Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Review of literature has not only widened the horizon of the themes
related to the study, but also has sharpened the method of the components in the
framework of the study. The study consists of two principal insights i.e., Non
Government Organisations

(NGOs) or Voluntary Agencies and Rural

Development, the two issues which were widely studied in their own entity. In
other words, many a research study was focused on voluntary agencies and the
types of works they deal with etc. Similarly, rural development, through its wide
gamut of issues, too studied extensively in India. However, studies exclusively on
Voluntary Agencies and Rural Development issues were quite limited. This in
context, especially keeping in view the two principal issues addressed by the
present research investigation i.e. rural development and voluntary agencies, a
conscious effort was made to understand the issues through wider perspective of
reviewing the literature on these aspects as a separate entity. Further, wherever
possible, effort was made to review the existing literature which focuses both on
rural development and voluntary agencies. Consequently, the present chapter is
presented in two sections. Section A is focused on the outcome of existing
literature on Voluntary Agencies which are popularly known as Non Government
Organisations and Section B with focus on role of Voluntary Agencies in Rural
Development and other related issues pertaining to rural development.
Section A: Voluntary Agencies
In this section an attempt was made to understand the very concept of
voluntary agencies in terms of definition, role and responsibilities and so on. In
view of the various issues associated with the voluntary agencies, this section is
further divided into sub-sections to explain the various issues associated.
In his preliminary work, Lord Beveridge (1949)1, presents a conceptual
presentation on the very definition of voluntary agencies. He emphasizes that A
Voluntary Organization, properly speaking, is an organization which, whether its

42

workers are paid or unpaid, is initiated and governed by its own members without
external control. Thus, Lord Beveridge underlined the principles of freedom of
governance in works undertaken by the voluntary agencies.
Given the Indian conditions, Kulkarni (1949)2, in his decade old work,
defines voluntary organization as a forum of organizing activities supporting,
strengthening and helping to develop work, meet all types of needs of individuals
and groups in a society. Thus, Kulkarni pointed out the very strength of voluntary
agency as an institution playing additive and supportive role along with welfare
orientation. He further, emphasizes the issues concerned while defining the
voluntary agencies in the following manner: The simplest most common
meaning given to civil society is all public activity, by any individual
organizations or movements, other than government employees acting in a
governmental capacity. In the broadest sense, it encompasses all social, economic,
cultural and political relation, but the emphasis is usually on the political aspects
of these relations. Thus it can be used in reference to any level from the local to
the country as a whole, or even global interactions. It also clearly goes beyond
traditional NGOs to all forms of networks, caucuses and movements. As a result,
it serves as a political tool for all those who want to promote innovative, wider,
and deeper levels of political participation.
Mary Morris (1955)3 through her study felt that to lead a full life, most
people need more than they can find in their work place or home. They need to
live as members of groups doing things for themselves and for their fellow
members or for the benefit of others outside the group. The urge to act in groups
is fundamental to man. Thus, Mary Morriss work point out the need for
voluntary agencies in the arena of development processes.
In his pioneering work with emphasis on studying the pattern of approach
adopted by voluntary agencies, Paul Choudhary (1970)4 has classified the motives

43

of voluntary organizations into 3 categories namely, 1. Religious: a) To attain

salivation b) To discharge some duties, and c) religion compels to give away a
fixed percentage of income like 2.5% among Muslims, 10% of income among
Sikhs or regular donations among Protestants. 2. Social: a. Out of committment
for a cause in a democratic set up, b. To save wealth from relatives, and c) To Act
as responsible citizens; 3. Personal - For recognition and high position in the
society (role of elites); For the name of family (family reputation); Out of
repentance of some misdeed; For a political career, and To save income tax.
Thus, Paul Choudharys work captures the wide gamut of works addressed by
voluntary agencies in the Indian context and also reflects their omni presence in
the development scenario.
P.V.Paranjape and others (1984)5 conducted a study on Shramik
Sanghatana (Toilers' Association) in the Shahade region of the Dhule district with
the objective of investigating the historical background and activities of
Sanghatana with special reference to the problems of grassroots self-reliance. A
vast majority of the population in the region were the landless and illiterate
'adivasis' (Tribals). The method employed in this study was participatory research.
Nine villages -three each from three types of areas -were selected: four workshops
were organized for investigating perspectives of self-reliance. The study revealed
the fact that the tribals themselves had taken initiatives to strengthen the
Sanghatana in the locality. Direct democracy and human approach were observed
to be quite strong not only in the administration of Sanghatana but also in their
social relationships. Tensions between the urban external activists and the local
activists were fluctuating and it was accepted as a part of the process. The study
brought to light the fact that the tribal young women were so shy to come out of
themselves that eliciting participation from them was a major obstacle in
achieving self-reliance.

44

In a study more akin to the present study, Chaturvedi (1987)6 examines the
role of voluntary organizations in rural development with a historical perspective
from Gandhian era and concludes that a long tradition of community based
voluntary work which had been built in the past two centuries got lost in the
period following independence. Thus, the study elucidates more information on
continuity of voluntary agencies in the Indian context and also its importance.
Muttalib (1987)7, focused his study more on typical voluntary behaviour and
associated factors. The study discusses various concepts with their behavior
functions involved in voluntarism, including their typology and traded the
realization of the need in Indian rural developmental effort.
Simon Combe (1989)8 also undertook his study on Indian NGOs,
especially indigenous in nature. The study

provides a definition of indigenous

voluntary agencies sector as it exists in rural India. He explains in detail each

defining characteristics with a view of differentiating indigenous voluntary
agencies from other formations working for bringing about change in rural India.
In other words, the study is a pioneering work in establishing a relationship
between voluntary agencies and development change in the country.
Charyulu U.V.N. (1989)9, through one of his case study on voluntary
agencies and their role in rural development, examines the nature of the voluntary
organization in the field of rural development, the motivations, methods they
adopted and relations with other agencies. The study focuses on issues pertaining
to various strategies adopted by voluntary agencies keeping in view the local
conditions concerned. This also explains the flexible approach adopted by the
voluntary agencies and this also explains the successful inroads made by the
voluntary agencies in the development sector. .

45

David Korten (1990)10, while studying the nature and domain of voluntary
agencies in his study, had proposed fifth generation of NGOs. Nowadays, NGOs
working for peace or conflict resolution or as track-II negotiators between
states/nations, international NGOs acting on behalf of the global civil society and
conducting research on voluntary sector contributions may be regarded as
belonging to the category of Fifth Generation.
DL Sheth and Harsh Sethi (1991)11 in their two decade old study also
concentrated on historical issues pertaining to NGOs. The last two decades have
witnessed a veritable mushrooming of NGOs in India. What, however, is
inadequately appreciated is that the conversion of voluntarism into primarily a
favoured instrumentality for developmental intervention has changed what was
once an organic part of civil society into merely a sector-an appendage of the
developmental apparatus of the state. Further, this process of instrumental
appropriation has resulted in these agencies of self-activity losing both their
autonomy and political-transformative edge. What is required, therefore, is to
reorient voluntarism from a framework of subserving the needs of delivery to one
promoting self-governance in the widest sense.
R. G. Alsop, R. Khandelwal, E. H. Gilbert and J. Farrington (1996)12 is a
unique work in the sense that it deals with collaborations among NGOs working
for certain purpose. Stronger collaboration between government organizations
(GOs), NGOs, and rural people has long been advocated as a means of enhancing
the responsiveness, efficiency, and accountability of GOs and NGOs. Taking
recent examples from Udaipur District in India, he reviews the experiences and
potential of collaboration, arguing that, while informal interaction increases and
enriches the fabric of pluralist development, certain strategic decisions often
require a degree of formality. These include decisions on the development of
human resources- here both the users and providers of services. Moreover, human
resource development (HRD) must be viewed in the context of the mandates,

46

aspirations, and systems of accountability and rewards of the institutions

concerned. These determine whether institutions develop and expand their own
human resources or draw upon those of others by collaborating with them.
Individuals engaged in these organizations can be more effectively induced to
collaborate with others by combinations of flexibility and appropriate reward
systems than they can be forced to do so by instructions or commands. Several
conclusions follow: decisions to act together are unlikely to progress unless
translated into concrete actions; authority to take local-level decisions in GOs
needs strengthening if they are to provide the necessary flexibility; and, although
collaboration should in principle be built on the comparative advantage of
different types of organization, in practice, each will have to incorporate the skills
of the other, at least to some level, if they are to communicate effectively. NGOs
and GOs must also enhance their understanding of farmers' ability to make
demands on external organizations. Edging towards collaboration is a delicate and
painstaking process. Only if many of the above conditions are given due priority
will early examples have something to offer to the numerous NGOs, GOs and
international agencies wishing to learn from them.
NGOs have, of late, found some of their traditional domains, such as
provision of micro-credit and participatory development, coinciding with or being
taken away by the state. How do they position themselves and retain relevance
vis-a-vis the state in the changed scenario? Tracing the trajectory of interventions
of a local NGO in Kerala, India, this article shows that NGOs exhibit multiple
identitiesselective collaboration, gap-filling and posing alternativesin the
process of engagement with the state. The strategizing of such identities may
hold the key to their relevance vis-a-vis the state.
While studying the Non Government Organisations in Vietnam, Mark
Sidel (1996)13 made his contribution based on his experiences on NGOs and their
works in that country. A significant number and wide range of Vietnamese non-

47

profit and voluntary organisations have developed since Vietnam embarked on a

programme of economic reform in late 1986. Philanthropy has begun to grow as
well, but more slowly. The non-profit and voluntary sector and the state, each face
important challenges as development of the sector accelerates. The state has
sought both to encourage growth of non-profit, voluntary and philanthropic
institutions, and to control the pace and direction of that growth. Those dual aims
are reflected in the state's regulation of the sector since the mid-1980s. This article
provides detailed information on the development of the non-profit sector in
Vietnam. It examines some common problems many of the new non-profit and
voluntary organisations face and discusses the rapidly changing environment for
philanthropy in Vietnam. The article also reviews the developing legal
environment for non-profit and philanthropy, compares the situation in Vietnam
to other countries in transition, and studies the functions of the non-profit sector in
Vietnam in the context of the emerging scholarly literature on functions and
models of the non-profit sector and government/non-profit relations.
Sidhartha Sen (1999)14, focused his study on research work undertaken on
NGOs in the context of globalisation process. An overview of recent trends in
research on the Indian nonprofit sector is presented. The material is not
exhaustive of all research that has been conducted, but instead discusses effects of
globalization on the literature. As used here, globalization implies the worldwide
rise of economic liberalism, universal trust in political democracy, the advent of
cultural universalism, relative erosion of the power of nation-states, and global
embracing of capitalism and commodity culture. The following distinct effects of
globalization are discussed: diverse policy debates on nongovernmental
organization (NGO) roles in development, challenges to the credibility of India's
most popular and debated theory of nonprofits, the emergence of a large volume
of literature on environmental and women's movements and organizations, and
the shifting of attention to the study of NGOs. A deliberate effort is made to
identify the backgrounds of some of the authors discussed in the article to direct
48

attention to differences in content of the writings of NGO officials, activists,

scholars, policy analysts, development consultants, Westerners, and Indians.
R. Sooryamurthy and KD Gangrade (2001)15, through their study NGOs in
India: A Cross Sectional Study, produced another important work which provides
a comprehensive overview of NGOs in India in which he critically examines their
contributions to development. Focusing on NGOs that work in the areas of rural
development, women, and children, the authors' goal is to shed light on the
contributions of the sector in the spheres of social welfare, empowerment, service,
and rural development. In addition, the problems and difficulties experienced by
NGOs are analyzed and explained. This important new book traces the rise of
NGOs in India and their transformation over the years, revealing the importance
of NGOs in India's development after Independence.
Beginning with a detailed history of voluntarism in India and examination
of NGOs around the world, the authors provide the framework for examining
NGOs in India as a force contributing to development. They then focus on
partnerships and cooperation between NGOs and the government, advocacy and
policy implications of NGO activity, accountability within organizations,
approaches to problems and delivery of services, NGO life cycles, and the need
for a code of ethics within NGOs. Case studies on NGOs designed to assist
women, children, and rural development are presented and discussed in the
context of development in general and improving the quality of life for all Indian
citizens. This careful and comprehensive examination is a unique addition to a
growing field of literature in India.
Another important publication by Sangeeta Kamat (2002)16 titled
Development Hegemony: NGOs and the state in India deals with the current
debates in South Asia on the role of the state and the non-government
organizations in the development process and in fostering democratic principles.

49

It is a critique of the grassroots development in India over the past few decades. In
recent years there has been a marked growth in the number of Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) in India working at the grassroots. The withdrawal of the
state from some crucial sectors of the economy since 1991 has provided the
NGOs with greater scope for work with the funds that they receive mainly from
foreign agencies. As a result of the growth of the NGOs and the increasing
development functions that they perform at the grassroots, the NGOs have come
under heavy scrutiny from academia.
Paul Nelson (2002)17 focused on international advocacy of NGOs in the
development sector. International advocacy strategies devised for the political
environment in which World Bank policy is decided are often not suitable for
advocacy on broader financial policy and trade issues. Advocacy in
these new agendas challenges prevailing models, which depict NGOs as
mobilizing powerful governments and international organizations to influence a
government's behavior. The patterns of international NGO political activity are
diverse, sometimes restraining the power of international rules and authorities
over individual governments, and require a new or broader model.
Batliwala, Srilatha (2002)18 with her focus on very nature of NGOs and
other associated factors studied various issues in this regard. The past two decades
witnessed the emergence of a new range of transnational social movements,
networks, and organizations seeking to promote a more just and equitable global
order. With this broadening and deepening of cross-border citizen action,
however, troubling questions have arisen about their rights of representation and
accountability-the internal hierarchies of voice and access within transnational
civil society are being highlighted. The rise of transnational grassroots
movements, with strong constituency base and sophisticated advocacy capability
at both local and global levels, is an important phenomenon in this context. These
movements are formed and led by poor and marginalized groups, and defy the

50

stereotype of grassroots movements being narrowly focused on local issues. They

embody both a challenge and an opportunity for democratizing and strengthening
the role of transnational civil society globally.
Alnoor Ebrahim (2003)19 focused his study on institutional issues
pertaining to NGOs operating in Western part of India. This paper examines the
effects of shifts in development discourse on the behavior of Non-Government
Organizations (NGOs). Drawing upon detailed case histories of two wellestablished NGOs in western India, it is demonstrated that (1) the case NGOs
have been profoundly influenced by discourses prevailing during their initial,
formative stages; (2) NGO behavior is subject to changes in global development
discourses that are transmitted to them via a range of mechanisms including
consultants, conditions of funding, and reporting requirements; and (3) these
NGOs have been able to challenge and adapt certain discourses to suit their own
needs and circumstances, sometimes even sparking wider structural change.
Snehalatha Chandra (2003)20 brought an interesting publication which
deals with issues associated with management of Indian NGOs. For all kinds of
Non-Profit Organizations, this book serves as a working and referral guideline,
whether they are involved in charity and welfare work or in the development of
communities and in the work related to social transformation. The book provides
an interesting feature as well as source of knowledge in managing the NGOs in
Indian circumstances.
Another important study that was devoted to NGOs was the work of
Vikram Patel and R Thara (2003)21 which deals with NGO innovations while
dealing with mental health needs of affected persons. This important volume
describes the work of voluntary agencies in the field of mental health with the
explicit objectives of documenting innovative achievements, examining the issue
involved, and determining their success and viability in Indian setting.

51

Jennifer M. Brinkerhoff (2003)22 made a relationship between NGOs and

the Donor agencies in India and Pakistan. The paper explores donors' efforts to
promote governmentNGO partnership for the purpose of improving public
services. Following a brief discussion of partnership, two illustrations support a
relative definition of partnership and its added value. The examples represent
alternative approaches to improving public services through partnership work, the
choice of which may depend on (1) the will of the partners to change
particularly government, (2) the pre-existence of effective public services, and (3)
depth of mobilization and social capital sought. The examples similarly reveal
alternative approaches to addressing partnership challenges either bureaucratically
or through behavioral norms and organization culture. Implications of donors'
participation in such partnerships are highlighted.
Femida Handy (2006)23 in her study on grass-root NGOs focused her
study on NGOs which were exclusively promoted by women. Based on empirical
evidence from first-hand interactions with 20 Indian women founders of NGOs,
this book presents a theoretical understanding of the role and impact of NGOs in
women's development. It looks at what motivates and facilitates female
entrepreneurship in NGOs, the structures that evolve based on their feminist
ideologies, the services they provide and the social impact of these NGOs in
promoting the empowerment of women.
Margaret Sherrard Sherraden and others (2006)24 focused in their work on
international voluntarism which cuts across the countries. International voluntary
service (IVS) has a significant and growing presence worldwide. IVS is a policy
and program tool used for international development aid, humanitarian relief, and
promotion of international understanding. In the last century, forms of IVS have
proliferated, while research on scope, effectiveness, and impacts has lagged
behind. We propose a typology that addresses duration, nature of service, and
degree of internationality. Further, we identify IVS networks and support

52

organizations that bolster the capacity of IVS sending and hosting organizations,
and in this process create large and little recognized international institutions of
cooperation. Building on the typology, we suggest program, policy, and research
implications to advance knowledge of the role of IVS, its role in global civil
society, and the impact it may have on human conditions and cross-cultural
understanding.
GB Kashyap and JP Garg (2008)25 through their publication titled Role
of NGOs discuss the issues pertaining to role of NGOs in different development
scenario existing in the country. This volume considers the roots and expansion of
NGOs in rural India, taking care to highlight the endeavours of these agencies in
such issues of rural concern as education, employment, health, social welfare,
family planning etc.
Yashavantha Dongre and Shanthi Gopalan (2008)26, focused their study on
administrative issues pertaining to NGOs in India. The third sector in India is
unique because it represents a public space where social aspirations converge in a
vast, complicated and heterogeneous terrain through the work of incorporated
bodies, unregistered organisations, informal groups and nonformal community
initiatives. The best organized and most familiar forms of voluntary initiatives
include the cooperatives and non-government organisations (NGOs), whereas self
help groups, community organisations and associations of indigenous people are
less formal, unregistered but have a wide geographic and functional coverage.
The third sector in India has a long history, varied sizes and diverse structure and
functions-complementing the vastness and cultural intricacies of the country.
Nabhis Board of Editors (2009)27 also brought a publication titled
Handbook for NGOs an encyclopedia for Non-Governmental Organizations and
Voluntary Agencies. It tells you how to form an NGO, how to manage an NGO,
how to maintain accounts/minutes/meetings, and how to go with daily

53

administration. It also incorporates Government Aid Schemes for NGOs,

Schemes of all Ministries, NABARD, NHRC for NGOs, Facilities to NGOs,
Project Proposal & Implementation, Funding, Taxation (Income Tax, Sales Tax,
Service Tax) PIL, Legal Aid, and information on other day-to-day working. List
of important funding agencies in India as well as abroad are also provided.
Illustrated Project Reports for starting NGOs is also given. In nutshell, this is a
complete manual for NGOs in India.
Another study focusing on NGOs in Bangladesh by Rie Makita (2009)28,
explores what role an NGO can play as an intermediary in business development
for the poor with focus on the relations between the NGO and local elites. In
theory, as market demand for a product or service increases, the business attracts
more interest from local elites, to whom all the benefits tend to go in the end.
However, the two cases suggest feasible ways for the poor with intermediary to
open up a business opportunity in the elite-controlled rural economy; market
differentiation and the use of a stagnant industry. As a result, new NGOelite
relations emerge. Considering the limited life of such relations, efforts should be
concentrated on enabling the poor to make the most of the business opportunity in
the short term under the new NGOelite relations.
Patrick Kilby (2010)29 produced an outstanding work on the very nature of
NGOs. By examining how NGOs operated in Southern India in the early 2000,
this book discusses the challenges faced by small, local NGOs in the uncertain
times of changing aid dynamics. The key findings focus on what empowerment
means for Indian women, and how NGO accountability to these groups is an
important part of the empowerment being realised.
A study of similar nature was conducted by Bejoy K. Thomas, Roldan
Muradian and others (2010)30 also focussed on collaborations among NGOs. In
their study across Kerala state, their study titled Confronting or Complementing?

54

A Case Study on NGO-State Relations from Kerala, India shows that NGOs
exhibit multiple identities, selective collaborations, gap-filling and posing
ownership among certain issues.
Taedong Lee (2010)31 conducted research study on the rise of international
NGOs. This study examines the conditions that facilitate the growth of
International Non-Government Organizations (INGOs) in 126 countries, from
1982 to 2000. To explain the uneven growth of INGOs around the world, in two
competing theoretical approaches. The top-down perspective of growth focuses
on the degree of a countrys integration into the world polity and international
economy. The bottom-up perspective emphasizes the development of
democracy and the prosperity of the domestic economy as significant factors in
facilitating INGO growth within a given country. An econometric analysis of
panel data with Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) suggests that both economic and
political factors at the global and national level explain the rise of INGOs, rather
than viewing either in an isolated fashion.
Masako Thanaka (2010)32 focused his study on changing role of NGOs in
Nepal. This article examines the unique role of NGOs with special attention to the
changing socio-political contexts of NGOs in terms of their partnerships with
Rights-Holder Organizations (RHOs), which claim the rights of particular groups
of excluded population. It reviews an example of the NGO working with RHOs in
Nepal. NGO relationships with RHOs are delicate and not always equitable due to
their different backgrounds and expertise. NGOs, comprising mostly people who
are not members of the rights-holding groups, use their expertise to work for
others over fixed periods, while RHOs work for their own constituencies through
movements. Until the 1990s, NGOs supported so-called beneficiaries who were
members of excluded groups whose rights were being denied. Today, RHOs are
formed directly by excluded groups. Some NGOs are trying to change their role to
become promoters for RHOs, while others remain as their proxies, which merely

55

create an extra layer between RHOs and donors. The article attempts to prove that
building equitable relationships between NGOs and RHOs is possible if NGOs
have professionalism, expertise in capacity development and a readiness to
become more inclusive. Though there are still several challenges ahead, such
efforts by NGOs make it possible to change funding flows for RHOs and
contribute to inclusive aid.
Tanya Jakimow (2010)33 focused on the boundaries that an NGO generally
deals with while working for the people and their development. Values are
essential part of the identity of non-government organizations (NGOs),
distinguishing them from other sectors and contributing to their legitimacy.
Values are neither uncontested nor wholly self-determined, but rather are products
of the broader social and political environment. The meaning of values must be
negotiated with multiple actors, such as funding agencies, the state, and the
general public including their clients. This paper looks at the ways that the
meaning of a particular NGO value voluntarism is negotiated and contested in
India. It is argued that conceptualizations of voluntarism are neither singular, nor
static, and that NGOs draw on these to claim legitimacy, or contest them through
counter-narratives. These struggles over the meaning of voluntarism are in
themselves productive, shaping organizational identity, and functioning. Values
can thereby be useful analytical tools to understand NGOs.
Focusing on the institutional and international issues pertaining to NGOs,
Rebecca Szper and Aseem Prakash (2011)34, focused their study on transparency
and other issues pertaining to NGO sector at international level. Transparency
concerns and the concomitant accountability challenges have motivated policy
and legal scholars to explore information-based regulatory approaches. We
examine their usefulness in the context of the nonprofit sector which tends to
show signs of governance failure. Although nonprofits are required by law to
disclose information on fund use, nonprofit donors face difficulties in accessing

56

and interpreting information about how nonprofits are deploying resources.

Charity watchdogs make this information available to donors in a convenient
format. In theory, this should allow donors to reward nonprofits that devote
resources to service delivery and to punish those that are less careful about
controlling overheads. To test the relationship between charity ratings and
donations, 90 nonprofits were examined in the state of Washington for the period
20042007. Drawing on ratings data provided by Charity Navigator, we find that
changes in charity ratings tend not to affect donor support to these nonprofits. We
explore this statistical finding via interviews with 10 charities located in
Washington State. Supporting the statistical results, we find that charities believe
that donors tend not to systematically embed ratings in their donation decisions.
Instead, they believe that donors assess nonprofits effectiveness and
trustworthiness via other means such as familiarity, word-of-mouth, or the
visibility of the nonprofit in their community. In sum, the policy challenge is to
provide information which users desire such as organizational effectiveness as
opposed to basic fund allocation in the case of non-profits. What matters for
policy efficacy is not how much information is provided but of what type.
The review of literature on the role of voluntary agencies or non
government agencies reveal that they were playing quite a vital role in the society
in ensuring development. These institutions were quite close to the public and
were in a better position to facilitate the requisite. Across the world as well the
non government agencies or voluntary agencies excelled themselves in facilitating
development process in their respective geographical area.
Given the Indian context, non government agencies were playing
substantial role in supporting the rural development process in the country. In this
regard, the non government agencies were playing not only additive role but also
evolved out their own strategy to reach the unreached.

57

The review of literature also revealed that though studies were conducted
on non government agencies and their impact on rural development yet most of
them were confined to specific issue of development, process involved, strategies
adopted etc. Most of the studies were not pertaining to specific insight on an
institution. Hence, the present study

on Social Service Centre, Eluru was

justifiable.
Section B: NGOs and Rural Development
Vergheses (1979)35 study Voluntary Agencies how Useful on voluntary
organizations, has taken contrary view. He says, planning and development are
state responsibilities, but implementation is effective only through voluntary
organizations, because they are more attached to local areas.

The author

considers it to be pity that many voluntary organizations are funded by foreign

agencies, they are confused sometimes and cannot achieve critical analysis of
programme because they are manned by foreign groups.

More over

administrative obstacles, political hostility and vested interests play greater

hindrance.
Pande (1982)36 in his article, reinvigorating retroflexed Voluntary
organization, opines that the voluntary agencies had provided jobs for the rural
artisans and workers through Khadi and Village industries. He says that these
voluntary organizations must be inspired to go into new areas and involve people
in the programes. The KVIC ( Khadi and Village Industries Council ) had
initiated IDP ( Intensive Development Program ) and started some voluntary
organizations they gave support to the rural artisans and workers. Motivations of
local leadership and proper training for them is necessary to encourage more and
more grassroots activities. He points out that some reflects the necessity of
voluntary organizations as the main agencies to keep the flag of KVIC flying.

58

Kothari (1983)37, in another paper party state in our times: the Rise of
Nonparty political formations traces the prevailing scene of drift and
uncertainty surrounding the conduct of public affairs and various modes of
thinking about them. He points out the glaring dissonance between high
expectations based on ideologies / theories and the reality of life as faced by
majority people. He underlines the need for political role to be taken up by
voluntary organizations.
According to Sheth (1984)38, in his article grassroot initiatives in India,
he opines that the initiative for development must come from gross roots, taking
place outside the governmental and bureaucratic structures and away from the
normal political processes of parties and elections. However weak their
programming is or internally inconsistent, they share a common perception about
the model of development. He points out that, the scene of grass- roots
movements and organizations today, despite the promise it holds, appears full of
problems, organizationally they are highly fragmented, they succumb to
manipulative polities and more importantly they must have to work for alternative
financial support for themselves as the government may fail to provide support.
It is in the above context that the author seeks new macroinitiatives at grass root
level that would link up these movements with organizations and would service
them in response to felt needs.
In his article Groups in a New Politics of Transformation Sethi Harsh
(1984)

39

while reacting to the debate on voluntary organizations feels that,

development is more rhetoric than reality and, with concentration of economic

power and in the face of adversities, there seems little chance of matters
improving. He attempts to intervene in the debate about the role, responsibility,
functions, and limitations and activities of voluntary agencies, non-government
organizations and non-party political formations. He feels, while the failures of
the larger organizations are recognized they are rarely discussed. One of the

59

major reasons of this failure seems to lie in the very structure of these
organizations, the relationship between the leaders and the cadres within the
organization and the cadres and the working masses they purport to represent as
well as in the methodology of change followed. At the developmental level, we
have a clear admission by the state that the official agencies are by themselves
unable to plan and implement though they have officially stated objectives.
In his article Local Politics Global Implications Eldridge (1984)40
advocates for greater role of voluntary organizations in political processes. He
discussed at length in his comparative study of India and Indonesia and various
issues for the active role of voluntary organizations in political activities, so as to
bring in radical changes. He considers that alternative approaches to officials
growth oriented planning has become increasingly relevant, more so for greater
peoples participation. However he considers that such increasing importance of
voluntary organization reflects a far wider malaise concerning the relevance of
modern state structures to the needs of third world countries.
Y.V.Rao (1984)41 conducted a case study of Voluntary organizations
namely, Voluntary actions in Rural Development, in order to find out the role
of Voluntary actions in rural development. He finds out that rural development
is gigantic task for the government to deal with alone. A number of Voluntary
Agencies have done pioneering work in this filed. CROSS ( Comprehensive
Rural Operations Service Society) is one such organization. Its study shows that,
better coordination of the Government with rural development will lead to
success.
In his paper Voluntary Actions in Rural Development Heggade (1984)42
expresses his views that the role of Voluntary Social organizations is essential in
tribal development. Voluntary Social organizations strengthen and quicken the
process of socio economic transition. His study shows that

60

the, work of

Voluntary Social organizations depend on government aid. He suggests that

Voluntary Social organizations are catalysts in tribal development. Appropriate
incentive schemes must be implemented to increase the number of committed
voluntary social workers as well as Voluntary organizations. Thus, it could not be
ignored that a revitalized network of Voluntary Social organizations could be
undeniable asset for implementing a host of development schemes under the
present sub plan approach for tribal development and welfare.
According to Krishna Murthy (1985)43, in his paper Voluntary Actions in
Rural Developments : A survey, voluntary action in rural development in the
country must be seen in historical background. Rural development often is
understood as mere removal of poverty but it must be seen along with other
aspects such as education, health etc. Efficient running of co operatives form
part of any developmental effort. Rural

development programs have to be

implemented totally by voluntary and independent bodies and the pattern of

funding must not be such that, they lose their Voluntary Character as well as
independence. To be true to their calling as agencies for rural development, they
remain neutral when working people organize themselves and fight against the
exploiters for their demands and rights. There are indeed some soft options or
paths to development when we talk about role of Voluntary Agencies.
Shah (1985)44, in his article Ensuring Grater Participation of Voluntary
organizations intends to give greater importance to participation and
involvement of Voluntary organizations in the field of rural development to
make a critical defiance. He points out that, often this was manifested in the wake
of political announcements. He adds, of course, all Voluntary organizations at
same level in terms of their commitment, competence and credibility. The
government there fore, should spell out the considerations that will determine the
recognition of a Voluntary organization which may be willing to take such
responsibility, Government may make such policy declarations and many

61

schemes which may be better implemented through Voluntary organizations. It

may also lay down the procedure for giving organizations

working in our

country, training in new ideas and approach in rural development. However, to

operationalise such an approach needs many steps that government should take.
Ramachandrans (1985)45 paper Implementation of Projects for
Enhancement of Rural Prosperity, makes an analysis of PADI (People Action for
Development India) as a case study to see implementation of projects for
enhancement of rural prosperity. He says PADI has strengthened voluntary efforts
and has built up local institutions, which can stand on their own feet. The author
says, work of voluntary agencies in generating rural employment through project
implementation is commendable.
According to Raja Sekharan (1985)46 in his article Voluntary
Organizations and Rural Development voluntary organizations play a vital role
in building awareness. They can also organize the rural poor at the grassroots
level so as to enable them to avail the benefits collectively for community
welfare. In the authors opinion, the kind of voluntary organizations most suited
would be those which are dedicated to development and consist of persons
committed to the emancipation of the rural poor.
According to Jain (1985)47 in his article Voluntary Agencies for
Atmospherics : Not Implantation IRDP implementation is on the verge of
debacle and the future looks dim unless radical corrective measures are taken up
immediately.

The programme of mobilizing voluntary agencies is one such

healthy step. He says, a voluntary organization manifests the wish of a socially

motivated group to express itself through service to its fellow-beings, though
distortions are numerous, a voluntary agencys true role is that of an extension
agency or watchman agency rather than an implementing agency, sound
safeguard against the lure of tasting the forbidden fruit. There are several fields in

62

which voluntary agencies can lend its shoulders. It may assist in building up of a
science culture in the rural areas as a prerequisite to their entry into the much
heralded 21st century.
Patel (1985)48 opined in his paper Rural Development : A Challenging
Task for Voluntary Agencies that in rural development, a challenging task for
voluntary agencies is that to overcome the feeling amongst the downtrodden that,
everybody who approaches them is selfish and exploitative.

In such an

atmosphere, an indiscriminate introduction of voluntary agencies in the rural areas

will be self-defeating. The agencies have to be carefully selected. In the view of
the author, they should have a right kind of motivation, tact and talent. The
agencies should enter the field with the adequate preparation and understanding of
social and economic structures of the community which it wishes to serve. They
should have blend of professionalism with a human touch. According to him,
the agency should be in a position to create (1) awareness among the rural poor
about the assistance being provided by the government and banks through various
development programmes and (ii) climate conducive for growth, upliftment,
production distributive justice and recycling of funds in close collaboration with
the banks and government officials.
According to Ramamurthy (1985)49 in his paper Government
Functionaries must whole Heartedly Accept Voluntary Agencies for over several
decades, voluntary organizations have been engaged in the development
endeavors. They claim to have special qualities in their styles of functioning such
as innovativeness, flexibility in operation, sensitivity to changing needs and high
level of motivation of functionaries, which are stated to be less pronounced in
state sponsored organization. Their role in rural development, particularly in the
programmes of poverty eradication has been a subject of debate and controversy.
In accordance with the governmental policies, the expected ways of involving
voluntary agencies have been indicated in the programme content of poverty
63

eradication programmes such as IRDP. The full and sustained participation of

voluntary organizations is an imperative condition precedent for the success of
our anti-poverty measures.
Jain (1985)50, in his book Rural Development instructions and Strategies
argues that the voluntary agencies have an important role in informing and
motivating people and carrying out supplemental action for improving income of
the poor through raising self- employment activity. They also help in
identification of eligible household, organizing the poor

for group

the

action,

informing them about various Government schemes and official procedures,

preparing applications for loans, follow up and liaison service etc. in fact it
paves the way for the poor to raise self employment.
In his paper The National NGO Convention; Voluntarism, The State and
the Struggle for Change Fernandes Walter (1986)51 discusses the changes in the
voluntary sector. He estimates that till the 1936s over 80 percent of the voluntary
organizations were either Gandhian or Church related. Most of them were either
in relief or in institutionalized programmes such as schools hospitals, etc. He
points out that the recent change with regard to voluntarism in India, viz. the
involvement of the voluntary agencies becoming part of many contracts signed by
international aid-giving agencies with the central and state governments under
lying the assumption that the voluntary sector can implement the projects without
questioning the thinking behind them.
In his book Voluntary Agency and Rural Development Satya Sundaram
(1986)52 has emphasized the need and relevance of voluntary organizations in
the implementation of rural development programs at the grass root level.
According to him, the present style of anti programs leads to wastage, which
calls for the immediate attention and minimizations of the expenditure. His deep
study obviously drags us to the conclusion that in some spheres, the voluntary

64

agencies are far better and superior when compared to the government programs.
He emphasizes on the ongoing and established rapport between the voluntary and
government organizations; consequently they become a handmaid to the
government in the eradication of poverty and unemployment. His analytical study
makes us to understand the inability of the government in getting a view of the
problems at the grass root level even through it is embedded with sufficient funds.
On the contrary the voluntary agencies suffer from lack of funds in spite of the
possession of the infinite knowledge regarding the local area. Hence, it has to be
understood and noted that the co- operation between these two will result in the
rapid development.
Kothari (1986)53, in his article the NGOs, the state and World
Development analyses the relations between state capitalism and world
capitalism and the role of NGOs in promoting rural development for bringing
social and economic enlistment of the oppressed classes. He finds that the
outstanding feature of the capitalist regime is that of control, repression and
exploitation by

sophisticated means. He considers

that Voluntary agencies

promote egalitarian development. It conclusion, Kothari says that Voluntary

agencies must resist the new ways of repression by MNCs, state and other
capitalist organizations because they are voice of the voiceless. The voice which
we reflect and articulate, according to kothari, cannot any longer be suppressed.
Social movements and grass roots actions are the source of accountability of the
state, to the civil society. To further this goal NGOs must discard conditionality
attached with the grants from MNCs. It is necessary, not because of domination
by bureaucrats but because of our original conceptions of genuine Voluntarism.
Venkata Rao (1987)54, in his paper Role of IRDP feels that the programs
of Voluntary Agency are primarily meant for self reliance of local areas
(Sanghams). He says the strength of Voluntary Agency lies in its method of
creative evolution of their programs. Venkata Rao concludes that for the success
65

of Voluntary Agency, IRDP must be involved in its implementations. His study

also shows that there are many benefits of Voluntary Agency if IRDP is involved
in the implementation.
Upendra Baxi (1987)55 in his paper the NGOs, the state and world
development, concludes that voluntarism to some, is un-acknowledged class
collaborations that lacks ideology, simply because it serves victims of exploitation
but does not question why the victim groups become and remain so. Thus,
according to Baxi, social activism must shun Brahminical paradox. So that it
will emanate knowledge with which activists can educate masses about
deformities of power. In this profound sense of the word dedication, activist must
have to learn from the selflessness of voluntarism at its authentic best. Hence,
Baxi concludes that voluntarism should adopt ideology so that it avoids
exploitation.
Padmanabhams (1987)56 study of Developing Voluntary initiatives tries
to analyze the significance and difference of voluntary groups. He distinguishes
NGOs (corporations elected bodies, cooperatives, Panchayats etc.) from that of
voluntary organizations, which are selfless initiative driven. Voluntary
organizations, according to him, are established because of a few service oriented
people. It caters to the needs of the local area. As such it gets involved in complex
problems of society. He suggests that, it is difficult to categorise the KVIC
institutions as being charity organizations, or cultural organizations. To
Padmanabham, the entire existing voluntary groups whatever be their ideology,
can only supplement the masses in dealing with the complex problems of society.
In his paper NGOs in South Asia: Peoples Participation and Partnership
Fernandez (1987)57 traces the development of non-governmental organisations or
voluntary organisations or voluntary agencies (volags) in South Asia, specifically
India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. In India, efforts to obtain

66

greater peoples participation were made through the establishment of

cooperatives by government, the movement of Mahamta Gnadhi and the Christian
churches. Differences in the nature of collaboration between government and
voluntary organisations in the five countries are discussed. Finally, the various
types of donor organisations are enumerated and specific examples of each are
given.
In his article Development alternatives: The challenge for NGOs. And
overview of the Issues. Anna Gordond Drabek (1987)58 firmly questions,
Governments have not been able to provide the answers, perhaps we should be
looking to the non-governmental organisations, which are playing increasingly
active role in development. He said that NGOs cannot and should not compete
with the multilateral and bilateral donors in implementing large-scale projects or
funding policy reform programmes. He supports the opinion of Robert Chambersthat the NGOs should not forget their grassroots origins and links, the basis of
their greater strength. And the writer suggests that, in order to be effective in
their various spheres of activity, NGOs must take a hard look at the challenges.
Gupta (1988)59, in his work voluntary Agencies and Rural Development
suggests that the role of voluntary organizations should be of a scientist and not of
nation wide practitioner. The voluntary organizations should never try to compete
with the government or for that matter, supplement its efforts. Their fields should
be distinctly different. But the above arguments stands contrary to the views of
Harshad

Trivedi

who firmly argues that the NGOs should work with the

Government Organizations so that they go hand in hand in rendering their service

to the poor as well as to rural areas.
Sachidananda (1988)60, in his book social change in village India argues
that voluntary agencies can make an effective dent in the society created
depression and exploitation. They hold the promise of raising the consciousness

67

of the masses and bringing hope for a better quality among the people . It is only
through voluntary agencies that we can conceive participatory democracy. Even if
the voluntary agencies do not bring revolutions on the national scale, they
mitigate the distress of the people and show them the away to make their life
happy. In every society, there are men and women inspired by the idea of social
progress and social change through voluntary agencies.
Suresh (1990)61 in his article Participation of Beneficiaries in the
Development Programmes of Non-Governmental Organisations in Kerala while
analyzing the participation of beneficiaries in the development programs of nongovernmental organizations in Kerala finds out interesting trends. This study
reveals that, NGOs are not working as participatory organization to the extent
desired. A detailed study of peoples participation in NGOs has practical utility
for government and NGOs. Only 38 percent beneficiaries have satisfactory level
of participation. Only 62 percent of beneficiaries have attained desirable degree
of participation in the developmental programmes initiated and implemented for
their upliftment. He concluded in his study, that the beneficiaries are found, to be
not keen in getting represented in decision making bodies and planning process.
However, the institutional arrangement for participation and the participation
score are found to be directly correlated. Hence, more vigorous attempts are
needed to incorporate such arrangement in all the development organizations and
their programmes.
In his edited book entitled Role of Voluntary Organization in Social
Development Chandramouli (1990)62 believes that Voluntary Action is the most
powerful instrument of transformation of any society for achieving better socioeconomic goals. It is suggested that a more effective role is necessary for
promoting voluntary action, in order to minimize the need for bureaucratic
intervention. Voluntary organization must be made to serve as nodal centers of
providing information. Here the author observes that the Voluntary action is

68

necessary to setup schemes like non-formal education to create new awareness

and a new cadre of Rural Women Folk to set up consumer protection forum, to
draw special attention to the problems and status of women, to initiate a multi
pronged approach and an all round development covering the various aspects of
rural life, to achieve the social goals and create ideal conditions for good life etc.
Voluntary organizations are believed to be the dependable source of motivation,
mobilization and activation of the process of development. To perform the
expected work Voluntary organizations should properly imbibe a financial
discipline and an organizational structure is necessary.
According to Chandramouli the role of voluntary Organisations in the
international field has been greatly enlarged during this century. We encountered
a variety of voluntary organisations with totally different (but generally not
mutually conflicting) objectives and purpose. Apart from the international Red
Cross in the field of relief of peace keeping and development, we have been
witnessing a tremendous spurt of international voluntary bodies like the Rotary,
the Lions, the Jaycees and Free Masons Lodge. In the field of religion and
philosophy, education and philanthropy, trade and commerce, professionalism
and Journalism, sport and games, there have been unanimous universal responses
to voluntary effort and, voluntary participation. The Olympics and the Asiad are
examples of this exemplary progress towards voluntary unification of nations and
towards a world brotherhood. India has a very long, ancient and traditional
background of voluntary organisations and voluntary leaderships at times even
based on elected leadership that sounds very ultra modern. The author further
discussed our own past and the institutions inherited by us, almost from times
immemorial, which have been either adopted or adapted to suit the needs and
requirements of our modern democratic framework and contemporary
international scene and the current national situation of voluntary organisations.

69

Bina Agarwal (1991)63 analysed the interrelationships between gender,

poverty and the environment in rural India, focusing especially on regional
variations and temporal shifts over 1971-91. Briefly identifying the major factors
underlying environmental degradation, the study traces why and how this
degradation and the appropriation of natural resources by the state (statization)
and by some individuals (privatization), tend to have particularly adverse
implications for the female members of poor rural households. She further
examined Governmental and community initiated attempts at environmental
protection and regeneration and computed an aggregate index GEP (V) to address
those issues.
Mohinder Singh (1992)64, in his article NGOs Best catalytic Agents for
rural development consider that non- government organizations ( NGOs) are best
stimulants for rural development. He says that the many a government
programmes like TRYSEM, IRDP, JRY, etc., have failed for want of rapport with
beneficiaries. On the contrary the NGOs ensure not only successful
implementation of schemes but also timely recovery. He points out that, being
manned by devoted workers, they encourage proper utilization of funds and bring
about awareness among the rural poor about welfare schemes. Services of the
NGOs can be of great use for mobilizing local financial resources from within the
community to make them selfreliant, they play vital role in monitoring and data
about the implementation of these programes and help in the process of providing
needful feedback on the part of government, their flexible innovativeness can also
provide new directions to rural development. Singh concludes that NGOs play
vital role in socio economic transformation of rural areas.
Muniandi (1992)65, in his paper, Role of Voluntary Agencies in Rural
Development, says that bringing development

in Rural

India is not an

impossible task, provided voluntary agencies put intense efforts on the task. He
finds out that these voluntary agencies bring in sustained rural growth. He says

70

that the main objects of the voluntary agencies must be to make villages self
sufficient.
In another study Role of KVIC in the Biogas Scheme and Participation of
voluntary Agencies in implementation of the Programs, Padmanabham (1992)66 ,
analyses the role of voluntary organizations in the implementation of KVICs
biogas scheme and feels that Energy is one of the essential indicators of the
property of the society. With the known source depleting quickly, man became
anxious about his future. Several ideas had been put up in the early part of this
century about of the value of sun, wind, waves and other sources in addition to
biogas. But it was biogas that stole a march over other forms of renewable
energies. He suggests that voluntary agencies are the bridge between the
governmental organizations and on the basis of his study, he contends that biogas
scheme taken up by KVIC is an appropriate technology measure in bringing rural
development.
Khannas, (1992)67 Rural Industrialization and Poverty Allevation, finds
that there is high degree of correlation between the incidence of poverty and
incidence of unemployment. His study suggests that, employment in villages can
be created through small scale industries with the help of voluntary organizations
and this will help alleviate poverty in rural India. Thus NGOs must encourage
small scale industries in the villages.
In his paper Non-Governmental Organizations and Anti Leprosy Work
Vajpeyi (1992)68 says that voluntary organizations deal with cases of social
stigma and help rehabilitate them through education. He makes an analysis of the
role of Non-governmental Organizations working in the area of leprosy
eradication. He suggests that socio-economic rehabilitation of leprosy-purified
persons should be done by community as a whole. Voluntary agencies and
government must co-ordinate and co-operate to achieve this up hill task.

71

Samiul Hasan (1993)69 in his article studied the impact and extent of
voluntarism in rural development in Bangladesh. His study found that the
development efforts undertaken and the services provided through voluntarism
satisfy some of the demands of the people and curtail pressure on the constrained
budgets of the local government bodies. However, there are some available
resources which are yet to be mobilized for developmental purposes. Furthermore,
the rural development

programmes undertaken by

different

voluntary

organizations are scattered and uncoordinated. He suggested that if the Voluntary

organizations are arranged methodically, voluntarism can make significant
differences to the lives of the rural poor in a country like Bangladesh, where
governmental resources are scarce but where the people are basically altruistic.
In his field study The social and political relation of development : NGOs
and Adivasi Bhils in Rural Rajasthan. The researcher Mixine K. Weisgrace
(1993)70 said that local non-governmental organisations are attempting to elevate
the standard of living of Adivasi Bhils by encouraging literacy training, political
organisation and activism, social and ritual reform and protection of natural
resources. These organisations are encouraging creation of awareness of social
and environmental issues as well as participation in the local political process.
The author wishes to identify social and political dimension of a particular aspect
of development in a rural community. The dedication and personal sacrifice that
NGO workers display every day, in these communities, is profound. In many
cases individuals have sacrificed financially and socially rewarding careers in
other fields, occasionally putting themselves in physical danger, to commit
themselves to an arduous profession with little recognition or opportunity for
personal advancement.
Dhillon and Hansra (1995)71 discussed the role of NGOs in their study
and indicated that the NGOs in general have firsthand experience and knowledge
of local needs, problems and research at local level, they are closer to the minds
and hearts of the people and they are with commitment and zeal of voluntary
action.

72

From his book Rural Development through NGOs, it is understood that

A.K. Kapoor (1997)72 has a special approach towards rural development. He
gives an account that voluntary bodies have a role in creating the welfare state,
provided states participate along with peoples participation. According to the
author the main aim of voluntary organization is to promote human welfare and
well being. Even their programmes should completely cover the functions that
embrace human welfare.
Kumar Lalit (1998)73 in his study stated that the voluntary sector deserves
encouragement to ameliorate at least some of the problems, because of its
comparative advantages. Voluntary Organizations (VOs)/ NGOs are much closer
to the poor & disadvantaged sections of the society; staff of VOs is normally
highly motivated and altruistic in their behaviour; VOs can easily stimulate and
mobilise community resources and have access to volunteers; they are more
effective in bringing peoples participation; VOs are less rule-bound and are nonbureaucratic, non-formal and flexible in their structure and operations; Voluntary
sector has greater potential for innovations; VOs prefer to work in a multi-sectoral
framework; VOs are catalysts for creating social cohesion.
In his book Voluntary Action and Development towards a Practice for
Non-Government Agencies the author Rudolf Heradia (1998)74 says that
voluntary action is non-institutionalized response to massive bureaucratization
and centralization. Rather, it reverses the conventional trickle-down strategy for a
radical bottom-up approach and recommends involving both researcher and
people in a collaborative search for understanding and action. He says that there
is strong affinity between voluntary agencies, developmental alternatives and
participatory research which in turn, reverse the conventional strategies in their
respective spheres for a basically bottom-up approach.

73

Ajay Tankha (1999)75 in his article Some NGO Dilemmas in Reaching

the poorest with microfinances Opines that microfinance models and
prescriptions are aimed at the present breed of NGOs engaged in development
work with the poor. Many of these NGOs are involved in implementing savings
and credit schemes as well. These schemes may have had their ground in group
organization and activity or in response to a strong need within the community. In
any event the hybrid NGO undertaking microfinance as well as other
development activity is a fact of life. He further says that the NGOs that scale up
their microfinance activities will inevitably leave themselves less space for social
development and institution building in which they have the competitive
advantage. The effects of structural adjustment have reinforced the need to create
safely nets for those who lose out on market opportunities. NGOs are best placed
to contribute in this area but are being forced to re examine their role at a critical
stage.
Linking, inextricably, development with poverty alleviation and welfare
the author Barkat Alam (1999)76 in his seminar paper poverty Alleviation,
Welfare, Economic Development and NGOs Some Observations, discussed the
role of NGOs in the development process of less developed countries. He said
that NGOs are playing increasingly important role in the development process in
less developed countries. They are supposed to perform a very distinct function
of filling the gaps in development.
The book Voluntary Organization and Social Welfare edited by Abha ,
Vijayi and Prakash(2000)77, covers various aspects of voluntary organizations
broadly covering the activities, mechanism, health and family welfare, man
power, organisation and management, infrastructural resources, financing of
activities, cooperation and collaboration between government organisations and
NGOs and Central Government Schemes. Thus it encompasses a broad spectrum
in the field of social welfare. The authors opine that, the Government on its own,

74

can not deliver all the services, pertaining to health and family welfare at all the
times, to all in every work and concern of the vast country. Moreover, seventy
percent of people still reside in rural areas and twenty percent in city. These
people cannot afford to pay for the costly health and family welfare cares. So the
voluntary organisation with their commitment, source of devotion to serve the
society with missionary approach can ameliorate the suffering of the majority of
Indians teeming millions of rural villages and urban slums.
Sunil Misra (2000)78 in his book Voluntary Action in Health and
Population the Dynamics of Social Transition, was trying to say the need for the
convergence of the programmes between the people and their health behavior,
thereby promoting the acceptance of modern healthcare. NGOs have succeeded
in breaking the resistances and brought about social legitimization of their
interventions. Overall this book analyses the dynamics of social change, the
factors that lead to success, and the problems. The case studies contain a wealth
of material which will help in the formalization of methodologies and long term
strategies to transform positive change into enduring social behavior. At the core
of the book lie a concern for community participation and the need for mass
education as being crucial to bringing about an attitudinal change in health
behaviour.
In his paper Rajasekhar (2000)79, based on the review of existing studies
and, research experience with a large number of NGOs in India, aims at
discussion on definition, types, recurring changes, advantages and weaknesses of
NGOs. The discussion on the evolution of NGOs shows that the perspectives of
NGOs widened from charity and welfare to development, and to sustainable
development and empowerment. This has been influenced by the policies of
donor agencies and Indian Government. He argues that the NGOs need to play a
dynamic role in the context of liberalization policies, improved credibility and
legitimacy for NGOs etc., and discussed the viable strategy for NGOs and

75

provides a list of features that make an NGO responsive to peoples needs.

According to the author a good NGO is one which has capable, balanced
(especially in terms of gender) and matured board of directors / members. The
NGO aims at good governance in the sense that the programmes need to be
developed by involving the people, staff and board. This ensures that everyone in
the organization would know about the activities to be implemented; the funds
availed for each of the activity, how (and when) the activities are to be
implemented, and monitoring of the activities. The NGOs need to begin their
work after analyzing the situation and needs of the community. This enables
them to have clarity with regard to the actual needs of the community, and how
the activities address the needs of the community. The NGOs should seek to
enable participation of members not as recipients of benefits but at those who
control and monitor the programme. NGOs need to comply with all statutory
requirements, and follow good systems and procedures regarding activities,
accounts, progress etc. A good NGO should be accountable to all the parties
concerned. It needs to be committed to the objectives that it has set. Hence, there
is need to report the progress made with reference to objective fulfillment to the
board, people, government, donors and the media. NGOs need to adopt less
bureaucratic, participatory and cost-effective approach to development.
Gopal Krishna Sahu (2000)80 in his article Voluntary Organization for
Rural Development published in book Rural Development Reforms, concludes
that Voluntary organizations have a great role to play in socioeconomic
transformation of the rural people. They could give a helping hand to government
and other development agencies concerned with rural development. The success
of these originations depend on the financial assistance provided by the
government and other funding agencies.

76

Shenggen Fan and Peter Hazell (2000)81 have made an empirical analysis
of Rural India with particular reference to less favoured areas. They concluded
that the poverty, food security and environmental problems of many low potential
areas are likely to remain serious in the decades ahead as population continues to
grow.
In Trivadis (2000)82 article New NGO: An Omnibus Myth, we find the
author observing the rapid increase in the nature, range and diversity of welfare
activities which are going beyond public and private, sectors. Therefore he
suggests a positive conceptual correction that is to change the name as associate
government organizations (AGOs) in the place of NGOs. He also suggests that
the AGOs should associate with government in their work rather than opposing
the services of it. He also shows the nature of welfare work and shows difference
between pre-independence work and the work post-independence. The writer puts
forward a few problems of NGOs in India. Management of welfare service with
financial aid from public administrations required that the new NGOs to keep
their feet on the ground. The work method of casework, group participations and
community mobilizations had to be imaginative to provide benefits to the poor
and to the needy. Beside these new NGOs had to control anti- social actives in the
society and provided advice and guidance to rehabilitations of the sufferers.
Crime against woman and children now have specialized service rendered by
NGOs. NGOs working in welfare sector lacked continuous organic solidatory
because they could not cope with the variety of the load of their development
efforts. The author also gives a few reasons for NGOs helplessness. Some of these
are the NGOs finding it difficult to control their funding sources. Their
dependence on external source creates problems of stability and continuity of
work. Thus the author stresses that it is essential that the new NGO should
associate with government in doing their work rather then the services of the
government.

77

Indu Bhaskar and Geethakutty (2001)83 in their study found that Voluntary
Organizations have special qualities in their style of functioning such as flexibility
in operation, sensitivity to changing needs, high level of motivation of the
functionaries and innovations.
Rajesh Tandon (2001)84 in his study provided the diversity of voluntary
sector in India, as (i) Traditional Associations, which associations exist around a
social unit either defined by a tribe, ethnicity or caste; (ii) Religious Associations;
(iii) Social Movements - In the contemporary Indian context, a number of social
movements, spearheaded by social movement organisations (SMOs) have
emerged as major manifestations of civil society; (iv) Membership Associations set up to represent the opinions and interest of a particular category of citizens e.g.
unions of rural labour, farm workers, women workers, consumer associations etc.;
(v) Intermediary Associations - function between individual citizens and macro
state institutions like the bureaucracy, judiciary and police etc.
Sandeep Joshi (2001)85 in his article Role of Voluntary Organisations in
Tribal Development : A case study of Abujhmarh Rural Development Project in
Madhya Pradesh, felt that bureaucratic system has its own limitations. It cannot
be as flexible as the simple tribal situation would ideally require it to be. In such
situations voluntary organisations can play a vital role in overall development of
tribals. In fact, the strength of a voluntary organization lies in its sensitivity to the
needs and aspiration of the target groups where voice tends to get lost in the din
and turmoil of the new age. He highlights the splendid work being done by the
Ramakrishma Mission under its Abujhmarh Rural Development Project in Bastar
District in Madyapradesh.
Wadhwa (2002)86 in his article stated that SHGs are formed by NGO and
linked to bank.

In this model, NGO would organize the poor into SHGs,

undertake training for awareness building, entrepreneurship and skill training,

78

help in arranging inputs, extension and marketing inputs, introduce saving and
internal lending, help in maintenance of accounts and link them with the banks for
credit requirements.
Laxmi R. Kulshrestha and Archana Gupta (2002)87 in their article NGOs
in micro Financing : Partners in Rural Development Conclude that NGOs have
now attained legitimacy and credibility largely due to liberalization policies. But
the cooperation with the government has to take place in the very same
environment which has some of the policies that go against the poor. Hence, there
is need for NGOs to play a dual role. Collaborate with the Government critically
and oppose policies of the government which are antipoor. NGOs and their
peoples organizations can play this dual role only when they succeed in self
help promotion. This includes the formation of targetgroup organization building
capacity of the poor and leadership among them.
Proceedings of the All India Conference on the Role of the Voluntary
Sector in National Development (2002)88 states that growth of the voluntary
sector has been uneven in the country and consequently the flow of funds, both
domestic & foreign, is somewhat skewed in favour of some States and some
activities. All major religions of the world were born and nurtured on our soil, and
they all have implored their believers to contribute to the well-being of other
human beings by forming as Non-governmental Orgnaizations. The conference
suggested that Government should take a lead to set up representative forums and
mechanisms at the State, District and Block levels for Government and voluntary
organizations to meet and to have dialogue for collaborating in planning programs
so that there is more synergy rather than competition.
Gurulingalah (2002)89 opines that NGOs are the part of civil society. He
says that NGOs are considered as mirror of rural social life and rural
development. They uphold the motto of sustainable social development including

79

health environment and transformation towards a better society. In his article

Role of NGO in empowerment of Tribal women in Karnataka, he has made an
attempt to study the efforts made by an NGO to empower the tribal women in
Tumkur District of Karnataka. He has further felt that for almost a decade the
NGO has been organizing the women to form SHGs to meet their felt needs and
enable them to participate in planning and implementation of their own
developmental programmes; besides, it has been conducting social and health
awareness campaigns to eliminate superstitious customs, attitude and thinking
related to poverty and child birth which are blocking the progress of tribal
women.
Bandhyopadhyay, (2002)90 in his study stated that since the space for
development administration and political processes at the sub-district levels is
currently limited, PRIs are competing with the SHGs for such space. In Andhra
Pradesh, it has been recommended that a symbiotic relationship be worked out
between the SHGs and the PRIs by statutorily making the members of the SHGs
as members of the standing committees of the PRIs at all the tiers.
Rama Lakshmi (2003)91 in her study revealed that Andhra Pradesh alone
has about half of SHGs organized in the country. The SHGs are also popularly
called DWACRA groups and this name became popular after the DWACRA
programmes through which womens groups were assisted initially.
In his article Interaction between Field Workers and their Clients and
Superiors in Non-Governmental Organisations, Mokbul Morshed Ahmad
(2003)92 deals with the interaction between field workers and their immediate
superiors. According to him this discussion was important for three main reasons.
Firstly, it is important to know how field workers interact with their immediate
superiors. Secondly, from a development point of view it is important to see how
policies and discussions are filtered down from the top to the filed workers and

80

how field workers pass them on to their clients. Thirdly, it is very important for
the NGO management to know how or whether the problems or opinions of the
clients are taken into consideration in the short or long-term planning of NGOs. In
his opinion, field workers know their limitations very well and have good
suggestions for future planning of their NGOs. This knowledge could be a major
asset for the NGOs. During the course of his discussion with the field workers, he
was informed that it was the first time that they were asked about their
relationship with their clients or superior and their failures and successes. This,
once again underlines the necessity of discussion with field workers in any
decision making process of the NGOs.
In their work Role of Grassroots NGOs : A Social Activists
Perspective, Panda and Pattanik (2003)93 opined that in recent times, many
grassroots micro movements known as new social movements (NSMs) have been
taking place centering on contemporary issues of importance such as ecology /
environment women empowerment, human rights, sharing of natural resources
and the like. The NGOs in India have contributed handsomely towards social
activism through their intense campaigns, peoples mobilization programmes and
effective networks. In the light of these, this article Role of Grassroots NGOs :
A Social Activists Perspective points at NGOs as a social force that facilitates
collective action and peoples mobilization. It discusses how by deploying various
people-oriented as well as people-centered strategies, these organisations build
rapport with the people and mobilizes them. This has been discussed from the
vantage point of an activists perspective. The article portrays empirically the
roles that NGOs play in making the people environmentally aware and sensitive
to take part in the social activism. This article aims at examining NGOs as
facilitators of new social movements. In this process, the article also discusses
how NGOs play a significant role in mobilizing people and by creating awareness
among them to stage protests against the systemetic fallout, hegemonic power

81

play of the state and discriminatory policies of the decision making state /
corporate bodies.
The book Rural Prosperity Oriented Programmes, NGOs and peoples
Participation by SB Verma (2003)94 gives a lucid picture of all the possible
aspects of rural development which uplifts the rural society and the effectiveness
of several programmes launched by the governments, cooperatives and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) from time to time to eradicate poverty,
which is the most strikingly common factor in almost all the villages of India. It
also projects useful information about rural development at present, in India. The
author also presented a bunch of articles with regard to conceptual as well as
practical aspects of rural development. We also learn that the NGOs became
predominantly prominent after independence, especially after 1970s. It says that
it is because of the limited success of the past development policies pursued by
the government. It also instructs the need for micro level institutions to involve
the people in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of the programmes.
The book also aims at the recognition of the strengths of the NGOs in organizing
the community and the capacity and the potential in savings and credit
programmes. It also highlights that rural employment is a weapon to fight against
poverty. It is only possible when it is clubbed with peoples participation.
Role of NGOs in Disaster Management with reference to the post super
cyclone period in Orissa is a case study by Nilkantha Panigrahi (2004)95 in
Orissa after the cyclone in 1999. This paper described brief historical account of
NGOs in Orissa and the responses of NGOs to the post super cyclone
requirements of Orissa. In the post super cyclone period NGOs have carried out a
visible role in undertaking relief and rehabilitation programmes. It is observed
that the programmes have become more intensive and appropriate during the
relief phase of disaster management where these have been under taken by the
local NGO. Finally he argues that the local NGOs should operate in close

82

coordination with the state and with International Organisations at higher level,
with Panchayat Raj institutions and peoples organisations at ground level through
a partnership network approach.
In his article Voluntary Organizations and Development: The Indian
experience the author Bidyuth Chakrabarty (2004)96 makes an attempt to
understand the phenomenon of voluntarism and underlines concretization
suggesting a different, if not an alternative, path of development. An attempt has
also been made to identify the distinctive features and role of voluntarism in
development in contrast with state-led development in India.

The role of

voluntary agencies in development was recognized by the planning commission

since its inception. This article discusses how this role was further strengthened
and highlighted in various Five Year Plans.
Binay Kumar Pattnaik and Biswambhar Panda (2005)97 say that the
voluntary organizations seek to play the role of development catalysts and
pressure groups to subject the power apparatus of the state to close scrutiny. They
mobilize people, encourage them to raise their voices against the establishment
and, in the process build up a cohesive and unified force in the form of peoples
protest / movements. Hence, NGOs can be seen as agents of social movement that
promulgate collective acting for mobilization, leading to institutionalization.
Gopal Krishna Sahu (2005)98 in his article Voluntary Organization for
Rural Development concluded that voluntary organizations have a great role to
play in the socioeconomic transformation of rural people. They could give a
helping hand to the government and other developmental agencies concerned with
rural development. The success of these organizations depends on the financial
assistance provided by the Govrment and other funding agencies.

83

Ahmad Shamshad (2005)99 in his article NGOs and the Development of

Rural Entrepreneurship has concluded that the role of NGOs has assumed critical
significance primarily at the grassroots level. They have contacts with people and
respond to their needs effectively. A few NGOs in India have succeeded largely in
imparting skills of income generation and micro entrepreneurship development
among the weaker sections of the society, women, tribal and others.
Pradeep Kumar (2005)100, in his article Rural Development A
collaboration of GOs and NGOS has opined that volunteerism was conventional
in form and characterized by charity, relief, welfare, philanthropy and social
reform. He further has felt that volunteerism was an expression of human
impulses towards fellow men and society at large. He therefore says it was an
idealism which inspired conventional volunteerism rather the ideology. It
incorporates some of the elements of conventional volunteerism and is based on
ideology rather than idealism. It aims at achieving development and social justice
rather than only relief and welfare. Modern volunteerism strives to change the
social, economic and political position of the poor.
Sahu and Tripathy (2005)101 in their study stated that 70 per cent of
worlds poor are women. Access to poor to banking services is important not only
for poverty alleviation but also for optimising their contribution to the growth of
regional as well as the national economy. Self Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged
as the most vital instrument in the process of participatory development and
women empowerment. The rural women are the marginalized groups in the
society because of socio-economic constraints. They remain backward and on
lower position of the social hierarchical ladder. They can lift themselves from the
morass of poverty and stagnation through micro finance and formation of SelfHelp Groups.

84

In her article NGOs as catalysts of womens empowerment Ajailu

Niumai (2005)102 discussed the role of NGOs in empowerment of women.
Womens empowerment refers to a range of activities from self assertion to group
mobilization, protest and the emerging challenge to the basic power relations
against the system of patriarchy which marginalizes women. The most salient
feature in the concept of empowerment is defined as the capacity of individuals to
control people around them even against their will. Power is exercised in terms of
controls or decisions which others have to obey. In the authors opinion, the
NGOs as citizen forums at the grass root level have the liberty to criticize the
State Governments policy, suggest valuable substitutes and work with the State
Government as partners in wholistic development as well as in womens
empowerment. Today, NGOs are increasingly preferred to governmental agencies
so much that even major new projects promoted by Governments in dairy
farming, wasteland development, afforstation etc., Emergence of rural
technologies and new energy sources are being set up on the model of NGOs with
their own autonomous boards and with limited accountability to Governments. If
NGOs are suitably empowered with legal authority, they can perform a significant
role towards the betterment of the conditions of women and accomplish socioeconomic justice for them. She suggests the State Government should try to
appreciate and acknowledge the NGOs as legitimate and powerful institutions of
the civil society on which it relies for implementing and evaluating various
programmes including womens issues with efficiency. On the other hand, NGOs
should be free from corruption and work towards the planned socio economic
development of the people especially women.
EDA and APMAS, (2006)103 made a study on the functioning of SHGBank Linkage Programme in four states. Their study found that 51 per cent of the
members were poor, 55 per cent belonged to the SC/ST category, and 66 per cent
of SHGs were single-caste SHGs. However, one-third had mixed- caste
membership. 72 per cent of the membership had had no schooling at all. In only

85

51 per cent of the groups more than half the members had primary school
education. This acted as an impediment to book-keeping and maintenance of
record. Average monthly savings was Rs 45, and cumulative member savings Rs
2400. The modal interest rate charged on loans to members was 2 per cent per
month. 77 percent of the groups had borrowed from banks or federations at least
once, for an average of 2.5 times. For a subset of the sample (with balance sheets)
the ratio of external borrowings outstanding to internal capital was 1.43. Loans
were relatively well distributed among members, with low variance around the
mean. The proportion of non-borrowers was 7 per cent. The proportion of defunct
groups was 7 per cent, which is low considering that the average age of a group
was 6 years.
Asitha Ahuja (2006)104 studied the relationship between rural development
and agriculture. Asitha points out that "Although agriculture is still the backbone
of the Indian economy, at least in terms of employment, the impulses of reforms
have been relatively less in scope and depth in this sector. This book explains the
key reform measures undertaken for the development of agriculture and rural
areas since 1991. To provide the necessary backdrop to the new order, the work
traces the developments in Indian agriculture during the post-Independence period
and examines current issues pertaining to this vital sector of the Indian economy."
Raghav Gaiha and Mani Arul Nandhi (2007)105 assesses the benefits of
microfinance through self-help groups, based on a specially designed survey in
selected villages. Their study found that while the targeting of microfinance
through SHGs was unsatisfactory in terms of an income criterion, it was better in
terms of other indicators of deprivation such as low caste, landlessness and
illiteracy. What is, however, noteworthy is that the loans were used largely for
health and education of children and for production-related expenses-especially
by the disadvantaged. Not only do SHGs benefit from the presence of networks,
the former also contribute to trust, reciprocity and associational capital (e.g.
through strengthening of local institutions). Domestic violence was reduced.
However, greater responsibilities for women also involved longer hours of work.

86

Madan Mohan (2007)106 brought out an edited book titled Rural

Development in India: Problems and Prospects. He points out, Of late, 'Rural
development' has assumed global attention especially among the developing
nations. A country like India where nearly 70 per cent of the people live in rural
areas rural development has great significance. This book analyses problems and
prospects of rural development in coherent way. Major themes, discussed herein
are-Introduction to Rural Development; Rural Society in India; Impact of
economic Reforms on Rural Poor; Rural development Programmes; Poverty,
Environment and development; Rural development and Agro-Industries; Food
Security and Rural Women; Literacy and Rural Women; Rural Women and Local
Self Government; Gram sabha and Village Level Governance; Indian Rural
Settlement System & Caste and Clan; Rural Development and Voluntarism;
Poverty Alleviation in Rural India: Programmes and Strategies; Rural
Development: A Case of Tamil Nadu; Future Strategies; Women Entrepreneurs
and Credit Facilities etc.
Mukundan, N. (2011)107 studied elaborately the issues pertaining to rural
development through his latest publication. Mukundan argues that the
development of rural India is imperative for inclusive and equitable growth and to
unlock huge potential of the population that is presently trapped in poverty. The
root cause of social insecurity in India is poverty and that is largely due to lack of
adequate or productive employment opportunities. Agricultural growth is crucial
for alleviating rural poverty. Similarly, development of rural industries is the key
to rural development. These industries are generally artisan-based, located mostly
in rural and semi-urban areas. Rural credit is another significant component of
rural development strategy. Access to institutional credit to more farmers and
appropriate quantity and quality of agricultural credit are crucial for realising the
full potential of agriculture as a profitable activity. This book deals with various
aspects of rural development in India with focus on rural poverty.

87

Summing Up
After analyzing various studies on the role of voluntary organizations in
rural development, we get a varied picture of how voluntary organizations work
towards development in a developing society and how co-operation and
participation of various agencies is required. However we may note that most of
the studies discuss voluntarism in general. It is here that this study becomes more
important.
Thus in this context, role of voluntary organizations in rural development
is immense. In order to promote development any voluntary action must involve
development of rural society. Hitherto, no study focuses on the same. The
different analytical aspects also give a vivid picture of an overview of the
question why in spite of many benefits, the development policies remain as poor
as ever. The answer for this question lies with the official donors. We also learn
that the NGOs should associate with government in their work rather than
opposing services of it. The helplessness of NGOs is seen especially when NGOs
find it difficult to mobilize their funding source. Their dependence on external
sources creates problems of stability and continuity of work. In such context, our
study on the performance of Social Service Center, (SSC) in achieving the above
mentioned objectives in rural development is timely and relevant. Social Service
Centre is one such organization which envisages rural development.

***

88

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