SME 430: History of

Mathematics
Week 2 - Numbers and Operations

1
Itinerary

Announcements
Discussion on Reading (Numbers & Operations)
Break
Activity: Non-Standard Bases & Multiplication

2
Timeline Assignment

Groups and weeks are now posted on ANGEL.

Date ranges are posted for the first half of the year.
Remember, you are responsible for including important
events from world history for your date range and
explaining why they were important.
Presentation (~5 minutes) - try to provide information in
a way where we’ll remember what you presented.

3
Biography Assignment
Order, weeks, and the first biography subjects have
been posted to ANGEL.
Biographies will be assigned in the order of students
listed.
Focus on their contributions to mathematics and
society
Presentations (5-8 minutes) - Try to provide information
in a way that we’ll remember what you presented.

4
Group Discussion on
Numbers
Break into small groups and discuss the following
prompts:
In your opinion what are important characteristics for
a number system to have?
Come up with your own definition of positional
number system. Then discuss...
Which of the number systems we have looked at
are positional and which ones are not? Explain
your choices.

5
Properties of Base 10
Number System
Infinite
10 symbols
0 as a place holder
Positional (base 10)
Partial wholes can be written with the same symbols
Standardized algorithms for operations
Large and small numbers are easily represented
Reading/recording numbers are straight forward

6
Group Discussion on
Operations
Return to your small groups and discuss the following...
Do we need 4 different operations? Can two be
enough?
What mathematics can & can’t we do if we only use
addition and subtraction in a number system?
Do multiplication and division provide access to any
additional mathematics?
Do you think that you can use the standard algorithm
for addition or multiplication we are using today in other
number systems. Why or why not? If yes, how?

7
Types of Numbers
8
Break
Be back in 10 minutes
9
Base 5 Arithmetic
4232 How would you convert
+3104 the base 10 number 4,328
to base 5?

4232
- 3104

10
Activities
The handouts describe 4 different methods that
different cultures have used for multiplication. Each
hand out describes the method, and asks you to try
the method with several problems before attempting to
uncover how each method works.
Divide into groups of 4 (there will be two groups of 5)
and begin discussing these methods.
We will come back together afterwards for some whole
class discussion

11
Homework
Read Sketch 3 - Nothing Becomes a Number (The Story of
Zero), p. 71-74 & Read Sketch 4 - Broken Numbers (Writing
Fractions), p. 75-80.
Respond to the prompts in the Discussion Board on ANGEL
Rebecca M/Emily S/Kristina W - Timeline
Abbagail H/Kayla V/Rachael B - Biographies
Foreshadowing: Before Spring Break, we will be reading the
first half of “The History of Mathematics in a Large
Nutshell” (p. 5-32) if you want to get started on it. However,
nothing from these pages is due next week.

12
In your opinion, what are important characteristics for a number system to have?

• Base value 10 – instinctual and biological - ?

o Perhaps just to have a base value – a number that makes sense. This
limits the number of symbols. Can perform calculations more easily
• Important to have a symbol for zero. This makes it much more clearer than a
space would provide.
• Large numbers can be written consistently and concisely. (Don’t need to
write down infinite symbols.
• Using symbols that are simpler (not intricate)
• Using a limited number of symbols.
• Symbols should be read in only one direction
• The reading of a number should not involve computations.

In your group, come up with your own definition of a positional number system,
then… discuss which of the number systems we discussed last week fit your group’s
definition of positional?

1. In a positional number system, rearranging the symbols will change the

value./The position of the symbols is important to determining the value of
the number.
a. Positional – Roman, Babylonian, Mayan, Chinese/Japanese,
b. Non-positional – Egyptian, Greek
2. Any number system with place value that has some sort of base number
system
a. Positional – Chinese/Japanese, Mayan, Babylonian
b. Non-positional – Greek, Egyptian, Roman
3. A positional number system has a constant multiplier
a. Positional – Babylonian, Chinese/Japanese
b. Non-positional – Mayan, Egyptian, Roman, Greek

To classify things, you have to make sure everyone has the same definition.
Definition was “relative” – depending on different definitions, different
classifications could be obtained.

What are the characteristics of our base 10 number system?

• 10 symbols (0-9)
• Efficient positional structure
• Can compute directly with the numbers
• Have symbols for non-integers
• Base-10
• Place value exists
• Can use the symbol “0” to hold place value
• Large numbers can be represented with few symbols
 • Every number has a name
• Has properties (distributive, associative, commutative)
• Symbols are always read from left to right
• Have standard (and easy to use) algorithms for different operations
• Multiple representations for numbers (1/4, .25, 1:4)
• Symbolic representation for special numbers (π, i, e, ln, c, repeated digit
0.33333)

• Do we need 4 different operations? Can two be enough?

o What mathematics can & can’t we do if we only use addition and
subtraction in a number system?
o Do multiplication and division provide access to any additional
mathematics?

The “2” Camp

• Two may be enough (addition or subtraction) & (multiplication or division).

• Only addition (multiplication is addition)
• If we’re tricky about it, we can treat some operations like others.

The “4” Camp

• Hard to manage with less than 4.

• ½ * ¼ seems difficult (if not impossible) with only addition
• Might not be able to represent all numbers if we don’t have all the operations
• Futher mathematics might be difficult/impossible
If we start with 0-9 and +/-, then we can get negatives, we can get all the integers,
Natural, Integers.We’re missing rational numbers, irrationals, imaginary numbers.

If we start with 0-9, and +/-/*/÷, we can get natural numbers, integers, rational
numbers & irrational numbers (real numbers). imaginary?

• Do you think that you can use the standard algorithm for addition or
multiplication we are using today in other number systems. Why or why not?
If yes, how?

Can do

• Egyptian could do addition if you go horizontally and may need regrouping.

• Greek could do addition
• Roman could do addition if you also kept track of subtractions.

Can’t do
• Systems without a zero placeholder, we can’t perform the standard algorithm
for multiplication
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Egyptian Multiplication
This activity is about a new type of algorithm that will help those of you with problems multiplying
numbers. This algorithm is entitled Egyptian Multiplication. This method was used and developed
by the ancient Egyptians. These were people who migrated from the fertile Sahara region of Africa.
The Egyptians had customs similar to those of the Ethiopians. The Egyptian civilization was one of
the greatest ancient civilizations. They were well organized and one of the more advanced of the
ancient civilizations. They had calendars, standard weight and measure system and a centralized
government.

Egyptians had an interesting way of doing multiplication. They used addition to get the answer of a
multiplication problem. They only had to memorize one multiplication table. That table would be
the 2 times table. This method is still used in many rural communities in Ethiopia, Russia, the Arab
World, and the Near East.

The term that we use with Egyptian Multiplication is called Doubling. Doubling does just what it
sounds like. You take one number and either multiply it by 2 or you add it to itself. This is done
repeatedly until you get the other number. Below is an example of what you need to do using the
problem 18 x 24:

18x24

24

1 24

2 48

4 96

8 192

16 384

You first take either number, the 18 or 24. Here we used the 24. Then set up a little chart like we
have done. Put the number being doubled on the right hand side. On the left hand side you put the
"double number". You keep putting the corresponding double with the number that was doubled.
Once you get to a double larger than the other number you are multiplying then you can stop. Now
you have to find the double numbers that add up to the other number, in our case is 18. The
doubles that add up to 18 are 2 and 16. Take the corresponding numbers and add them together;
48+384=432. That number is the product of 24 and 18.

Sources: http://www.teach-nology.com/themes/social/eygpt/
http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/projects/mepres/book7/y7s6act.pdf
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Question:
Does the order matter?
Do you get the same answer if you switch the numbers?

Problems:

Use Egyptian multiplication to find

1. 13 x 42
2. 54 x 98
3. 45 x 126
4. 85 x 17

Think about:

Analyze the method to see why it works.

(Hint: Write 18 x 24 = (2 + 16) x 24

= (2x24) + (16x24)

Sources: http://www.teach-nology.com/themes/social/eygpt/
http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/projects/mepres/book7/y7s6act.pdf
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Napier’s Bones

The Scot, John Napier, invented these strips (originally made from bone) about 400 years ago to
help calculate multiplication and division.

This is what they looked like:

Can you work out how to use Napier's bones to find the answer to 24x18?

Pick out the bones (rods) which start with 1 and 8.

Source: http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/numbers/machine/napier.htm
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Pick out 2nd row up along the diagonals. This shows us 2 x 18

0 1

2 6
3 6

Pick out the 4th row up along the diagonals. This shows us 4 x 18

0 3

4 2
7 2

As we want the final calculation is 24 x 18

24 x 18 = (20x18) + (4x18)

= 360 + 72

= 432

Question:
Does the order matter? [NO]
Do you get the same answer if you switch the numbers? [YES]

Problems:

Use Napier’s Bones multiplication to find

1. 13 x 42=546
2. 54 x 98 =5292
3. 45 x 126 =5670
4. 85 x 17 =1445

Source: http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/numbers/machine/napier.htm
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Think about:

Analyze the method to see why it works.

In the first example, 13 x 42...

essentially this method expresses it as
(10 x 40) + (10 x 2) + (3 x 40) + (3 x 2) = 546
(400) + (20) + (120) + (6) = 546

Source: http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/numbers/machine/napier.htm
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Roman Multiplication
The 'old Romans' used letters to symbolize the concept of quantity just as we use numbers.

Let's try XLVIII x XCIII (or, in our terms, 48 x 93)

We're going to use basically the same methods we use to multiply today, but we have to remember
to carefully transfer our thinking to symbolic numbers.
Now, when we multiply, what is the first thing we do? We take the number in the ones place in the
second number and multiply it by the whole first number. In this case, the number in the ones place
in the second number is III. So, our first problem is

XLVIII x III

Let's do this a really simplistic way. We are going to just add together three of each letter that
appears in the first number:

-XXX + LLL + VVV + III + III + III = -XXX + CL + XV + IX = CXX + XXIV = CXLIV

Now, from the second expression to the third, I subtracted the -XXX from CL to get CXX, and I
subtracted the I in IX from the V in XV to get XXIV. We can see that so far we are doing well
48 x 3 = 144 = CXLIV

Now, we need to do XLVIII x XC, because we remember that when we do multiplication, that is
what we really do, multiply by 90 instead of 9.

XLVIII x XC

This is a little tougher to just write out 90 of every letter that appears in the number. We have two
choices: we can multiply the number by 90 now, or multiply it by 9 and then multiply it by 10 at the
end. Let's just multiply it by 90 from the beginning, and we'll see how it goes.

-X x XC + L x XC + V x XC + I x XC + I x XC + I x XC =

-CM + MMMMD + CDL + XC + XC + XC = -(-C) + -M + MMMMD + -C + DL + -XXX +

CCC =

C + MMMD + DXX + CC = MMMDDCCCXX = MMMMCCCXX

We're still o.k. because 90 x 48 = 4320

Now, all we need to do is add MMMMCCCXX and CXLIV

MMMMCCCXX + CXLIV = MMMMCCCCLXIV = MMMMCDLXIV

And we got the right answer! 48 x 93 = 4464 = MMMMCDLXIV

Source: http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/57911.html
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Question:
Does the order matter?
Do you get the same answer if you switch the numbers?

Problems:

Use Roman multiplication to find

1. 13 x 42
2. 54 x 98
3. 45 x 126
4. 85 x 17

Think about:

Analyze the method to see why it works.

Source: http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/57911.html
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Source: http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/57911.html
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Russian Multiplication
Think about you could only add and multiply or divide by 2. Russian peasants developed a
clever method of multiplying any two numbers.

For example to multiply 18 by 24, they followed this method:

• in two columns written down the numbers
• divide the left hand column by 2 ignoring the remainders and multiply the right hand
column by 2
• repeat this process until number 1 is reached in the left hand column
• Delete any row which has an even number in the left hand column
• Add up the numbers remaining in the right hand column

18 x 24

18 24
9 48
4 96
2 192
1 384

18 x 24 = 48 + 384 = 432

Question:
Does the order matter?
Do you get the same answer if you switch the numbers?

Source: http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/projects/mepres/book7/y7s6act.pdf
SME 430: History of Mathematics 1/19/10

Problems:

Use Russian multiplication to find

1. 13 x 42
2. 54 x 98
3. 45 x 126
4. 85 x 17

Think about:

Analyze the method to see why it works.

(Hint: Write 18 x 24 = (9x2) x 24

= 9x48

= (8+1)x48

=8x48 +1x48

= 4x2x48 + 48

= 4 x 96 + 48

etc

Source: http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/projects/mepres/book7/y7s6act.pdf