exit and public way. Courts and Yards at or
near grade and open to the atmosphere.
_Safety Glass: Not allowed in 3-hour rated openings 1 -hour rated
doors in exterior. 100 square inches maximum in 1-hour rated and 1
hour rated openings. Must have a maximum height of 33 and maximum
width of 10. 1,296 square inches maximum in a hour rated opening
and fire window assemblies. Must have maximum height or width of
54. Unlimited size in 20 minute rated opening.
_Fire rated Doors: Must have steel or stainless steel ball bearing hinges.
Entire door assembly is considered The Door with respect to fire codes.
Must be self latching. Must have automatic closer. Must label attached
to door and frame. All hardware must be UL listed. Pair of doors must
have an astragal.
24. Platform Framing VS Balloon Framing:
_Platform Framing: Wood Stud Wall Framing with Studs one story in
Height, Floor Joists bear on top plates of wall below.
_Balloon Framing: Wood Stud Wall Framing with studs continuous for
full height of building, usually two stories, with joists bearing on ribbon
let into studs.

15

25. Sound Transmission Class (STC) and Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC):
_ Sound Transmission Class: Rating for evolution of particular
construction cross-section in transmission of airborne sound.
_Noise Reduction Coefficient: Difference in sound pressure level
between two spaces considered.
26. Catch Basin: Receptacles for runoff of surface water. They have basin or
sump that retains heavy sediments before it passes to underground
drainpipe.
27. Daylighting:
_Use of natural light to minimize need artificial lighting during daytime
hours.
_Intent: Maximize controlled use of natural lighting to satisfy buldlings
ambient lighting requirements, and reduce reliance on traditional
electric lighting.
_Reduction of electrical lighting energy demand.
_Properly Designed day lighting System Heating costs (winter) and
Cooling Loads (summer).
a.Goals:
_Allow light to enter as far as possible into building.
_Minimize undesirable effects of light, direct glare, excessive brightness,
veiling reflections.
_Diffuse light as much as possible
_Exploit the dramatic, aesthetic potential of sunlight in areas where
visual tasks are not critical.
b. Design Strategies:
_Optimize building orientation and form.
_Maximize reflectance of light by using light-colored finishes. Ceiling
should have highest reflectance, followed by back wall, side walls, floor.
_Optimize window placement and placement of top lighting: Skylights,
Monitors, Clerestory Windows, Translucent Panels.

16

28. Masterformat :
_System developed by Construction Specification Institute (CSI) for
coordinating specifications, filing technical data, product literature,
construction cost accounting, organizing construction bids.
PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS GROUP:
Division 00 Procurement and Contracting Requirements
SPECIFICATIONS GROUP
General Requirements Subgroup
Division 01 General Requirements
Facility Construction Subgroup
Division 02 Existing Conditions
Division 03 Concrete
Division 04 Masonry
Division 05 Metals
Division 06 Wood, Plastics, and Composites
Division 07 Thermal and Moisture Protection
Division 08 Openings
Division 09 Finishes
Division 10 Specialties
Division 11 Equipment
Division 12 Furnishings
Division 13 Special Construction
Division 14 Conveying Equipment
Division 15 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 16 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Facility Services Subgroup:
Division 20 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 21 Fire Suppression
Division 22 Plumbing
Division 23 Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning
Division 24 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 25 Integrated Automation

17

Division 26 Electrical
Division 27 Communications
Division 28 Electronic Safety and Security
Division 29 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Site and Infrastructure Subgroup:
Division 30 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 31 Earthwork
Division 32 Exterior Improvements
Division 33 Utilities
Division 34 Transportation
Division 35 Waterway and Marine
Division 36 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 37 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 38 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 39 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Process Equipment Subgroup:
Division 40 Process Integration
Division 41 Material Processing and Handling Equipment
Division 42 Process Heating, Cooling, and Drying Equipment
Division 43 Process Gas and Liquid Handling, Purification and
Storage Equipment
Division 44 Pollution Control Equipment
Division 45 Industry-Specific Manufacturing Equipment
Division 46 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 47 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
Division 48 Electrical Power Generation
Division 49 RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION

18

29. Galvanic Action Series: (each metal can be corroded by all that follow
it):
_Alluminum (or Zinc)
_Zinc (or Alluminum)
_Iron and Steel
_Stainless Steel
_Tin
_Lead
_Brass
_Copper Alloys
_Copper
_Bronz
_Gold
30. Plywood: Manufactured wood panel consisting of several thin wood veneer sheets bonded together.
_Interior, Exterior: Dependent on type of adhesive. Exterior made
with waterproof phenolic resine.
_Softwood or Hardwood: Dependent on species of veneer used.
_Grade: Based on Face veneers. A (best) B,C,D, (lowest quality).
_Span Rating: Measure of Strength and Stiffness parallel to face
grain.
_Construction or Decorative: Dependant upon use of product.
_Typical Plywood Sheet: 4x8

19

31. Gypsum Board: Prefabricated form of plaster.


_Plaster-Based wall finish known either as Gypsum Wall , Plasterboard,
Drywall.
_Sizes: 4 wide by 8 high most common.
_Thicknesses: 1/8 increment , to
_Advantages: Low Cost, Ease of Installation and Finishing, Fire
Resistance, Sound Control, Availability.
_Disadvantages: Difficulty in curved Surface Applications, Low durability
from Impact or abrasion.

20

32. Modulus of Elasticity for Wood w/ 12% Moisture Content.


a. Hardwoods
_Beech, American:
11,900
_ Cherry:
10,300
_Chestnut:
8,500
_Elm, American:
9,200
_Hickory, Pecan:
11,900
_Maple, Silver:
7,900
_Maple, Sugar:
12,600
_Oak, Red:
12,500
_Sassafras:
7,700
_Sycamore, American:
9,800
_Walnut, Black:
11,600
_Willow, Black:
8,400
_Yellow Poplar:
10,900
b. Softwoods:
_Cedar Northern White: 5,500
_Douglas-Fir:
13,400
_Fir, White:
10,300
_Pine, Eastern White:
8,500
_Pine, Spruce:
6,900
_Redwood:
8,000
_Spruce, White:
9,200

21

33. Parts of a Window:

From Lowest R-value to greatest.


_Single Glazing:
R = 1.0
_Single Glazing with Storm Window or Double Glazing: R = 2.0
_Double Glazing with Low E-coating or Triple Glazing:
R = 3.0
_Triple Glazing with Low E-coating: R = 4.0
_Insulated Stud Wall: R = 14.0

22

34.Detail of a Moment Connection:

23

35.Paints:
_ Paint: mixture of solid pigments suspended in liquid vehicle, applied as
thin, opaque coating to a surface for protection and decoration.
_Primers: Base coats applied to a surface to improve adhesion of
subsequent coats of paint or varnish.
_Sealers: Basecoats applied to surface to reduce absorption of
subsequent coats of paint or varnish, prevent bleeding through finish
coat.
_Oil Paints: Use drying oil that oxides and hardens to form a tough
elastic film when exposed in thin layer to air.
_Alkyd Paints: Have as binder Alkyd resin, chemically modified Soy or
Linseed Oil.
_Latex Paints: Binder is Acrylic Resin, coalesces as water evaporates
from emulsion.
_Epoxy Paints: Epoxy Resin as Binder for increased resistance to abrasion
corrosion, chemicals.
_Rust Inhibiting paints and primers: specially formulated with
anticorrosive pigments to prevent or reduce corrosion of metal surfaces.
_Fire-retardant paints : formulated silicone , polyvinyl chloride , to resist
flame spread of combustible material.
_Intumescent Coatings: when exposed to heat of Fire, swell to form thick
insulating layer of inert foam retarding flame spread and combustion.
_Heat-resistant paints: formulated with silicone resins to withstand high
temperatures.

36. Defenitions:
_ Cofferdam: Watertight, temporary structure placed under water and
pumped dry to allow construction work to be performed. Materials
reusable.
_Crazing: Fine cracks due (by heat exposure) to shrinkage on surface of
newly finished concrete, plaster, ceramic, paint, other material.

24

_Spalling: Breaking, Chipping, Flaking of Masonry, concrete due to frost


action, chemicals, building movement.
_Albedo: Ratio of reflected to incident light.
_Critical Radiant flux: Test of flammability of construction materials.
_Perm: Unit water vapor transmission = flow one grain water vapor
through one square foot of surface per hour under pressure of one inch
of mercury.
_EPDM: Ethylene propylene diene monomer. Elastomeric Plastomeric
Membrane used for single-ply roofing.
_Oil Canning: Waviness or Uneven appearance commonly found in sheet
metal products.
_Reglet: Slot in which roofing material is inserted , general in vertical
wall surfaces.
_Sheepsfoot Roller: Tamping roller with large teeth used to increase soil
stability and bearing capacity. Soil compaction process.
_Efflorescence: White powdery deposit that forms on exposed masonry
or concrete surface, caused by leaching and crystallization of soluble
salts within material.
_Laitance: Chalky , non-durable deposit of cement and fine aggregates
of surface of concrete caused by excess water, or over worked concrete
mix.

BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI IV


SINTESI 4
DUELEONI

4 DESIGN SINTESI IV
1. Site Work: placement of products, materials, utilities and accessories that go into the land around Building Site.
_Demolition
_Clearing of Land
_Earth installation of Piles and Cassions _Paving
a. Soils: All Site Work depend on Nature of Soil.SOIL : term used to describe the mater that supports a building.
_Sand: Particles 0.002 in size.
_Gravel: Particles 14 in size.
_Sands and Gravels, very good base for Building foundations. They provide good
drainage because of voids in individual particles.
_Fine Grain Sedimentary soil: composed of material smaller than sand but larger
than clay.
_Silts : Gran Materials slightly plastic in behavior.
_Clays: Unpredictable. Must be mixed with other soils.
_Hardpan: Unbroken mixture of Clay, Sand, Gravel. Good Base for Building
Foundation.
_Shale and Slate: Soft rocks with fine texture. Group with second highest bearing
capacity.
_Boulders: Rocks broken off of bedrock.
_Bedrock: Solid Rock that forms earths crust. Highest bearing capacity of all soil
types.
b. Soil Tests
_Prior to Design and Construction, exact nature of soil must be determined.
_Soil Tests: for the determination of Bearing Capacity, Water Table Level,
Porosity.
_Porosity is important if land is to be used for private sewage disposal systems.
_Core Boring: (Bearing Capacity) undisturbed soil samples are removed and
recorded in a boring log.
_Standard Penetration Test: (SPT) measure density of granular soils and
consistency of some clays. Test bearing capacity, resistance to lateral pressure,
slope stability, compressibiltiy, grain size, specific gravity, density.

_Number of Borings Taken depend on:

1. Size of Building
2. Subsurface geological conditions
3. Code requirements
_Minimum (4) Boring is taken, one on each corner of proposed building.
_Test Pits: Second common type of subsurface exploration. Trenches dug at job
site (approx. 10 ft deep) for inspection of soil strata and direct collection of
undisturbed samples.
_Soil test requested by Architect, paid by owner.
_Soil Tests not part of Contract Documents.
_Auger Tests: Use of standard auger bit to raise soil samples. Auger cannot
penetrate bedrock or hardpan soil.
_Wash Borings: 2 to 4 diameter pipe through which water jet is maintained to
force soil material.
_Dry Sample Boring: Extract material by driving pipe with split sample pipe on
leading edge about 5 the soil.
_Soil Load Tests: Build platform on site. Place incremental loads on it. Observe
amount of settlement during given time periods, until settlement becomes
regular after repeated loading. Design = Test Load.
_Soil Tests:
a. Grain Size and Shape: determine shear strength of soil, permeability, Frost
action, Compaction Ability.
b. Liquid and Plastic Limits: Gives compaction values for cohesive soil.
c. Specific Gravity: Determines Void Ratio, which determines Compressibility of
Soils.
d. Unconfined Compression: Shear strength for cohesive soil, is measured from
this value.
c. Water Content: Determines Compressibility and Compaction Values for
Cohesive Soil
c. Soil Types: Classified according to the United Soils Classification System.
System divides Soils into Major Divisions and Subdivisions base on Grain Size and
Laboratory Tests of Physical Characteristics and provides standardized names
and symbols.
_Bearing Capacities: Specified by Building Code , based on soil type.
_Water in Soil: Can cause problems for foundations and Site. Water reduces
bearing capacity of soil in general. Differential Settlements may occur, Structural
Failure , Heaving, settling of Paving.

_Foundations below Groundwater Line (Water Table) are subjected to


Hydrostatic pressure, creating additional loads on structural elements, and
makes waterproofing more difficult .
d. Soil Treatment: Increases Bearing Capacity, Decreases Settlement.
_Drainage: Increases strength of soil and Hydrostatic Pressure.
_Fill: New Engineered Fill (soil, sand Gravel) can be bought onto site. Must be
compacted before building commences.
_Proctor Test: Optimum relationship Fills Density and Moisture Content (2 to
4%).
_Compaction: Done with Sheepsfoot Roller
_Densification: On-site compaction of existing material: Vibration, Dropping
Heavy Weights, Pounding Piles into Ground, Filling Voids with Sand.
_Surcharging: Preloading Ground with Fill Material to cause consolidation and
settlement of underlying soil before building.
_Mixing: Layer of Soil and Sand placed on less stable soil and mixed in ,
improving soils bearing capacity.
e. Earthwork:
_Excavating Soil for Construction, Ground Foundation, Water and Sewer Line.
_Modifying Sites Land Contours
_Excavation: Removal of Soil to allow construction of foundation below finished
level of Grade.
_Un shored excavations Max. slope: 11/2 Horizontal to 1 Vertical.
f. Grading: Modification on Site according to Grading Plan.
_Rough Grading: Moving soil prior to construction to approximate levels of final
grades. Also adding or removing soil after construction to approximate final
grades, within 6 to 1 of desired level.
_Finish Grading: Final moving of soil prior to landscaping or paving. Where level
of earth brought to within 1 of desired grades.
g. Shoring and Bracing:
_First Method: Vertical and Horizontal Beams:
_Second Method: Vertical Sheeting supported by diagonal braces.
_Underpinning: Temporarily support foundations during repair.

h. Subsurface Drainage:
_Water below ground can reduce load-carrying of soil , cause differential
settlement, leak into building.
_Water Table: Level below which soil is saturated with groundwater. If any part
of structure is below this level, it is subject to hydrostatic pressure, putting
additional loads on structural elements of foundation and making waterproofing
more difficult.
_Slope: Slope grade around building / 1 ft.
_Perforated Drain Tiles : Below Grade, laid around footings min. 6 below floor
slab. French Drain.
_Large Gravel :Place below slab to relieve pressure against floor slab.
i. Surface Water Drainage:
_Slope Land around building
_Modify Finish Contours
_Drain Inlet: Allows storm water to run directly into storm sewer.
j. Site Improvements: Items not connected to building
_Parking Areas
_Walks:
_Paving:
_Landscaping
_Sprinkler Systems
_Outdoor Lighting
_Fences
_Retaining Walls
2. Concrete :
_Most versatile basic building material. Durable, Strong, Weather Resistant.
Requires knowledge of: Formwork, Reinforcing, Placing, Curing, Testing,
Finishing. Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical process
known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually
creating a stone-like material.

a. History of Concrete:
_Discovered by the Romans 3rd Century B.C. : Pozzolana
_1700 John Smeaton: Mortar
_1824 John Aspdin: Portland Cement , first Hydraulic Cement capable of setting
under water.
_Robert Maillart: Swiss engineer: developed three-hinged arch, deck-stifened
arch, Mushroom Slab.

_August Perret: Uses concrete in frame construction.


_Toni Garnier: Uses ferroconcrete.
_Pier Luigi Nervi: Use reinforced concrete in many of his builidings.
_Le Corbusier: Use concrete in many of his buildings.
_Frank Lloyd Right: Also use concrete in many of his buildings.

b. Formwork:
_Boards , ties, bracing required to construct the mold in which wet concrete is
placed.
c. Concrete Reinforcement: Concrete is strong in compression, weak in tension.
_ Reinforcement is required to resist tensile stresses in beams, slabs, and
columns.
_Deformed Bars : Reinforcing Bars (Rebars) diameters: 3/8 to 2 with
increments. Also 1 to 2 .
Bars are deformed to provide mechanical interlock of the two materials.
Rebars come in two common grades: Grade 40 and Grade 60. Grades 50 and 75
are also available. These numbers refer to yield strengths in Kips per square inch.
Rebars are classified as Axle, Rail, Billet (most common).
Minimum Clearances between steel and exposed face of concrete:
1. Surfaces not directly exposed to weather or ground
Slabs and Walls: Beams and Columns: 1
2. Surfaces exposed to weather or in contact with ground:
n. 5 bars and smaller 1 larger than n. 5 Bars: 2
3. Concrete poured directly on ground: 3

_Welded Wire Fabric: Use for temperature reinforcement in slabs. Consist of


cold drawn steel wires , at right angles to each other, welded at intersections.
Square pattern with spacings 4 to 6 inches. System used to designate to welded
wire fabric : size (inches), and gage (cross-sectional area in hundredths of square
inch).
_Accessories: Welded Plates for attachment of steel and other structural
members, Electrical Boxes, Sleeves for pipes, Chairs and Metal Wire Devices to
hold rebars above bottom.

c. Concrete Materials:
_Concrete: Combination of Cement, Fine course aggregates, water mixed in
proper proportions , allowed to cure to form a hard , durable material.
_Admixtures: Impart particular qualities to mix.
_Strength of Concrete: Depends on materials and their proportions.
_Portland Cement: Binding agent in concrete. Made from Lime, Silica, Iron Oxide,
Alumina.
_Cement: Chemically interacts with water to form a past that binds other
aggregates together in a solid mass. Cement is supplied in 94 lbs sack.
d. Cement Types:
_ Type I: Standard Cement, or Normal Cement, used for most general
construction.
_Type II: Modified Cement , used where modest amount of sulfate resistance is
needed and Heat of Hydration needs to be controlled, Dams, massive
construction.
_Type III: High early strength cement, used where quick setting is needed. Has
higher heat of hydration, suitable for cold weather concreting.
_Type IV: Low Heat Cement, very slow setting, minimize cracking.
_Type V: Sulfate-resistant cement, used for alkaline content exposure.

_Water is required hydration (chemical hardening of concrete), to much water


decreases concretes strength.
_For complete hydration, amount of water equal 25 % of concretes weight is
required. An extra 10% to 25% is required to make a workable mix. Water must
be potable.
_Most concrete mixes: minimum water-cement ratio = 0.35 to 0.40 by weight.
_4 gal to 4.5 gal water per 94 lbm sack of cement.
_Water cement ratio is a critical factor in determining the strength of concrete.
_Laitance: Chalky surface deposit of low strength concrete.
_Aggregates: Coarse aggregates (large) Fine aggregates (pass through n 4
sieve). Best concrete mix: combination of aggregate sizes that fill most of volume
with minimum amount of cement. Aggregates occupy about 70% to 75% total
volume of concrete. Aggregates are sand, gravel. Expanded Clays, Slags, Shales
used for lightweight concrete. Pumice or cinders used insulting concrete.
_Standard Concrete Weight: 150 lbm/ft3
_Light weight Concrete: 50 lbm/ft3

_Insulating Concretes: 120 lbm/ft3


_Size of coarse aggregates: determined by size of forms and spacing between
reinforcing. Max. smallest distance between reinforcing bars, Min. 1/5 smallest
dimension of forms, Max. 1/3 depth of slabs.
e. Proportioning:
_Ratio Cement to Sand to Gravel by Weight = 1:2:4 (1 part cement, 2 parts sand,
4 parts Gravel).
_Weight of Materials and Water per 94 lbm bag of cement.
_Weight of Materials needed per one cubic yard of concrete.
_Design Strength: Compressive strength of concrete after curing and hardening
for 28 Days.
_Typical Specified Design Strengths: 2,000 PSI , 3,000 PSI, 4,000 PSI, 12,000 PSI
f. Admixtures: Chemicals or other materials added to Concrete to impart certain
qualities. Admixtures used to speed hydration, retard hardening, improve
workability, add color, improve durability.
_Air- Entraining Agents (form tiny , dispersed bubbles in Concrete): Increase
workability and durability of Concrete. Improve resistance to freezing and
thawing cycles. Reduce segregation of components during placement of
concrete.
_Accelerators: Speed up Hydration of Cement so concrete achieves strength
faster.
_Plasticizers: Reduces amount of water needed in concrete mix. Mix higher
strength Concrete.
_Retarders: Slow down setting Time. Reduce Heat of Hydration.
_Waterproofing: Decrease permeability of concrete.
_Fly Ash : Waste from Coal Power Plants: Used in Concrete to increase strength,
decrease permeability, reduce temperature rise, increase sulfate resistance ,
improve workability.
g. New Concrete Products
_Autoclaved Aerated Concrete: precast concrete manufactured adding
aluminum power to concrete curing in molds, pressurized steam chamber. Have
1/5 density conventional concrete. Requires less material, less construction
waste. Does not have bearing strength of conventional concrete.

_Self-Consolidating Concrete: Concrete mixture Placed purely by means of its


own weight without use of Vibrator. Super plasticizer admixture called
polycarboxylate polymer is added.
_Carbone Fiber Concrete: Uses Epoxy Coated Carbon Fiber Mesh(Tows) in place
of standard steel mesh. Less concrete cover is required.
_Poured Gypsum Decks: Used for roofs . Purlins support fiber plank or rigid
insulation. Wire mesh reinforcing placed over purlins. Gypsum is poured over
assembly to minimum depth of 2 .
_Precast Gypsum Planks with Tongue and Grooved Edges: Available in 2 and 4
thicknesses. Reinforced with fabric and span 10-0.
h. Curing and Testing:
1. Curing Concrete:
_Concrete gains strength by curing through chemical reaction between water
and cement rather then by drying.
_Concrete gains about 70% strength during first week of curing, and final 28
day design strength depends on initial curing conditions.
_Moisture Maintenance Techniques: Plastic Covering, Sealing compounds, Water
Sprinkling.
2. Testing Concrete:
_Slump Test: Measures Consistency of Concrete, usually done on job site. 12
high Truncated Cone. Measures slump after cone is removed.
_ Core Cylinder Test: Used when portion of structure is in place and needs to be
tested. Cylinder drilled out of concrete and tested in Lab in Order to determine
compressive strength.
_Kelly Ball Test: Ball Penetration test- Metal mass with calibrated stem is
dropped on freshly laid concrete slab. Penetration is measured and is equal to
half of values of Slump test.
_Impact Hammer Test: Nondestructive way to test concrete strength after
hardening. Spring loaded plunger snapped against concrete surface, amount of
rebound is measured.
_K-slump test: tube that contains floating scale.
3. Testing Concrete for Moisture Content and Alkalinity:
_Maximum Limit for moisture emissions : 3.0 lbm per 1000 ft2 per 24 hours at 730
and 50% relative humidity.
_Calcium Chloride Test: (moisture cloth test)most common test. Place standard
mass of Calcium Chloride below plastic cover and sealing it to concrete floor.

After 60 to 72 hours Calcium Chloride is weighed to compare it to pre test


weight.
_Hygrometric Test (Relative Humidity Test): determines moisture emission by
measuring relative humidity (RH) of atmosphere confined adjacent to concrete
floor. Pocket of air trapped below vapor-impermeable box, probe in device
measures the RH. RH 75% or less.
_Polyethelene Sheet Test: Quantitative Test conducted by sealing 18x 18 sheet
of plastic to floor to trap excessive moisture.
_Mat Test: 24x 24 sample of Vapor-Retardant floor finish.
_Electrical Impedance Test: Uses property meters determine moisture content of
concrete by measuring conductance and capacitance.
_PH Level: Measure of Acidity or Alkalinity of material rated from 0 to 7 being
Neutral. Materials with PH< 7 are considered Acidic. Materials with PF>7 are
considered Line. Concrete has normally PH 12.0 to 13.3 . Alkaline existing only in
presence of moisture. High alkaline a surface of concrete slab can cause tile
damage (adhesive). 9 to 10 PH level most tile adhesives begin to have problems.
_Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR): Process Strongly Alkaline Cement begins to dissolve
sand and rock within concrete.
_PH Test: Test Surface of Concrete in contact with flooring adhesives . PH meter
determines PH level of slab and is confronted with max. PH recommend by
Flooring Manufacturer. PH 8.5 to 9.0 is considered acceptable.
_Titration Test: Determines level of alkalinity in concrete.
i. Placing and Finising:
_ Concrete Placement:
1) Convey Concrete to Formwork:
_Bottom Pump-Buckets
_Pumping
_Small Buggies and Wheel Barrows
_Tremie, for under water concrete placement
_Avoid Segregation or separation of aggregates: Max height of concrete drop
is 5 ft.
_After placement,compaction of concrete. To prevent Honeycombing (air
pockets within concrete and next to forms). Use vibrators.
_As Cast Finish: Leave Concrete as is when forms are removed.
_Smooth Form Finish: Smooth form soft wood , metal, hardboard are used.
_Architectural Finishes: Where concrete is exposed and appearance is important.

10

I.
II.
III.
IV.

Form Liner: Concrete shaped with liners of plastic, wood, metal. Parallel
rib liners very common.
Scrubbed: Surface of Concrete wetted and scrubbed with wire or fiber
brush remove some surface mortar and expose coarse aggregate.
Acid Wash: Surface of Concrete wetted with muriatic acid to expose and
bring out full color of aggregate.
Water Jet: A high-pressure Water Jet mixed with air used to remove
some mortar and expose aggregate.

j. Tooled and Sand Blasted Finishes: Mechanically modifying the concrete


surface.
I. Bush Hammering: Gives rugged, heavy texture by removing portion of surface
made with form liners.
II. Grinding : Smoothes out surface of concrete with a terrazzo like appearance.
III. Applied: Application of other materials , such as stucco, to concrete.
IV. Sandblasted Finish: Removal Surface Material from Concrete.
k. Rubbed Finishes:
I. Smooth: Surface of Concrete wetted and rubbed with carborundum brick to
produce smooth, uniform color and texture.
II. Grout Cleaned: Grout applied over concrete and smooth out.
l. Concrete Slab Finishes:
I. Strike off Concrete: After concrete slab is poured, draw straightedge (metal or
wood) across forms to give roughly level surface.
II. Floating: Bring cement paste to surface where it is consolidated and smoothed
over coarse aggregate.
II. Bullfloat: Wider and attached to long handle allowing finishers to smooth
large concrete surfaces while sanding away from fresh concrete.
III. Float Finish: Sandpaper like texture appropriate for exterior surfaces.
IV. Light Steel Troweled Finish: Use steel trowel several hours after floating.
V. Hard Steel Trowel Finish: Densifies top 1/8 of concrete, making a very
smooth surface.
VI. Broom Finish: Run Industrial Broom with medium bristles over surface of
concrete. Used in slip resistant outdoor slabs.
V. Superflat Floor Finish: Hard steel trowel finish, with smoothness and levelness
of concrete slab. Used in Industrial Warehouses.

11

m. Joints and Accessories:


I. Control Joints: Weak Section so normal temperature and stress cracking occurs
along joint instead of random. Formed by tooling, Sawcutting, premolded
sections in formwork. Cut depth slab thickness.
II. construction Joints: Occur wherever there are two successive pours. To be
located at points of minimum shear. Insert prefabricated water stop.
III. Expansion Joints: Allow entire sections of concrete structure to move
independently of one another.
IV. Isolation Joints: Allow two adjacent sections to move independently of one
another, not as complex as Expansion Joints. Simply two separate pours of
concrete separated with pre molded joint material.
V. Concrete Inserts: Wide range of anchoring devices used to attach other
materials and components to concrete construction.
VI. Concrete Sealers: Proprietary products applied to concrete to protect against
weather and water penetration, provide resistance to chemicals, prevent dusting
of surfaces, hardening of surfaces.
_Coating Type Sealer: Dry as surface film. Acrylics, Urethanes, Epoxies.
_Penetrating Type Sealers: Seep tiny pores. Silicones, Silanes, Siloxanes.
n. Precast Concrete:
_Components cast in separate forms in a place other than their final position.
_Pre Cast Beams: Rectangular, T-shaped, L-shaped. Single T-shaped, Double Tshaped.
_Pre Cast Columns: Usually Rectangular, cast with welding plates top and
bottom.
_Pre Cast Floor and Roof Panels: Solid, for light loads and short spans. Hollow,
Cored Slabs, for heavier loads and longer spans.
_Cored Slabs: 6 to 12 thick, 4-0 wide, up to 36-0 Span.
_Lift Slab Construction: Multistory Construction: Entire Floor Sections are cast on
ground, one on top of another around pre-erected columns. Once cured , slabs
erected into place with jacks attached to columns. Slabs connected to columns
with weld plates.
_Wall Panels: Minimize n. of Panels and Openings. 2 to 8 thick, long enough to
span columns or beams. In multistory buildings panels to span two floors.
_Tilt-Up Construction: Panels cast in horizontal position near final location and
lifted into place when sufficiently cured.

12

o. Precast, Pre stressed Concrete:


_Members that have internal stresses applied to them before subjected to service
loads. Pre stressing consists of compressive forces applied where member would
normally be in tension. Reduces cracking and deflection, increases shear strength,
allows longer spans and greater loads.
_Pre tensioning: Concrete members produced in pre casting plant. Pre tensioning
stranded cable or wire is draped in forms and tensile force is applied. Concrete is
then poured. Once concrete is cured , cables are cut. Tensile force between cable
and concrete.
_Post-tensioning: Hollow sleeves or Conduits placed in forms on site , and
concrete is poured around them. Within sleeves, high strength steel tendons,
stressed with hydraulic jacks after concrete has cured. Once desired stress is
applied at ends of cables are secured to concrete , jacks are removed.
3. MASONRY
_Masonry : Assembly of relatively small units of Stone, Burned Clay, Other
Manufactured Material, held in place with mortar. Traditionally supports loads in
compression.
_Mortar: cementitious material used to hold masonry together. Mixture of
cement, lime, sand , water. Lime is Plasticizer for cement , for workability,
resilience, increase water retention.
_Masonry Cement: Mixture of Portland Cement, Pulverized s. Suitable for
interiors and low rise nonbearing veneer brick applications.
_Types of Mortar: M,S,N,O. Each has different portion of cement, lime,
aggregate with different compressive strength. Job should never use mortar
stronger in compression than required.
_Grout: Similar to Grout, mixed to a pouring consistency , used to fill cavities or
core of hollow masonry units, to bond masonry to reinforcement.
_Coarse Grout: N. 4 aggregate (pea gravel).
_Fine Grout: Used when dimensions of space where grout is placed is less than
2.
_Brick: Block of Ceramic material used in Masonry Construction, laid using
mortar .
_ Types of Bricks: Relatively small masonry unit made from burned clay, shale,
mixture of these materials, not less than 75% solid.
_Building Bricks: Structural
_Facing Bricks: For Exposed Locations

13

_Building Brick Grades: SW severe weathering, MW moderate weathering, NW


negligible weathering. FBS wide range of colors and sizes. FBX high mechanical
perfection, narrow color range, FBA non uniform range, size and texture.
_Hollow Bricks: HBS for general use with wide range of colors and sizes. HBX
high degree mechanical perfection, narrow color range, minimum variation in
size. HBA: non uniform in color, size, texture.
_Common Size: 35/8 Thick, 2 High, 75/8 in long. Mortar Joint 3/8.
_Metric Bricks: 90 mm wide , 190 mm long, 10 mm mortar joints.
_Brick Coursing: laid in variety of patterns depending on which is oriented to
outside and what position it is in.
_Course = One continuous total layer of masonry.
_Three Course 8 = Concrete Block course
_Brick Coursing : Laying several courses = Bonding Pattern. Brick wall stronger if
joints do not align and bricks overlap.
_Width: Continuous Vertical section of wall one masonry unit in thickness.
_Brick Joints: Critical part of any Masonry wall. Mortar in Joints holds entire wall
together, prevents infiltration of water and air. Bricks to be set on Mortar on Bed
Joint and Head Joint.
_Tooling: After Brick is Laid, joints must be tooled. Tooling imparts decorative
effect to wall, and makes joint more watertight. Most watertight joints are
_Concave, Flush, Vee. Horizontal and Vertical Joints accommodate building
movement caused by differential movement between materials and by
temperature changes.
_Construction Joints: Isolate through Wall elements such as doors and windows.
_Control Joints : Accommodate thermal contraction and expansion.
_Vertical Control Joints: Separate two sections of masonry by 3/8 to and
filling joint with backing covered with sealant (neoprene gasket).
_Expansion Joints: Used to completely separate two sections of a building.
Accommodate expansion from swelling of Brick .
_Major Expansion Joints: Usually spaced every 100 ft to 150 ft in Large
Buildings.
_Expansion and Control Joints: Space every 20 ft at places where wall changes
direction, height, or thickness.

14

15

_Brick Construction:
_Single-Width Wall: One layer of Brick loadbearing or nonloadbearing wall. For
solid unreinforced wall, max. ratio of unsupported height or length thickness
cannot exceed 20:1 for solid wall, and 18:1 for hollow masonry wall.
_Cavity wall: Two widths of Brick separated by air space.Two sections must be
tied together by galvanized metal ties placed at 16 o.c. vertically.
_Reinforced Grouted Wall : (2) Widths of Brick, with cavity containing vertical
and horizontal reinforcing bars, completely filled with grout. Carry heavier loads,
have higher unsupported heights, better able to resist lateral loads.
_Veneer Walls: Single width of brick attached to other construction .For
decorative and waterproofing purposes.
_Watertightness: Brick and Mortar must be properly selected climate conditions
and loading.
_Brick Joints: Tooled correctly to shed water and prevent expansion.
_Control Joints: To be located correctly to allow wall to move without opening up
cracks.
_Flashing: To prevent water from penetrating, and to allow water that entered
to flow out.
_Top of Walls and Parapets: To be flashed and capped with coping, extended
beyond face of wall. Include drips to allow water to drain off. Slope of Coping is
called Wash.
_Base Flashing: Installed at bottom of exterior width, extended up 8 to 10 and
set in masonry joint in interior width.
_Weep Holes: Locate 24o.c. horizontally, in lowest course of brick, to allow
water to drip out.
_Openings: 1) steel lintels. 2) Arch , traditional method. 3) Reinforced Concrete
beam. 4) Fully grouted and reinforced concrete unit masonry bond beam.
_Arch actions over Openings: Lintel only carries weight of wall above opening in
triangular area defined by 600 Angle from each side of opening.
_Efflorescence : White , Crystalline deposit of water-soluble salts on surface of
brick masonry. Usually not harmful to brick. To avoid efflorescence, form tight
joints, detail wall to prevent water penetration. Remove efflorescence by dry
brushing, wash with 5% solution muriatic acid.
_Cleaning and Restoration: At completion of job, brick should be cleaned with
mild 5% to 10% solution of muriatic acid in water and then washed off with clean
water.

16

_Brick Restoration: Replace damaged units with new bricks that possibly match
existing. Mortar can be replaced with Tuck Pointing or Repointing process.
1)Remove existing mortar 2 times depth of Joint. 2) Clean joint withwetted
Water. 3) Press new mortar into joint with Tuck Pointing Tool.
_Brick Cleaning:
1) Hi-pressure Water Washing
2) Brush scrubbing
3) Acid Solutions
4) Abrasive Cleaning: Sand Blast.

4. Other Unit Masonry: Building products assembled with mortar. Block, Clay Tiles,
Ceramic Veneer, Stone , Terra Cotta, Gypsum Block, Glass Block.
a. Concrete Block: Concrete Masonry Unit CMU. Manufactured with Cement ,
Water, Aggregates, Expanded Slate, Shale, Pumice, Limestone Cinders.
b. CMU classified as : Hollow-Load Bearing, Solid Load-Bearing, HollowNonloadbearing, Solid Nonloadbearing. Solid Units: cross section >75% solid.
Hollow Units: cross section < 75% hollow.
c. CMU dimensions: Width x Height x Length nominal Dimensions. Actual
Dimensions 3/8 less than actual dimensions.
d. Concrete Block Walls: Single or Double wythe. Cores allow walls to be
reinforced and grouted if additional strength is required for vertical or lateral
load bearing. Horizontal Reinforcement is required every 16 o.c.
e. Equivalent Thickness: Solid thickness obtained if same amount of concrete
contained in hollow unit cast without core holes.
_Equivalent thickness of 8 thick concrete wall that is 60% solid:
7 5/8(7.64)x(0.6) = 4.58
f. Fire Rating: Value and type Manufacturing Materials. Building Code gives
required equivalent thicknesses various
g. Concrete Block and Brick wall Detailing: Important to prevent cracking,
leaking, structural instability. Expansion Joints and Control joints to be provided.
Horizontal joint reinforcing should be installed. Connection of other materials to
Masonry to be well detailed in order to maintain water tightness.
_Height of Parapet max. = (3) nominal thickness of wall.

17

_Metal Coping: Keeps water out of wall. Sloped towards roof minimize amount of
water dripping on side of building.
5. Structural Clay Tile: From Burned Clay. Formed into hollow units with Parallel
Cells. Available in Bearing and Non-Bearing.
_Glazed Structural Clay Facing Tile: Finish consisting of ceramic glaze fused to
body above 15000.
_Grades of Glazed Structural Tile: S Grade: (select) Used with narrow mortar
joints. SS Grade: (select sized) for small face dimension variations. Structural Clay
Tile types: Side Construction and End Construction.
6. Terra Cotta: High-Fired Clay Unit for Cladding and Decorative purpose. Made
from enriched clay materials and fired at high temperature. Used in Historic
Preservation.
_Bisque: Base Unit without Glaze.
_Manufacturing: Machine Extrusion, Molding, Hand Carving for ornate work.
_Max weight by Code: 15 lb/sqft
_Anchored Terracotta: Attached with (8 Gage Wire) and Full Grout Backing.
Anchors at least 1 Thick.
7. Gypsum Block: Or Tile , Solid or Cored units cast of gypsum plaster , used for non
load bearing partitions, or for fire protection of structural elements. Thicknesses :
1 to 6. Standard Dimensions 12 High 30 Long.
8. Glass Block: Solid, Hollow Unit, Clear, Textured or Patterned Face. Inside Block,
under partial vacuum improving thermal insulation properties of material.
_Generally used for interiors and also for flooring. Very low fire rating. UL rates
60 to 90 minute in openings 100 sqft. if no dimension is greater that 10 ft.
_Glass Block manufactured in nominal thickness 4 and faces sizes: 6x6, 8x8,
12x12, 4x8. Standard thicknesses: 3 1/8and 3 7/8. Thinner blocks used for interior
partitions.
_Glass Blocks available in clear, textured, patterned faces. Special blocks for 900
angles, end caps, curves.
_Laid in Stacks with joints aligned with type S or N mortar and Horizontal or N
mortar and horizontal and Vertical reinforcement in Joints.
_Intermediate Stiffeners: required when glass block partitions exceed maximum
size allowed by code.
_Glass Blocks are not load bearing: Exterior panels limited to 144 sqft, 15 ft in
each direction. Interior partitons limited to 250 sqft, 25 ft in each direction.

18

9. Cast Stone: Precast concrete building product, made to late natural stone.
Mixture Portland cement, light aggregates. Used to substitute for Stone, and
architectural elements.
10. Stone: Construction Material made from naturally occurring rock .(Small quarried
pieces of rock).
_Rock: Solid and unconsolidated material in earths crust.
_Rock Classification:
a) Igneous Rock: Formed from solidification of molten rock. Granite is a type of
Igneous Rock.
b) Sedimentary Rock: Consolidated products of Rock Disintegration, sea shells,
clays, silts.
c) Metamorphic Rock: Igneous or Sedimentary altered pressure or intrusion of
molten rock or other liquids over a long period of time. Marble, Slate.
_Types of Stone Construction: Thin Slabs for interior and Exterior Finishes,
Flooring, Counter tops, Stair Treads, Trim Pieces.
_Common Stones used in Construction:
a) Granite
b) Marble
c) Limestone
d) Slate
e) Sandstone
_Stone Coursing: Classified by the way it is shaped.
a) Rubble: Little or no shaping.
b) Squared Stone: Slightly Shaped Edges
c) Ashlar: Highly shaped Stone.
d) Range masonry: arranges stones in uniform courses for the entire length of
the wall.
e) Broken Range Masonry: Stone coursed at for short distances.
f) Random Masonry: Devoid of Coursing.
g) Veneer Stone: Thin sheets to 1 thick . placed over structural support
system.
_Stone Construction:
a) Dimension Stone: steps, trim, coping, belt course
b) Anchorage of stone veneer to backup wall.
c) Common Methods of Anchoring and Forming Corner Joints. Space between
back of stone and structural wall is filled with plaster of Paris. Joints of stone to
by filled with non staining Portland cement mortar.

19

11. METALS
11.1 Metals : Most Versatile of all Construction Materials.
11.2. History of Metals:
_3000 AD: C opper produced by melting ores.
_1000 BC: Bronze Age (Copper +Tin)
_1200 BC: Discovery of Iron Smelting.
_1300 : Cast Iron was available in Europe
_1463: Filippo Brunelleschi: Used Iron chains to prevent Cathedral of
Florence from Spreading.
_1585: Michelangelo Buonarroti , same purpose for Saint Peters
Church in Rome.
_1664: Cast Pipes used to supply water
_1709: Abraham Darby introduced use of Coke for smelting metal.
_1876: Iron used for roof structures in France. Substitute Coke with
Charcoal , eliminating impurities made Iron stonger and higher in
Quality.
_1779: Abraham Darby III made first major use of cast Iron Structural
Elements for bridge over Severn River, in Coalbrookdale, England.
_1800: Cast Iron Columns used in interior spaces.
_1800-1850: Notable Buildings
_1818: Royal Pavilion at Brighton by John Nash
_1833: Greenhouse of the Botanical Gardens in Paris by Rouhault.
_1843: Library of Saint Genevieve in Paris by Henri Lebrouste.
_1848: James Bogardus constructed a five-story factory in New York
_1851: Crystal Palace in London by Joseph Paxton. Huge building
constructed with prefabricated Parts and Plate Glass.
_1856: Henry Bessemer developed the Bessemer Process for making
steel inexpessively.
_1868: Open Hearth Process short time of production, allowing scrap
Iron to be used in lager quatities.
_1889: Eiffel Tower in Paris by Gustave Eiffel.
_1850-1885: Cast Iron Age in USA.

20

_1885 William Le Baron Jenny: Ten Story Home Insurance Building in


Chicago. Use of Cast Iron Columns in Interior and Exterior. Use of
Bessemer Steel Girder.
_Leiter Building in Chicago: Eight Store Structure with Steel Skeleton:
Chicago Costruction.
_1919 Mies Van De Rohe: First Architect to make steel material and
its structural purpose part of the form of the building.
_1939: Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago.
_1951: 860 Lake Shore Drive Apartments.
11.3. Basic Materials and Process:
_Smelting: Process of refining ores to extract pure metal.
_Metals for Construction: Combined with other elements to form
alloys.
11.4. Fabricating Metals:
_Fabrication: Process forming and shaping refined metal into desired
conditions.
_Casting: Molten Metal poured into forms, allowed to cool and
harden into desired shapes.
_Rolling: Process passing metal through Rollers to produce needed
shape. Hot rolling eliminates flaws in metal. Cold rolling increases
metals strength and elastic limit, decreases its ductility.
_Extruding: Pushes Metal through Die to form a shape.Aluminum
sections are formed this way.
_Drawing: Similar to Extruding. Metal pushed through die. Reduces
size of piece or cuts its shape, improves strength and surface ties of
metal.
_Bending: Changes shape of tubes and extruded shapes by passing
through rolling machines and presses.
_Brake Forming: Plates and sheet of Metal and makes one
directional bends to fabricate shape.
_Metal Spinning: Disc or tube metal rotated at high speed and
formed into axially symmetrical parts.

21

_Embossing: Makes patterns on sheet metal by passing them


through machine with embossing pattern on rollers.
_Annealing: metal reheated, and slowly cooled obtaining more
ductile metal, increasing workability of metal.
_Quenching: Heat Metal to certain temperature, then cool rapidly by
submersion in water, or other liquid. Steel results strengthen.
_Tempering: Heat Metal to certain temperature. Non rapid cooling.
_Case Hardening: Infusing Elements into materials surface, forming
thin layer of Harder Alloy.
11.5. Finishing Metals:
_Mechanical Finishes: Alteration of surface of Metal in some way.
Grinding, Buffing.
_Chemical Finish: Alteration of surface of Metal with Chemical
Process. Anodizing Alluminum.
_Coating: Applied materials for protection or decorative.
11.6. Joining Metals:
_Mechanical: Use Accessories such as Screws, Bolts, Clips.
_Welding: Joining two Metals by heating them above melting point.
When cooled, Metals physically form one piece.
_Brazing: Joining of two Metals using nonferrous filler metal with
melting point above 8000, but lower than welding. Used for joining
Brass, Bronze, some Alluminums. Results in Clean Joint.
_Soldering: Joining of Two Metals with Lead based or Tin-based
solder metal that melts at 5000 F.
_Adhesives: Non bearing elements
11.7. Properties of Metals:
_Gage Sizing: Sheet Steel, Non Ferrous metals or Tubing, Strips and
Sheets. Gage, rough approximation of metals thickness.

22

_Galvanic Action: Corrosion of Dissimilar Metals with each other in


presence of electrolyte. Electrolysis, mild current set between two
Metals, gradually corroding one while other remains intact.
_Galvanic Series: Farther apart metals are from each other, greater
the corrosion:
zinc
galvanized steel
aluminum
steel and iron
stainless steel
lead tin
copper alloys (brass, bronze)
copper

To avoid Galvanic Action a) Use Identical Metals, when in contact b)


Separate Metals with nonconducting materials c) Use Metals close to
each other on Galvanic Series.
_Coefficients of Expansion:
_Thickness of Large Steel Members: Expressed in Fractions or
Decimals of an Inch.
11.8. Ferrous Metals:
_Ferrous Metals : Contains substantial amount of Iron, and some
carbon. Amount of Carbon and other elements determines strength
and ductility and other properties of Ferrous Metals.
_Non Ferrous Metals: Does not
_Wrought Iron: Iron with very low carbon content(<0.03%) and
substantial amount of slag. It is Soft, Ductile, Resistant to Corrosion.
Used for ornamental Iron Work.
_Cast Iron: Carbon Content above 2%. Very Hard and Brittle. Used for
Columns and Beams.
_White Cast Iron: Low Silicon Content. Not for Construction
_Grey Cast Iron: High Silicon Content. Used for casting pipes, valves,
hardware.

23

_Steel: Most widely used metals because of its high strength,


ductility, uniformity of manufacture, variety of shapes and sizes, ease
and speed of erection.
a) Ductility: Property allows steel to withstand excessive
deformations due to high tensile stresses without failure. Steel is
carefully manufactured, and uniformly predicted. Non need to
oversize to compensate manufacturing or erection variables. Must be
protected from Fire and Corrosion.
b.) Steel: Composed primarily of Iron, small amount of carbon.
c.) Low Carbon Steel: (0.06% to 0.30%) carbon
d.) Medium Carbon Steel: Manganese (0.3% to 0.5%), Silicon (0.25%
to 0.75%), Phosphorus, Sulfur.
e) High Carbon Steel: (0.50% to 0.80%)
f) Standard Structural Steel: (0.2 % to 0.5%) Carbon.
g) ASTM A36: Steel Manufactured according to American Society for
Testing and Materials, Specification Number A36. Yield Point for this
steel is 36 ksi.
h) Stainless Steel: Steel Alloy containing minimum 11% Chromium.
Nickel is added to increase corrosion resistance, and workability.
Highly corrosive resistant and stronger than any other architectural
metal.
i) American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI): Classification of stainless
steel for construction:
1) Type 302: 18% Chromium, 8% Nickel. Most used in
construction.
2) Type 304: Replaced Type 302 because more
weldable.
3) Type 301: Slightly smaller amounts of chromium and
Nickel.
4) Type 316: Higher percentage of Nickel and contains
Molybdenom.
5) Type 430: No Nickel. Less corrosion resistant. Used for
Interior applications.

24

j) Polish Finishes for Architectural Work:


1) No 3 Finish: Intermediate, Dull Finish
2) No 4 Finish: Most commonly used. General-purpose
dull finish, prevents mirror reflection.
3) No 6 Finish: Dull satin Finish.
4) No 7 Finish: Highly Reflective Polish Finish.
5) No 8 Finish: Most reflective. Used for mirrors and
reflectors.
k) Color Coatings:
1) Organic Coatings: Acrylic, Plastic-based Enamels.
2) Inorganic Coatings: Porcelain Enamels.
l) Other Steel Alloys:
1) ASTM A36: Most Common Structural Steel. Minimum
Yield Point 36,000 lbm/in2 . Carbon Content 0.25% to 0.29%.
2) ASTM A44: High strength, low alloy manganese
vanadium steel for welding construction.
3) Weathering Steel: Alloy with copper.
11.9 Nonferrous Metals: Contain no Iron
a) Aluminum: From Bauxite , which is hydrate oxide of aluminum and
Iron and small amounts of silicon. Used for structure, wall panels,
curtain walls, window and door frames. Formed by Casting, Drawing,
Rolling, Extruding.
_Mechanical Finishes:
1.) Buffed Finishes: Smooth Specular and Specular
2.) Directional Textured Finishes : Fine Satin, Medium Satin, Coarse
Satin, Hand Rubbed, Brushed.
3.) Non directional Textured Finishes: Extra-Fine Matte, Fine Matte,
Medium Matte, Fine Shot Blast, Medium Shot Blast, Shot Course
Blast.
4.) Patterned Finishes: Rolled.
_ Chemical Finishes: Intermediate Process for some other final
finishing.

25

_Coating Finishes: Anodizing Process (deposit anodic coating).


Impregnated Color Coatings (Baked Enamel, Vitreous Coatings,
Powder Coatings,Laminated Coatings).
_Joints: Screwing, Bolting, Welding, Brazing, Soldering, Adhesive
Bonding, Welding, Brazing, Soldering.
_Primary Disadvantage of Aluminum: Amount of energy required for
refining and manufacturing.
B.) Copper and Copper Alloys:
_Copper: Widely used in construction because of its resistance to
corrosion, workability, high electrical conductivity.
_Bronze: Alloy of Copper and Tin.
_Brass: Alloy od Copper and Zinc.
_Copper Development Association
_Unified Numbering System
_Copper and Alloys: Used in Construction for Hardware, Curtain
Walls, Piping, Gutters, Roofing, Window and Door Frames, Wall
Panels, Railings.
_Copper and Copper Alloys : Are formed by Casting, Rolling, Bending,
Brake Forming, Extrusion, Spinning. Joined by Mechanical Fasteners,
Brazing, Adhesive Bonding.
_Finishes:
a) Mechanical Finishes: Buffed, Directional Textured, Non Directional
Textured, Patterned.
b) Chemical Finish: Intermediate Step in total finishing process.
c) Coatings: Clear Organic Coatings, Metallics, Oils and waxes.

C.) Monel metal: Copper and Nickel Alloy.


D.) Zinc: Sheet Roofing, Flashing. Resistant to corrosion.

26

E.) Lead: Resistant to Corrosion. Very Heavy, used for Acoustical


Insulation, Vibration Control, Radiation Sheilding.
_ Terneplate: Alloy 75% Lead and 25% Tin.

11.10 Structural Metals: Steel, Alluminum


_Structural Steel: Beams, Columns , Plates, Studs.
_Wide Flange Members: H-shaped sections , width flange wider than
standard I-Beams.
_Wide Flange Sections: W18x 85 = Wide Flange Nominal Section 18
Deep weighing 85 lbm/ft.
_American Standard I-Beam: Narrow Flange Width. Inside Faces of
Flange slope 1/16. S18x85
_American Standard Channel Sections: Flange on One side of Web
only. C18x85. Used for Frame Openings, Stringers.
_Structural Tees: Half I-beam. WT18x85
_Steel Angles: L18x85. Available with equal or unequal legs.
_Square and Rectangular Tube Sections-Round Pipes:
_Steel Bars: Rectangular Section 6to 8.
_Plates: 6 wide
_Open web Joists: Standardized , Shop Fabricated Trusses
a) K-series :Depth increase 2
b) LH-Series : Depth increases 4
c) DLH-Series
e) Standard Designation: Depth, Series Designation, Chord Used.
36LH13 = 36 Inch Deep LH-Series Number 13 Chord Type.
f) Advantages: Medium to Long Span Distances, Light weight, Easy to
erect, Run though Joist Ductwork.

_Metal Decking: Steel or Aluminum. Formed Panels, laid over steel


beams, to serve as formwork for poured concrete slabs.

27

_Light Gage Metal Framing: Steel Members with thicknesses from 10


gage to 25 gage. Used for interior partitions, Exterior Bearing and
nonbearing walls, joists, rafters. Light framing shapes are suitable for
lighter loads and easier handling. Non combustible,easy to cut.
Framing for interior use: 20 Gage to 25 Gage. Stud depths: 1 5/8
Stud Widths: 3 5/8 , 4, 6. Joists depths: 6 to 14 , 10 to 20 gage
thick. Span up to 40. Erected with screws, bolts, welds, depending on
thickness.
_Metal fabrications: Spiral Stairs, Expansion Joints, Gratings,
Ladders.
_Spiral Stairs: Closed Circular Form with wedgeshaped treads from
central, minimum diameter column. 300 Treads most common. Riser
height 7 to 9 .
_Expansion Joints: Fabrications that allow for major movement
between independent structural units of the building. They separate
two sections of building completely and continuously, from
foundation through floors, walls, and roof.
_Miscellaneous Metal Fabrications: Gratings, Steel Ladder, Service
Areas, Stair Treads, Pipe Handrails, Guardrails, Sheet Metal
Enclosures, Prefabricated Utility Stairs, Protective Steel Bollards,
Bumpers, Corner Guards.
_Ornamental Metals: For Handrails, Guardrails, Elevator Interiors.
Stainless Steel, Copper Alloys, Bronze and Brass, Aluminum, Carbon
Steel, Copper, Iron, Porcelain Enamel.
_Detailing Stainless Steel: Combination Bar, Plate, Tubing, Sheet
Stock. Stainless Steel can be joined by Welding, Mechanical
Fasteners, Adhesives.
_Detailing Brass and Bronze: Basic Shapes used to fabricated custom
assemblies . Minimum 10 Gage used for unsupported areas. Bronze
and Brass joined with mechanical, adhesives, brazing or soldering.

28

_Perforated Metal: Sheet Metal punched with regular pattern of


holes. Interior Applications: Space Dividers, Railing Guards, Shelving,
Furniture, Grills, Acoustical Panel Coverings, Custom Light Fixtures.
_Architectural Mesh: Formed by weaving metal strips or wiring,
grinding off portion of one face to reveal highly textured but flat
surface.
12. STRUCTURAL AND ROUGH CARPENTRY
_Rough Carpentry: Structural Framing , Sheathing , Blocking, all
hidden.
_Finish Carpentry: Exposed lumber, necessary to complete a job.
Window and Door Trim, Base, Wood Paneling, Cabinets, Shelving.
_Wood: Fibrous Substance forming trunk, stems, branches of trees.
_Lumber: Product of preparing lumber to be used as construction
members.
_Timber: Lumber with min. 5 sectional dimension.
12.1 Characteristics of Lumber:
_Advantages: Versatile, Plentifull , Low Cost, Easy to Shape and
Assemble, Good Thermal Insulation Qualities, Aesthetically Pleasant.
_Disadvantages: Lacks uniform appearance and strength of
manufactured materials.
12.2 Types and Species:
_Softwood: Coniferous Tree, Evergreen Trees. Hold foliage in Winter.
Used fro strucrtural and rough carpentry.
_Hardwood: Deciduous Tree. Loose foliage in Winter.
_Finish Carpentry and Architectural Wood Work: Use both
_Strength: Dependent on direction of load relative to direction of
woods grain. Strongest when load parallel to direction of grain.
_Wood weakest: when horizontal shear force is induced.
12.3 Defects:
_ Natural Defects
_Artificial Defects

29

_ Knots: Branch or Limb embedded in tree , cut through in process of


lumber manufacturing. Classified according to quality, size,
occurrence.
_Check: Separation Wood Fibers across or through annual growth
rings. Due to improper seasoning.
_Pitch Pocket: Open area between growth rings that contain resin.
_Shake: Lengthwise separation of wood that occurs between or
through annual growth rings.
_Split: Similar to check. Separation extends completely through
lumber.
_Wane: Presence of Bark. Absence of wood on edge or corner of
piece of lumber.
_Warping: Manufacturing Defect. Variation of size due to shrinking.
_Bow : Deviation parallel to length of lumber, in line with lumbers
flat side.
_Crook: Deviation parallel to length of lumber, perpendicular to flat
side of piece.
_Cup: Deviation from true plane along width of board.
12.4 Grading
_Structural Lumber: Amount of Stress grade of lumber of specific
specie can carry.
_Finish Lumber: Appearance of wood. How it accepts paints, stains ,
finishes.
_Load Bearing Ability: Affected by Size, number of knots, splits, other
defects.
_Grading: Rules established by the American Lumber Standards
Committee.
12.5 Softwood Lumber:
_Lumber: Used for Structural Purposes and Rough Carpentry.
_Factory and Shop Lumber: Windows, Frames, Finish Items.
_Dimensional Lumber and Timber:
1. 2to 4 Thick, 2 to 4 Wide. 2x2

30

2. 2 to 4 thick, 4 Wide. 2x4


3. 2 to 4 thick, 5 wide and wider.
4. Beams and Stringers: Members 5 Wide and Wider. Depth 2
greater than width.
5. Posts and Timbers: Members 5x5 Wide and Larger. Depth not
more than 2 greater than width.
6. Machine-Stress-Rated-Lumber: Based on Grade Designations
dependent on Allowable Bending Stress and Modulus of Elasticity of
Wood.
7.Factory and Shop Lumber for Boards: Graded according to defects
that affect appearance and use of wood.
a. Select Grade: 1. B&Better ( no Knots), 2. C Select, D Select
b. Common Grade: n0 1(best), n0 2, n0 3, n0 4, n0 5,
8. Lumber: Ordered and priced by Board Foot. Board Foot= Lumber
12 long x 12 wide x 1 thick.
Lumber Nominal Size
1x2
1x4
1x6
1x8
2x2
2x4
2x6
2x8
2x10
2x12
4x4
4x6
4x8
4x10
4x12

Lumber Actual Size


x 1
x 3
x 5
x 7
1 x 1
1 x 3
1 x 5
1 x 7
1 x 10
1 x 11
3 x 3
3 x 5
3 x 7
3 x 9
3 x 11

31

4x14
6x6
6x8
6x10

3 x 13
5 x 5
5 x 7
5 x 9

12.6 Moisture Content: Weight of Water in Wood = Fraction of


Weight of Oven Dry Wood. Affects Shrinkage, Weight, Strength of
Lumber, withdrawal resistance of Nails. When wood is completely
Saturated with water but non water exists in the cell cavities, wood
reached its Fiber Saturation Point. 30% moisture content in all
woods. Above this point, wood dimensionally stable. Below this point,
wood shrinks.
_Dry Lumber:
Max. 19% Moisture content.
_Klyn Dry Lumber : Max. 15% Moisture content
_Wood : Shrinks mostly in direction perpendicular to grain (in
direction of annual growing rings) and half as much across rings.
Total shrinkage may result in Sagging of Floors, Cracked Plaster
Distortion Door Openings, Nail Pops in GWB.

13. Wood Framing: Assembly of Lumber and Timber components to


construct a building. Limited to small or moderate size builidngs.
13.1 Light Frame Construction: Small closely spaced members for walls
and partitions and nominal 2 thick members for floor and roof joists.
_Platform Framing: Separate Studs for each floor of building, with top
plates, floor joists, floor framing of second level being constructed before
second-floor wall studs are erected.
_Balloon Framing: Continuous wall studs from foundation and floor to
ceiling. Minimum Shrinkage of components.

32

13.2 Frame Openings: For Doors , Windows, Stairs. Frame openings


must be capable of transferring loads from one cut member to other
members.
13.3 Plywood: Sheets of thin veneer glued together to form rigid panel.
Standard 4x8 ft. sheets in thicknesses 1/4 , 3/8, 1/2, 5/8 , 3/4",
_Grading:
a. Span Rating: Measure of sap and stiffness of plywood parallel to face
grain. 32/24 = Max.spacing in inches Roof Support / Max. spacing for
Floor Support. Spacing allowed if face grain perpendicular to direction of
supports, and panels continuous over three supports.
b. Species of Wood:
_Structural I: Plywood made from woods group I.
_Structural II: Plywood made from woods in groups 1,2,3.
_N Grade: Natural Finish, made from all heartwood or all sapwood. Free
from defects, but only available on special order.
_B Grade: Allows for plugged knotholes, but has a smooth surface.
_C Grade: Allows small knot holes and some splits, and
_D Grade: Allows larger knot holes.
_Patterned Panels: For exterior finish siding.
_Marine Panels: Special glues, overlaid plywood with surface of resin
impregnated paper, providing smooth surface.

13.4 Sheathing and Miscellaneous Framing Members:


1. Sheathing: Thin Panel Material attached to Framing to provide Lateral
Support, increase rigidity, provide base applying exterior finishes. For

33

structural purpose, sheathing must consist of plywood, particle board


nailed to wood studs or joists.
2. Particleboard: Composed of small wood particles, fibers or chips, of
various sizes, mixed together in a binder and formed under pressure into
a panel. 4x8 panels available in Low-Medium-High-Density forms.
1200mm x 2400 mm Metric Boards. Particleboard preferred for backing
and framing finish carpentry and architectural woodwork because less
expensive than and more dimensionally stable than ordinary wood.

3. Orientated Strand Board: (OSB) Engineered Panel Product


manufactured from precision cut wood strands 4 Long x 0.0027 Thick.
Strands arranged in layers at right angles to one another , bonded with
resin waterproof glue under Heat and Pressure. OSB available 4x8 up to
8x28 sheets. Primary strength of OSB panels along orientation of chips,
on face layer, generally parallel length of panel.
4. Medium Density Fiber Board: Panel Product made from Wood
Particles reduced to fibers in a moderate-pressure steam vessel, then
combined with resin and bonded together under heat and pressure. most
dimensionally stable of mat-formed panel products.
5. Hardboard: Panel Product composed of Inter-felted Fibers
consolidated under heat and pressure of 31 lbm / ft3 (497 kgmc).
Available sanded on one or both sides. Tempered or un-tempered.
6. Blocking: Wood framing installed between main structural members,
as studs or joists, to provide extra rigidity or base for nailing other
materials.
7. Bridging: Bracing between joists that prevents the joists from buckling
under load. Installed in intervals not exceeding 8 ft (2,44 m) .

34

8. Firestop: Barriers installed in concealed spaces of combustible


construction , to prevent spread of fire caused by draft. Nominal thick 2
Wood Members, Gypsum Board, Mineral Wool.
_For concealed spaces between floors,
_between a floor and ceiling or attic space,
_between floors under stairs,
_vertical openings under vents, chimneys, ducts between floors.

13.5 Engineered Wood Products: Wide range of Components.


_Constructed of Standard Wood elements: Trusses made of Standard
Wood Elements.
_Made of waste products or smaller wood pieces to make wood
products: Laminated Veneer Lumber.
_Better use of Natural Resources.
_Improved Product without typical wood defects.
_Increased Strength for a given size compared with standard wood
products.
_ Consistent size and strength Plywood Web Joists.
1. Plywood Web Joists: Like wood I- beams. Fabricated with Plywood or
Oriented Strand Board Web Piece fitted into Grooves of Chord Members
made of solid wood or laminated veneer lumber.
_Manufactured in same depths and deeper as standard solid wood
joists.
_Much higher load-carrying capacity, with the use of second or third
growth timber.

35

_Minimal Shrinkage, Ease of Handling, Uniformity of Size and Shape.


2. Laminated Veneer Lumber: Fabricated by Gluing thin veneers of
Lumber together to build up a strong , rigid, dimensionally stable
framing member that can be used like solid framing lumber. Used for
headers and beams in the place of studs.
3. Trusses: Factory made assemblies of relatively small wood members
held together with teethed plate connectors. Common spacing 24 o.c.
Can span up to 40 ft (12m) , and roof trusses can span up to 70 ft (21m).
4. Structural Isolation Panels: SIP Composite building unit consisting of
two outer skins bonded to an inner core of rigid insulation.
a) (OSB) orientated strand board faces with expanded polystyrene core.
b) Other facings: Plywood, Aluminum, Cement Board, Gypsum Board.
c) Other Core Materials: Extruded Polystyrene, Urethane Foam,
Compressed Straw.
_SIPs: available in thicknesses 4 to 12 , and sizes 4x8 ft (120x2400)
up to 9x28 ft (270x 853m).
_Advantages:
a) Decreased Construction Time
b) Improved Insulation values with no thermal bridges.
c) Reduced Air Infiltration
d) Stronger than conventional stud and sheathing construction.
e) Very flat walls for subsequent finishes
f) Dimensional Stability
g) As a Green Product SIPs require less wood, use renewable sources for
facings, improve thermal performance, reduce construction waste.

36

5. Heavy Timber Construction: Exterior walls of noncombustible


masonry, or concrete, and interior columns, beams, and planking of
large solid or ted timbers. Columns min. size: 8x8 ( 20 cm x 20cm) .
Beams and Girders: 6x10 ( 15cm x 25cm). Floor decking min. 3 (7 cm).
Roof decking: min. 2 (5 cm).
6. Glue Laminated Lumber: Built up from a number of individual pieces
of lumber glued together and finished under factory conditions for
beams, columns, purlins, and other structural components. Arches,
tapered forms, pitched shapes.
_Standard Dimensions: 1 (38mm) . Standard widths: 3 1/8, 5 1/8,
6 , 8 , 10 , 12 . Glulams can be loaded in either direction, to
suite requirement of design.
_Appearance Grades: Industrial, Architectural, Premium.

7. Planking: Solid laminated timber that spans beams. Nominal


thicknesses: 2(51mm), 3 (76mm), 4 (102mm), 5 (127mm). Planking is
intended to span greater distances between beams. Common Spans: 4
(120) to 20 (6000) .
_Advantages: Easy Installation, Attractive Appearance, Efficient use of
material. Planking serves as Floor Structure, Finish Floor, Finish ceiling
below.
_Disadvantages: No place to conceal insulation, electrical conduit,
mechanical services.

8. Fasteners:
_Nails: Most common used connectors in light frame construction.
a. Wire Nails: six penny ( 6d) to 60 penny (60d).

37

b. Box Nails: 6d to 40d. 6d nails are 2 (5cm) in length, to 6 (15cm)


long.
c. Wire Spikes: 10d , 3 to 8 long.
For same penny weight, Box Nails have smallest diameter. Preferable
nail orientation: fastener loaded laterally in side grain where holding
power is greatest. Least desirable orientation: fastener parallel to grain.
d. Screws : Fastener with helical ridge, known as an External Thread,
wrapped around a cylinder. Most common use: hold objects together or
to position objects. Head larger than body of screw , to provide bearing
surface. Cylinder portion of screw is called Shank.
_Wood Screws: Sizes n. 0 (0.060 Shank Diameter) to n. 24 ( 0.372
Shank Diameter). Lengths to 5 . From 1.5 to 9.5 diameter in
lengths from 6 to 127.
_Lead Holes: Drilled into wood to permit proper insertion of screw and
prevent splitting of wood.
_Lag Screw: Threaded with pointed end like wood screw , but has head
like bolt. Sizes: to 1 diameter, 1 to 6 length. Diameters measured
at non threaded shank portion of screw.
e) Bolts: Most common forms of wood connections for joists of moderate
to heavy loading. Bolt sizes: to 1 (6mm to 25mm) diameter. to 6
in length.

f.) Metal Fasteners: For fast, easy, structurally sound assembly.


_Split Rings: 2 to 4 (64mm to 102mm) in diameter , cut through in
one place in circumference to form a tongue and slot. Ring beveled from
central portion towards edges. Grooves cut in each piece of wood
members to be joined so half ring is in each section. Members held
together with bolt.

38

_Shear Plates: 2 5/8 to 4 (67mm to 102mm) diameter flat plates with


a flange extending from face of plate. to 7/8 hole in middle for
placement of bolt hold two members together.

g.) Wood Treatment: Preservatives applied by Brushing Dipping,


Pressure Treatment.
h) Wood Preservatives:
_Creosote: Distillate of Coal Tar. Insoluble in water, easy to apply. Not
used in Building Applications.
_Oil Born Preservatives: (Pentachlorolphenal): For Utility Poles, Cross
Arms, Fresh Water Pilings, Bridge Timbers. Applied by Brushing, Dipping,
Pressure Treatment. Generally not used for Building Applications.
_Waterborne Preservatives: Type most commonly used in Building
Applications:
1. Ammoniacal Copper Quaternary (ACQ): Treatments are Clean,
Odorless, Non staining, leave wood paintable.
2. Chromated Copper Arsenic (CCA) , Ammoniacal Copper Zinc Arsenic
(ACZA)

39

14. Finish Carpentry Architectural Wood


14.1: Finish Carpentry: Final exposed construction done on job site.
Usually nonstructural. Exterior Wood Siding, Interior Trim, Door and
Window Framing, Stair Framing, Shelving and Cabinetry, Paneling.
14.2: Architectural Wood Work: Finish Carpentry, Wall Paneling,
Custom Doors.
14.3: Wood Species and Grading:
_Softwoods: Cut from Coniferous Trees.
_Hardwood: Cut from Deciduous Trees. Used exclusively for
architectural wood work, because of superior appearance and
durability. Hardwood Species: Red and White Oak, Ash, Walnut,
Cherry, Mahogany, Birch, Poplar, Maple.
_Finish Carpentry Employs both.
_Finish Carpentry Lumber Grading:
a) Select: B and Better, C Select, D Select,
b) Finish: Superior, Prime, E Grades
_Heartwood: Center of Tree
_Sapwood: Perimeter.
_Fingerjointed: Method of Manufacturing lengths of trim:
c) Paneling:
d) Common
14.4: Lumber Cutting: Three ways solid stock :
_Plain Sawing: Most efficient, Least Expensive.
_Quarter Sawing: Cut log into quarters, then saw perpendicular to
diameter line.
_Rift Sawing: Cut from edges of log do not have grain exactly at 900
angle to saw cut as does in middle.

40

14.5: Individual boards applied horizontally, diagonally, vertically.


Siding applied over sheathing (plywood , particleboard), layer of
building paper is under sheathing to minimize air infiltration, and
improve water resistance.
_Wood Siding: Milled from redwood, cedar, Douglas Fir, Pine.
14.5: Wood Stairs and Trim: Wood stairs are considered finish
Carpentry. Trims used to finish of joints between dissimilar materials,
close construction gaps, provide decorative treatment.

15. Architectural Woodwork: Shop Fabricated lumber components used


for interior finish construction, Cabinetry, Paneling, Custom Doors
and Frames, Shelving, Custom Furniture, Special Interior Trim.
_Standards for Architectural Woodwork: Set by Architectural
Woodwork Institute.
_Lumber: Classes as Grade I,II,III, based on % of Board used by cutting
out defects.
_Construction Standards, Tolerances, Finish Appearance: Premium,
Custom, Economy Grades.

15.1 Lumber and Veneers for Architectural Woodwork: Most


Architectural Woodwork made from Veneer Stock.
_Veneer: Thin Slice wood cut from log , glued to backing of Particle
Board or Plywood (19mm).
15.2 Types of Veneer Cuts:
_Plain Slicing
_Quarter Slicing
_ Rotary Slicing: Peeling layers of Veneer
_Half-Round Slicing: Log cut in half, and veneer cut slightly across
annular growth rings.

41

_Rift Slicing: Quartering log (Flitch) and cutting 150 angle to growth
rings.
15.3 Joinery Details: Joints are used woodwork construction to
increase strength of joint and improve appearance eliminating
mechanical fasteners.
15.4 Cabinet Work: Built in shop as complete assemblies, and simply
set in place attached to surrounding construction at job site.
_Countertop: Scribe Piece: Oversized piece of Plastic laminated or
wood , trimmed in field to follow any minor irregularities of wall.

16. Moisture Protection Thermal Insulation: Protecting Buildings from


Water Leakage and Temperature Transmission.
16.1 Damp proofing: Control of Moisture not under Hydrostatic
Pressure.
_Admixtures: Added to concrete to make it water repellent. Salts of
Fatty Acids, Mineral Oil, Powdered Iron.
_Bituminous Coatings: Asphalt or Tar Pitch Materials, applied to
exterior side of foundation wall. Sprayed or Brushed, applied hot or
cold. Non crack sealers.
_Cementitous Coatings: Coatings of Portland cement mortar
troweled over surface of masonry or concrete foundation walls.
_Membranes: Built-up Layers Hot or Cold Applied Asphalt Felts ,
Butyl, Polyvinyl Chloride membranes.
_Plastics: Silicone-Polyurethane Coatings , for above grade damp
proofing.

16.2 Waterproofing: Control of Moisture and water subject to


Hydrostatic Pressure. Protecting Structures under Water Table.
_ Waterproofing Membranes: Used on exteriors of walls and slabs.
_Built-up Layers Bituminous Saturated Felt.

42

_Single-ply members synthetic materials: Butyl, Polyvinyl Chloride.


Place protection surface over waterproofing prior to backfilling, to
avoid puncture.
_Waterstops: Joints in waterproofed walls particularly subject to
leakage. Waterstops used to seal construction joints. Waterstops,
dumbbell shaped , continuous rubber or neoprene extrusions.
_Bentonite Panels: Flat packages Bentonite Clay, inside Kraft Paper
Packages. Placed under slabs and against walls. Kafter paper
deteriorates after placement, causing Bentonite to expand.
_Positive Slope.
_Backfilling with Gravel.
_Perimeter Foundation Drains
_Geotextile Matting
16.3 Building Insulation: Used to control unwanted heat flow.
_Methods of Heat Transfer:
a. Conduction: Flow of Heat within Materials, or between materials
without displacement of particles.
b. Convection: Transfer of heat within fluid
c. Radiation: Transfer of Heat Energy through electromagnetic waves
from one surface to a colder surface.
d. Vacuum : Best Insulation
16.4 Measuring Thermal Resistance:
_Thermal Resistance: Quantity of Heat used to measure British
Thermal Unit Btu = Amount of Heat required to raise temperature of
1 lbm of water 10 F.
Rhs = - Rs
Pth

43
0

Max. Thermal Resistance = Temperature Difference C - Thermal Resistance Heat Source


Heat Sink
Heat Flow (Watts)

K-value = n. Btu passes per hour through 1 ft2 Homogeneous


Material 1 thick when temperature differential is 10 F
_ Material more 1 thick : Conductance or C-value.
_R-value Resistance of Materials: N hours needed for 1 Btu to pass
through 1 ft2 of material of given thickness when temperature
differential is 10 F . Reciprocal of Conductance. Lower Materials Kvalue, or C-value, better its insulating qualities. Higher R-values
indicate better insulating value
_Joule: Unity for Energy 1 kg m2 /s2 amount of heat required to raise
a gram of water by 10 C.
_Conductivity: Rate at which watts flow through 1 m2 homogeneous
material when temperature changes by 1k , same as 10 C.
_ Conductivity K (SI): W/m0 K or W/m0 C.
_Thermal Resistance: R= SI tn2 K/W
_Thermal Drift: Change of Thermal Resistance due to cell gas
composition changes in Foam insulation
_Long Term Thermal Resistance (LTTR): Thermal Resistance Value
Closed Cell Foam Insulation Product Measure after storage for five
years under prescribed laboratory conditions.
16.5 Types of Building Insulation:
_Loose Fill Insulation: Shreds, Granules, Nodules, poured or blown
into spaces to be insulated. Used for spaces where it is difficult to
install other types of insulation. Widely used for retrofit applications.
Materials that make Loose Fill Insulation: Rock, Slag Wool, Cellulose,
Fiberglass, Perlite, Vermiculate. All require Vapor Retarder or Vapor
Barrier.

44

_Rockwool: Fibrous Material formed by blowing molten rock under


pressure.
_Slag wool: Made from Blast Furnace Slag.
_Mineral wool: Made from Natural or Synthetic minerals or metal
oxides.
_Cellulose: Made from shredded paper or wood products.
_Fiberglass: Made by spinning molten glass into fibers.
_Perlite: Volcanic rock expanded by heating.
_Vermiculite: Hydrated Laminar Magnesium-aluminum iron silicate.
_Batt Insulation: Fibrous material placed on or within Kraft Paper
Carrier. Insulation is usually Mineral Fiber or Glass Fiber. Kraft Paper
serves as vapor retarder. Standard Widths 16 (40cm) or 24(61cm)
on center.
_Plastic Fiber Insulation: Recycled Plastic Milk Bottles (PET) formed
into bands.
_Board Insulation: Made from variety of organic and inorganic
materials, formed into rigid boards.
_Organic Board Insulation: Wood, Cane Fiber, Straw Sandwich
between coatings of Bituminous material , paper, foil, perlite, cork .
_Inorganic Board Insulation: Made from molded expanded
polystyrene, extruded expanded polystyrene, polyisocyanurate,
polyurethane.
_HCFC-141b, banned in 2003.
_Molded Expanded Polystrene (MEPS): Closed cell material
manufactured by mixing unexpanding polystrene beads containing
liquid pentane and blowing agent. 1.0 lbm/ft3 (16 kg /m3) density
most commonly used for insulation.
_Extruded Expanded Polystrene (XEPS): Closed cell material
manufactured by mixing Polystrene pellets with various chemicals
and then introducing a blowing agent. Densities: 1.4 lbm / ft3 to 3.0
lbm/ ft3 (22 kg/ m3 to 48 kg/m3).

45

_Polyisocyanurate: Closed cell foam containing low-conductivity gas


in cells. Mixture of rigid Polyurethane and Polyisocyanurate.
_Polyurethane: Closed-cell foam made to density of t3 .
_Spray Foam Insulation: Polyurethane or Polyicynene as material.
_Spray Fiber Insulation: Cellulose, Fiberglass, Rockwool, mixed with
adhesive and small amount of water to activate adhesive.
_Cellulose: Most common spray Fiber Insulation.
_Fiberglass Sprayed Insulation: Blow-in-Blanket System (BIBs).
Second most common type of sprayed fiber.
_Radiant Barrier: Single Sheet Highly Reflective Material, Alluminum,
facing open Airspace. Reduces passage thermal radiation, blocking
summer heat gain, Retain Winter Heat. Place Radiant Barrier outside
conventional thermal insulation. To block heat loss, face reflective
barrier to heated side of insulation. Properties: 1. Reflectance:
quantity radiant heat reflected by material. Number 0 to 1. 0.8 =
80%. 2. Emittance: Measure of how energy is emitted. Radiant
Barriers must have minimum reflectivity 0.9 and maximum emissivity
0.1. and must face ventilated airspace.
_Insulated Concrete Forms: (ICF) Systems of Interlocking Foam
(XEPS) Insulation Blocks, or panels serving as forms for pouring
concrete walls that remain in place after concrete is cured. Foam
increases insulation value of wall and serves as backing for gypsum
wallboard finish on inside, and sheathing and exterior finish on
outside.
_ Structural Insulated Panels: (SIPs) Composite Building Units of (2)
outer skins bonded to inner core of rigid insulation, commonly
expanded polystyrene (EPS). R17 to R34.

46

_Vapor Retarders: materials used to slow transmission water vapor


between spaces. Not themselves Insulation. Warm air holds more
water than cold air. Dew Point: temperature air containing vapor
barrier drops, relative humidity rises until saturation point is reached.
_Dew Point: Point at which water condenses from vapor.
_Vapor Retarders: Placed on warm side of insulation prevents water
from condensing, wetting insulation reducing its effectiveness. Vapor
retartders prevent water from reaching Dew Point.
_Air Barriers
16.6 Shingles & Roof Tiles: Two Oldest types of Roofing Materials.
Small, individual pieces material placed in overlapping fashion on
sloped surface to shed water.
_Roofs Classified according to their Shapes:
_Amount of Slope of Roof: Designated by its pitch, which is number
inches rise vertically for every foot of horizontal projection.
_Estimating: Roof Areas are referred to as Squares = 100 ft
_Shingles: Small Rectangular shaped units, intended to shed water.
_Asphalt Shingles: Composition of Felt, Asphalt, Mineral Stabilizers,
Mineral Granules.
_Wood Shingles: Exposure varies with pitch of roof.
16.7 Roof Tiles
_Slate Tile: Made from splitting quarry slate into rectangular pieces
6 to 14 wide , 16 to 24 long ( 152mm to 356mm wide, 406mm to
610mm long). thick (6mm).Laid over 30 lbm asphalt saturated
roofing felt on wood or nailable concrete decking. Very expensive,
durable (last 100 years), fire resistant.
_Clay Tile: Made from same clay as brick. Laid on roof felt, over
sloped wood or nailable deck attached by nailing through prepunched holes. Expensive, attractive, durable, fire resistant.
_Concrete Tile: Made from Portland Cement, fine aggregates. Less
expensive. Durable, Fire resistant.

47

16.8 Preformed Roofing and Siding:


_Sheet Metal Roofing: Individual sheet metal joined with interlocking
joints. Durable, Attractive, Various Shapes. High cost, difficult install
properly. Copper, Galvanized Iron, Aluminum, Terneplate.
_Terneplate: Steel sheet metal covered with lead or tin.
_Copper Roofs:
_Metal Roofs: Installed over asphalt roofing felt laid on top of wood
or nailable concrete deck. Minimum slope: 3/12. Roofing held to
sheathing or decking with metal cleats attached to roof and spaced
12 apart. Cleats used at eaves, rakes, flashing. Cleats, nails,
fasteners to be of same metal to avoid galvanic action.
16.9 Preformed Roofing and Wall Panels:
_Preformed Panels: Shaped pieces of metal or assemblies metal
facing with insulation between , self-supporting and span
intermediate supports. Roof panels span purlins, Wall panels span
horizontal girts. Simply corrugated or fluted sheet metal of standard
widths and varying lengths. Assembled by lapping one corrugation at
edges and overlapping ends.
_Sandwich Panels: Insulation between two finished faces, joined with
interlocking edges and a weather seal. Common widths 24(610mm),
30 (760mm) 36 (910mm).Materials are: Aluminum, Galvanized
steel, porcelain enamel steel. Attached to framing with screws, clips,
fasteners.
16.10 Membrane Roofing: Materials applied in thin sheets to nearly
flat roofs. Also liquid applied products applied to any roof slope.
16.11 Built Up Roofing Construction Details: Must be design to
provide for positive drainage.Min. slope /ft.
_Cricket: Saddle shape projection on sloping roof used to divert water
around an obstacle.
_Scupper: (Overflow drains) When roof is surrounded on four sides
with parapet or walls , scuppers are installed through parapet,

48

positioned with low edge slightly above top of roof to provide second
means of drainage should primary become clogged.
_Triangular Cant Strips: placed at intersection of roof and any
vertical surface.
_Pitch Pan: Small Metal Enclosure around projection of objects ,
making them water proof.
_Single Ply Roofing: Single Membrane layer roofing of various
material. Fewer installation problems. More resistant to slight
building movements.
a) Modified Bitumens: 50 mils sheets, composed of Bitumen. Sheets
laid over insulation with separator sheet between deck and
membrane. Allow roof to move independently of structure . Gravel
blast applied to surface to protect membrane from ultraviolet
degeradation.
b) Thermoset plastics: Permanently Harden when subjected to heat
and then cured. Permanently lose their shape if heated again.
1. EPDM: Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer : 0.045 and 0.06
(1.1mm, 1.5mm) . Available in Black only.
2. CSPE: Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene Roofing: Hypalon. Available in
White.
c) Thermoplastics: Those that can be repeatedly softened with heat ,
then hardened again when cooled.
1. PVC : Polyvinyl Chloride Roofing manufactured in thicknesses
0.048, 0.060, 0.072 ( 1.2mm, 1.5mm, 1.8mm) . Available in white.
2. TPO: Thermoplastic Polyolefin: Roofing made with blend of
Polypropylene and Ethylene Propylene. Reinforcements: Polyester
fibers. Required where roof is fully attached and adhered.
_Heat Island Effect: Unnatural buildup of heat around buildings.
16.12 Elastic Liquid Roofing: Butyl, Neoprene, Hypalon. Applied in
liquid form, on or two coats. Also used on below grade waterproofing
for foundations, tanks, pools.

49

17. Flashing: Prevents water penetration. Directs penetrated water


out of construction. Flashing protects joints wherever water
penetration is anticipated or two dissimilar surfaces meet at an
angle.Including where Roofs intersect Parapets, Areas above
Windows, Above steel Lintels supporting Masonry, between butt
joints of performed siding.
_Materials: Galvanized Steel, Stainless, Aluminum, Copper, Plastic,
Elastomeric Materials. Flashing detail should allow joint movement
without destroying integrity of flashing connection.
18. Roof Accessories: Joints, Copings, Roof Hatches, Smoke Vents,
_Expansion Joints: Required in Buildings to allow for movement
caused by temperature changes in materials, and differential
movement between building sections. Required every 100 ft to 150 ft
(30.5m to 45.7m) in masonry buildings, every 200 ft (61m) in concrete
buildings. Also located at Junctions of T, L and U shaped
Buildings and where low building portion abuts higher, higher,
heavier section.
_Smoke Vents: Devices allow excess smoke to escape in event of fire.
19. Caulking and Sealants: Flexible materials used to close joints
between materials. Classified as Low(5%), Intermediate(12.5%), and
High Performance (25%), depending on maximum amount joint
movement tolerated. Width and Depth of sealant, critical for proper
performance. Width determined by expected joint movement. Sealant
depth max. sealant width.
Caulking: Low performance sealants for moderate movements.
20. Exterior Insulation and Finishing Systems (EIFS): Cladding
assembly , wet-applied cementitious finish over a rigid insulation
board attached to building sheathing. Polymer Based (Class PB),
Polymer Modified (Class PM), Mineral Based (Class MB),

50

19 WINDOWS AND DOORS: Passage between spaces, admit light,


minimize sound.
19.1: Door Openings: Control Passage, provide visual and aural
privacy, maintain security, supply fire resistance, weather protection,
control light, radiation shield. Durability, cost, appearance, ease of
use, method of construction, availability.
_ Three Major Components of Doors: Door, Frame, Hardware.
_Hinge Jamb: Side where hinge or Pivot is Installed.
_Strike Jamb: Jamb where door closes.
_Door Hand: Way door swings. Used by Specifiers, Suppliers,
Manufacturers, to indicate type of hardware for specific opening.
_Reversable or Nonhanded: Hardware that works on any door
opening.
_Hand of Door: Determined from outside of door (Exterior of
building, Hallway side of Room Door, Lobby side of Room Door.
Outside: Side of door where hinges are not visible.
Left-Hand Door: If door hinges are on left, swings away from viewer.
Right-Hand Door: If Door Hinges are on Right, swings away from
viewer.
Right-Hand Reverse / Left-Hand Reverse: Door Swings towards
viewer.
Door: Can be classified by function it serves, its operation, material.
19.2: Metal Doors and Frames: Steel, Stainless Steel, Aluminum,
Bronzes.
_Flush Doors: Single, Smooth Surface on Both Sides.
_Sash Doors: Contain one or more glass lites.
_Louvered Doors: Have openings with metal slats to provide
ventilation.

51

19.3:
_Construction: Hollow Metal Doors, constructed with faces of coldrolled sheet metal. 14 gage, 16 gage, 18 gage, 20 gage thickness.
Steel face attached to cores honeycomb kraft paper, steel ribs,
hardboard. Edges, steel channels. Mineral used to provide sound
insulation.
_Sizes: Standard Widths: 2-0, 2-4, 2-8, 3-0, 3-4, 3-6, 3-8,
4-0. Standard Heights: 6-8, 7-0, 8-0. Standard Thickness: 1 .
_SI Units: Standard Widths: 610 mm, 711 mm, 762 mm, 813 mm,
914 mm, 1016 mm, 1118 mm, 1219 mm. Standard Heights: 2032
mm, 2134 mm, 2438 mm. Standard Thickness 44 mm.
_Steel Frames: Used for Wood Doors or Steel Doors. Sheet Steel Bent
into Shape required for Door Installation. Frames: 12, 14, 16 Gage
Steel.
a. One-piece Welded
b. Welded Frames
c. Knock Down (KD) Frames
d. Slip-on Frames
_Aluminum Frames: Used in Doors and Windows. Constructed of
Extruded Sections.
19.4: Wood Doors and Frames : Most common for residential and
commercial construction.
_Door Types: Per Operation:
a. Swinging Doors
b. Double Action Doors
c. Pocket Sliding Doors
d. Bi-Pass Sliding Doors
e. Bi-Folding Doors
f. Flush Door: Thin Flat veneer laminated o various type of cores.
g. Panel Door: Solid Vertical Styles and Horizontal rails, serving as
frame for flat or raised panel.

52

_Construction:
a. Hollow Core Doors: One or three plies of veneer on each side of
cellular interior. Stile and Rails are solid wood with larger blocks of
solid wood where lock set and latch set are installed. Used primarily
in interior applications.
b. Solid Core Doors: Cores can be Particle Board, Stave Core, Mineral
Core. Solid core, used for fire-resistant properties, Acoustical Barriers,
Security, Superior Durability. Fire Rating from 20 minutes to 1 1/2
hours (mineral core).
c. Face Veneers of Doors: Book matched (most common), Slip
matched, Random matched
_Sizes: Standard Widths 2-0 (610mm), 2-4 (711mm), 2-6
(762mm), 2-8 (813mm) , 3-0 (914mm), 3-4 (1016mm).
Standard Heights: 6-8 (2032mm), 7-0 (2134mm). Hollow Core
Doors 1 3/8 (35mm) thick. Solid Core Doors: 1 1/4 (44mm). Larger
Doors 2 (57mm).
_Frames: Wood, Steel, Aluminum.
19.5 Glass Doors: Constructed Primarily of Glass with fittings to hold
pivots and other hardware. Strength depends on glass. Glass must be
tempered. Any holes , notches must be made before tempering.
_Components: (13mm) to (19mm) tempered glass. Fittings,
Operating hardware.
_Sizes: 36(914mm) wide x 84 (2134mm) high.
_Standard Assemblies:
_Building Code Requirements: Glass Doors cannot be fire rated.

19.6 Special Doors: Where special closing assemblies are required.


_Revolving Doors: Assemblies of 3 or 4 leaves connected at a central
point, rotating within an enclosure. Used to control air infiltration,

53

allow large number of people to pass in and out. Glass framed with
Aluminum, Bronze, .
19.7 Overhead Coiling Doors: Thin Slates of Metal rolled up into
enclosure above head . Used to close large openings, used as fire
separation. Made of wood or metal.
_ Blast Resistant Doors
_ Sound Retardant Doors
_ Hangar Doors
_ Folding Doors
_Security Doors
_Cold-Storage Doors
19.8 Hardware: Finish Hardware normally found on interior and
exterior doors.
_Functions of Hardware: Vital part of door opening. Group according
to function:
a) Hanging door: Hinges, Pivots, Combination Pivots and Closers
b) Operating door: Handles, Latches, Push Plates, Pull Bars
c) Locking Door: Lockset, Dead Bolts, Flush Bolts, Electric Locks, Other
Special Devices
d) Sealing Door: Weather Stripping, Sound Seals, Smoke Seals
e) Protecting Door: Kick Plates, Corner Protection, Similar Materials
_Hinges: Most common method attaching door to frame. Also
referred as Butts because attached to butt edge of door. Hinges
consist of two leaves with an odd number of knuckles on one leaf and
even numbers of knuckles on other, attached together by pin. Types
of Hinges:
a) Full Mortise: Most Common. Has both leaves fully mortised into
frame and edge of door.

54

b) Half-Surface Hinges: One leaf mounted on face of Door and other


leaf mortised into frame.
c) Half-Mortise Hinge Leaves: Surface-Applied to frame and mortise
into edge of door.
e) Full-Mortise Hinge: Applied to face of both door and frame.
f) Raised Barrel Hinges: Used when there is not enough room for
barrel to extend past trim.
g) Swing Clear Hinges: Special Shape allows door to swing 900 for full
opening of doorway.
_Low Frequency Doors: Use standard weight, plain-bearing hinges.
_High Frequency Applications: Office Buildings Entrances, Theaters,
require heavyweight, ball bearing hinges. Size given by two numbers:
4x41/2. First number Length (length barrel in inches). Second number
Width (dimension in inches with hinge open).
_Width of Hinge: Width of Hinge = Width of Door and Clearance
required around jamb trim.
Width of Hinge = (2) Door Thickness + Trim Projection
_Common Hinge Widths for 1 (44mm) doors , are 4 and 4
(102mm and 114mm).
_Length of Hinge: Determined by Door Thickness and Width.
_Number of Hinges: Determined by Door Height. Number of hinges
referred to as Pairs (2 hinges). 60 (1500mm) high, require (2)
Hinges. Doors 60to 90 high (1500mm to 2290mm) require (3)
Hinges. Doors from 90 to 120 (2290mm to 3050mm) require (4)
hinges.
_Latchsets and Locksets: Devices to hold door in closed position and
to lock it.
_Latchsets : Only holds door in position.
_Lockset: Locks door.
a) Mortise Lock: Installed in Rectangular Area cut out of Door. Use
dead bolt and latch bolt.

55

b) Preassembled Locks and Latches: Factory made complete units.


c) Bored Locks and Latches: Installed by Boring Holes through face of
door and from edge of door to other bored opening.
d) Interconnect Locks: Have Cylindrical Lock and Dead Bolt.
_ Other Types of Hardware:
a) Pivots: Center Hung or off-set and mounted in floor and head of
door. Center hung Pivots allow door to swing in either direction; door
swings only 900. Offset pivots allow door to swing 1800.
b) Panic Hardware: Used where required by Code for safe egress
during Panic situation. Push Bars Disengage latches at top and
bottom.
c) Push Plates and Pull Bars: Used to operate door that does not
require automatic latching. Doors to toilet rooms and commercial
kitchens.
d) Closer: Device that automatically return a door to closed position
after open.
e) Door Stop and Bumpers: Keep door from damaging adjacent
construction.
f) Astragals: Vertical members used between double doors to seal
opening, act as door stop, provide extra security when doors are
closed.
g) Coordinators: Device used with double doors rabbeted or that
have astragal on active leaf. Coordinates closing sequence of (2)
doors.
h) Flush Bolts: Used on inactive leaf of pair of doors to lock doors. Not
allowed on exit doors.
i) Automatic Door Bottoms: Devices mortised or surface applied to
bottom of door to provide sound or light seal.
j) Weather Stripping: Used along edges and bottom of doors to
provide tight seal against water and air infiltration.

56

k) Threshold: Used where floor materials change at door line , where


weather stripping is required, where hard surface is required for
automatic door bottom, where minor change in door level occurs.
19.9 Electronic Hardware: Devices that control or monitor door
openings using electronic or electromechanical means.
_Electric Locks: Maintains mortise or bored lockset in locked position
until signal is activated by some type of regulating device.
_Electric Latch: No power required to be run to door.
_Electric Bolts: Devices separate from operating hardware of door.
Not allowed on exit doors.
_Card Readers: Regulating device that reads magnetic code on small
plastic card when inserted in reader. Reader detects code, switch
activates, door unlocks.
_Keypad Devices: Coded number is entered to gain access.
_Magnetic Hold- Open Device: Electromagnet mounted on door on
wall or on floor that contacts metal plate attached to door. Upon
activation of alarm or smoke detector or power failure,
electromagnet releases and door closes.
19.10 Finish Hardware: Applied over base metal from which
hardware is made.
_Five Base Metals: Steel, Stainless Steel, Bronze, Brass, Aluminum.
_Fire-rated doors must have stainless steel hinges.
_Builders Hardware Manufactures Association.
19.11 Building Code Requirements: Doors and Hardware are Highly
Regulated. Three Categories:
_Exiting Requirements
_Fire-Rated Assemblies
_613ss Requirements
_Places where Fire Rated doors are Required: 1. Openings in
Stairways, Fire rated Corridors, Occupancy Separation Walls.

57

_Fire Door Assembly: Door, Frame Assembly tested by UL


Underwriter Laboratories. Combination Locks, Thumb-turn Locks
Multiple, locks are prohibited. Exceptions: Residence , Place of
Detention, etc.
_Labeled Door: Class, Hourly Fire Rating.
_Panic Hardware: Unlatches Doors when pressure is applied against
horizontal bar rather than requiring turning motion.
_Fire Doors: Must be self closing or automatic closing.
_Operating Devices: Door Handles, Pulls , Latches , Locks, installed
min. 36 max 48 above finish floor.
_IBC Requirements:
1. Fire Rated Assembly must have attached to door and frame.
2. Door must be Self Latching
3. Hardware must be UL Listed
4. Fire door must be self closing
5. Must use Ball-type steel hinges.
6. Use astragals for Pair of Doors.
7. Use wired glass, or fire rated glass, steel frame with steel glass
stop.
8. Louvers to conform to UL requirements of max. size and
Construction.
_Accessibility requirements for doors and hardware:
1. Minimum width , clear of hardware, opening door 32.
2. Adequate maneuvering clearance
3. Minimum 48 between (2) doors.
4. Max. opening force specified by code.
5. Handles and latches easy to grasp shape.
6. Threshold with change in level must have vertical edge up to
high.

58

20. Windows: Opening in wall used to provide viewing, light


transmission solar heat, ventilation.
_Metal Windows: Fabricated from aluminum, steel, bronze.
1. Aluminum: most common metal window material. But
susceptibility to galvanic action and high heat conduction .Use
thermal Breaks
2. Steel Windows: Hot or Cold rolled steel. Greater strength of steel,
smaller sections. More expensive then aluminum windows.
_ Wood Windows: Fixed Sash, Double Hung, Casement, Horizontal
Pivoted, Horizontal Sliders. Materials: Pine, Fir, Redwood Cypress.
_Clad Windows
20.1 Skylights: Glazed Openings in Roofs that allow light to penetrate
in interior.
20.2 Storefronts: Extruded Metal Frames, Glass, Panels, Doors,
Hardware, Miscellaneous Fittings, installed as one coordinated
system.
21. Glass and Glazing:
_ Glass: Actual Material
_ Clear Glass: Mixture of Silica Sand and small amounts of Line Salts.
_Glazing: Process Installation Glass in Frame and Frame itself, or
glass installed through glazing process.
21.1 Types of Glass: Parameters : Amount of Light Transmitted,
Degree Transparency, strength and security, sound isolation,
Insulating qualities, cost, availability, special qualities, radiation
shields.
_Float Glass: Typical USA Glass: Pour Molten Glass on a Bed of
molten Tin allowing to slowly cool , forming smooth surface.
Annealed glass.

59

_Heat-Strengthen Glass: Heat Glass to 11000 F (5900 C) and slowly


cooling it. Twice strength annealed glass per thickness.
_Tempered Glass: Subject Annealed glass to special heat treatment
in which it is heated to 11500 (620 0 C) and then quickly cooled. Safety
glass.
_Laminated Glass: Two or more pieces of glass bonded together by
an interlayer of polyvinyl butyral resin. Used as safety glass, sound
control glass.
_Tinted Glass Heat Absorbing Glass: Adding various colorants to
glass material, bronze, grey, green, blue. Reduces solar transmittance
of glass. Shading Coefficient: Ratio solar heat gain through specific
fenestration to solar heat gain through a pane of Vs clear glass under
identical conditions.
_SHGC Solar Heat Gain Coefficient: Ratio solar heat gain through
glazing or window compared to total solar radiation incident on
glazing or window.
_Low Iron Glass: Has reduced amount of Iron Oxide, which gives
light-green cast to ordinary : Great Clarity, Optimal Light
Transmission, Excellent color transmission.
_Reflective Glass: Clear or Tinted Glass coated with extremely thin
layer of metal or metal oxide. Reflective layer placed on inside of
exterior lite of glass. Save energy by reflecting solar radiation.
Reflective coatings: silver, copper, golden, earth stone.
_Insulating Glass: Two , Three Sheets of Glass separated by a
hermetically sealed air space of in to (6mm to 13mm).Much
higher U-value. Used in regions where heat loss is a problem. Made
with heat-strengthen, tempered, reflective, tinted, laminate glass.
_Pattern Glass: Etched.
_Wire Glass: Mesh of wire embedded in middle of sheet. Primarily
for fire rated assemblies. Cannot be tempered. Not safety glazing for
hazardous locations.

60

_Spandrel Glass : Opaque strip of glass that conceals floor and ceiling
structure in curtain wall construction.
_Low Emissivity Glass: Selectively reflects and transmits certain
wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum. Place very thin coating
metal or metal oxide on surface of piece of glass or thin film. Low E
glass works by transmitting visible light and shortwave solar
radiation but reflecting long-wave heat radiation from air and warm
objects. Glass used in insulated units, placed on inside lite to reflect
building heat back to inside before it crosses air gap.
_ Energy Efficient Glazing: Keep Heat out of Building. Keep Heat In.
_Electro chromic Glazing: Glazing that changes from either dark tint,
or milky white opaque to transparent state with application of
electric current. Inorganic ceramic thin-film coating on glass. Never
completely opaque. Cannot be used for privacy glass.
1. Electro chromic Glazing: Intended for control of light, ultraviolet
energy, and solar heat gain.
2. Suspended Particle Device Glazing (SPD): Light absorbing
microscopic particles are dispersed within liquid suspension film
which is then sandwiched between two pieces of transparent
conductive material. Appearance: Clear to Opaque. Used for Privacy,
Energy Conservation, Light Control.
3. Polymer-dispersed liquid crystal film glazing: Place Polymer film
between two pieces of glass. Transparency range from transparent to
cloudy white. Not used for exterior light control.
_ Fire Rated Glazing:
1. Wire Glass
2. Clear Ceramic: Low expansion coefficient.
3. Tempered Fire Protective Glass:
4. (2) or (3) Layers Tempered Glass with clear polymer between them.
Clear in normal conditions. Opaque when subjected to fire, retarding
passage of heat. 30-minute, 60-minute, 90-minute rating.
5. Glass Block:

61

_Installation Details:
1. Rabbeted Frame: Glazier Points Hold, and place glass into place
with face putty. Caulking and Glazing Tape can be used.
2. Glazing Stops: Removable Pieces of Framing allowing installation
and removal of glass.
3. Structural Glazing Gaskets: Rigid strips of Neoprene specifically
designed to hold glass.
_Dimensions:
1. Face Dimensions: Dimension of Gaskett
2. Bite: Deepness Glass into frame.
_Frameless Glazing system: Glass supported top and bottom, and
edges simply butt-jointed and sealed with silicon sealant.
_Structural Glazing System: Vertical and Horizontal framing
members entirely behind glass, and glass attached to it with silicon
sealant.
_ Building Code Requirements for Glazing:
1. Sizing of Glass for Wind Loading: Minimum Thickness of Glass
depending on wind loading and size of glazed unit.
2. Limitation on Glass in Fire Rated Assemblies
a) Fire-Protection Rated Glass: Thick wired glass in steel frames
that meet NFPA 257 ( Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass
Bloch Assemblies) standards. Glazing minimum 45-mimute rating ,
and limited to 1-hour-rated fire partitions or fire barriers when fire
barrier is used to separate occupancies or incidental use areas. 1269
in2 individual lights fire protection rated glazing(9 sqft or 0.84 m2).
3. Safety Glazing subject to Human Impact in Hazardous Locations:
Tempered or Laminated Glass. Glazing in Doors, Shower and Bath
enclosures, Certain Locations in Walls.

62

22. Curtain Wall Systems:


_Curtain Wall: Exterior Wall System, attached to structural
framework of building, and carries weight other than its own , and
wind loading that transfers to structure. Performed Metal Panels,
Precast Concrete, Prefabricated Marble Granite, Masonry Panels,
Aluminum Framing, Glass Panels.

23. Finish Materials:


1) Plaster: Cementing Compound, Fine Aggregate, Water. Applied
over several base materials, two or three coats to form smooth, level
surface. Applied for Interior Applications.
2) Stucco: Made with Portland Cement, Lime and Water. Used for
exterior applications.
3) Keens Cement: Plaster with high abrasion and water penetration
resistance.
_Methods Plaster Applications:
1) Metal Lath : Attached to metal or wood studs. Provides surface for
first coat of plaster to key into when material flows into e behind
open mesh.
_Expanded Diamond Mesh: General Purpose Type, for flat and curved
surfaces.
_Paper-backed Diamond Mesh: Asphalt - Impregnated Paper applied
to it . Used as base for Portland cement under tile.
_Flat-Rib lath: More rigid, do to the one-way, V-shaped Ribs at 4 o.c.
Used for ceilings and solid partitons.
_High Rib-Lath.
_Scratch Coat: First Coat (6mm thick)
_Brown Coat: Second Coat (6mm thick)
_Finish Coat: Finish Coat (3mm thick)

63

2) Gypsum Board Lath: 16x 48 ( 906mm x 1220mm) Boards


applied horizontally to studs. 48x 96 (1220mm x 2440mm) sheets.
Only one coat veneer plaster needed.
3) Metal trim Pieces: Corner Boards (protect outside corners), Casing
Beads (trim doors, windows), Base Screeds ( finish plaster at base of
room), Expansion Joints ( control cracking in plaster or stucco
surfaces) every 10 feet (3000 mm).
23.1 Gypsum Wall Board: Drywall, or Sheetrock. Made of Gypsum
Plaster core sandwiched between sheets of paper.
_Materials: Panels 4 (1200mm)wide x 8, 10, 12, 14, (2400, 3000,
3600, 4200) long.
_Standard Gypsum Wallboard thicknesses: (6.4mm) 3/8
(9.5mm) (13mm) 5/8 (16mm). (19mm) 2 hour fire rating.
used for residential Applications. 5/8 used for commercial
applications. 3/8 used for double layering.1/4 used for curved
surfaces and for wallboard over finished walls in remodeling work.
_Gypsum Wall Board: Available with square edges, tapered edges,
tongue and grooved edges. Tapered most commonly used.
_Type X: Fire rated partitions
_Foiled Back: For Vapor Barriers
_Water Resistant: Use behind Tiles, Exterior, Backing Board, Abuse
Resistant, Predecorated.
Gypsum Wall Board applied by nailing or screwing to wood or metal
framing, or mastic when applied to concrete or masonry surfaces.
Joints finished by tape and compound.
_Synthetic Gypsum: Flue Glass Desulfurization. Recycled GBW used
as farming fertilizer or soil additive.
_ Framing:
1. Wood Framing Gypsum wall board: 2x4, 2x6 stud walls, use of 24
width x 96, 120, 144 lengths.

64

2. Metal Framing: 25 gage most common used for non-bearing stud


wall. 12 to 18 gage thickness for bearing stud walls.
_Wall Board Trim: Fabricated edging.
1. Corner bead: Exterior Corners.
2. Edge Trim:
3. LC Bead : Edge trim requiring finishing with joint compound.
4. L Bead: Edge trim without back flange. Joint compound required
5. LK Bead: Edge trim for use with kerfed jamb. Joint compound
required.
6. U Bead: Edge Trim not require compound finish. Has noticeable
edge. J Metal.

_Glass Reinforced Gypsum: (GRG) Manufactured from high-strength,


hi-density gypsum reinforced with continuous filament glass fibers.
Column Covers, Arches, Coffered Ceilings, Ornate Moldings, Light
Troughs, Trim.
23.2 Tile: Small, Flat Finishing Units made of clay or clay mixtures .
_Ceramic Tile: Surfacing Unit, made from clay or clay mixture and
other ceramic materials, having glazed or unglazed face, fired above
red heat.
_ Quarry Tile: Glazed, Unglazed tile, 6 in2 (3870 mm2) facial area.
Extrusion process from natural clay to shale. Glazed Wall Tile,
Unglazed Tile, Ceramic Mosiac Tile, Paver Tile, Quarry Tile, Abrasive
Tile, Antistatic Tile.
_Ceramic Mosaic Tile: Formed by dust pressed, or extrusion method,
to 3/8 (6mm to 10mm) thick, < 6 in2 (3780 mm 2) facial area.
_Dust Pressing: Uses large presses to shape tile out of relatively dry
clay.
_Extrusion Process: Uses machines to cut tiles from wetter and more
malleable clay extruded through a Die.

65

_Classification of Tile:
1. Size: Mosaic Tile: < 6 in2 (3870 mm2)
Wall Tile: > 6 in2
_Quarry Tile: Glazed or un Glazed non mosaic tile made by extrusion
method.
_Paver Tile: Glazed or un Glazed tile over 6in2 made by dust-pressed
method.
2. Resistance to Water Absorbtion:
_Nonvitreous Tiles : Water absorption > 7 %.
_Semivitreuos Tile : Water absorption 3% to 7%.
_Vitreous Tile: Water Absorption 0.5% to 3%.
_Impervious Tile: Water Absorbtion of 0.5% or less.
Europeon Classification: By Production Method, Degree of Water
Absortion, Finishing, Glazed or Unglazed.
_Classification of Abrasion Resistance.
Group I : Light Residential
Group II: Moderate Residential
Group III: Maximum Residential
Group IV: Highest Abrasion Resistance- Commercial

3. Tile Sizes and Shapes:


_Ceramic Mosaic Tile: 1x1 (25mm x 25mm) , 2x2 ( 50mm x 50 mm),
( 6mm) nominal thickness.
_Glazed Tile: 4 x 4 , 6x 4 , 6x 6 (108mm x 108mm,
114mm x 108mm, 114mnm x 114mm), with nominal thicknesses of
and 5/16 (6mm to 8mm).
_Trim Pieces: Cove Base, Bull-nose, Inside and Outside Corners.
_ Quarry Tile: 3x3 (75mm x 75 mm), 4x4 ( 100mm x 100mm), 6x6
(150mm x 150mm) 8x8 (200mm x 200mm), 8x4 (200mm x 100mm) ,
6x3 (150mm x 75mm), with nominal thickness of .

66

4. Tile Installation: Tiles to be installed on solid flat, substrates


capable of supporting weight of material.
_Full Mortar Bed: Thick bed of Mortar.
_Thin set Mortar Bed: Glass mesh mortar unit
5. Terrazzo: Composite Material poured in place or precast, for floors,
walls, stairs,
_Standard Terrazzo : 3/8 chips
_Venetian Terrazzo: Larger than 3/8
_Palladian Terrazzo: Thin Random slabs marble w/ standard terrazzo
in between.
_Rustic Terrazzo: Matrix depressed to expose chips.
6. Installation of Terrazzo:
_Cushion Method: Finish system separated from structural slab by
membrane.
_Monolithic Method
_Bonded Method
_Thin set Method
7. Stone Finishes: For interior finishes of walls and floors. Flooring
marble, Granite, Slate. (19mm) thick, attached to wall substrate
with stainless steel wires or ties.
_ Thin Stone Set: For interior Finishing, 3/8 (10mm) thick
24. Acoustical Treatment:
_Ceilings : Thin panels Wood Fiber, Mineral Fiber, Glass Fiber set in
metal support grid framing suspended by wires from above structure.
Tiles are perforated to absorb sound. Acoustical Ceiling absorb sound
but do not prevent sound transmission. Lay in system : 24x 24
(600mm x 600mm) tiles. Metric Tiles multiple of 600mm.
_Special Acoustical Wall Panels: Metal Strip Ceilings, Wood Grids,
Fabric Covered acoustical strips. Determine clearances for recessed

67

lights, ductwork, locate sprinklers, fire alarm speakers, smoke


detectors, drapery pockets.
_Acoustical Tiles can be fire rated
_ Seismic Restraints for Suspended Ceilings
a. Individual Light fixtures normally supported by ceiling grid must be
independently supported with wires.
b. Actual weight of ceiling system: 2.5 lbm/ft2 or less.
c. Ceiling System not to be used for lateral support. Partitons should
be braced.
d. Ceiling Angles: Min. 22mm ledge, with min. 3/8: clearance
(10mm) clearance from edge of tile to wall.
e. Perimeter Main Runners prevented Cross Runners prevent from
spreading without relying on permanent attachment to ceiling angle.
f. Seismic Zones: Suspension system to be heavy duty type and must
have lateral force bracing 12ft (3600mm) o.c. in both directions, with
first point within 6ft (1800mm) of each wall.
_Carpeting:

25. Wood Flooring:


Hardwood and Softwood with hardwood predominant.
Hardwood: Red Oak, White Oak, Maple, Birch, Beech, Pecan,
Mohogany, Walnut.
Softwood: Yellow Pine, Fir, Western Hemlock
_Types of Wood Flooring:
a. Strip Flooring: 3/8 to 25/32 thick. Residential and Commercial
Aplications
b. Plank Flooring: Laid in Random Lengths, with staggered end joints.
Residential and Historic applications.
c. Block Flooring: Preassembled wood flooring. Unit Block Flooring,
Laminated Block Flooring,
d. Solid Block Flooring: Solid end grain blocks.

68

e. Parquet Flooring: Preassembled units small thin slats of wood in


variety of patterns. Sold in 12 squares 5/16 thick. (300mm squares,
8 mm thick).
d. Resilient Floors:
e. Wood Strip Floors:
f. Relocatable Floors: Modular Units 4 ft2 (1200 mm2 )
_Grades of Wood Flooring: National Oak Flooring Manufacturers
Association, Maple Flooring Manufactures Associations, Southern
Pine Inspection Bureau, West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau,
Western Wood Products Association.
a. Unfinished Oak Flooring Grade: Clear, Select, #1Common, #2
Common.
_Species of Wood Flooring: Maple , Oak, Birch, Beech, Bamboo,
Palm.
_ Finishes:
1. Wood Strips and Plank Flooring installed unfinished for Field
Sanding, Staining and Finishing.
2. Block Flooring: Unfinished or Prefinished
3. Parquet Flooring: Impregnated with Acrylic and Irradiated for hard
durable finish.
_Installation:
1. Wood flooring installed over suitable nail able surface.
2. Wood flooring laid on wood sleepers. (19mm) gap left at
perimeter, for expansion.
_ Laminated Flooring: Variation of Plastic Laminate Material.
Composed Clear-Wearing Sheet over Melamine-Impregnated
Decorative Printed sheet with core layers of phenolic impregnated

69

kraft paper. 5/16 (8mm) thick, laid on cushioned foam


underlayment, with tongue-grooved edges glued together.
_ Resilient Flooring: Composition materials made from various resins,
plasticizers, fillers, formed under heat and pressure, to produce thin
material in sheets or tiles.
_Vinyl Flooring: Polyvinyl Chloride. Sizes 12in (300mm) squares,
1/16 to 1/8 (1.6mm to 3.2mm) thick.
_Vinyl Composition Tile: Include fillers that decrease percentage of
polyvinyl chloride. Through Grain Types: color and pattern extend
uniformly through tile thickness.
_Rubber Flooring: Synthetic Rubber . Not very resistant to oils,
grease.Hard to clean. Easily damaged.
_Linoleum: Oxidized Linseed Oil, Pigments, Fillers applied over a
backing of burlap asphalt saturated felt. Battleship Linoleum: single
color. Inlaid Linoleum: multicolored patterns extend through
thickness to backing. Does not resist to alkalis.
_Cork Flooring: Tiles for acoustical controls. Not resistant to
moisture, heavy loads, concentrated foot traffic.
_Seamless Flooring: Mixture of resinous matrix, fillers, decorative
materials, applied in liquid or viscous form that forms to hard ,
seamless surface. High performance flooring with special
characteristics, hardness, severe stain and chemical resistance, high
water resistance, easy to clean. For Industrial floors, Commercial
Kitchens, Food preparation Plants, Factories, Clean Rooms,
Laboratories, Hospitals, Correctional Facilities, Parking Garages.
1/16 to thick.
26. Carpet: Versatile Flooring Material. Made of Fibers: Wool, Nylon,
Acrylic, Polyester, Polypropylene. Manufacturing techniques:
a. Tufting : Insert Pile Yarns through pre woven backing.
b. Weaving: Interlace warp and weft yarns in traditional manner .
c. Needle Punching: Pulls Fibers through backing with bed needles.

70

d. Fusion Bonding: Embeds fabric in synthetic baking.


Pitch of Carpet: Number of Warp Lines of Yarn in a 27 (685mm)
width.
Stitch: Number Lengthwise tufts in 1 (25.4mm). Higher Pitch and
Stitch numbers, denser the carpet.
Pile Height: Height of Fiber from surface of backing to top of Pile.
Cushion: Increases life of carpet.
27. Painting: Application of thin Coatings of Various Materials, to
protect and decorate surfaces to which they are applied.
Coating = Vehicle + Body + Pigments
_Paints: Solvent Base, Water Base
_Solvent Based Coatings: Binders dissolved in or containing organic
solvents.
_ Water Based Coatings: Binders soluble or dispersed in water.
_Clear Solvent Based Coatings: Varnish, Shellac, Silicone, Urethane.
_Stain: Clear Solvent Based Coatings + Small amount of Pigment.
_Oil Paints: Drying Oil or Curing Oil.
_Latex Paints: Water Based with vinyl chloride or AC Resins as binder.
_Epoxy Coatings: High resistance, high performance coating.
_Urethane Coatings: High performance coating.
_Polyurethane Paint: High Gloss.

26. Vertical Transportation: All methods used to move people and


materials vertically. Passenger, Freight Elevators, Escalators,
Dumbwaiters, Vertical Conveyors, Moving Ramps, Wheelchair Lifts,
Platform Lifts, Stairs, Ramps, Ladders.
_Hydraulic Elevators: Lifted by a Plunger or ram, set in ground
directly under car, operated by oil as pressure fluid. Used for short
lifts, (2) to (6) stories high. About 50ft (15 m). Traveling speed: 25 fpm

71

to 150 fpm (0.13 m/sec to 0.75 m/sec). Weight Capacities : Single


Ram Elevators 2000 lbm to 20,000 lbm ( 1000 kg to 10,000 kg) ,
Multiple ram units can lift from 20,000 lbm to 100,000 lbm (10,000 kg
to 50,000 kg).
_ Holeless Hydraulic Plunger: Use of Telescoping Plunger set in shaft
next to cab.
_ Electric Elevators: Most Common elevator type, used for passenger
service. Capable of much higher lifts, Greater speeds, precisely
accelerate and Decelerate. Cab suspended by cables, draped over
sheave and attached to counterweight. Also called traction
elevators. Speed: 200 lbm to 500 lbm (1000 kg to 2500 kg)
a. Gearless Traction Elevators: Use direct current motor (dc) directly
connected to sheave. Break mounted on shaft.
b. Geared Mounted Elevators: Slow Speeds 25 fpm to 450 fpm (0.13
m/s to 2.25 m/s)
_Roping: Arrangement cables supporting elevator.
a. Single Wrap : rope passes through sheave only once.
b. Double Wrap: rope wound over sheave twice.
c. 1 :1 Roping: Rope directly connected to counterweight, cable travel
just as far as car, in opposite direction.
d. 2:1 Roping: Rope wrapped around sheave on counterweight and
connected to top of shaft , rope moves twice as far as car.
_ Operation and Control:
a. Operation: Way electrical system of elevator or group of elevators
answer to calls.
b. Control: Method coordinating and Operating all aspects elevator
services , Travel Speed, Accelerating and Decelerating, Door Opening
Speed and Delay, Leveling, Hall Lantern Signals.

72

c. Operating System: Coordinate elevator response to signal calls on


each floor so that waiting time is minimized and elevators operate in
most efficient manner possible.
d. Single Automatic:
c. Single call Button on each floor and in car.
d. Selective Collective Operation: Elevator remembers and answers
all calls in one direction, and reserves and answers calls in opposite
direction.
_Safety Devices:
a. Main Brake: Activates if main power fails, if speeds is too high,
does not stop free falling elevator car.
b. Hoisting Door Interlocks: Prevents elevator from operating unless
hoisting door is closed and locked.
c. Safety Edges: Movable Strips on leading edge of door that activate
switch to reopen if something contacts it.
d. Safety Devise for Overload:
e. Multiple Ropes:
f. Escape Hatches:
g. Alarm Buttons
h. Telephones
i. Visual Signals:
j. Audible Signals:
_Elevator Design: Capacity, Speed, Number of elevators in a
particular Building. Roping Method, Machine Room Layout, Control
System, Cab Decoration.
a. Capacity and Speed: Number, Capacity, Arrangement of Elevators.
Interrelationship between number of people, serve in given time
period, maximum waiting time desired, cost, particular requirements
of building.
b. Handling Capacity: On Five Minute Peak Period. Maximum
number of passengers in car directly related to capacity in weight.

73

e. Elevator Speed: Based on number of floors served, and general size


of building.
f. Number of Elevators Required:
Number of elevators = total number of people / handling capacity of one car

_Location and Lobby Design: Elevators to be grouped near center of


building. Max. 8 cars in one Group. Max. 4 Cars in one Line.
_Elevatoring:
Method 1: Divide Total number of Elevators into Banks, that serve
separate zones of building.
Method 2: Sky Lobby Concept.
Method 3: Stacked or Double decked elevator Cabs.
_Doors: Center Opening, Side Opening, Single Speed , Two Speed.
Single Speed Center Opening most Common. Min. door opening 42.
_Machine Rooms: Best Located Directly above Hoist-way. Machine
room must be as wide as hoist way and 12 ft to 16 ft (2660 mm to
4880mm) deeper than hoist way. Min. ceiling Hgt 7-6 (2290mm) to
10-0 (3050mm).
_ Freight Elevators: Transport equipment and Materials.
Class A: General Freight. No item exceeds capacity elevator.
Min. 50 lb/ft2 (240 kg/m2) platform area.
Class B: For Motor vehicle loading. Min. 30 lb/ft2 (150 kg/m2).
Class C: Industrial Truck Loading. 50 lb/ft2 (240 kg/m2). C1: Includes
Trucks, C2 No Trucks, C3 Concentrated Loading .
Freight Elevators available in capacities 2500 lbm to 8000 lbm.(1250
kg to 4000 kg). Hydraulic Elevators have capacity of 100,000 lbm (50
000 kg). Speeds 50 fpm (0.25 m/sec) to 200 fpm (1 ./sec).

74

_ Escalators: Devices that carry large amount of people from one


level to another. Rated by Speed and Size. 100 fpm (0.5 m/s) 120 fpm
(0.5 m/s). Sizes: 32, 40, 48 (800, 1000, 1200mm). Capacities: 2300
people/hour on 32 Models. 4500 people/hour on 48 Model. Housed
on 300 angle . Motor, Drives extend below treads.
_Stairs and Ramps: Basic Types Vertical transportation. Utilitarian
Stairs, Monumental Stairs.
_Stair Design: Basic Configuration and Shape. Space Required. Layout
Geometry. Width, Run, Landing Depths and Widths determine how
much space is required. Total Run depends on depth of treads,
number of risers, landing used. Minimum Stair Width, 36 (914 mm)
or 44 (1118 mm) for occupant load > 50. Handrails project: 4 (114
mm ) on both sides of stairway. Winding Stairs, Circular Stairs.
Circular Arch min. (2) width stair. Spiral Stairs use wedged shaped
treads, radiated from center support column. Riser hiegth max. 9 .
2R+T = 5
RT= 75
R+T = 7
T= 20 4R /3
Max. Hgt. between Landings = 12ft.

75

BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI V


Sintesi V
DUELEONI

Architectural Design

1.0 The Nature of Architectural Design:


_Architecture: Art and Science of Designing and Constructing Buildings.
Creative Process of conceiving and developing physical form to accommodate
human needs and purposes.
Architectural Forms, while composed of material elements, establish spaces in
which human activities take place.
_ Process of Architectural Design: Exercise , in synthesis, of putting together a
complex array of disparate parts, to form a unified, interdependent composition.
_Process of Architectural Design: Requires Collaboration of Specialists. Chief
function of an Architect, coordinate team of specialists who, together, create a
design.
_Design: Process of giving form to an Idea. Results in purposeful, physical
creation that serves a practical need. Design involves setting forth objectives,
analyzing information, planning, and conceiving appropriate spaces, and forms. In
Architecture, artful solutions are the goal to be sought. The process of Design
involves understanding of functional problem, which requires physical solution.
The more is known about the problem, the better the design solution.
Functional Problems are very complex. Each element of a problem might be it self
an intricate problem. Designer must seek expert technical advice, and assimilate it
into design solution. During certain Architectural Periods, formulized designs
become a Style. More useful to rely on method than design. Methodic approach to
design examines the problem, resources and techniques available, and seeks
physical solution to design problem. Formulized Designs = Styles
_ Traditional Design: Use of widely accepted style of design developed in the past.
Indigenous Architecture.

2.0 Considerations in Architectural Design


Process of Architectural Design involves simultaneous resolution of a number of
considerations, and combination of a number of elements into a whole. Purpose
of Architecture : to accommodate human activities. ARCHITECTURE = ACCOMMODATE HUMAN
ACTIVITIES

1. Architecture Requires appropriate relationship between site and structure it


accommodates. RELATONSHIP BETWEEN SITE AND STRUCTUCTURE IT ACCOMODTATES
2. Architecture should respond to characteristics of site: Form, Climate, Solar
Position, Vegetation, Existing Structures. ARCHITECTURE = RESPOND TO CHARACTERISTICS OF SITE: FORM
CLIMATE, SOLARE POSITION, VEGETATION, EXISTING STRUCTURES.

3. Architecture to be placed in landscape so as to be well seen. Views of


surrounding Landscape should be visible from building. ARCHITECTURE WELL SEEN IN LANDSCAPE
4. Architecture should serve purpose it is intended to serve. Function properly.
5. Architecture should express the purpose it serves.
6. Architecture should use Economy of Means to achieve its purpose.
7. Architecture should utilize available technologies.
8. Architecture must have a human scale, in materials and spaces, and Interior
and Exterior. ARCHITECTURE MUST HAVE HUMAN SCALE
9. Architecture should utilize materials appropriately. USE LOCAL MATERIALS
10. Architecture should utilize familiar and common place building techniques of
its local. USE LOCAL BUILDING TECHNIQUES
11. Architecture should be graceful, silhouette and massing.
12. Architecture should exhibit a degree of exuberance. It is an assertive act.
13. Architecture should exhibit a priority or hierarchy of parts.
14. Architecture should offer the human eye a visually rich and interesting field of
view.

15. Architecture should establish a relationship between interior and exterior


spaces.
16. Architecture should have integrity honesty and wholeness throughout.
17. Architecture should be expressive of human spiritual aspirations.
18. Every work of Architecture should be regarded as an opportunity to
demonstrate architectures basic principles.
19. Architecture should have an all-embracing and encompassing physical design
concept.
20. Architecture should be a place, or spatial place forum, that encourages human
contact. Architectural space is the arena where activity, interaction, and
accomplishment take place. Architectural space facilitates a broad range of
human activities. It does not prescribe or limit them.
3.0 Some Prospectives on Design:
1. Relationship to Human Body
Design composed of several elements ,that can be combined in a number of ways.
Design reflection of society which produces it, reflection of whole human nature.
Design concerns itself with things that are to be used by people. There is a
connection between human body and designed objects. Success of Design: how
well it responds to or recalls the form of human features. Anthropomorphic design
relationships establish associations between human characteristics and manmade-objects. In Design of objects ,elements are refer to elements with same
names that are applied to parts of the human body. In Architecture we refer to a
supporting leg of a structure, the head of a door, face (faade) of a building.
Design can be viewed from a prospective of human associations. Human
awareness of design: Heights, Distances, of space. Force of Gravity, Rhythmic
Patterns. Direct Relationship between human body and units of measurement
used to describe objects.
Measurements derived from parts of the Human Body:

Breath of a Thumb = 1 inch.


Human Foot = 1 foot = 12 inches
Center to Body to arm = Yard
Spread of the Arms = Fathom
Meter = 1/10,000,000 Length Meridian from earths pole to equator.
2. Nature as a Source of Inspiration:
1851 Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton , contemplated by the structure of a Water
Lillys Skeleton Pattern.
Natural Elements are so appropriate to their purpose, and expressive to them,
designers have always found creative inspiration in the realm of nature.

4.0 A Vocabulary of Form:


A. Basic System of Geometry: Vocabulary of Design, Concepts of Visual
Organization.
1. Point indicates position. Place where two lines intersect.
2. Line is a path described when a point moves. Has position, direction, length, no
thickness.
3. Plane is a path described by line in motion, in direction other than its own.
Plane has position, direction, length, breadth, no thickness.
4. Volume is a three dimensional space described by a plan in motion, in direction
other than parallel to itself.

Drawn Lines represent elements of an imagined concept, with the following


attributes:

1. Shape: Outline or Configuration of a thing. CONFIGURATION OF A THING


2. Size: Physical Dimension, Magnitude, or Extent of Something. All shapes have
sizes. PHYSICAL DIMENSION, EXTENT, MAGNITUDE OF SOMETHING
3. Color: Appearance of something caused by light reflected on it. White, absence
of Color. Black absence of Light. OBJECT APPEARANCE CAUSED BY LIGHT REFLECTION
4. Texture: Surface characteristic of an object. OBJECT SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
_With Lines, Planes, Volumes, which are structure of Objects, and Shape, Size,
Color, Texture, which are an objects characteristics, a Designer has the basic tools
or language, necessary almost any design. Particularly useful geometric shapes:
Square, Circle, Triangle. OBJECT's STRUCTURE: LINES, PLANES, VOLUMES, OBJECT's CHARACTERISTICS: SHAPE, SIZE,COLOR,
TEXTURE.

5.0 Characteristics of Architectural Design: Can be Isolated, described, analyzed.


Space, Form, Scale, Proportion, Rhythm, Balance, Symmetry, Light, Color.
1. Space: Interval between points or objects. Architectural Space is the threedimensional volume enclosed by building elements, limited, where movement and
activities of people take place. Space is perceived by all our senses, which interpret
what they experience.
Every space has a different effect on people, depending on its Size, Height, Scale,
Light, Color, Details. There are some general principles that establish desirable
Dimensions, and Proportion of Spaces. Good Design of Interior Space must provide
proper balance of openness, and sheltering containment if one is to feel
comfortable. Aim of design, to create spaces in which one will feel secure,
sheltered, orientated, at ease. Space also exists to accommodate movement,
shape of spaces can indicate how one is expected to move. Movement is governed
by amount of spatial freedom or access provide. Manipulating Space, describes
relationship between spatial design and the feeling of people in that space,
achieved through design.

2. Form: Perception of Form based on memory associations, involving tactile and


visual senses. Smooth, rounded forms tend to be inviting, encouraging touching.
Sharp-edged objects issue a visual warning that they should not be touched, or
touched with caution. An object that is soft and lite weighted poses little threat.
Form can also implore movement.
3. Scale: Relative size of a structure or space with reference to the human body.
When something dos not conform to its expected size, when it is too large or too
small, it is said to be out of scale. How big something is, inquire about size
relative to ourselves. Extra-Human Scale derives from allowing functions to
determine size. Objects whose size derives from such Extra Human Functions,
may contain clues of scalar references.
4. Proportion: Relationship between constituent parts of a structure. Expresses
order of importance of parts, casting some into Primary roles and others into
secondary roles. Proportion suggests role played by a component part in a
structure. Key to beauty through systems of mathematical proportions. Golden
Section is based on proportions found in nature, as well as the human body.
Whole is divide into smaller part is to the larger as the larger is to the whole.
5. Rhythm: Regular occurrence of elements, in time or in space. Rhythm spacing
of elements have emotional impact. Exposed structural elements, Placement of
Windows, Repetition of Material Patterns, Textures.
6. Balance: Equilibrium among constituent parts of a structure.
_Static Balance of Parts: Equal size, located equally about a reference axis.
_Dynamic Balance of Parts: Unequal size, arranged about a reference axis so to
compensate for their differences.
7. Symmetry: Balanced arrangement of elements, equally deployed on either side
of a central axis.
8. Light: Radiant Energy perceived by the human. Designer determines how much
daylight falls on a building, how it enters a building, how its quality and intensity

may be utilized. Light Posseses psychological connotations. Light= Clarity,


Dark=Obscure, Mysterious, Unknown.
9. Color: Light and color inseparable. Color, sensation caused by radiation of
particular wave length of light. Color used for articulating form and space. We
respond emotionally to color. Color has associations with warmth, coolness,
weight, size, distance, sound. Red is Warm and Loud. Green is Soothing. Brown is
Masculine. Pink is Feminine. Black is Mysterious. Color effects the perception of
time. Color can express the character of design and emphasize the spirit intended.
6.0 Human Elements: Design is Human Activity. It is performed by people
for people. Sensitivity to People: Senses, Habits, Feelings.
1. Sense: Environmental Messages Continuously communicated to our senses.
Vision, greatest concern of Designer. Hearing gives us an impression of size, shape
and material. Smell aids perception of space. Touch : Smooth , rugged.
7.0 Style: System of accepted order.
8.0 Culture:
British :Higher degree of sociability.
French: Arrange Offices, Homes, Cities, to be in close contact with each other.
German: Sensitive to intrusion
Japanese: Name Intersections not streets.
Arabs: Intense Eye contact.
USA: Dominant Culture.
9.0 Beauty: Produce Characterizing Identity for a building. Beautiful Design
expresses order. Possess Quality. Skillfully made from Appropriate Materials.
Useful and Practical.

10.0 Architectural Design: Creative Organization of Forms, to serve certain


functions. Beautiful Design: Enrich Life. Architecture combines external form,
internal space, materials, and structure into a unified whole.
Materials and Structure: Science of Architecture
Form and Space: Art
Organizational Arrangements in any project key to successful function.

BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI VI


Sintesi V
DUELEONI

ArchiFlash

1. Seasoning: A Method of decreasing the moisture content in wood to


below its fiber saturation point in order to increase strength, reduce
weight, and minimize shrinkage and warpage. This Method also
improves resistance to insects, fungi and decay.
Two Processes:
1. AIR DRYING: Takes several months and results in a maximum
moisture content of 19%.
2. KLIN DRYING: Takes a few days and results in a maximum moisture
content of 15%.
Framing Lumber is considered dry if the moisture content is 10% or less.

2. Name of the most important consideration in the design of a brick


wall: Water Tightness. This is achieved by:
a. Proper selection of Brick and Mortar types for the Climate.
b. Proper Tooling of Joints to shed water.
c. Proper Control Joint locations which allow the wall to move and
expand without causing cracks.

3. Galvanizing: A Zinc coating applied to iron or steel to protect against


corrosion. This process represents the largest consumption of zinc in
the U.S.

4. Name of three Main Types of flat Roof Membranes.


a. BUILT-UP MEMBRANE: A multiple pile of asphalt-impregnated felt, assembled
in place. Aggregate is embedded in the top surface to protect the membrane from
ultraviolet rays.
b. SINGLE PLY ROOF: An elastomeric/plasto-meric membrane (synthetic rubber)
that is applied in a single layer. Requires less on site labor than built-up
membranes and less prone to cracking from slight movement. Weather Resistant.
c. FLUID APPLIED MEMBRANE: A rubber membrane applied in several coats with a
roller or spray gun. Used for complex shapes, like vaults and domes. It is also used
for WATERPROOFING below grade.
5. Which type of Brick would be specified for a retaining wall in the State of
Maine? : SW Severe Weathering.
6. In Theory, what condition would provide the best means of Insulation?
A Vacuum; where there is no air movement between materials.
7. What is the maximum distance from which concrete can be dropped to avoid
segregation? A maximum of Five Feet. However, after three feet the aggregtaes
will begin to separate from the mixture. This separation causes the mix to be nonuniform and result in a weak, interior concrete.
8. Design Strength: (fc) : The Maximum Compressive Strength of a cured
concrete, which is commonly 3000 psi, reached after curing for 28 Days.
9. Hydrostatic Pressure: Pressure Created by excessive ground water that is
exerted on a structure. A particular problem for foundation walls as this pressure
results in an increase in lateral force. The magnitude of this pressure increases as
depth below the ground surface increases. A DRAIN TILE is often used to help
alleviate the pressure.
10. Sheepfoot: A tamping-roller which has a large teeth used to increase soil
stability and Bearing Capacity. Used during the soil compaction process.

11. Fiber Saturation Point: The Point at which green-lumber is ready to be


Seasoned, which is after 70 % of trapped water has evaporated.
12. Lightweight Concrete: Designed for superior thermal insulation and fire
resistive qualities. While lacking in the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, of regular
concrete, it is easier to handle, does not require complex supporting structures,
and is easier to nail into.
13. Name Five terms used to describe water tightness, In order of most to least
effectiveness:
a. WATERPROOF: Impervious to water with or without Hydrostatic Pressure.
b. WATER-REPELLENT: Prevents water transmission by capillary action but will
transmit water under pressure.
c. WATER RESISTANCE: Permits leakage of water only through openings no larger
than the capillary pores.
d. PERVIOUS: Allows leakage of water through openings larger than the capillary
pores.
e. PERMEABLE: Penetrable by water without material displacement or failure.
14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using aluminum windows?
Advantages: Low in cost, Lightweight, strong, resistant to corrosion, and
available in a variety of standard shapes.
Disadvantages: Susceptibility to galvanic action and high heat conduction.
15. Post-Tensioning Concrete: A method of PRESTRESSING concrete used its load
carrying capacity. Hollow sleeves containing steel cables are placed in the
concrete form prior to pouring. After concrete has cured, the steel cables may be
pulled to the desired level of tension using hydraulic jacks. The cables are then
attached to the concrete with an anchoring device. Typically used for cast in place
elements, it can be re-tensioned during construction to compensate for changing

loads. Often more difficult to handle and more expensive than other methods of
prestressing.
16. Curtain Wall: An exterior non load bearing skin, supported entirely by the
building structure. Often made of aluminum frames and glass panels. Common
in high-rise steel framed buildings.
17. What factors determine the type of Glass used in a Particular situation:
a. Transparency
b. Light transmission
c. Strength
d. Security
e. Insulating qualities
f. Sound Isolation
g. Availability
h. Radiation Shielding
i. Cost
18. Name five categories of roofing materials, in order of most to least durable:
1. Copper, Lead, Stainless Steel, Clay tile and Slate are the most durable and
expensive.
2. Terne-plate, galvanized iron and built-up roofing.
3. Wood Shingles
4. Asphalt Shingles
5. Asphalt rolled roofing: the least durable and least expensive material

19.
a. Jamb
b. Stile
c. Muntin
d. Pane
e. Head
f. Top Rail
g. Jamb
h. Stile
i. Sill
j. Mullion
K. Botton Rail
19. Ferrous: A classification of metal which contains a substantial amount of iron.
For example, iron, steel, stainless steel and steel alloys.
20. Plywood: A panel of wood comprised of an odd number of veneer layers,
three or more, permanently joined with glue. The grain direction of each layer is

usually at a right angle to its adjacent layer, which increases strength and
resistance to shrinkage, warpage and splitting.
21. What is the method by which building materials and construction assemblies
become fire rated?
Materials are placed in a test chamber and according to specific criteria, jets of
fire are applied. The materials or assembly are given a rating depending on their
point of failure. These are standardized testing methods, dictated by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

22. Name the Four Soil Groups from most to least stable:
1. GRAVELS: Coarse aggregates or soft rock. An excellent foundation base.
2. SAND: Loose granular rock. Finer than gravel, but coarser than silt. An excellent
foundation base.
3. SILTS: Fine sedimentary material deposited by running water, consisting of
sand, clay, and organic material. Stable when dry or damp, unstable when wet.
4. CLAYS: Finely ground rock, formed by decomposition and hydration of certain
rock. Expands when wet, hard when dry.
23. Core Borings: A method of testing whereby an intact soil sample is extracted
by drilling through all types of soil, to great depths if necessary. A reliable, but
expensive soil test.

24.

Location B. Porous clay pipe form retaining walls is best located above the footing,
at the base of the retaining wall.
25. Purlin: A longitudinal Beam that spans across the slope of a pitched roof
running parallel to the ridge beam and header. It is used to support the rafters.
26. Annealing: A process of slow controlled cooling of metal or glass from a
heated state. This helps relieve internal stresses and unpredictable behavior in the
finish material.
27. Heat Strengthened Glass: Glass which is heated to 1100 0 Fahrenheit and
slowly cooled, resulting in twice the strength of ANEALED glass. This Process is
similar to Tempering, but is less expensive and results in less resistant glass.

28.

A. Strike Jamb
B. Head
C. Jamb
D. Door Leaf
E. Sill or Threshold
29. What are the three most common sources of moisture problems?
1. PRECIPITATION: Rain and Snow.
2. GROUND WATER: Rain or Snow accumulation at the WATER TABLE.
3. CONDENSATION: Water Vapor at the DEW POINT: (100% humidity) generated
by equipment, aspiration, and perspiration.
30. Vapor Barrier: A material that restricts the transmission of water through a
wall or roof. It is placed on the warm side of the insulation inhibiting condensation
which could reach the Dew Point.

31. Pre-Stressed Concrete: Concrete members permanently subjected to a degree


of resistive stress prior to being placed in construction. An economical and
efficient use of materials that allows for longer spans and heavier loads.

32.

A. Strike Jamb
B. Head
C. Jamb
D. Door Leaf
E. Sill or Threshold

10

33. What are the three most common sources of moisture problems?
1. PRECIPITATION: rain and Snow
2. GROUND WATER: Water Vapor at the Dew Point (100 % humidity) generated by
equipment, aspiration and perspiration.
34. Vapor Barrier: A material that restricts the transmission of water vapor
through a wall or roof. It is placed on the warm side of the insulation inhibiting
condensation which could reach the Dew Point.
35. Pre-Stressed Concrete: Concrete members permanently subjected to a
required degree of resistive stress prior to being placed in construction. An
economical and efficient use of material that allows for longer spans and heavier
loads.
36. Roof Incline or Pitch:

Rise

Run
Indicates the slope of a roof expressed as a Ratio. The number of inches of vertical
rise for each 12 of horizontal run.
37. Galvanic Action: Corrosion resulting from the contact of dissimilar metals in
the presence of an electrolyte., such as moisture. To prevent this, different
metals should be separate from each other by a nonconductive barrier as rubber
or neoprene.
Metals far apart on the list should not be in contact with each other. The farther
apart on the list the greater the chance of corrosion when in contact.

11

ZINC
ALUMINUM
STEEL & IRON
STAINLES STEEL
TIN
LEAD
BRAS
COPPER ALLOYS
COPPER
BRONZ
GOLD
38. Welding: Creates a metallurgical bond between metals by heating them above
their melting point and then placing them in direct contact. When cooled, the
various metals fuse to form a single piece.

12

39.

A. SPARK ARRESTOR: Non-corrosive metal mesh at the top of the flue


which impedes jumping sparks.
B. FLUE: Directs gases upward from smoke chamber to the outside.
C. SMOKE CHAMBER: Channels gases into the flue.
D. SMOKE SHELF: Deflects down draft of cool air upward.
E. FIREBRICK: Clay brick which withstands high temperatures.
F. FIREBRCK: Open recess in wall where fuel is burned.
G. DAMPER: Flap in the throat of a fireplace that controls the flow of gasses.
H. THROAT: Top of fireplace narrows before gases reach smoke chamber.
I. HEARTH: Non-combustible flooring outside of fireplace protects against sparks,
flames, and heat.

13

40. What is the Nominal Diameter, in inches, of #6 Reinforcing Bar?


0.75 or .
A rule of thumb value for reinforcing bar is 1/8 per bar size number.
Example: #3 bar = 3/8 diameter
#5 bar = 5/8 diameter
50. Shim: A thin piece of material used to adjust or align different components of
a building during construction.
51. Smelting: The thermal process of refining ores to extract pure metal.
52. Sheathing: A structural covering installed on the outside surface of framing.
Provides lateral support, increases rigidity and acts as a base for applying exterior
finishes. Plywood or particle board is used in most instances and nailed to studs or
joists. Insulating sheathing may be used only support is not necessary.
53. Alloy Steel: Steel that contains two or more added metallic substances, one of
which is an elemental metal, intended to change its mechanical or physical
properties. These alloying elements are in addition to carbon, manganese, silicon,
sulfur and phosphorous, which are common in standard structural steel.
54. Bridging: Bracing between joists or trusses used to stiffen the structure,
spread concentrated loads to adjacent areas, brace against deflection, and help
maintain alignment of the tops of the beam. Materials used for Bridging may be
metal cross bracing , wood cross members which are 1 by 3 or solid wood
blocking.
55. Nails: The weakest wood connectors. They range in size from 6d (six penny) to
60d (sixty penny) and are commonly used in light frame construction. The term
penny is a measure of the nails length. For example; 6d is 2 and 60d is 6.
66. Milwork: Custom shop-fabricated woodwork, manufactured under controlled
conditions and brought to the site for installation. For example; Cabinetry,
Paneling, Custom Doors, Shelving and Custom Furniture.

14

67. Finish Carpentry: The final exposed wood fabricated on site. For example,
wood-siding, trim, door and window framing, stairs, cabinetry and built-ins.
68. Grout: A cemetitious mixture consisting of sand, lime, water and usually
Portland cement, mixed to a pouring consistency and used to fill masonry wall
cavities and bond to masonry reinforcement.
69.

A. Concealed Valley Flashing


B. Exposed Valley Flashing

15

70.

A. Common Bond (called running bond if there are no Headers).


B. 1/3 Running Bond
C. Stack Bond
D. Flemish Bond
E. English Bond
F. Cross Bond (English, Flemish, or Dutch).
Brick bonding is the strengthening of a masonry wall by interlocking individual
bricks. This Causes the wall to act as a single structural unit.

71. During restoration of historic buildings, what is the best method of


reproducing ornaments?
By drawing, or creating molds.

16

Linear ornaments such as molding can be recreated by a technique called drawing.


First, a template of the ornament is made of ridged plastic or sheet metal. The
template is then repeatedly drawn (pulled) over the surface until the plaster is
smooth. Ornaments can be recreated by using molds. A rubber compound is
painted in multiple layers onto an existing ornament to create a mold. The plaster
is poured into the new mold, which sets very rapidly, allowing the mold to be
reused at an efficient rate.
72. Brick Classification:
1. SW: Severe Weathering: heavy rain, below freezing temperatures.
2. MW: Moderate Weathering; Moderate rain, below freezing temperatures.
3. NW: Negligible Weathering: Minimal rain, above freezing.
Facing brick is either SW or MW and classified into three types.
4. FBS: General use where a wide range of color, size and variation is acceptable.
5. FBX: Facing brick with mechanical perfection. Narrow color range and minimal
variation.
6. FBA: Non-uniform in color, size and texture.
73.

17

Course.
One continuous horizontal layer of brick or masonry bonded with mortar.
One course equals the thickness of the masonry unit or brick, plus the
thickness of one mortar joint.
74. Interstitial Ceiling
A structural suspended ceiling which supports working who install and
maintain and electrical systems. It is essentially a floor that has been
slipped in between other floors.
75. Efflorescence:
A white powdery surface deposit of water soluble salts caused by water
seeping into the masonry. Not harmful but unsightly. It can be removed
with a 5% solution of muriatic acid.
76. Name three methods of testing concrete:
1. SLUMP TEST: Measure consistency. Performed on site prior to pouring.
The concrete is poured into a conical form, which is then removed and the
amount of slump is measured, 3 to 4 inches is standard.
2. CYLINDER TEST: Measure compressive strength. Samples are placed in
molds during the pour and then tested in a laboratory after 7 and 28 days.
3.CORE CYLINDER TEST: Measures the compressive strength of cured inplace concrete. Cylinder is drilled out and brought to a lab for testing.
77. Bentonite: A material used for Waterproofing
Formed by the decomposition of volcanic ash, it is used in the form of flat
panels sandwiched between kraft paper. The panels are placed against
walls and under slabs. The kraft paper quickly deteriorates and the clay
swells to several times its dry volume when saturated with water thus
creating a waterproof barrier.

18

78. Laminated Glass:


Layers of glass that sandwich a vinyl inner layer. The glass and vinyl are
bonded together under heat and pressure. If the glass breaks, the vinyl
holds the shards in place.
It provides a barrier for sound transmission superior to single sheet glass.
When used in multiple layers with an air space in between, it is an
excellent security glass and is bullet resistant.
Considered Safety Glass for use in hazardous areas.
79. Furring:
A non-structural framework of wood or metal applied to a wall or ceiling
plans. It is used to provide an air space, a level or flat surface, cover poor
construction or achieve some other desired result.
80.

A. Concealed Ridge Flashing


B. Exposed Ridge Flashing

19

81. Name the building that incorporated Pyrex glass tubing into the walls and
ceiling:
Johnson Wax Administration Building in Racine, Wisconsin (1936-1937) by Frank
Lloyd Wright.
82. Name the four basic types of mortar in order of strength:
M is the strongest, followed by S,N, and O.
M or S : Used at or below grade for foundation walls, retaining walls, pavements
and walks.
N: Used on exterior and interior, above grade load-bearing walls.
O: Used on exterior and interior non-load bearing walls.
81. Sealants:
Elastic, water tight materials used to fill and seal joints. Classified as low,
intermediate and high performance, depending upon allowable joint movement.
Low performance, depending upon allowable joint movement. Low performance
types are referred to as caulking.
82. Laitance:
A chalky, non-durable deposit of cement and fine aggregates that occurs on
concrete surfaces. This is produced by excess water and/or when the concrete mix
is overworked.
83. Structural Lumber:
Dimensional lumber, 2 inches thick or greater, 4 inches wide or greater, graded for
strength and use in general construction.Timbers are 5 inches x 5 inches minimum.
Heavey timber construction (type 3, combustible), also known as mill construction,
was used in the 19th century. Members were often joined using a split ring
connector. Fire resistance was achieved by using treated members of a minimum
required size and thickness and construction assemblies that limited fire damage.

20

84. Yard Lumber:


Categorized by Size:
BOARDS: Less than 2 inches thick and more than 2 inches in width, graded
for appearance and used as siding, sub-flooring or trim.
DIMENSIONAL LUMBER: 2 to 5 inches thick, 2 inches or more in width, graded
for strength.
TIMBERS: 5 inches x 5 inches and larger and graded for strength.
Categorized by Quality:
SELECT: Finest appearance, grades A,B,C,D
COMMON: Irregular appearance, grades 1,2,3,4
85.

A. Common Bond (called running bond if there are no headers).


B. 1/3 Runnning Bond

21

C. Stack Bond
D. Flemish Bond
E. English Bond
F. Cross Bond (English, Flemish, or Dutch).
Brick bondng is the strengthening of a masonry wall by interlocking invidual
bricks. This causes the wall to act as a single structural unit.
86. What affects the ductility and strength of steel?
The amount of carbon. Carbon increases the strength of steel, yet decreases
its ductility. Standard structural steel has .02 to 0.05 percent carbon.
87.

POSITION NAME

COURSE NAME

a. Header

a. Header

b. Stretcher

b. Stretcher

22

c. Bull Header

c.

Rolock

d. Bull Stretcher

d.

Shiner

e. Soldier

e. Soldier

f. Sailor

f. Sailor

88.

A. Running bond
B. Basket weave
C. Herringbone

23

89. Flitch
A portion of a log swan on two or more sides intended for re-sawing into lumber
or veneer. Also describes the stack of veneer sheets laid together in sequence as
they are cut from the log.
90. What is the significance of the structure of Unity Temple in Oak Park,
Illinois?
Unity Temple, by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1906, was one of the earliest cast in place
concrete buildings in the United States in which the buildings is also the buildings
structure.
91. Name four Methods of Heat Treating Steel.
1. Annealing: A process of reheating and slowly cooling metal to obtain greater
ductility and workability.
2. Quenching: A process of heating metal and then cooling it rapidly by
submersion in water to increase strength.
3. Tempering: A similar process to quenching, but without the rapid cooling.
Improves strength and workability.
4. Casehardening: Produces a hard, thin surface of steel over a relatively softer
core.
92. Name three methods for applying a stucco finish coat:
Final finish application methods:
TROWEL FINISH: Smooth easily maintained surface.
SAND FLOAT FINISH: Sand added to mix. Hand float to produce a uniform texture.
SPRAY FINISH: Perlite aggregate may be substituted for sand if reduced
surface hardness is acceptable. Finish is sprayed on with a gun until desired
surface is achieved.

24

TEXTURE FINISH: Limited only by the imagination of the designer. Can range
from a fine stipple to a rough texture. Applied in various techniques and finishes.
94.

Hot rolled standard steel sections made from medium grade carbon steel with .02
to .05 percent carbon.
A. W-shape (beam and column)
B. S-shape (beam)
C. WT-shape (tee)
D. ST-shape (tee)
E. TS-shape (structural tubing)

25

F.C-shape (channel)
G. L-shape (equal legs)
H. L-shape (unequal legs)
I. Bar
J. Plate
95. Steel Decking
Corrugated, ribbed or cellular sheet steel used as a working platform during
construction and as formwork for pouring concrete.
96. Non-Ferrous
A classification for metals that do not contain a substantial amount of iron. For
example, aluminum, copper, copper alloys (Bronx & brass), zinc, lead and gold.
Used more frequently for ornamental work. Fabricated from rolled, cast and coldformed (bent) shapes.
97. Stainless Steel:
A steel alloy containing 12 to 27 % chromium. Nickel is added to increase
resistance to corrosion and improve cold workability.
98. Brazing:
The joining of two or more pieces of metal at a temperature of 8000 F or above,
using a non-ferrous filler metal with a melting point below that of the base
metal. The filler metal is distributed between the surfaces of the joint by capillary
action. Used for brass, bronze and some aluminum.
99. Ponding:
Occurs when a flat roof is insufficiently sloped. Low spots in the roof will
accumulate water. As water is collected, deflection occurs causing the low spots to

26

collect increasing amounts of water. The process continues until the structures
cannot withstand the load and roof failure occurs.
100. Flashing:
A Material used to protect and seal exterior joints in a building and prevent water
penetration. Used where different materials intersect or at exposed joints where
potential weakness or leakage could occur. Choice of material depends upon
exposure, durability and galvanic action. If exposed, the material can be
aluminum, copper , galvanized steel, zinc, lead or terne.
101.

Masonry Parapet Flashing.


102. Most wide flange beams and channel sections are produced by what
method?
Hot rolled.
A rectangular piece of steel called a bloom passes through multiple rollers until a
desired shape and size is achieved. The steel is then cooled and any minor crooks
are removed by passing through a straightening machine. The steel is then cut to

27

length and labeled to identify its shape, designation, and batch from which it
came. Iron is the only metal which cannot be formed by this method.
103. Precast Concrete:
A concrete construction member that is cast and cured in a location other that
where it will be used. This process may take place on or off site but most elements
are factory produced.
Some of the most common elements include: hollow core, or tee form
spanning members that are pre stressed, tilt-up walls, and lift slabs as well as
ordinary concrete blocks.
104. Sheet Metal Roofing:
A metal roofing material of either copper, galvanized iron, aluminum, or terneplate, a lead and tin coated steel.
ADVANTAGES: Durable and can conform to many different roof shapes.
DISADVANTAGES: Expensive, difficult to install properly, high coefficient of
expansion, susceptible to corrosion and galvanic action.
105.

28

A. PLAIN-SAWN:
Log is cut tangentially. Notable grain patterning. Least expensive method. Most
efficient use of the log.
B. QUARTERSAWN:
Log is cut into quarters.
Boards are cut perpendicular to a log diameter line. Fairly consistent vertical grain
pattern.
C. RIFT-SAWN:
The log is cut into quarters. Boards are cut radially. The most consistent grain
patterning but the least efficient use of the log.
106. Pargeting:
Ornamental plasterwork usually on the exterior of a building. Historically used to
create low reliefs in the shape of figures and vines. This term is also used to
describe a thin coat of plaster put over rough masonry to create a smooth surface.
107. Wash Borings:
Used to locate bedrock beneath very compact soil. A pipe is driven into the hard
earth and a flow of water forces the soil material up. It can penetrate all materials
other than bedrock. The soil sample is inevitably mixed and the test lacks
dependability.
108. Steel Ductility:
A property that allows steel to withstand excessive deformations caused by high
tensile stresses. Higher carbon content in the steel decreases this ability.

109. Which of the following is the weakest method of nailing?


End Nailing

29

Characterized by nailing into the end grain of the wood, it is commonly found in
wall stud framing where the stud meets the top or bottom plate. Although
structurally weak this method works well in holding compression members in
alignment until framing can secure the connection.
110.

Head Flashing.
111. Stucco:
A type of Plaster used for exterior wall surfaces, made from Portland Cement,
Lime, Sand and water. Scratch coats and Brown coats are applied under a
finish coat of Keenes cement for a smoother finish.
112. What are the advantages of prefabricated open web joists?
They are light weight, structural members shop-made from standard components.
This prefabrication can speed construction time and reduce labor costs. They are
relatively rigid in comparison to a wide flange beam. The open web allows
mechanical lines to pass through the joists within the floor.

30

113. What factors determine the selection of a particular roofing method?


CLIMATE: Regional climate affects the durability of a material.
FIRE RESISTANCE: Building codes rate materials according to the degree of
resistance to fire exposure. The classifications are A(severe); B(moderate); C(light).
TYPE OF ROOF AND SLOPE: Related to climate, such as snow load.
WEIGHT OF ROOFING: Affects design and cost of roof deck.
Durability: Dependent upon installation method, material selection and
climate conditions.
114. What are the advantages of using wood as a material of Construction?
Wood is grown and is, in theory, unlimited un availability.
It is the most accessible and workable building material and can be worked with
common tools. It is strong, durable and generally lower in cost than concrete,
steel, or masonry. Considered the most humane material.
115. Hardwood:
A classification of wood which comes from trees that are botanically termed
deciduous (broad leafed trees that loose their leaves in winter). The term
hardwood is not an indication of the hardness of the material.
For example; maple, bass and even balsa are hardwoods.

31

116.

Gravel Stop Flashing.


117. What substance when added to steel makes it stronger and harder?
Carbon.
Strength and hardness are increased with a greater carbon content. However,
ductility and welding capabilities are reduced.
118.

32

A center or centering is a temporary masonry formwork used to construct an arch,


dome, or vault. The centering is then removed when the mortar has set.
119. Plaster:
A cementitious material made from gypsum, lime, sand and water which forms a
plastic, workable substance. The material will conform to a shape or texture
imposed on it while wet and will dry in that state.
120. Pre-Tensioning Concrete:
A method of Pre stressing concrete to maximizes its load bearing capacity. A steel
cable is pulled to its tensile strength prior to the concrete being poured. When the
concrete member is cured, the pre stressed steel cable is cut and a compressive
bond is formed between the steel and the concrete.
121: Butt-Joint Glazing:
An installation method that eliminates vertical mullions and uses a clear
silicone sealant along the joints. The glass is supported at the top and bottom
with framing members on the interior side of the glass. This method allows for a
smooth, uniform faade.
122. Light Gauge Framing:
An aluminum framing system that is lightweight, fast to erect, decay-proof and
dimensionally stable. The system is installed like a wood stud system and can span
up to 32 feet high with light loads.
123. Name four types of concrete joints:
1.CONTROL JOINTS: Allow for controlled cracking along a tooled joint.
2. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS: Occur when successive concrete pours are adjacent.
Usually rebar is used to tie the two areas together. The joint is a point of
weakness, where leakage can occur.

33

124. EXPANSION JOINTS: A specially engineered joint which allows two adjacent
structures to move independently of each other when subjected to thermal or
seismic stresses.
125. ISOLATION JOINTS: joint used to separate concrete into individual structural
elements or to isolate the concrete from other materials.
126. Name three classification of rock:
1. IGNEOUS: Formed from the solidification of molten rock. For example; granite.
2. SEDIMENTARY: Consolidated disintegrated rock, sea shells, clays and silts. For
example; sandstone and limestone.
3. METAMORPHIC: Formed of either igneous or sedimentary rock that has been
altered by pressure or by an intrusion of molten rock or other liquids over a long
period of time. For example; marble or slate.
127. Brick Sizes:
Standard modular size:

4 thick x 2 2/3 high x 8: long (nominal).

Actual size for 3/8 joint: 3 5/8 x 2 x 7 5/8


Actual size for joint:

3 x 2 3/16 x 7

Three Course High, including mortar joints, is equal to 8


3/8 joint is used for facing brick.
joint is used for glazed and structural units and building brick

34

128.

Wood Warpage:
A. Crook
B. Cup
C. Twist
D. Bow

35

129.

Wythe.
A continuous vertical section of a wall, one masonry unit thick. Most brick walls
are two wythes thick, separated by a 2 air space.
130.

36

Extrusion.
The extrusion process can produce very intricate sections for a variety of
applications. A piston pushes a heated billet of metal through a shaped die.
Brakeforming is a bending operation applied to plates or metal sheets in which
successive, one dimensional bends produce the desired shape.
131. In a four-inch thick concrete Walkway what is the typical spacing for
expansion joints?
20 feet on center.
This type of joint allows for the independent movement of structural elements due
to shrinkage and temperature change. The joint accommodates movement due to
both expansion and contraction.

37

132.

SHEAR PLATE CONNECTOR


Used for wood-to-steel connections and wood-to-wood connections. They are flat
plates with a flange extending from the face of the plate to a hole in the middle
for bolting. The plate is inserted into pre-cut grooves. Suited for structures that
must be disassembled.
133.

Split ring connector. Also called a timber connector.

38

Typically used for wood-to-wood lapped joints. The ring helps to develop shear
and slippage resistance in the connection. It forms a tongue and groove
connection. Circular grooves are cut into the wood members to be joined and half
of the steel ring is embedded into each groove. The members are held together
with a bolt.
134. Firestop:
Blocking, or an operable vent located in an air gap in a wall intended to prevent
the spread of fire through that gap. Required at 10-foot intervals in the wall.
Required in concealed spaces and in vertical openings that could allow for the
spread of fire.
136. Intumescent Paint:
A paint used for fire retardation. The paint b, swells or expands to form a
protective coating when exposed to extreme heat.
138. Frost Action:
If a building is in a geographical area prone to this action, foundation walls must
extend to the FROST LINE and the footing must be below this line.
139.

39

A. CYLINDRICAL LOCK. Inexpensive and easy to install. Most popular type of


lockset, concealed in the LOCK STILE of the door.
B. UNIT LOCK: Installed quickly and easily. Fits into a cut out in the edge of the
door.
C. RIM LOCK: Square or Rectangular box mounted on the interior surface of a
door. Not mortised.
D. MORTISE LOCK: Installed into a rectangular cut out in the edge of the door.
140. By what measurement are roofing materials estimated, sold and installed?
By the SQUARE
One square is equal to 100 sqft.
141.

A. Miter
B. Quirk miter

40

C. Tongue & Groove or Lock Miter


D. Shoulder Miter
E. Wood Spline
F. Rabbet
G. Shoulder
H. Lap
142. Mortar:
A cementitious mixture consisting of Sand, Lime, Water and Portland Cement used to hold
masonry units together. Lime promotes water retention for workability.
143. Softwood:
A Classification of wood which comes from trees that are botanically termed
EVERGREEN, or CONIFEROUS. These are needle-leafed, cone bearing trees that
retain their foliage in water. Used for general construction and rough carpentry
due to availability and low cost. For example; spruce, fir, and pine.
144. Auger Borings:
A soil test method that uses an auger bit fastened to a long pipe or rod to bring
soil samples to the surface. Most effective in sand or clay. Usually limited to a
depth of 50 feet below the surface.
145. Batter Boards:
Horizontal boards which are held in place by vertical stakes and used during initial
sitework as reference points to mark the buildings footprint and finished grade.
146. Pile:
A structural foundation member used to provide vertical or lateral support in
areas where soil BEARING CAPACITY is limited. May be of steel, concrete or

41

timber. However, unless specially treated, timber members must be driven


below WATER TABLE to avoid deterioration.
147. Lift-Slab Construction:
Floor and roof slabs are cast on top of each other with a bond breaking agent or
membrane between each layer. Jacks lift the slabs into place. Eliminates formwork
and shortens construction time.
148. Tilt-up:
A system of erecting concrete walls by casting concrete panels horizontally and
then tilting them into a vertical position. The concrete panels are usually 5 to 8
inches thick.
149. The Dew Point:
This occurs when the relative humidity reaches a point where the air becomes
saturated with vapor and condensation occurs, turning vapor into a liquid state.
150. Why is it important to consider a metal/s coefficient of thermal expansion?
Metals, more than any other material expand and contract with changes in
temperature. Therefore, expansion and other types of joints are often needed to
allow for any movement of the structure.
151. Cylinder Test:
This test measures the compressive strength of cured concrete. At the time of the
pour, cylindrical samples are taken from each batch. The samples are moist cured
and tested in a crushing machine at a lab to measure compressive strength. The
crushing test is made after 7 and 28 days.
152. Water / Cement Ratio:
The most critical factor in determining the ultimate compressive strength of
concrete. Only enough water for a workable mix should be added to the cement

42

and aggregate. Too much water added to the mix decreases the strength of cured
concrete.
153. Glue Laminated Beams:
Individual pieces of seasoned lumber are glued together to act as one structural
member. This type of beam spans greater distances and supports more load than
solid timbers. The beams are consistent in size, appearance and strength within
each grade.
There are three grades of appearance:
INDUSTRIAL: Appearance is not a concern
ARCHITECTURAL: Appearance is a concern.
PREMIUM: Highest grade, members are wrapped for shipping.
154. Dampproofing:
A method of treating a surface in order to retard the passage of water, but not to
make it Impervious. It is achieved by a combination of water resistant coatings or
layers applied to exterior surfaces, usually below grade. Does not resist constant
Hydrostatic Pressure.
155. Identify the following definitions with the appropriate term:
1. A unit of cubic volume used in measuring lumber. It is equivalent to an area of 1
square foot having a thickness of 1 inch. BOARD FOOT
2. Multiple, random, hairline cracks on or under the surface of newly finished
plaster, concrete, ceramic, paint. Caused by shrinkage.
3. A semi-solid compound derived from coal or petroleum such as, asphalt, tars,
and pitch. CRAZING
4. The breaking, chipping, and flaking of masonry and concrete due to frost action,
chemicals, or building movement. SPALLING

43

156. Waterproofing:
Treatment of a surface to resist the passage of water under HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE. Various BITUMINOUS coatngs are applied to the exterior of walls and
slabs. It is a more difficult process than dampproofing.
157. What are the differences between the terms; WOOD, LUMBER, and
TIMBER?
WOOD: The fibrous material that lies beneath the bark of a tree. It is produced
by a progressive build-up of growth, layer upon layer.
LUMBER: Wood that has been sawn, planed, and is ready to be used as
a construction member.
TIMBER: Lumber that is 5 inches or greater in the least nominal dimension.
158. Thermal Insulation:
Any material with a high resistance to heat transmission that can slow the
CONDUCTION of heat through a building. The effectiveness of insulation in
resisting the conduction of heat is expressed as its THERMAL RESISTANCE, or
(R) value.
159.

44

Dropped Panel.
A thickened slab at the top of a column which resists high SHEAR forces and is
used IN TWO-WAY FLAT SLAB CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.
160. Terne-Plate:
Often used in roofing, an alloy of lead and tin. Usually applied over a sheet of
steel.
161. The Eiffel Tower is constructed of what materials?
Wrought Iron and Cast Iron.
The columns are cast Iron, and the diagonal braces are wrought iron.
162. Soldering:
The joining of metal elements by means of another metal that has a melting
point much lower than that of the base metal.
163. Cavity Wall:
A masonry wall constructed of two wythes separated by an air space 2 to 3 inches
wide and tied together with non-corrosive metal ties or anchors. This type of
masonry wall provides added insulation.
163. Weep Holes:
Small openings placed in the joints of a masonry wall to allow moisture to escape.
164. Types of Unit Masonry:
1. LOAD BEARING: Brick, concrete block (CMU), ceramic veneer, clay tile, and
terra-cotta.
2. NON-LOAD BEARING: Gypsum and glass blocks.
165. What is Capillary Action and how can one minimize it occurrence?

45

This action is the tendency of water to be pulled through small openings by the
attraction between liquid and solid. Damage can be minimized by damp proofing.
166. Castellated Beam:

167: Name the primary wood preservatives:


1. WATER-BORNE: Cleanest Treatment. Produces no odor and is paintable. Should
be used for installations off the ground and in limited use where in contact with
the ground.
2. OIL-BORNE: Pntachlorophenol. Oil-Borne or gas-borne solution that is water
repellent. Used where lumber is in contact with, or just above ground. Gas-borne
solution enables surface to be painted.
3. CREOSITE: Solution of distilled coal tar. Produces an unpleasant odor, is dark in
color, and unpaintable. Most commonly used on marine pilings, poles, and cross
ties.

46

Any wood preservative must be applied under pressure and penetrate the wood to
act effectively.
168.

A. Fillet Weld
B. Single-bevel groove weld with backup bar.
C. V-groove weld with backup bar
D. Double fillet weld
E. Double-bevel groove weld
F. V-groove weld.
169. What is the predominant cost factor when considering cast in place
concrete construction?
Formwork.
For economy in formwork a building must be carefully designed. The architect
should use as many elements of uniform size, shape and thickness as is structurally
possible so that the formwork can be reused throughout construction. The quality

47

of materials and care in construction of the forms will be evident in the final
building.
170.

A. STRINGER:The support on which the stair treads rest. Placed outside the
carriage to provide a finish.
B. RISER: The vertical face of a step.
C. KICKER: A plate used to anchor the lower end of a carriage.
D. CARRIAGE: Rough timber supporting the steps of wood stairs.
E. LEDGER: A plate used to support the upper end of a carriage.
F. TREAD: The part of a stair onto which one steps. Horizontal member or surface.
G. NOSING: The portion of a tread that projects beyond the riser below.
H. BALUSTER: Small pillar or column used to support a railing.

48

I. HANDRAIL: Finish material that serves as a hand rest, guide and support. Runs
parallel to the stringer.
171. Types of Carpet:
WOOL: An expensive natural fiber which is durable, non-toxic, resilient, easy to
maintain, and has a good appearance.
NYLON: An economical, strong, durable, highly stain resistant synthetic
material that is easy to clean. Not visually appealing.
ACRYLIC: Moderate durability, wool appearance, easy maintenance.
POLYPROPYLENE: Indoor / Outdoor, durable, not very resilient or
visually appealing.
172. Types of Cement:
An adhesive substance capable of uniting dissimilar materials. It is referred to as
the MATRIX of concrete. The most expensive component of concrete. Portland
cement (limestone with clay and shell) is the type most widely used.
173. Aggregates:
Chemically inert ingredients combined with cement and water to make concrete.
Types:
FINE: Sand 3/16 or less in diameter.
COARSE: Gravel, crushed stone to 1 in diameter.
Functions:
1. Increase Strength
2. Reduces Shrinkage
3. Serve as a Filler for Economy

49

In most cases it should be no greater in size than of the distance between the
most closely spaced REINFORCING BARS.
174. In general, which type of plaster is used on the interior and which on the
exterior of a structure?
INTERIOR: Gypsum Plaster on wall board, drywall or gypsum board lath.
EXTERIOR: Portland cement, which can also be used on curved interior surfaces.
175.

A. CENTER MATCH: An even number of veneer leaves of equal widths with a


veneer joint in the center of the panel.
B. BALANCE MATCH: Veneer leaves of equal widths. This is an example of
matching panels with BOOKMATCHED veneer leaves.
C. RUNNING MATCH: Bookmatching veneer leaves of varying widths.

50

176. How is wood affected by exposure to the elements?


Exposure to sun and humidity can cause distortion and warpage. Allowances
should be made for shrinkage and swelling. The type of cut from the log will effect
the degree of shrinkage. Cuts made in the direction of the annual rings or
perpendicular to the grain have the most shrinkage. Cuts parallel to the grain have
little shrinkage.
177. Categories of Plywood:
INTERIOR OR EXTERIOR: Dependent on type of adhesive. Exterior made
with waterproof phenolic resin.
SOFTWOOD OR HARDWOOD: Dependent upon species of veneer used.
GRADE: Based on face veneers. A (best quality), B, C and D (lowest quality).
SPAN RATING: The measure of strength and stiffness parallel to the face grain.
CONSTRUCTION OR DECORATIVE: Dependent upon the use of the product.
178. Vehicle:
The liquid portion of any paint mixture consisting of binders, dryer and solvents.
Binder forms the film of the coating. Solvent dissolves the binder to allow for
application and then evaporates.
179. Backset:

51

BACKSET

180. Form Ties:

52

181. Types of Doors:


HOLLW CORE: A ribbed cardboard interior covered with 1 to 3 plies of veneer.
No fire resistance.
SOLID CORE: Fire rated from 20 minutes to 1 hours. Acoustical barrier.
Secure and Durable.
182. Tempered Glass:
Made by a process of heating annealed glass to about 12000 F and then quickly
cooling the glass. The process creates permanent compressive stress on the edges
and face and tensile stress in the core. The result is a glass four times stronger
than annealed glass. If broken, this type of glass shatters into small granules, not
dangerous shards. Must be cut to sized, drilled and edged before being tempered.
Expensive.
183.

53

A. FULL MORTISE: Most Common. Fully mortised into the frame and door.
B. HALF MORTISE: Surface applied to frame. Mortised into edge of the door.
C. HALF SURFACE: One leaf is mounted on the face of the door and other
is mortised into frame.
D. FULL SURFACE: Applied to the face of the door and frame.
184. Large expanses of glass and thinner walls were made possible by what
structural innovation during Gothic period?
The Flying Buttress.
The thrust of a vault or roof is transferred through an arch or half arch from the
upper section of a wall to a lower support.
185. Skim Coat:
Applying a coat of joint compound is the method to prepare a gypsum wall
surface. This final layer is thick enough to fill any imperfections and provides a
uniform surface for finish coat of paint or other surface treatment.
186. What are the advantages of using a revolving door?
Controls air infiltration. Permits large numbers of people to enter and
leave simultaneously.
187. Acoustical Tile:
Integrated with lighting and mechanical ducts into a suspended ceiling is the most
common usage.
188. Swinging Doors:
Hinged or pivoted doors. May be used in pairs and can be double acting (capable
of swinging in both directions).

54

189.

Roof Shapes:
A. Flat
B. Shed or single pitch
C. Gable
D. Hip
E. Gambrel
F. Mansard
190. Vitrification:
A measure of ceramic tile density after it is fired. A hard, glass-like quality occurs
when kiln temperatures are high enough to make a clay product impervious. There
are four classifications:
1. IMPERVIOUS: Repels almost all moisture and dirt, is extremely hard.

55

2. VITREOUS: Absorbs less than 3 % of its weight in moisture. Cannot be


penetrated by dirt.
3. SEMI-VITREOUS: Moisture absorption rate of 3% to 7%.
4. NON-VITREOUS: Moisture absorption rate of 7% to 18%.
191. Types of Copper Alloy:
Monel: 30 % copper, 67% nickel.
MUNTZ: 60% copper, 40% zinc.
NICKEL SILVER: 65% copper, 25% zinc, 10% nickel.
These alloys are strong and ductile. Used for roofing and kitchen equipment.
192. Cast Iron:
Still having a high carbon content, 1 % to 4%. High compressive and tensile
strength, although it is hard and brittle. Good for casting into complex
shapes. Corrosion resistant. Used for pipes, plumbing fixtures and ornamental
iron work.
193.

56

A Built-up steel section.


BUILT-UP sections are constructed from a combination of standard structural
steel sections. They are used to solve specific structural problems.
194. Wrought Iron:
Almost pure iron with a very low carbon content. Soft, but strong. Extremely
ductile, easily worked and relatively resistant to corrosion. Cannot be cast,
tempered or easily welded. Used for plumbing pipes, ornamental iron work, grilles
and outdoor furniture.
195. Coordinators:
A device mounted in or on the Head of a door frame to coordinate the sequence of
closure. The active leaf closes over the inactive leaf. An Astragal is mounted on the
active leaf and is used for proper closure.
196. Type of Terrazzo:
1. STANDARD: Most common. Made with small chips less than 3/8 in size.
2. VENETIAN: Has larger than 3/8 chips A thicker topping is required to carry the
larger sized chips.
3. PALLADIANA: or larger, random,fractured chips, set in an underbed and then
filled with standard terrazzo.
4.RUSTIC: A textured surface created by washing the fill prior to setting.
198. What aspects of site work are encountered on most architectural projects?
1. SOIL
a. soil testing, b. soil types, c. soil moisture, d.soil modification.
2. SITE PREPARATION:
a. demolition, b. clearing of land, c. existing utilities capped.

57

3. EARTHWORK:
a. excavation, b. grading, c. foundations
4. TEMPORARY SUPPORTS:
a. shoring, b. bracing, c. underpinning, d. sheeting.
5. SITE DRAINAGE:
a. sub-surface drainage, b. surface water drainage.
6. SITE IMPROVEMENTS :
a. paving, b. walks, c. landscaping.
199. Steel:
STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL: Carbon steel with 0.2% to 0.5% carbon. Hot
roled standard sections. Needs fire protection.
ALLOY STEEL: Stainless steel. Other elements can be added to provide
special properties.
WEATHERING STEEL: Contains up to 0.05% copper. Develops an oxide
coating when exposed to weather.
HEAT TREATED STEEL: Annealed, re-heated.
CASE HARDENED STEEL: re-heated and cooled. Re-aligns the outside of the
metal. Hard, high carbon surface.
200. Methods of Metal Fabrication:
CAST: Molten metal poured into a form, which cools and hardens into a
desired shape.
ROLLED: Passing metal through rollers to produce required shape. Hot rolled
eliminates flaws (wide flange beams and structural shapes). Cold rolled increases
strength and elasticity, but decreases ductility.

58

EXTRUDED: Metal pushed through a form or die.


DRAWN: Metal pulled through a form or die.
201. What is terrazzo and what is the best method of Installation?
It is made up of two parts marble chips to one part Portland cement with color
and water added. Either poured in place or pecast, ground and polished. Used on
floors and walls. Durable. Requires control joints.
The best way to install is the sand cushion method which requires a membrane
and sand cushion below. This method allows the floor system to move
independently which helps prevent cracking.
202. With respect to stability, which of the following is the best connection
between adjacent concrete pours?
KEYED JOINT: Used to connect successive pours, but this type of joint does
not prevent water leakage.
JOINT FILLER: Used in isolation joints to separate sections of concrete.
WATERSTOP: Prefabricated neoprene strip used to prevent the leakage of water
between separate concrete pours. The water stop is half imbedded in the first pour
and covered by the second pour.
SPLINE: wood working term that refers to a hidden strip of wood used
to strengthen a joint.
203. Aelotropic or anisotropic would best describe which of the
following material?
WOOD.
Wood is no homogenous material and has different physical properties when
measured in different directions. Isotropic is the Greek word referring to materials
that have the same properties in every direction such as Glass, Granite, Steel,
Brick, and Concrete.

59

204.

A. CONCAVE
B. VEE
C. WEATHER STRUCK
These joints are best for external use because of theirability to shed water. The
other types of tooling can allow water to collect.
205. Astragal:
A vertical molding strip used to cover or seal the gap between the edges of a pair
of doors.
206. Aluminum:
The most abundant element in the earths surface. Used as an alloy to improve
strength and hardness with manganeses, zinc and copper. Can be joined by
welding, soldering, riveting or an adhesive. Corrosion resistant but prone to
oxidization and scratching.

60

207. Copper:
Widely used in construction due to its resistance to corrosion. An excellent
electrical conductor. Can be formed by casting, rolling, bending, brake-forming,
extrusion, or spinning. Can be joined by brazing, adhesives or fastening. Prone to
oxidization.
TWO PRIMARY ALLOYS: Bronze and Brass.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
208. Types of Wood Flooring
STRIP FLOORING: Varying lengths with tongue and groove edges over
a plywood sub-floor. Blind nailed.
PLANK FLOORING: Random widths with V grooved edges. Screwed down
and plugged to eliminate warpage.
BLOCK FLOORING: Pre-assembled flooring of wood veneer or parquet.
SOLID END GRAIN BLOCKS: Solid, durable, thick units set in a bituminous material.
209. How are doors classified?
By LOCATION: Indoor, Outdoor, entrance.
By FUNCTION: Fire, Acoustical.
By METHOD OF OPERATION: Based on structural composition; Solid Core,
Hollow Core, Louvered, Paneled.
By MATERIAL: Wood, Metal.
210. At what height above the finished floor are door knobs normally located?
38" above the floor. Door pulls and panic hardware are located at 42.

61

211.

A. Pitched
B. Scissors
C. Bowstring
D. Sawtooth
212.

62

A. Glass
B. Neoprene or rubber gasket
C. Compression zipper
D. Reglet. Used in comcrete grooves (reglet is not necessary if contact surface is
uniformly smooth).
213. Types of Steel Doors:
Constructed of COLD-ROLLED steel. Used mainly for fire resistance.
HOLLOW METAL: Metal frame covered with sheet metal. Rigid,
permanent and fire rated.
METAL CLAD: Solid wood core covered with sheet metal.
214.

A Keyed Joint between a foundation wall and a footing. This type of construction
joint is commonly found in successive concrete pours. The second concrete pour
physically interlocks with the first to increase Shear resistance. To ensure a proper
bond, the first concrete surface should be cleaned and wetted prior to the second
pour.

63

215. Plate Glass:


Formed by a rolling process. Ground and polished on both sides, resulting in a
clear, undistorted sheet of superior quality. Excellent for windows; expensive. Can
be 1/8 to 1 .
216. What two types of clay tile are used primarily for finish work?
QUARRY TILE: Made by extrusion from natural clay or shale. Glazed or
unglazed. Weatherproof, durable. Good for heavy wear. to thick.
CERAMIC TILE: Dust pressed or extruded from clay, usually glazed. Smaller sizes than
quarry tile, usually thin. Can be non-vitreous, semi-vitreous or impervious.
217.

A. KNOT: An embedded branch in the wood grain.


B. WANE: A gap along the edge of the lumber.
C. SHAKE: Separation of the wood fibers along the growth rings.
D. SPLIT: Separation of wood fibers through the end lumber.
E. CHECK: Separation of wood fibers across the grain, a result of poor seasoning.

64

218. Fire Rated Doors:


1. Must have steel or stainless steel, ball bearing type hinges.
2. The entire door assembly, frame and hardware, are considered the door with
respect to fire codes.
3. Must be self-latching.
4. Must have an automatic closer.
5. Must have a label attached to the door and frame.
6. All hardware must UL (Underwriters Laboratories) listed.
7. A pair of doors must have an astragal.
219.

A. Bevel
B. Shiplap

65

C. Rabbeted bevel
D. Square edge tongue and groove
E. V-tongue and groove
F. Channel rustic
Individual wood boards placed vertically, horizontally or diagonally. Usually
applied over wood sheathing and a layer of asphalt impregnated building paper to
minimize air infiltration and improve water resistance. Siding boards are milled so
that each board overlaps the one below to shed water.
220. Hydration:
A chemical reaction between cement and water that produces high heat as
concrete sets. Concrete should be kept moist during the curing process to control
dehydration and insure proper hydration. The quality of hydration effects the
strength of cured concrete.
221. Concrete:
A rock-line material that is produced by combining a binder of Portland cement
and water with fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel, crushed rock).
As the mixture hardens through the heat of hydration the cement chemically
combines with water forming crystals that, in turn, bind the aggregates together.
This universal construction material can be molded into any shape and form. The
raw materials for manufacture are available world wide at a relatively low cost
and will not rot or burn.

66

222.

A Water Stop.
A continuous rubber or neoprene strip, used to waterproof concrete foundation
joints. The waterstop is inserted half way into the form for the first and extends
into the second pour. Usually used below grade.
223.

67

224. Framing Types:


A. PLATFORM or WESTERN FRAMING: Separate studs at each floor. Vertical
shrinkage is greater than in balloon framing but is equalized between floors.
B. BALLOON FRAMING: Exterior wall studs extended through a two-story frame
from foundation to top plate. Minimizes vertical movement. All concealed spaces
inside the vertical framing require 2 Firestops to prevent drafts from one space to
another.
225. Resilient Flooring:
A generic term for several different types of composition flooring available
in sheet of tile form. Most types have a high level of durability.
1. LINOLEUM: Composed of oxidized linseed oil, fillers and resin, with a fiber
backing. Not good below grade, on concrete floors or in the presence of
moisture because backing will mold.
2. RUBBER: Composed of synthetic rubber, fillers and pigment. Excellent resistance
to deformation and identation. Comfortable, quiet surface.
3. VINYL: Composed of fibers, resins, plasticizers, color pigments, and fillers. Can
be installed above or below grade.
4. CORK: Used for acoustical control. Not resistance to stains, moisture, heavy
weight, or heavy foot traffic. Must be used above grade and sealed.
226. Types of Concrete Admixtures:
ACCELERATORS: Used to increase the rate of Hydration which shortens setting time.
Results in a higher initial strength of concrete.
AIR ENTRAINING AGENTS: Used to inhibit freezing, increase workability and durability .
Helps reduce segregation.
PIGMENTS: Used to add color.
RETARDERS: Used to slow the rate at which concrete sets.

68

WATERPROOFING: Used to decrease water absorbtion.


WATER-REDUCING ADMIXTURES: Used to reduce the amount of water required and still
have a workable mix. Compressive strength and density is increased.
227. What type of foundation system is utilized when high bearing capacity soil
or rock is far below the earths surface?
CAISSONS or PILES
CAISSONS: Cylinder of concrete poured into drilled holes. A caisson which is end-bearing
sits on hard stratum and is shaped like a bell at the bottom to achieve additional required
bearing area. A socketed caisson goes beyond hard stratum and load is transferred by
friction between soil, rock, and sides of caisson.
PILES: Vertical members of wood, steel or concrete which are driven into the ground. An
end bearing pile acts similarly to a caisson. A friction pile does not reach hard stratum. Its
load carrying capacity is derived from the soil and friction along the length of the pile.
228.

69

A. BOOKMATCHING:
Most common veneer pattern. Every other leaf is flipped to form an adjacent
symmentrical pattern.
B. SLIPMATCHING:
Consecutve veneers with the same face exposed.
C. RANDOM MATCHING:
Veneers in random sequence and possibility from different flitches.
229. Fire Resistant:
The capacity of a building component material to confine a fire, give protection
from it and / or to maintain its structural integrity during a fire.
It also defines the ability of a building component to satisfy certain criteria for a
set amount of time.
230. Reinforcing Steel:
REBAR: Used to reinforce concrete in tension. Bars or wire mesh with
deformations and / or projections to increase bonding strength with concrete.
Coverage: 3 from earth, 2 at retaining walls, 1 at beams and columns, at
slabs.
231. Types of Elevators:
HYDRAULIC : Pushed up by a rod to a maximum of 50 ft. at a low speed, 25 to
150 fpm. Can Carry freight up to 10 tons. Multiple rams carry up to 50 tons.
ELECTRIC: Pulled up on steel cables using counterweights. 10,000 pound
capacity. Gearless type is high speed. Geared type is low speed.

70

232. Fire Damper:


An automatic or self closing barrier which prevents the passage of gases, fire, or
smoke through an opening, duct or chamber.
233. Glass:
An inorganic ceramic material composed of silica sand and small amounts of
alkaline salts such as lime, potash and soda. Formed in a liquid state. A product of
fusion that has cooled into a rigid condition but not crystallized. Can be
transparent, translucent, opaque, colored or colorless. A material used for glazing.
234. Transit Mixed:
Ready mixed dry concrete that is combined with water at the site.
235. Gypsum Board:
An inexpensive plaster-based wall finish known as either Gypsum
Wall Board, Plasterboard or Drywall. Comes in a variety of types.
REGULAR: Used for most applications.
FIRE-RATED type X: Glass fibers hold together for fire resistance.
FOIL BACKED: Used as a vapor retarder and for thermal insulation.
WATER RESISTANCE: Has a water repellent paper facing with a moisture
resistant core; to be used behind tie and in ,moist conditions.

71

235.

A. Fixed / Picture
B. Double hung
C. Casement
D. Sliding
E. Hopper
F. Awning
G. Jalousie
H. Austral

72

236.

A. Left hand door


B. Right hand door
C. Left hand reverse door
D. Right hand reverse door
237. In protecting against moisture how is a reglet used?

73

237. Where is the best place to group elevators in a building?


In the center of a building, or where easily accessible and visible from the entrance
and other access points. Maximum of eight cars in a group.
238.

74

Cricket.
A saddle flashing uased to shed water around a chimney.
239. Name the three coats of plaster, in order of application?
1. SCRATCH COAT: A base coat of 2 parts sand and 1 part plaster that keys into
metal lath. Applied 1/4 thick.
2. BROWN COAT: A second coat, 3 parts sand and 1 part plaster, thick.
3. FINISH COAT: A final coat of 1 parts sand and 1 part plaster, 1/8 thick.
If plaster is applied in two coats, the scratch and brown coat are combined into
base coat.
240. Strength Characteristics of Wood.
COMPRESSION: Easily resistant when loads are placed to the grain.
TENSION: Effective when parallel to the grain but not as strong as compression.
Perpendicular to the grain, wood has a very low tensile strength and the wood can
easily split.
SHEAR: Stronger across the grain rather that parallel to the grain. Wood
is weakest in Horizontal Shear.
241. Gargoyle:
A grotesque figure of an animal or human that overhangs the eave of a building in
order to shed water through its mouth and away from the building. An elaborate
scupper.

RE

EXAM GUIDE
Building Design &
Construction Systems
Overview a
Knowledge/Skills 1

Sample Multiple-Choice Questions


Sample Multiple-Choice Answers

5
14

Accessibility/Ramp Vignette
Sample Passing Solution
Sample Failing Solution

15
18
19

Stair Design Vignette


Sample Passing Solution
Sample Failing Solution

20
24
26

Roof Plan Vignette


Sample Passing Solution
Sample Failing Solution

28
30
31

References 32

Copyright 2012

This document, effective July 2012, supersedes all


previous editions of the ARE4.0 Exam Guide: Building
Design & Construction Systems. Please check NCARBs
web site, www.ncarb.org, regularly for updates to the
ARE 4.0 Exam Guides and for the most current
information regarding the ARE.

RE

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

OVERVIEW

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette

DIVISION STATEMENT

Apply knowledge and skills of building design and construction, including environmental, social, and economic issues, project
and practice management.

Content Areas

Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

1. PRINCIPLES

2. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

(27-36 percent of scored items)

(11-17 percent of scored items)

3. CODES & REGULATIONS


(7-10 percent of scored items)

4. MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY

5. PROJECT & PRACTICE MANAGEMENT

(31-40 percent of scored items)

Vignettes

ACCESSIBILITY/RAMP

Design a ramp and stairway connecting two levels that complies


with accessibility and code requirements.

STAIR DESIGN

Design a stairway connecting multiple levels that complies


with accessibility and code requirements.

ROOF PLAN

Design a sloped-roof plan for the removal of rainwater and


locate accessories and equipment.

(7-13 percent of scored items)

July 2012 ARE 4.0 a

RE

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/
Ramp Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

KNOWLEDGE / SKILLS

The division has been broken down into a listing of knowledge and skills directly related to each major content area.

1. PRINCIPLES

(27-36 percent of scored items)

5. Space Planning and Facility Planning/Management


Initiate schematic design and design development
decisions including spatial visualization and modeling.

A. 
Consider the impact of human behavior, historic
precedent, and design theory in the selection of
systems, materials, and methods on building design
and construction.

6. Fixtures, Furniture, Equipment, and Finishes


Assess the selection of fixtures, furniture, equipment,
and finishes made in schematic design and
design development.

1. 
Building Design
Develop tasks, procedures, and methods associated with
schematic design and design development such as basic
engineering principles, spatial visualization and modeling.
2. Design Principles and Design Impact
on Human Behavior
Assess the affect of form, scale, color, texture, ergonomics,
lighting, universal design, spatial organization, and
acoustics in building design to meet user needs and
client requirements.
3. Building Systems and their Integration
Determine appropriate building systems such as
structural, mechanical, electrical, and specialties using
basic engineering principles and coordinate these
systems into a coherent design that best meets the
clients requirements.
4. Implications of Design Decisions
Assess the impact of early design decisions concerning
building orientation, area, materials and products selection, cost, code, phasing, future technology changes,
and sustainability on the later phases of detailed design,
construction, and building use.

7. Adaptive Reuse of Buildings and/or Materials


Consider the constraints, issues, methods, programmatic
implications and cost impact associated with adaptive
reuse of buildings and/or materials during schematic
design and design development phases.
8. Architectural History and Theory
Apply concepts of architectural history and theory in
decision making.

2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
(11-17 percent of scored items)

A. Consider the impact of applying principles of


sustainable design including adaptive re-use, thermal
and moisture protection, energy consumption and
utilization, alternative energy, and hazardous material
mitigation to proposed project.

1. Hazardous Conditions and Materials

Identify the requirements of regulatory agencies and


their impact on design. Survey, evaluate, and document
existing conditions related to hazardous materials.
Develop strategies for mitigation.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 1

RE

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

Stair Design
Vignette

3. 
Sustainable Design
Develop designs that minimize environmental impact,
pursues recyclable and replacement strategies, considers
life-cycle analysis, utilizes renewable resources, and
minimizes material consumption and waste.

Roof Plan Vignette

Accessibility/
Ramp Vignette

References

4. MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY

2. Indoor Air Quality


Develop strategies to ensure indoor air quality.

(31-40 percent of scored items)


Consider impact of design decisions in the selection
of systems, materials, and methods on building design
and construction.

4. Natural and Artificial Lighting


Develop strategies that utilize daylight, solar control,
energy consumption.

A. MASONRY
Identify the properties and characteristics of masonry
structural and finish materials.
1. Building Systems and their Integration

2. Implications of Design Decisions

3. Construction Details and Constructability

5. Alternative Energy Systems and


New Material Technologies
Investigate technological advances and innovative
building products.

4. 
Construction Materials

3. CODES & REGULATIONS

5. Product Selection and Availability

6. Cost Estimating, Value Engineering, and


Life-Cycle Costing

7. Thermal and Moisture Protection

(7-10 percent of scored items)

A. Incorporate building and specialty codes, zoning,


and other regulatory requirements for inclusion in
site design and construction.
1. Government and Regulatory Requirements

and Permit Processes


Conduct code analysis to determine compliance with
government and regulatory requirements and the
permitting processes.

2. Specialty Codes and Regulations including

Accessibility Laws, Codes and Guidelines


Conduct analysis of codes and regulations such as
ADAAG, seismic codes, life safety, Fair Housing Act, and
historic preservation requirements to incorporate into
the site design and construction.

B. METALS
Identify the properties and characteristics of structural
and miscellaneous metals.

1. Building Systems and their Integration

2. Implications of Design Decisions

3. Construction Details and Constructability

July 2012 ARE 4.0 2

RE

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills

4.
Construction Materials

4.
Construction Materials

Sample MultipleChoice Questions

5. Product Selection and Availability

5. Product Selection and Availability

Accessibility/
Ramp Vignette

Stair Design
Vignette

6. Cost Estimating, Value Engineering, and


Life-Cycle Costing

6. Cost Estimating, Value Engineering, and


Life-Cycle Costing

7. Thermal and Moisture Protection

7. Thermal and Moisture Protection

Roof Plan Vignette

C. WOOD
Identify the properties and characteristics of wood
structures, rough carpentry, finish carpentry, and
millwork assemblies.

References

1. Building Systems and their Integration

2. Implications of Design Decisions

3. Construction Details and Constructability

E. OTHER
Identify the properties and characteristics of
miscellaneous systems, assemblies, membranes,
cladding, coatings, and finish materials (e.g., plastics,
composites, glass, tensile, pneumatic, EIFS, etc.).
1. Building Systems and their Integration

2. Implications of Design Decisions

3. Construction Details and Constructability

4.
Construction Materials

5. Product Selection and Availability

6. Cost Estimating, Value Engineering, and


Life-Cycle Costing

4.
Construction Materials

5. Product Selection and Availability

6. Cost Estimating, Value Engineering,


and Life-Cycle Costing

7. Thermal and Moisture Protection

7. Thermal and Moisture Protection

D. CONCRETE
Identify the properties and characteristics of concrete
structures and finishes.

1. Building Systems and their Integration

2. Implications of Design Decisions

3. Construction Details and Constructability

F. SPECIALTIES
Analyze and select accessories, equipment,
and fittings.

1. Building Systems and their Integration

2. Implications of Design Decisions

July 2012 ARE 4.0 3

RE

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills

4.
Construction Materials

1. Construction Sequencing
Prepare phasing plans for building design
and construction.

5. Product Selection and Availability

Stair Design
Vignette

6. Cost Estimating, Value Engineering, and


Life-Cycle Costing

2. Cost Estimating, Value Engineering, and


Life-Cycle Costing
Develop and revise cost estimates for building design and
construction through the design development phase.

Roof Plan Vignette

7. Thermal and Moisture Protection

8 Natural and Artificial Lighting

3. Project Schedule Management


Manage the building design and construction schedule
of professional services and document project progress
via contract document setup, storyboarding, and
staffing projections.

Sample MultipleChoice Questions


Accessibility/
Ramp Vignette

References

3. Construction Details and Constructability

5. PROJECT & PRACTICE MANAGEMENT

(7-13 percent of scored items)


Ascertain the impact of construction sequencing,
scheduling, cost, and risk management on the selection
of systems, materials, and methods.

4. 
Risk Management
Assess building design and construction professional
and general liability and risk management procedures,
phasing, budget, and schedule.

A. Determine the impact of construction sequencing,


scheduling, cost, and risk management on selection
of systems, materials, and methods.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 4

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette

1. The primary purpose of panic hardware on exit doors is to



o allow an alternate method of opening the door

o allow easier access for disabled occupants

o provide a method of controlling exit doors

o provide easy release of the latch on the door

Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

2. Which of the following toilet partition finishes has the


LOWEST initial cost?

o Baked enamel

o Laminated plastic

o Stainless steel

o Porcelain enamel
3. What is shown at X in the drawing above?

4. To prevent it from deteriorating, copper should be


isolated from direct contact with which of the following
roofing materials?

o Asphalt shingles

o Red-cedar shingles

o Built-up roofing

o Mineral-fiber felts

5. All of the following are true when selecting windows for


a building EXCEPT:

o A high visible light transmission value indicates that
more light can pass through.

o A high air leakage rate value indicates a tighter seal.

o A low solar heat gain coefficient value indicates that
less heat is transmitted.

o A low heat transfer coefficient indicates better
thermal value.

6. Which of the following occupancy classifications requires


panic hardware at the required exits?

o Manufacturing facility

o Motel guest room

o Movie theater

o High-rise office suite

o A cricket

o Base flashing

o Cap flashing

o Gable flashing

7. Accessible ramp handrails shall extend beyond the top


and bottom of the ramp a minimum of

o 6 in [150 mm]

o 9 in [230 mm]

o 12 in [300 mm]

o 15 in [380 mm]

July 2012 ARE 4.0 5

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

8.


Based
on the table above, the minimum number of water
closets required for women in a theater with a seating
capacity of 4,000 is

29

9. In the detail above from an air-conditioned building


located in a hot, humid climate, where should the vapor
barrier be located?
o At A
o At B
o At C
o At D

10. The
 extensive use of gypsum wallboard in residential,
commercial, and industrial construction stems from all
the following EXCEPT
o low cost
o ease of installation
o recyclability
o fire resistance

July 2012 ARE 4.0 6

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

11. A client is proposing to build a residence in an area where


there is a high probability of the presence of radon gas.
Which of the following is NOT a method that would be
selected as a means of radon-resistant construction for
the building?

o Automatic vent damper devices

o Sub-slab depressurization systems

o Drain tile loops

o Soil-gas retarders
12. The type of door hinge indicated above is a

o full mortise

o full surface

o half mortise

o half surface

13. Which of the following types of portable fire extinguisher


is appropriate for fires generated by electrical equipment?

o Loaded stream water base only

o Pressure water base only

o Carbon dioxide and dry chemical

o Loaded stream water base, carbon dioxide,
and dry chemical

14. In a fast-track, single-story industrial project, which of


the following schematic design and design development
considerations is most likely to have a significant effect
on the successful sequencing of the construction?

o Foundation design

o HVAC systems design

o Roofing materials selection

o Window design

15. Which of the following basic structural systems would be


appropriate for a high-tech building with equipment and
functions that are extremely sensitive to vibrations?

o Poured-in-place concrete beam-and-slab system

o Heavy steel frame with composite floor slab with
rubber insulators

o Heavy (12) gauge metal studs with a long-span steel
joist with a 5-inch-thick concrete slab

o M
 asonry bearing walls with wood joists and wood deck
with a 4-inch-thick gypsum concrete topping slab

July 2012 ARE 4.0 7

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

16. Which of the following is the most effective method


to control indoor air quality?

o Exhaust air

o Source reduction

o Air cleaning and filtration

o Increased temperature and lowered humidity

18. Which of the following is NOT significant in selecting


the type of elevator to be used?

o Power used to operate the elevator

o Height of the building

o Speed of the elevator

o Number of building occupants

17. Which of the following diagrams would best indicate an


exterior self-supporting non-load-bearing wall design?

References

July 2012 ARE 4.0 8

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

19. When designing a residential development, which of


the following is an example of the Crime Prevention
through Environmental Design strategy of encouraging
natural surveillance?

o Reducing the overall amount of site lighting

o Visually screening parking areas with tall landscaping

o Placing the majority of windows to the rear
of residences

o P
 roviding a primary living space with a view of the street

20. All of the following types of fasteners are recommended


for use with wood treated with inorganic waterborne
preservatives EXCEPT

o aluminum

o stainless steel

o hot-dipped galvanized

o hot-tumbled galvanized

21. 
When compared to a steel beam-and-bar joist floor system,
the use of composite construction will likely result in which
of the following? Check the two that apply.

o A. Stiffer floor

o B. Heavier frame

o C. Lighter frame

o D. More expensive system

o E. Increased fabrication time

o F. Faster erection time

22. The figure shown above represents which of the


following types of insulating concrete form (ICF) system?

o Waffle-grid

o Waffle-core

o Waffle-cast

o Waffle-slab

July 2012 ARE 4.0 9

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette

23. Which of the following actions can achieve the most


significant cost reduction in value engineering a precast
concrete warehouse?

o Removing reveals in the panels

o Changing the exposed aggregate in the concrete

o Maximizing and standardizing the panel sizes

o Removing the integral color from the concrete mix

Roof Plan Vignette

References

27. Which of the following is true of humidity?



o Human thermal comfort is unaffected by
relative humidity.

o Cold air is able to hold more moisture vapor
than warm air.

o Dewpoint is unreachable in the middle of a
homogeneous material.

o Condensation in a building can contribute to
mold growth.

24. A waterproofing treatment should be specified in lieu


of a dampproofing treatment for subsurface masonry
when which of the following conditions is present?

o Hydrostatic pressure

o A low frost line

o Sandy subsurface soils

o Expansive subsurface soils

25. The passage of water under pressure through concrete


cracks is defined as

o capillary action

o seepage

o saturation

o leakage

26. An elevator hoistway would be constructed to which


of the following model code standards for walls?

o Shaft enclosure

o Occupancy separation

o Area separation

o Demising

28. The two-inch [50 mm] gap at the perimeter of the wood
athletic floor shown above is provided to

o allow for proper alignment of the flooring system

o allow air circulation

o accommodate expansion and contraction

o increase resiliency of the floor

July 2012 ARE 4.0 10

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette

29. Which of the following is the most appropriate


flashing detail for the design of brick veneer
(cavity) wall construction?

Roof Plan Vignette

References

July 2012 ARE 4.0 11

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

30. Which jamb anchor should be used for installation in a


masonry wall?

Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette

Stair Design
Vignette

33. Locating footings at or below the frost line is important


because doing so

o promotes good drainage

o makes perimeter insulation unnecessary

o helps to stabilize the foundation system

o simplifies excavation during winter construction

Roof Plan Vignette

References

31. The terms scratch coat, brown coat, and finish coat
refer to

o painting

o parging

o paving

o plastering

32. 
Which of the following types of concrete construction is
reinforced with tensioned high-strength steel-wire strands?

o Tilt-up

o Prestressed

o Cast-in-place

o Precast

34. Which letter in the figure above indicates a muntin?



o A

o B

o C

o D

July 2012 ARE 4.0 12

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

35. Which of the following brick veneer patterns is the most


expensive per square foot?

Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette

o 

36. What type of lockset is pictured below?



o Mortised

o Unit

o Cylinder

o Lever

Roof Plan Vignette

References

37. Efflorescence on masonry walls is caused by water-soluble


salts that are present in which of the following?
Check the two that apply.

o A. Mortar

o B. Sheathing

o C. Masonry flashing

o D. Masonry units

o E. Masonry ties

o F. Rigid insulation

July 2012 ARE 4.0 13

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

3 Vignettes

Go to page 14 for answers

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

1. provide easy release of the latch on the door


2. Baked enamel
3. A cricket
4. Red-cedar shingles
5. A high air leakage rate value indicates a tighter seal.
6. Movie theater
7. 12 in [300 mm]
8. 29
9. At D
10. recyclability
11. Automatic vent damper devices
12. full mortise
13. Carbon dioxide and dry chemical
14. Foundation design
15. Poured-in-place concrete beam-and-slab system
16. Source reduction
17.

28. accommodate expansion and contraction


29. 

30. 

31. plastering
32. Prestressed
33. helps to stabilize the foundation system
34. D
35.
18. Number of building occupants
19. Providing a primary living space with a view of the street
20. aluminum
21. A, C
22. Waffle-grid
23. Maximizing and standardizing the panel sizes
24. Hydrostatic pressure
25. leakage
26. Shaft enclosure
27. 
Condensation in a building can contribute to mold growth.

36. Mortised
37. A, D

July 2012 ARE 4.0 14

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ACCESSIBILITY/RAMP VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice
Skills Questions
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

General Tips for Taking Accessibility/Ramp

Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Determine the
number of risers
you need to meet
the landing before
selecting the
Draw-Stair tool.

Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

Directions
Complete the floor plan shown on the work screen by developing a ramp and stair system in accordance with the given
program information. Using the tools provided, indicate all
ramps, stairs, railings, wall(s), door(s), and landings required to
complete the plan and indicate all landing elevations.
The completed plan should reflect conformity to program
and code requirements and to principles of design logic.
Before beginning your solution, you should review the program
and code information that can be accessed through the Vignette
Index screen and familiarize yourself with the floor plan on the
work screen.

References

Program

Use Check tool to


make sure your ramps,
landings and stairs
are properly aligned.

1. 
Two small office buildings on a sloped site are to be
connected by a new lobby placed at the floor elevation
of the lower building.
2. 
Provide an accessible circulation system with a ramp
and a separate stair to connect the lobby and upper
level corridor.
3. 
Place wall(s) and door(s) only on the existing upper level
to separate the lobby and the upper level exit corridor.
In addition, the ramp and stair must conform to the following
restrictions:

Sketch circle

u 
No

portion of the ramp or stair may encroach on


the existing upper level.
u 
Indicate the elevation of all new landings.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 15

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ACCESSIBILITY/RAMP VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice Questions
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

References

Code
Comply with the following code requirements. These are the
ONLY code-related criteria you are required to use.

Definition
1. Accessible Means of Egress: A continuous and
unobstructed path of travel from an accessible space to
a public way that is usable by a mobility impaired person.
An accessible means of egress comprises the vertical and
horizontal means of travel and shall include accessible
exit routes, ramps, stairways, and doors.

Maneuvering Clearances
1. 
The minimum width of an exit route shall not be less
than 44 inches.

u 
Projections into a required exit route width are
prohibited, except for handrail projections.
2.

T he space required for a wheelchair to make a 180-degree


turn is a clear space of 60 inches in diameter, as shown in
Figure 1.

3. 
Minimum maneuvering clearances at doors shall be as
shown in Figure 2.

u 
The floor or ground area within the required clearances
shall be level.

Ramps
1.

F loors or walks in an accessible means of egress path of


travel having a slope steeper than 1:20 (one unit vertical
in 20 units horizontal) shall be designed as ramps.

2. 
Width: The minimum width shall not be less than 44 inches.

u 
Ramps shall not reduce in width in the direction of
egress travel.

u 
Projections into a required ramp width are prohibited,
except for handrail projections.

FIGURE1: TURNINGSPACE

3. Slope: The maximum slope of a ramp shall be 1:12


(one unit vertical in 12 units horizontal).
4.

L andings: Ramps shall have level landings or floor surfaces


at the top and bottom of each ramp run, all points of
turning, entrance, exit, and at doors.
u 
The least dimension shall not be less than the required
width of the ramp.
u 
The least dimension in the direction of travel shall be
60 inches.
u 
If ramps change direction at landings, the least dimension
shall be 60 inches.

FIGURE2: MANEUVERING
CLEARANCES AT DOORS

Stairways
1. 
Width: The minimum width shall not be less than 44 inches.

u 
Stairways shall not reduce in width in the direction of
egress travel.

u 
Projections into a required stairway width are prohibited,
except for handrail projections.
2. Landings: Stairs shall have a level landing or floor at the
top and bottom of each stair run.

u 
The width of a landing shall not be less than the width
of the stair.

u 
The least dimension in the direction of travel shall be
44 inches.

u If the path of travel changes direction between stair
runs, the least dimension shall be the width of the stairs.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 16

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ACCESSIBILITY/RAMP VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice Questions
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

3.

Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

References

Treads and Risers:


Minimum tread depth shall be 11 inches.
u 
Maximum riser height shall be 7 inches and minimum
riser height shall be 4 inches.
u 
There shall be no variation in any riser height or tread
depth within the complete stairway system.
u

Doors
1. Width: Door openings shall have a minimum clear width
of not less than 32 inches, measured between the face
of the door and the opposite stop with the door open
90 degrees.
2. Exit Doors: Exit doors shall swing in the direction of
egress travel.
3.

 ouble-leaf Doorways: If doorways have two indepenD


dently operated door leaves, then at least one leaf shall meet
the requirements for clear width and maneuvering space.

Guardrails
1.

 pen sides of landings, floor surfaces, ramps, and stairways


O
shall be protected by a continuous guardrail.

Handrails
1.

Handrails shall be provided on both sides of ramps and stairs.


Handrails are not required on ramps where
the vertical rise between landings is 6 inches or less.

u 
Exception:

2.

 andrails shall be continuous within the full length of


H
each ramp run or stair flight.

3. 
Inside handrails on switchback or dogleg ramps or stairs
shall be continuous between runs or flights.
4. 
Non-continuous handrails for ramps and stairs shall have
extensions as follows:

u 
Ramp handrails shall extend horizontally at least
12 inches beyond the top and bottom of the ramp run.

u 
Stair handrails shall extend horizontally at least
12 inches beyond the top and bottom risers.
5. Handrails may not project more than 4 inches into the
required ramp, stair, or exit route width.
6. Stairways more than 88 inches wide shall have
intermediate handrails.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 17

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ACCESSIBILITY/RAMP VIGNETTE Sample Passing Solution

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice Questions
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

Procedural Tips
u

Before you draw your stairs, you


should calculate how many risers
you need.

While you are drawing the stairs,


the tread depth will be automatically calculated for you. This
measurement is displayed in the
element information area at
the bottom of the work screen.

Be sure to keep scrolling until you


have seen all of the Code information. Click on the down arrow on
the scroll bar to ensure that you
have seen all of the text.

When elements overlap, you


may have trouble selecting a
particular element. If this happens,
keep clicking (without moving
the mouse) until the desired
element highlights.

Check overlaps while you are


working through your solution.

Handrail extensions are


correct throughout.
6 risers meet code
requirements.

Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

References
Sketch circles used
to establish railing
extensions.
Handrails shown
on both sides of
all ramp segments.

Ramp segments have


acceptable slope.

Note: It is extremely
important in this
vignette to set
the elevation of
all landings.

Warnings
u

Be sure you are aware of the


elevations of various parts of
the base drawing.

Tools You Might


Find Useful

This vignette requires the candidate to connect two levels by


means of an accessible egress stair and ramp system. The
uppermost landing is set at the same elevation as the existing
upper level. A simple ramp and stair system is shown with

correct slopes for the ramps and the correct number of risers
for the stairs. All necessary handrails are provided and extensions
are correctly sized. The new door is the correct size and swings
in the direction of egress travel.

Zoom

Full-screen cursor

S
 ketch measure or sketch line
tools to lay out railings

July 2012 ARE 4.0 18

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ACCESSIBILITY/RAMP VIGNETTE Sample Failing Solution

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice
Skills Questions
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Door swings the
wrong direction.

Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

References
Two ramps are
not necessary.

Landings are
too small.

Both ramps are too


short and therefore
steeper than 1:12.

This solution creates an unusual system of two ramps with a


stair between them. The ramps are both too short, making them
steeper than the 1:12 maximum slope stated in the code. The

top landings are too small and do not meet code requirements.
Also, the new corridor door swings in the wrong direction.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 19

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice
Skills Questions
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

General Tips for Taking Stair Design

Using the tools provided, develop a design for an exit stairway


within the existing two-story stairwell shown on the work screen.
Draw the necessary components of the stairway on the two
floor plans provided, and:

Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

Directions

Use the Sketch tool to indicate the


clearances of the Ground Floor doors, then
start working on the Second Floor Plan.

References

I
ndicate the elevations of all landings.
Indicate the elevations of all stair flights at the top

of the highest riser and at the bottom of the lowest
riser to match adjacent landing elevations.
Include railings, i.e., guardrails and handrails.

Connect stair flights to landings or the ground floor only.

When using the cut stair tool, the flight of stairs should

be drawn from landing to landing or from ground floor
to landing.

You should develop a design that meets the given code and
program requirements. Before starting to work on your stair
design, you should familiarize yourself with the floor plans on
the work screen as well as the program, the code, and the
ection that can be accessed through the Vignette Index screen.

Use the Set Elevation tool at the


landings and for each end-of-stair run.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 20

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice Questions
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

References

Program

Code

In order to meet new accessibility standards and increased


occupant loads, schematic plans are being developed for a
new exit located within an existing stairwell in a two story bank
building. Second floor to have area of refuge. The design for
the other building exits a second stairway and the buildings
main entrance has been completed.

Comply with the following code requirements. These are the


ONLY code-related criteria you are required to use.

1. 
Design the stairway to serve as a means of egress from
all three building levels leading into the stairwell and
through the exit discharge door to the sidewalk at
grade (a public way).

u 
The stairway must provide a continuous path from
Second floor to Ground floor exit that includes a
landing at the Intermediate level.
2. 
The total occupant loads and number of exits for each
level of the building are as follows:

Definitions
1. Means of Egress: A continuous and unobstructed path
of travel from any point in a building to a public way.
A means of egress comprises the vertical and horizontal
means of travel and shall include exit stairways, passageways, and exit doors.
2. Exit Stairways: That portion of a means of egress which
is separated from all other spaces of a building by fire
resistance rated construction to provide a protected
way of travel to an exit door at grade. A stairway shall
consist of one or more flights of stairs and the landings
connecting them.

Capacity of Exit Components



Building

Level

Ground Floor
Janitor

Second Floor

Total Occupant
Load
360
9
180

Number
of Exits
3
1
2

3. The stairs will be constructed from pre-cast concrete


components with the following dimensions:

u 
Landings: 12 inches deep between the landing soffit
and the surface.

u 
Stair flights/stringers: 12 inches deep between the
stair nosings and the stringer soffit measured along
a line perpendicular to the soffit.

1. Occupant Load: The occupant load for each exit shall be


determined by dividing the total occupant load for an
individual floor by the number of exits serving that floor.

u 
Where stairways serve more than one level, the capacity
of the exit components shall be based on the individual
floor with the largest occupant load, provided that the
exit capacity shall not decrease in the direction of means
of egress travel.
2. 
Minimum Width: The width of each exit component in
inches shall not be less than the occupant load served by
an exit multiplied by 0.3 nor less than the minimum width
specified by this code for each component.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 21

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

Stairways
1. Width: The minimum width shall be computed in
accordance with Capacity of Exit Components, above,
but shall not be less than 44 inches.

u 
Stairways shall not reduce in width in the direction
of egress travel.

u 
Projections into a required stairway width are prohibited,
except for handrail projections.
2. Landings: Stairs shall have a level landing or floor at the
top and bottom of each stair run.

u 
The width of a landing shall not be less than the
width of the stair.

u 
The least dimension in the direction of travel shall
be 44 inches.

u 
If the path of travel changes direction between stair
runs, the least dimension shall be the width of the stairs.
3. Headroom: The minimum headroom of all parts of a
stairway shall not be less than 80 inches measured
vertically from the tread nosing or from any floor surface
including landings.
4.

SECTION S-S

Treads and Risers:


riser height shall be 7 inches and minimum
riser height shall be 4 inches.
u Minimum tread depth shall be 11 inches.
u 
Treads shall be of uniform depth and risers of uniform
height in any flight of stairs.
u 
Maximum

July 2012 ARE 4.0 22

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

Doors

Area of Refuge

1. 
When opening, doors shall not reduce the width of
landings to less than one-half of the required width.

1. 
An accessible area of refuge serving the second floor
shall be provided within the stair enclosure.

2. 
There shall be a floor or landing on each side of a door
and the floor surface on both sides of the door shall be
at the same elevation.

2. 
The area of refuge shall be sized to accommodate one
wheelchair space of 30 inches by 48 inches.

u 
Such wheelchair spaces shall not reduce the required
stair or landing width.

3. 
Minimum maneuvering clearances at doors shall be as
shown in Figure 1.

3.

FIGURE1: MANEUVERING
CLEARANCES AT DOORS

 hen areas of refuge are required, stairway width shall have


W
a minimum clear width of 48 inches between handrails.

Guardrails
1. 
Open sides of landings shall be protected by a
continuous guardrail.

Handrails
1.

Stairways shall have continuous handrails on both sides.

u 
At locations where handrails are not continuous between

stairway flights, including the top and bottom of a stairway, at least one handrail shall extend horizontally at least
12 inches beyond the top riser and the bottom riser.
2. 
Handrails shall not project more than 4 inches into the
required passageway and stairway width.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 23

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE - Sample Passing Solution

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice Questions
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

Procedural Tips
u

Pay attention to the order of tasks


specified in the Vignette Directions.

Calculate the number of risers


you need before you begin to
lay out your stairs.

The tread depth is calculated for


you. It appears in the element
information area at the bottom
of the work screen.

The question marks at each end


of the stair represent the elevations
at the points of attachment of a
stair to its landings.

Change layers at the appropriate


level as indicated by the groundfloor cut line in the section drawing.

When elements overlap, you may


have trouble selecting a particular
element. If this happens, keep clicking (without moving the mouse)
until the desired element highlights.

Accessibility/
Stair Design
Ramp
Vignette
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

References

Note: All necessary


information included
on second floor plan.

First Floor
Because the design of the stairs for this particular solution does
not obscure other portions of the stair, all necessary information

can be created and displayed on the Second Floor Plan.


It is not necessary to utilize the Cut Stair tool.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 24

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE - Sample Passing Solution

3 Vignettes

Warnings
u

If you do not draw a stair or


a landing in a given location
within a stairwell, the scoring
mechanism will assume that
the area is open to below.

You must indicate the elevation


of the stair and the landings
separately even if the elevations
are the same.

Be sure you are aware of the


elevations of various parts of
the base drawing.

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette

Clearance underlanding is adequate.


Sketch rectangle
used to represent
area of refuge.

Roof Plan Vignette

References

Sketch circles used


to quickly establish
handrail extensions.

All landing and


end of stair run
elevations match.

Second Floor
This vignette requires the insertion of a new stair system
connecting three levels in an existing space. In this solution,
the stairs are wide enough at all runs, do not get narrower in
the direction of egress, and do not block egress at the ground
floor level. The intermediate landing is set at the same elevation

Tools You Might


Find Useful
u

Zoom

Note: The end of


all stair runs must
have the same
elevation as the
landings or floors
they connect to.

as the janitor room it serves as shown on the given section.


The upper landing is located at the correct elevation and
extends to allow for an area of refuge. The solution provides
adequate headroom where required considering the thickness
of the structure as given in the program.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 25

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE - Sample Failing Solution

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

Landing elevation
does not match
elevation of Janitor.

First Floor
This solution also takes a simple approach to the same problem,
but fails in three major areas. The landing located near the janitor
room is not at the correct elevation.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 26

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

STAIR DESIGN VIGNETTE - Sample Failing Solution

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette

6-9 landing
elevation only
allows for 5-9
headroom
clearance.

Inadequate clearance
at door.

Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

Area of refuge
(shown by sketch
rectangle) does
not meet code.

References

Second Floor
Additionally, the area of refuge indicated by the sketch
rectangle on the upper landing is inadequate. A rectangle
representing the area of refuge is not required to be shown,
but the necessary space for the area of refuge must be

provided according to the code. Also, the upper intermediate


landing only allows for 69 inches of headroom below. This
does not meet the minimum code requirement for 80 inches
of clear headroom.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 27

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ROOFPLAN VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice Questions
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions

General Tips for Taking Roof Plan

Accessibility/
Stair Design
Accessibility/Ramp
Ramp Vignette
Vignette

Directions

Arrow points in
the direction of
downward slope.

Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
References
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

1. 
For each roof area, define the extent, slope, and spot elevations of a plane or planes designed to remove rainwater
by means of roof slope, gutters, and downspouts only and
to allow for any required clerestory. The outside edges of
the roof planes you define must coincide with the dashed
lines indicating the outermost edges of the roofs; eaves or
overlapping roof planes are not to be shown.

Use the Set Roof tool to establish


roof slope, pitch, and elevation.

Use the Check


tool frequently to
make sure your
roof planes are
properly aligned.

The work screen shows the floor plan of a building and a simplified representation of its roof system. This representation
consists of dashed lines that indicate the outermost edges of the
two roofs that make up the system. When creating roof planes,
confine your solution to the areas defined by the dashed lines
(use no eaves or overhangs). Using the tools provided, configure
these roofs for effective removal of rainwater, as follows:

Use the Set


Roof tool to
move the
elevation
markers
around to
check vertical
relationships.

2. 
Indicate the location of the clerestory and all necessary
gutters and downspouts by using the appropriate symbols.
3. 
Place on the roof the HVAC condensing unit and any
necessary plumbing vent stacks, skylights, and exhaust
fan vents.
4. 
Indicate any necessary flashing and crickets. The chimney
shown on the plan should be considered to penetrate any
roof plane that you draw over it.
Before beginning your solution, you should review the program
that can be accessed through the Vignette Index screen and
familiarize yourself with the plan on the work screen.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 28

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ROOFPLAN VIGNETTE

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleKnowledge/
Choice Questions
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/
Stair Design
Accessibility/Ramp
Ramp Vignette
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
References
Roof
Plan Vignette
References

Program
Your office is designing a regional craft center. The following
requirements must be considered in preparation of the roof plan.
General
1. 
The building consists of two volumes, one high and one
low. Each volume has a roof height and slope requirement.
Roof Drainage
1. 
The building is located in a temperate climate with
moderate annual rainfall.
2. 
Only roof slope, gutters, and downspouts are to be used
for removal of rainwater.
3. 
Downspouts should not conflict with any door, window,
or clerestory window.
4. 
Rainwater should not discharge from the edge of an
upper roof directly onto a lower roof or from any roof
or gutter directly onto the ground.
Construction
1. 
Finished floor elevation is 0-0. Minimum ceiling height
is 8-0.
2. 
All roof areas must have a positive slope.
3. 
The roof over the exhibition room shall have a slope
between 6:12 and 12:12.

u 
The roof and structural assembly is a total of
18 inches thick.

4. 
The roof over the remaining spaces shall have a slope
between 2:12 and 5:12.

u 
The roof and structural assembly is a total of 18
inches thick.
5. 
The exhibition room is to have a horizontal clerestory
window 24 inches in height located in the existing west wall.

u 
The clerestory sill is included in the overall
height dimension.
6. 
Natural light must be provided for all rooms by means of
windows, clerestory window, or skylight.

u 
Skylights must be provided only where no windows are
shown and no clerestory window has been specified.

u 
Skylights are not required in halls, storage rooms, or closets.
7. 
Flashing must be provided at all roof/wall surface
intersections, including chimneys.

u 
HVAC condensing units, plumbing vent stacks, exhaust
fan vents, skylights, and gutters are self-flashing and
require no additional flashing or crickets.
Mechanical
1. 
The HVAC condensing unit must be placed on a roof
with a slope of 5:12 or less.

u 
Maintain a minimum of 3 feet clearance from all
roof edges.

u 
Do not place in front of the clerestory window.
2. 
Provide one (1) exhaust fan vent for each toilet room.
3. 
Provide plumbing vent stacks through roof where
required to vent plumbing fixtures.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 29

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ROOFPLAN VIGNETTE - Sample Passing Solution

3 Vignettes

Procedural Tips
u

To see the limits of the roof, turn


off Display floorplan under the
layers menu.

Use the check tool to ensure that


your roof planes are drawn within
the given limits of the roof.

Where roof planes meet, the


lines indicating the edges must
coincide. The zoom tool may be
helpful in accomplishing this.

While working with the set roof


tool, refer to the instructions area
at the bottom of the work screen.
The instructions will guide you in
using this tool.

All intersections
at wall, roof,
and chimney
are flashed.

Change the cursor to a full-screen


crosshair to assist in aligning
your roof plane with the given
roof edge. Ortho is also helpful
for aligning.

Mechanical unit is
properly located.

When elements overlap, you may


have trouble selecting a particular
element. If this happens, keep
clicking (without moving the
mouse) until the desired
element highlights.

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

All roof edges


have gutters and
downspouts.
Water does not
directly shed
to lower roof
or ground.

References
Correct location
of clerestory.

Simple roof plan


works to shed
water. All planes
align throughout.
Plumbing vent stack
located in common wall.

In this solution, the slope of the upper roof is 6:12 and falls
within the required slope. The roof elevations are correctly set
at each corner of the roof. At the low corner of the upper roof,
there is adequate difference between the two roof levels. This
allows placement of the required 24-inch horizontal clerestory
window on the west wall of the Exhibition Room and the

Plumbing vent stack and


exhaust fan provided.

necessary 18-inch roof structure above. The lower roof slopes


are set at 3:12 with a low point at 9 feet 6 inches. Flashing is
provided at all roof/wall surface intersections, and there are
gutters and downspouts at the eaves. Skylights are provided in
spaces with no exterior windows and all plumbing fixtures are
close to a plumbing vent stack.

Note

Be careful to follow the perimeter


edges for both the upper and
lower roof planes. Use the Check
tool frequently.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 30

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

ROOFPLAN VIGNETTE - Sample Failing Solution

3 Vignettes

Warnings
u

Knowledge/
Skills
u

Sample MultipleChoice Questions


Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette

Height ignores
the 18 thickness
of roof structure.

Roof Design
Plan Vignette
Stair
Vignette

T he dashed lines labeled Edge


of Roof (on the work screen)
are the outer limits of the roof.
Do not extend your roof planes
beyond these lines.
Gutters and downspouts may
be placed beyond the outer
limits of the roof.

Tools You Might


Find Useful
u

 et roof tool to make calculating


S
a roof elevation easier

Roof Plan Vignette


Missing gutters
and downspouts

References

Roof planes do not


properly meet at
the same elevation.

Lower than
allowed
minimum slope.

HVAC unit too


close to roof edge.

This solution generally sheds water but has some major technical
flaws. The main problems are with the roof slopes and corner
elevations on the three roof planes that make up the roof system.
The slope of the lower level, south-facing plane is set shallower
than the program allows, and the top corners of the two lower

level planes do not align at the same elevation. The HVAC unit
is too close to the roof edge. The upper roof is missing gutters
and allows the water to shed off the roof directly onto the lower
roof and ground.

July 2012 ARE 4.0 31

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

REFERENCES

Knowledge/
Skills

The following references are presented to assist candidates in preparation for the examination. This list represents texts
that have content covered in this division of the examination. This is not intended to be an exhaustive list of all possible
reference materials for the subject area. NCARB makes no guarantee that the various references are currently in print.

3 Vignettes

Sample MultipleChoice Questions


Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

The Architects Handbook of Professional Practice


Joseph A. Demkin, AIA, Executive Editor
The American Institute of Architects
John Wiley & Sons, latest edition
The Architects Portable Handbook,
Second Edition
Pat Guthrie
McGraw-Hill, 2003
The Architects Studio Companion: Technical Guidelines
for Preliminary Design
Edward Allen and Joseph Iano
John Wiley & Sons, latest edition
Architectural Graphic Standards
Charles G. Ramsey and Harold R. Sleeper
The American Institute of Architects
John Wiley & Sons, latest edition
Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding
the International Building Code
Second Edition
Francis D. K. Ching and Steven R. Winkel, FAIA
JohnWiley & Sons, 2007
Building Construction Illustrated
Francis D. K. Ching and Cassandra Adams
John Wiley & Sons, latest edition
Building Design and ConstructionHandbook,
Sixth Edition
Frederick S. Merritt and Jonathan T. Ricketts
McGraw-Hill, 2000

Dictionary of Architecture and Construction


Cyril M. Harris, Editor
McGraw-Hill, 2005
Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials,
and Methods, Fourth Edition
Edward Allen
John Wiley & Sons, latest edition
Historic Preservation: An Introduction to Its History,
Principles, and Practice
Norman Tyler
W. W. Norton & Company, latest edition
The HOK Guidebook to Sustainable Design
Sandra F. Mendler, AIA, and William Odell, AIA
John Wiley & Sons, 2006
Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture,
Second Edition
Ernest Burden
McGraw-Hill, 2002
Interior Graphic Standards
Maryrose McGowan and Kelsey Kruse
John Wiley & Sons, 2003
Landscape Planning: Environmental Applications,
Fourth Edition
William M.Marsh
John Wiley & Sons, 2005
Means Building Construction Cost Data
RS Means Company, latest edition

July 2012 ARE 4.0 32

Building Design
& Construction
Systems
85 MC Questions

Building Design & Construction Systems

Overview

REFERENCES

3 Vignettes

Knowledge/
Skills
Sample MultipleChoice Questions
Accessibility/Ramp
Vignette
Stair Design
Vignette
Roof Plan Vignette

References

Sun, Wind, and Light: Architectural Design Strategies,


Second Edition
G. Z. Brown and Mark DeKay
John Wiley & Sons, 2000

Time-Saver Standards for Building Types,


Fourth Edition
Joseph De Chiara and Michael J. Crosbie, Editors
McGraw-Hill, latest edition

Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data


Donald Watson, Michael J. Crosbie, and
John Hancock Callender, Editors
McGraw-Hill, latest edition

Time-Saver Standards for Interior Design


and Space Planning
Joseph De Chiara, Editor, Julius Panero, Editor,
and Martin Zelnik
McGraw-Hill, latest edition

Time-Saver Standards for Building Materials


& Systems: Design Criteria and Selection Data
Donald Watson, Editor
McGraw-Hill, latest edition

July 2012 ARE 4.0 33

Você também pode gostar