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PROCEEDINGS
THE
OF
line for structures, propulsion, and aero-hydro configuration; the experience provided in solving system
compatibility problems will also be invaluable. For such reasons,
JSESPO plans such a test craft and expects it in the water
approximately three years from now.
Much additional work might also be sponsored in advanced propulsion concepts, improved L/D ideas (drag reduction techniques), and many other bright engineering
approaches; funding limitations preclude the shotgun approach and considerable deliberation and objective comparisons are made before any given projectis underwritten.
In the past, the amount of resources poured into other
forms of transportation has been large incomparison with
the efforts supported in advanced high-speed ship design,
Fig. 17.[] The institution of the JSESPO programs shows
a renewed national interest in sea transport and indicates
that a breakthrough in high-speedship design appears to be
within reach. TheJoint Surface EffectShips Program
Office under the sponsorship of the Navy and Commerce
Departments intends to establish carefully the feasibility
of such a breakthrough.
1%.
The surface effect ship in the American merchant marine, BoozAllen Applied Research, Inc., August 1965.
[61 Surface effect ships for Ocean commerce, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Final Rept., February 1966.
[I Presidents Message to the Senate on Transportation, Congressional Information Div., office of Legislative Affairs, U. s. Dept. of the
Navy, Rept. 34, pp. 44344439, March 3, 1966.
F. H. Toddet al., A study of the technicalfeasibility offuture high
speed Navy vehicles, David Taylor Model Basin, Washington, D. C.,
Rept. C-2050, July 1965.
[I T. von Karman, Aerodynamics. Ithaca, N. Y.:Cornell University
Press, 1954.
[I A. G . Ford, Captured air bubble
vehicle progress report, AIAASNAME Paper 67-348, May 1967.
[11] M. J. Hanley, Surface effect ships, U.S. Naval Institute Proc.,
November 1966.
V e l o p m e a ~ t h t l e d t o t h e ~ ~ ~ o d o p t i o a o f c o a t n i n a i z c d o c e c ltion
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FRANKEL:
SHIPPING
713
714
CONTAINER s
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DISPLACEMENTHULLS
I
CONTAINER
CARRY1 N G
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BARGE CARRYING
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I
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SHIPS
CONTAINER
SHIPS
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SHIPS
RO-RO
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SHIPS WITH
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FRANKEL: CONTAINERIZED
nonproductive operations and waiting periods in the sequence. It is obvious that any approach to a continuous
flow
of cargo through the various required transportation processes wouldgreatly reduce the cost and time requirements.
As indicated earlier, the major obstacle to such a continuous
flowis the large discrepancy between the transport unit
sizes required for the various feeder agents and the ship.
This results in the requirements for marshalling and cargo
consolidation. The complexity of conventional pier operations is shown schematically in Fig. 4. It appears obvious
that direct loading, and off-loading of cargo in large
unitized packages is required to eliminate the vast amount
of costand time loss incurred in present-day pier operations.
An analysis of the various cumulative operations in this
small portion of the total transportation effort shows a
comparatively low utilization of the major investment in
capital, equipment, and manpower concentrated on the
pier. Fig. 5 indicates what canbeachieved by effective
unitization or containerization of general cargo. Note that
not only is cost and time greatly reduced, but the utilization
of the various pieces of equipment and stowage area as well
as the associated manpower isvastly increased, easily
justifying the greater investment of a container shipping
system.
Recent figuresof operating experience ontheNorth
Atlantic trade route indicate that the port cargo handling
cost for container ships is about one-tenth that of a conventional ship for the same amount of measurement cargo
assuming containers are loaded away from the pier. Even
if as much as 80 percent of the containers are stowed or
loaded (or unloaded) on the pier the cost is still only 40
percent of the conventional break-bulk ship loading. In
addition, there are obviously major savings in time and
equipment usage which permit the ship and inland transport agents to spend more time in actual transport effort
and allow the port or terminal facilities and equipment to
serve more ships and vehicles. Although the cost of a container ship is higher than that of a general cargo ship of
equal capacity, the costof a container shipping system
(including container suits and terminal equipment) for
equal annual transport capacity requires little if any additional investment. The return on investment though has
been shown to be about 5 to 8 times as large as that achievable by a conventional (nonsubsidized) cargo ship system
on the same trade route.
World dry cargo ship tonnage is expected to more than
double during the next 20 years (Fig. 6 ) ; yet during the
same period world dry cargo trade is expected to triple.
These forecasts are based on the historic development of
trade and marginal freight charges. These same predictions
have in the past been too conservative. Additional EastWest trade and the development of markets for manufactured goods in developing countries may increase world
trade by as much as 40 percent above these estimates. Reduction in transportation costs would stimulate additional
trading volume. On the other hand the 20- to 25-year lifetime cycle of shipping systems and the long lead time required for the introduction of new shipping capacity indicate that not only will cargo tonnage lag seriously behind a
717
718
I'
Fig. 4. (a) Flow diagram of break-bulk loading operation at pier. (b) Simplified schematic of break-bulk cargo loading operation.
719
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72 1
FRANKEL:
TABLE I
CONTAINERIZATION
Advantages
Speedup of loading and unloading
Protection against pilferage
Protection against damage
Lower insurance rates
Cheaper packagingof cargo
Reduced documentation requirements
Reducednumber of packagehandlings
Provides temporary protected storage
Modification of external characteristics of cargo for easier handling
Cargo handling in all weather
Easier stowage
Effective stow planning
Cargo handling while shipon feeder
not in port
Cost of containers
Tare weightof containers
Loss of cubage of containers
Cost ofreturning empties
Heavy gear requirement
Labor practices
Fixed volume not always optimum
usable size
Part-load problem
Container routing and handling
Container loss and damage
122
MO
700
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LENGTH FT OA
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100
600
800
1W
1zm
lux,
123
FRANKEL:CONTAINERIZED SHIPPING
724
FRANKEL:CONTAINERIZED SHIPPING
125
I.
\
CENTER
OF GRAVITY
v-
CONTAINER
SHIPPORTSAND TERMINALS
It appears that any study of port operations must consider the overall port as the link between different transportation media. Any solution will be self-defeating if it
only considers the ship loading or unloading or the cargo
handling or storing problem. Circulation, separation of
in-port movements, marshalling of trucks, trailers, and
barges as well as control, marking, storing, mechanical
handling of cargo, etc., are all phases of an integrated
process, which can only operate optimally if each phase of
the process is designed as a logical sequence of the preceding phase and a proper input intothe next operation. Such
an approach will, hopefully, lead to a greater utilization of
port facilities and better use ofport access routes. An effective process would be a continuous flow in which every
component in the system is properly utilized and duplication of actions is prevented. It is believed that such a solution should result in relieving the apparently inevitable
chaos presently noticeable on and aboutmany of our piers.
The availability of simple computers with instant information transmittal and retrieval capabilities and large memories should permit single-point control, inspection, marking, and dispatch. Proper sequential planning may permit a
larger percentage of direct transfer from inland to transport media without intermediate storage and with a minimum of lost time.
A vast proportion of cargo damage and pilferageis
directly attributable to uncoordinated cargo movement and
inspection on the pier. If this factor could be reduced, a
further appreciable reduction in required freight charges
could be achieved.
The factors relating to the transfer of break-bulk cargo
include all the input and output transport
agents. Time and
cost of transfer includes all time and cost accumulated from
the arrival of input transport agents to the departure of.
output transport agents.
Novel designs of ports specialized in container handling
by lift-on lift-off and/or roll-on roll-off operations have
recently been developed. Large specialized container ports,
located close to major, fast-moving road or rail intersections, and extensive deep-water channels close to the sea
lanes have been developed in Puerto Rico, in Port E l k beth, South Africa, and at some western U. s. and northern
European ports (Fig. 14). In all of these facilities extensive
marshalling areas are provided which permit containers to
be unloaded or received in the portat a rate different from
the port handling rate. A major problem in most lift-on
lift-off operation is that only a small proportion of the containers off-loaded from a large container ship can actually
be loaded directly onto their trailer bodies for immediate
movement inland. Alarge proportion of the containers has
to be marshalled for subsequent movement or for cargo
unloading in the port. Similarly, the port must be capable
of receivingcontainers destined for loading on a large container ship over a longer time than the actual port
time of the
ship, which again requires an extensive container marshalling area in the port. These existing ports areequipped with
veryextensive control arrangements similar to turnpike
turnstiles where arriving as well as departing containers on
126
1968
FRANKEL:
SHIPPING
727
WAREHOUSE SHIPS
two forwardparts formed floating cargo containers coupled
to each other. This
ship unfortunately was put out of service,
The ultimate in containerization onshipboard is oba number of years later, dueto economicdaculties result- viously achieved where
the ship itself becomesthecontainer.
ing from post-world-warconditions. In more recent years, Although this would apply to practically every type of cargo
Japanese shipbuilders have instigated research into hinged ship, we willimply in our discussions that thewarehouse or
tankers. Their objective was not the developmentof a ship onecontainer ship is a vessel wherethe cargo volume of the
divisible into multiple cargo units, but a reduction of the ship is completely horizontally separated from the remainhull structural weight resulting from lower bending stresses der of the ship and consists basically of a large container
and lower wave-induced forces due to the wave hugging box carried by a ship-type displacement vessel. Such conmotion response of such a ship. Although such tankers cepts, both for roll-on roll-off operations, as well as conhave not been constructed, detailed designs have beencom- tainer lift-on lift-off operations or unitized cargo handling,
pleted and their construction is seriously being considered. have been designed by J. J. Sharpe and other companies.
Articulated seagoingbarge operations which approach The large amount of flexibility afforded by a horizontal
segmented-ship-type operations have
been
successfully
and/or vertical accesscargo volume completelyrectangular
performed by an operator on thePacific coast of the U. S. and with a minimum of transverse partitions or watertight
using a push-tow principle with rigid gimballed couplings. subdivisions obviously has many advantages for unitized
Extensive research and development of more general or containerized operations. Some of theseconcepts include
types of articulated or segmented ships where each trans- multihull vessels such as catamarans, designed to straddle
verse slice of the ship forms a floating container which can finger piers and deposit or lift off completewarehouse-type
be uncoupled from therest of the ship at its terminals has boxes containing a large quantity of unitized cargo or conbeen investigated. Such ships could bedesigned with rigid or tainers in one lot. Such concepts have been designed in
hinged couplings and the engineering problems have detail and appear to offer major advantagesin turnaround
largely been solved. This type of vessel would offer major time and ship utilization. They also offer savings in cargo
advantages for both the
multiport break-bulk or multi- and ship handling by eliminating transfer of cargo from a
port container operator as it is expected that the coupling warehouse or container stowage area ontothe ship, and the
operations would take less than an hour. The
large unit size necessity of multiship calls.
of the decoupled portionsof the ship may also permit their
SHIPS
BARGE-CARRYING
decoupling in other than sheltered waters, which appears
to be something difficult to achieve with someof the barge
One interesting type of container ship recently developed
systems described before. A major advantage of the seg- and designed which is expectedto be in operation by 1970
mented or articulated ship is the fact that the container is the barge-carrying ship. In this type ofship large floating
serves a dual purpose of cargo box and ship hull. Initial containers with a deadweight capacity of several hundred
studies indicate that theresulting cost savings should easily tons are carried in numbers varying from 20 to 100 on ships
pay for the added cost of coupling devices and possible and arestowed inmultiple holds or a multideck longitudinal
reduction in hydrodynamic efficiency. Obviously, the above well.Barge-carriersfall into three maincategories. The
assumptions only apply if the portoperations performed on first type ofbarge-carrying ship carries container barges on
the large segmented slices of the ship are performed &- deck and handles these barges by ships cranes or booms.
ciently. On the other hand, they would essentiallyprovide a This type of service is being successfully
performed by some
ship in port at all times, which should go a long way in German operators in the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf
eliminating warehousing requirements. The fact that a where inland transportation is nonexistent and coastwise
segment of a ship may at all times be in any of the ports transport expensive unless a ship provides its own barges.
served is expected to have a major psychological result in Two more extensive barge-carrying ship concepts have
that shippers can load their cargo at any time and know a been developed recentlyby Friede and Goldmand, andJ. J.
specific departure timeof their boarded cargo. Loading Henry, naval architects. The first is a ship which carries its
operations can, therefore, be spread over a more extended barges in transverse holds and transports them along the
period of time, which mayresult in additional cost savings. length of the ship by a gantry crane which, working over
Detailed studies of the economics of such systems were cantilever extensionsat the stern of the ship, handles barges
performed at Massachusetts Institute of Technologyin
from or onto the ship. The second is basically a well-type
1963 and 1964 (Report 64-13), under the sponsorship of the ship with multiple decks into which bargesare moved horiU. S . Maritime Administration. Considerations have also zontally. They are lowered or lifted from their respective
been given to the advantages of segmented shipsin serving storage deck locations by a synchro lift elevator operating
feeder line services. Segmentedships offer many advantagesat the transom of the ship andcapable of handling barges
where lowdraft or comparatively long-distance feeder line from or tothe water. Both of these concepts are designed for
services are required, by eliminating transfer of cargo from operations where fastturnaround is required, but extensive
one waterbornevehicle to another.Also, it is not necessary inland container operations are not necessarilyfeasible.
for the manned ship to serve as a feeder agent; the de- Providing its own barges, the ship is expected to be able to
coupled segmented portions of the ship would normally be off-load in reasonable sea states without entering port and
unmanned and handled by tug boat with vastly reduced maintain large break-bulk containers in the form of barges
daily operating costs.
as a kind of floating warehouse at various locations along
728
SYSTEMSENGINEERING
IN CONTAINER SHIPPING
Attempts have beenmade to study the complex individual
operations and form mathematical models for containerized cargo shipping systems. The models are designed to
allow evaluation of the effects of changes in mechanical handling, utilization, arrival distribution, storage facilities,control parameters, loading factors, etc. They permit programmed use offreight booking, cargo characteristic, cargo
space, allocation, ship stability, vessel routing, pier storage
planning, equipment avaiiability, manpower, cost, andtime
data.
Initially, the problem has been studied as a series of related phases, each of which has a number of operational
links :
shipper packaging, unitizing, and loading operations;
routing, marshalling, and controlling all input and
output agents ;
freight-forwarding, feeders, consolidation;
unloading and storing and/or transferring.al1cargoes
from input agents ;
transferring all container loads to ship berth apron
and on board vessel.
Direct transfer from 1) to 5 ) and the variation in the
number of transfers in 4), if any, must be included.
Various problems of individual operations studied in
systems analysis and their effect on other operations are:
729
FRANKEL:CONTAINERIZEDSHIPPING
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author thanksSea-Land, Inc., for permission to use
company photographs and J. J. Henry, Inc., for their contribution of figures and the barge-carrying ship concept.
REFERENCES
Corrections
Measurement ofRF Properties of Materials, A Survey
Equation (4), page 1047, should have read
tan 6
Qs-(Cs + C)/C,.
(4)
J =
June 1967.
1.29[%7.
= ~ , v ,N
O . ~ Z KVT ~ [. ~ ]
[m
Arithmetic Microsystems
thefor
N,
Synthesis
of
Fmctim Generators
On 1914,
page
subscripts of the variables u, y , and z
must be corrected in Fig. 4, in (15), and in the subsequent
(62) discussion of the product unit (PU) as follows.
Replace v i by u j ; y i by yi+j;zip by