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MOBILE AND PERVASIVE COMPUTING

UNIT I
1. Cellular Wireless Networks:
Importance of Wireless
Freedom of movement
No loss of connectivity
Increase in productivity

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Cellular Network Organization


Use multiple low-power transmitters (100 W or less)

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Areas divided into cells


Each served by its own antenna

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Served by base station consisting of transmitter, receiver, and

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control unit

Band of frequencies allocated

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Cells set up such that antennas of all neighbors are equidistant


(hexagonal pattern)

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Frequencyh
Reuse

Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or


crosstalk
Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
Transmission power controlled to limit power at that frequency
escaping to adjacent cells
The issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between
two cells using the same frequency

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Cellular System

Overview

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Cellular Systems Terms

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Base Station (BS) includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of

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receivers

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Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO) connects calls

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between mobile units

Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS

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Control channels used to exchange information having to do with


setting up and maintaining calls
Traffic channels carry voice or data connection between users

2. GSM
formerly: Groupe Spciale Mobile (founded 1982)
now: Global System for Mobile Communication
Pan-European standard (ETSI, European Telecommunications
Standardisation Institute)

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simultaneous introduction of essential services in three phases


(1991, 1994, 1996) by the European telecommunication
administrations (Germany: D1 and D2)
seamless roaming within Europe possible
today many providers all over the world use GSM (more than 200
countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America)
more than 1.2 billion subscribers in more than 630 networks
more than 75% of all digital mobile phones use GSM (74% total)
over 200 million SMS per month in Germany, > 550 billion/year
worldwide
(> 10% of the revenues for many operators)
[be aware: these are only rough numbers]
Performance characteristics of GSM
1. Communication
-mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data services
2. Total mobility
-international access, chip-card enables use of access points of
different providers
3. Worldwide connectivity
-one number, the network handles localization
4. High capacity
-better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell
5. High transmission quality
-high audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls
at higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)
6. Security functions
-access control, authentication via chip-card and PIN

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Disadvantages of GSM
There is no perfect system!!
no end-to-end encryption of user data
no full ISDN bandwidth of 64 kbit/s to the user, no transparent B-channel
reduced concentration while driving
electromagnetic radiation
abuse of private data possible
roaming profiles accessible
high complexity of the system
several incompatibilities within the GSM standards
GSM: Mobile Services
GSM offers
several types of connections

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voice connections, data connections, short message service


multi-service options (combination of basic services)
Three service domains
Bearer Services
Telematic Services
Supplementary Services
M
S
TE

bearer
services
transit
network
(PSTN,
ISDN)

GSM-PLMN
MT
R,
S

source/
destination
network

TE
(U, S,
R)

Bearer Services

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Telecommunication services to transfer data between access points


Specification of services up to the terminal interface (OSI layers 1-3)
Different data rates for voice and data (original standard)
data service (circuit switched)
synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
asynchronous: 300 - 1200 bit/s
data service (packet switched)
synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
asynchronous: 300 - 9600 bit/s

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Today: data rates of approx. 50 kbit/s possible will be covered later!

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3. Architecture of the GSM system


GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
components
MS (mobile station)
BS (base station)
MSC (mobile switching center)
LR (location register)
subsystems
RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding, handover,
switching
OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network

GSM: elements and interfaces

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radio
cell
M
M
S
S

BS
S

radio
cell
M
S

RS
S

B
T
S

B
T
S

Abi
s

B
S
C

NS
S

B
S
C

VL
R

M
S
C
HL
R

VL
R

OS
S

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tu

se

c
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O

M
S
C

G
M IW
S F
C

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signali
ng
ISDN,

PSTN
PD
N

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EI
R

A
O
U
M
C
C
4. GSM protocol layers for signaling

ht

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Um

Abis

M
S

BT
S

BS
C

MS
C

CM

CM

MM

MM

RR

LAPD m

RR
LAPD m

radio

radio

RR
BTS
MLAPD

BT
LAPD
SM
PCM

PCM

16/64
kbit/s

5. CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT

BS
SA
SS7
P

BSSA
P
SS7

PCM

PCM

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64 kbit/s /
2.048
Mbit/s

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Mobile Terminated Call

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1: calling a GSM subscriber


2: forwarding call to GMSC
3: signal call setup to HLR
4, 5: request MSRN from VLR
6: forward responsible MSC to GMSC
7: forward call to current MSC
8, 9: get current status of MS
10, 11: paging of MS
12, 13: MS answers
14, 15: security checks
16, 17: set up connection

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HLR

4
5

3 6
calling
statio
n

PSTN

GMS
C

VLR

8 9
14 15
MSC

10

10 13
16

10

BSS

BSS

BSS

11

11

11

11 12
17

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Mobile Originated Call

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PSTN

MS

VLR

3 4
5

GMS
C

MSC

8
2 9

MS

1
10

BSS

7.FREQUENCY ALLOCATION

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Frequency Ranges
coax cable

twisted
pair
1 Mm
300
Hz

10 km
30 kHz

VLF

LF

optical transmission

100 m
3 MHz

MF

HF

1m
300 MHz

10 mm
30 GHz

VHF

SHF

VLF = Very Low Frequency


UHF = Ultra High Fequency
LF = Low Frequency
SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

UHF

1 m
300
THz

EHF

100
m
3 THz
infrare
d

visible
light

U
V

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Frequencies

kHz Range (Low and Very Low frequencies)


Used for short distances using twisted copper wires
Several KHz to MHZ (Medium and High Frequencies)
For transmission of hundreds of radio stations in the AM and
FM mode
Use co-axial cables
Transmission power is several kW.
Several MHz to Terra Hz Range (VHF and UHF)
Typically 100 MHz to 800 MHz and extending to terraHz)
Conventional Analog TV (174-230 MHz and 470-790
MHz)
DAB Range (220 1472 MHz)

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DTV (470 872 MHz)


Digital GSM (890-960MHz)
3G Mobile Systems (1900-2200 MHz)
Super High(SH) and Extremely Super High(ESH)
Hundreds of GHz
Fixed Satellite Services
Close to infra-red.
For Several TerraHz :
Optical Transmission
Why do we need very high transmission frequencies?
The information content in video, satellite data etc is
enormous.
If we need to accommodate many signals
simultaneously, we need a high bit rate which in turn
demands high frequency.

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Europe
Cellular
Phones

cs

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Cordless
Phones

Wireless
LANs

Others

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USA

GSM 450-457, 479486/460-467,489496, 890-915/935960,


1710-1785/18051880
UMTS (FDD) 19201980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 19001920, 2020-2025
CT1+ 885-887, 930932
CT2
864-868
DECT
1880-1900
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
HIPERLAN 2
5150-5350, 54705725
RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433,
868

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Japan

AMPS, TDMA, CDMA


824-849,
869-894
TDMA, CDMA, GSM
1850-1910,
1930-1990

PDC
810-826,
940-956,
1429-1465,
1477-1513

PACS 1850-1910, 19301990


PACS-UB 1910-1930

PHS
1895-1918
JCT
254-380

902-928
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
5150-5350, 5725-5825

IEEE 802.11
2471-2497
5150-5250

RF-Control
315, 915

RF-Control
426, 868

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8.ROUNTING

Routing :Routing is the means of discovering paths in computer networks along which
information (split up into packets) can be sent. Circuit-based networks, such as the
voice telephone network, also perform routing, to find paths for telephone calls
through the network fabric.
Routing is usually directed by routing tables, which maintain a record of the best
routes to various network locations in order to keep up with the packet arrival rate.
Small networks may involve hand configuration. Large networks involve complex
topologies and may change constantly, making the constructing of routing tables
very problematic. Automatic routing protocols attempt to solve this problem with
dynamically updated routing tables. These are updated intermittently by the routing
software, based on information carried by the routing protocol, and allow the network
to be nearly autonomous in avoiding network failures and blockages.

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Routing directs forwarding, the passing of logically addressed packets from their
local sub network toward their ultimate destination. In large networks, packets may
pass through many intermediary destinations before reaching their destination.

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The hardware used in routing includes hubs, switches and routers.

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Difference between Wired and Wireless Rrouting:-

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The concept of link abstraction ie. considering the two connected nodes as a link is
not valid in the case of wireless as opposed to the wired systems. This is for the
following reasons

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- This can be zero or close to zero in case of wired


networks but in case of wireless this value is much greater than zero.

- The neighbouring links disturb the


transfer of packets in a link. A link can be understood as a connection of the
two nodes that are talking to each other.

-interference (within a path):- Each link of a wireless network is a half duplex


link which means that there will be a two way transmission at the intermediary
node. Hence, there will be interference within the link itself.

- The medium of transmission in wireless networks is


broadcast. This causes the packet to be transmitted over the entire network.
In wired networks however it is not transmitted over the entire network.

NOTE : 2P MAC reduces the differences between wireless and wired networks It has directional, point to point links, hence the thing comes close to wired.

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By using SynOp and appropriate transmit power the interference can be


avoided.

Routing Metrics:The routing metrics for wired networks are


i. Hop-Count- It is related to the total number of hops between two nodes.
ii. Queuing delay- This corresponds to the load of the link ie. the traffic going on
in the line.
For wireless networks the metrics are
i. Hop-Count
ii. RTT(Round Trip Time)
iii. Packet Pair
iv. ETx(Expected Transmission Count)
Hop-Count:
Advantages
o Easy to evaluate
o Simple
o Little Overhead
Shortcomings
It does not consider
o Transmit rate
o Load
o Interference
o Packet Loss Rate

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RTT:
Since this value is congestion dependent this value needs to be calculated again
and again. Probe and Probe Ack are sent between the two neighbours every 500 ms
to calculate the Round Trip Time.

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9. Security in GSM
Security services
access control/authentication
user SIM (Subscriber Identity Module): secret PIN
(personal identification number)
SIM network: challenge response method
confidentiality
voice and signaling encrypted on the wireless link
(after successful authentication)

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anonymity
temporary identity TMSI
(Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity)
newly assigned at each new location update (LUP)
encrypted transmission
3 algorithms specified in GSM
A3 for authentication (secret, open interface)
A5 for encryption (standardized)
A8 for key generation (secret, open interface)
10.General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

New service that uses packet-mode to transfer data over GSM radio
networks.
Supplements todays Short Message Service (SMS) and Circuit Switched
Data Service (CSDS).
Packets are in IP formats (but can carry other packet data protocol such
as X.25).
Since it is built on top of the current GSM network and can run several
times faster, it is considered a migration path to 3G (up to 2 Mbps)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) popular in North and South
America will also support GPRS
Can use up to 8 time slots per TDMA frame
Theoretical maximum speed is 171.2 Kbps
Commercial performance will probably be somewhere between 56K to
115Kbps
Initial speeds are from 20K to 40Kbps (GSM CSD runs at 9.6Kbp)
By reserving timeslots for a connection, quality of service can be provided
effective utilization of bandwidth
instant connection (no dial-up modem connection is necessary) - always
connected
charging based on amount of data transferred, not connection time
Internet aware - services available to the Internet (such as FTP, web
browsing, email, chat, telnet) will be available over the the mobile network
via GPRS
allows SMS transfer over GPRS radio channels
addresses to send and receive GPRS packets is likely to be IP addresses
rather than phone numbers
Launched in the UK in summer 2000
Expected to be publicly available in HK in Fall 2001

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Quality of service

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Reliability
class

Lost SDU
probability

Duplicate
SDU
probability

1
2
3

10-9
10-4
10-2

10-9
10-5
10-5

Delay
class
1
2
3
4

Out of
sequence
SDU
probability
10-9
10-5
10-5

Corrupt SDU
probability
10-9
10-6
10-2

SDU size 128 byte


SDU size 1024 byte
mean
95 percentile
mean
95 percentile
< 0.5 s
< 1.5 s
<2s
<7s
<5s
< 25 s
< 15 s
< 75 s
< 50 s
< 250 s
< 75 s
< 375 s
unspecified

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GPRS architecture and interfaces

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SGS
N

cs

BSS

M
S

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G
n

SGS
N

PDN

GGS
N

MSC

VLR

HLR/
GR
EIR

GPRS protocol architecture

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MS

BSS

Um

SGSN

Gb

Gn GGSN

Gi

apps.
IP/X.25

IP/X.25

SNDCP

GTP

LLC
RLC
MAC

RL
MAC
C

radio

radio

SN
DC
LLC
P
BSSGP

UDP/T
GT
CP
P
IP

UDP/T
CP
IP

FR

L1/L2

L1/L2

BS
FR

SG
P

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UNIT II

1. Wireless LANs

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Characteristics of wireless LANs

Advantages

very flexible within the reception area


Ad-hoc networks without previous planning possible
(almost) no wiring difficulties (e.g. historic buildings, firewalls)
more robust against disasters like, e.g., earthquakes, fire - or users
pulling
a plug...
Disadvantages
typically very low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)

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many proprietary solutions, especially for higher bit-rates, standards


take their time (e.g. IEEE 802.11)
products have to follow many national restrictions if working wireless, it
takes a vary long time to establish global solutions like, e.g., IMT-2000
Design goals for wireless LANs

global, seamless operation


low power for battery use
no special permissions or licenses needed to use the LAN
robust transmission technology

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simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings

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easy to use for everyone, simple management


protection of investment in wired networks

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security (no one should be able to read my data), privacy (no one should
be able to collect user profiles), safety (low radiation)

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transparency concerning applications and higher layer protocols, but also

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location awareness if necessary

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Personal area network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for


communication among computer devices (including telephones and
personal digital assistants) close to one person. The devices may or may
not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is typically a few
meters. PANs can be used for communication among the personal
devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting
to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink).

2. IEEE 802.11 STANDARD

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SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Station (STA)
- terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium and radio contact
to the access point
Basic Service Set (BSS)
- group of stations using the same radio frequency
Access Point
- station integrated into the wireless LAN and the distribution system
Portal
- bridge to other (wired) networks
Distribution System

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- interconnection network to form one logical network (EES: Extended

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Service Set) based


on several BSS

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802.11
LAN

STA1

802.x
LAN

BSS1
Porta
l

Acce
ss
Distribution
Point
System
Acce
ss

ES
S

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Point

BSS2

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STA2

STA3

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802.11 - Architecture of an ad-hoc network


Direct communication within a limited range
Station (STA):
terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium
Basic Service Set (BSS):
group of stations using the same radio frequency

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802.11
LAN
STA1
BSS1

STA3

STA2

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BSS2

uSTA
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STA4

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802.11
LAN

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IEEE standard 802.11

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fixed
terminal

mobile
terminal
serve
r
infrastructure
network
access
point
application

application

TCP

TCP

IP

IP

LLC

LLC

802.11 MAC

802.11
MAC
802.11
PHY

802.11 PHY

LLC

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802.3 MAC
802.3 PHY

802.3 MAC

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802.3 PHY

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802.11 - Layers and functions

MAC

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- access mechanisms, fragmentation, encryption


MAC Management

- synchronization, roaming, MIB, power management


PLCP Physical Layer Convergence Protocol
- clear channel assessment signal (carrier sense)
PMD Physical Medium Dependent
- modulation, coding
PHY Management
- channel selection, MIB
Station Management
- coordination of all management functions

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D
L
C
P
H
Y

MAC

MAC Management

PLCP

PHY Management

PMD

Station Management

LLC

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802.11 - Physical layer

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3 versions: 2 radio (typ. 2.4 GHz), 1 IR


data rates 1 or 2 Mbit/s

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FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

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spreading, despreading, signal strength, typ. 1 Mbit/s


min. 2.5 frequency hops/s (USA), two-level GFSK modulation

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DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

DBPSK modulation for 1 Mbit/s (Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying),

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DQPSK for 2 Mbit/s (Differential Quadrature PSK)

preamble and header of a frame is always transmitted with 1 Mbit/s, rest


of transmission 1 or 2 Mbit/s
chipping sequence: +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1 (Barker code)
max. radiated power 1 W (USA), 100 mW (EU), min. 1mW
Infrared
850-950 nm, diffuse light, typ. 10 m range
carrier detection, energy detection, synchonization
FHSS PHY packet format

Synchronization

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synch with 010101... pattern


SFD (Start Frame Delimiter)
0000110010111101 start pattern
PLW (PLCP_PDU Length Word)
length of payload incl. 32 bit CRC of payload, PLW < 4096
PSF (PLCP Signaling Field)
data of payload (1 or 2 Mbit/s)
HEC (Header Error Check)
CRC with x16+x12+x5+1

8
0
synchronization

1
6
SFD

1
2
PLW

PLCP
preamble

1
6
HEC

PSF

variabl
epayload

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bit
s

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PLCP
header

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DSSS PHY packet format

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Synchronization

synch., gain setting, energy detection, frequency offset compensation

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SFD (Start Frame Delimiter)

1111001110100000
Signal

data rate of the payload (0A: 1 Mbit/s DBPSK; 14: 2 Mbit/s DQPSK)
Service

Length
future use, 00: 802.11 compliant

length of the payload

HEC (Header Error Check)


protection of signal, service and length, x16+x12+x5+1
128
synchronization

16

16

16

SFD

signa
l

servi
ce

lengt
h

HEC

PLCP preamble

variable
payload

PLCP header

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bits

802.11 - MAC layer I - DFWMAC


Traffic services
Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory)
exchange of data packets based on best-effort
support of broadcast and multicast
Time-Bounded Service (optional)
implemented using PCF (Point Coordination Function)
Access methods
DFWMAC-DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
collision avoidance via randomized back-off mechanism

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minimum distance between consecutive packets

ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)

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DFWMAC-DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)

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Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC


avoids hidden terminal problem

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DFWMAC- PCF (optional)

access point polls terminals according to a list

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802.11 - MAC layer II


Priorities

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defined through different inter frame spaces


no guaranteed, hard priorities
SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing)
highest priority, for ACK, CTS, polling response
PIFS (PCF IFS)
medium priority, for time-bounded service using PCF
DIFS (DCF, Distributed Coordination Function IFS)
lowest priority, for asynchronous data service

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DIFS

DIFS
PIFS
SIFS

medium busy

contention

next frame
t

direct access if
medium is free DIFS

802.11 - CSMA/CA access method I

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station ready to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier Sense based on

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CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)

if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame Space (IFS), the

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station can start sending (IFS depends on service type)


if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS, then the

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station must additionally wait a random back-off time (collision


avoidance, multiple of slot-time)

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if another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of the

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station, the back-off timer stops (fairness)

802.11 - CSMA/CA access method II

Sending unicast packets


station has to wait for DIFS before sending data
receivers acknowledge at once (after waiting for SIFS) if the packet was
received correctly (CRC)
automatic retransmission of data packets in case of transmission errors

HiperLAN

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Bluetooth

Idea
Universal radio interface for ad-hoc wireless connectivity
Interconnecting computer and peripherals, handheld devices, PDAs, cell
phones replacement of IrDA
Embedded in other devices, goal: 5/device (2005: 40/USB bluetooth)
Short range (10 m), low power consumption, license-free 2.45 GHz ISM
Voice and data transmission, approx. 1 Mbit/s gross data rate

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Characteristics

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2.4 GHz ISM band, 79 (23) RF channels, 1 MHz carrier spacing


Channel 0: 2402 MHz channel 78: 2480 MHz
G-FSK modulation, 1-100 mW transmit power
FHSS and TDD
Frequency hopping with 1600 hops/s
Hopping sequence in a pseudo random fashion, determined by a master
Time division duplex for send/receive separation
Voice link SCO (Synchronous Connection Oriented)
FEC (forward error correction), no retransmission, 64 kbit/s duplex, pointto-point, circuit switched
Data link ACL (Asynchronous ConnectionLess)

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Asynchronous, fast acknowledge, point-to-multipoint, up to 433.9 kbit/s


symmetric or 723.2/57.6 kbit/s asymmetric, packet switched
Topology and Overlapping piconets (stars) forming a scatternet

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UNIT III
1.Mobile IP
Motivation for Mobile IP

Routing
based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42)
determines physical subnet
change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a
topological correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in
the routing tables

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Specific routes to end-systems?

change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right

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destination

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does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent
changes in the location, security problems

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Changing the IP-address?

adjust the host IP address depending on the current location

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almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to


long time

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TCP connections break, security problems

Requirements:

Transparency
mobile end-systems keep their IP address
continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
point of connection to the fixed network can be changed

Compatibility
support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
no changes to current end-systems and routers required

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mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems

Security
authentication of all registration messages

Efficiency and scalability


only little additional messages to the mobile system required
(connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the
whole Internet

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Terminology

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Mobile Node (MN)

system (node) that can change the point of connection

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to the network without changing its IP address

Home Agent (HA)

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system in the home network of the MN, typically a router

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Foreign Agent (FA)
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registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA

system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router


forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the
default router for the MN

Care-of Address (COA)


address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP

Correspondent Node (CN)


communication partner

Problems with mobile IP

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Security
authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to
another organization
no protocol for key management and key distribution has been
standardized in the Internet
patent and export restrictions

Firewalls
typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special
set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling)

QoS

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many new reservations in case of RSVP

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tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special


treatment needed for the QoS

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Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are topics of current research and


discussions!

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Security in Mobile IP

Security requirements (Security Architecture for the Internet


Protocol, RFC 1825)
Integrity
any changes to data between sender and receiver can be detected
by the receiver
Authentication
sender address is really the address of the sender and all data

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received is really data sent by this sender


Confidentiality
only sender and receiver can read the data
Non-Repudiation
sender cannot deny sending of data
Traffic Analysis
creation of traffic and user profiles should not be possible
Replay Protection
receivers can detect replay of messages

2. DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Application

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simplification of installation and maintenance of networked

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computers

supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP

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address, DNS server address, domain name, subnet mask, default


router etc.

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enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the


Internet, can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP

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Client/Server-Model

the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server
(might be via a DHCP relay)

DHCP characteristics

Server
several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet
standardized (i.e., manual configuration)

Renewal of configurations
IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol

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Options
available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol)
timeserver, SLP (service location protocol) directory,
DNS (domain name system)

Big security problems!


no authentication of DHCP information specified
3.Ad hoc networks
Sometimes there is no infrastructure
remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas

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cost can also be an argument against an infrastructure

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Sometimes not every station can hear every other station


Data needs to be forwarded in a multihop manner

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Sometimes there is no infrastructure!
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Home Agent/Foreign Agent in the fixed network
DNS, routing etc. are not designed for mobility

remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas

cost can also be an argument against an infrastructure!

Main topic: routing


no default router available
every node should be able to forward

Traditional routing algorithms

Distance Vector
periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that
contain information about who can be reached at what distance

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selection of the shortest path if several paths available

Link State
periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all
physical links
router get a complete picture of the network

Example
ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing
every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality
updating of tables also by reception of packets
routing problems solved with limited flooding

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An ad-hoc network as a graph


A node is a mobile station

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All nodes are equal (are they?)

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Iff node v can hear node u, the graph has an arc (u,v)
These arcs can have weights that represent the signal strength
Close-by nodes have MAC issues such as hidden/exposed terminal problems
Optional: links are symmetric
Optional: the graph is Euclidian, i.e., there is a link between two
nodes iff the distance d of the nodes is less than D

4.Proactive and Reactive Routing Protocols

Distance Vector (IP example RIP):


Periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that contain

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information about who can be reached at what distance


Selection of the shortest path if several paths available

Link State (IP example OSPF):


Periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all physical links
Routers get a complete picture of the network

Example:
ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing
Every 7.5 s exchange of routing tables including link quality
Updating of tables also by reception of packets

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Routing problems solved with limited flooding

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.. Dynamic of the topology:

Frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants

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.. Limited performance of mobile systems:

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Periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing to the


transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to implement

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Limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the exchange of
routing information

Links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction-dependent transmission


quality

.. Key problem:
Protocols have been designed for fixed networks with infrequent changes and
typically assume symmetric links!

Early work:

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On-demand version: AODV (Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector)

Expansion of distance vector routing


Sequence numbers for all routing update packets:
Assures in-order execution of all updates
Avoids loops and inconsistencies

Decrease of update frequency:


Store time between first and best announcement of a path
Inhibit update, if it seems to be unstable (based on the stored time values)

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5.Multicast Routing

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Concept: Single Source, Multiple Destinations, Duplication only at branch points.

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Present Day Support:


Communication satellites.

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e-mail lists, internet news distribution.


Tomorrow's multimedia applications require:

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efficient use of bandwidth.

near simultaneous delivery.

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Applications: Multicast & Multi-point

One to Many
Video Distribution
Wide scale Information dissemination.
Many to Many
Video Conferencing
Computer Supported Common Work.
Distributed interactive simulation.
Large scale distributed (super)computing.

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Distributed Games

Advantages.
SRSPTs are easy to compute. Use the classic unicast routing tables.
Efficient distributed implementations are possible
Entire global topology not required.
There can be no loops in the path returned.

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Disadvantages
Does not minimize total cost of distribution

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Does not scale well.

One piece of state information per source and per group is kept in each router.

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May fail badly if the underlying unicast routing is asymmetric.

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UNIT IV

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1.Mobile TCP

Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections

M-TCP splits as I-TCP does


unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host (SH)
optimized TCP SH to MH

Supervisory host
no caching, no retransmission
monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
set sender window size to 0

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sender automatically goes into persistent mode


old or new SH reopen the window

Advantages
maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer forwarding

Disadvantages
loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network
adapted TCP on wireless link

2. WAP - Wireless Application Protocol

Goals

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deliver Internet content and enhanced services to mobile devices

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and users (mobile phones, PDAs)


independence from wireless network standards

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open for everyone to participate, protocol specifications will be


proposed to standardization bodies

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applications should scale well beyond current transport media and

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device types and should also be applicable to future developments

Platforms

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e.g., GSM (900, 1800, 1900), CDMA IS-95, TDMA IS-136, 3rd
generation systems (IMT-2000, UMTS, W-CDMA)

Forum
WAP Forum, co-founded by Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, Unwired
Planet

http://csetube.weebly.com/

WAP - scope of standardization

Browser
micro browser, similar to existing, well-known browsers in the
Internet

Script language
similar to Java script, adapted to the mobile environment

WTA/WTAI
Wireless Telephony Application (Interface): access to all telephone
functions

Content formats

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e.g., business cards (vCard), calendar events (vCalender)

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Protocol layers
transport layer, security layer, session layer etc.

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Working Groups

WAP Architecture Working Group, WAP Wireless Protocol Working

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Group, WAP Wireless Security Working Group, WAP Wireless

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Application Working Group

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World Wide Web and mobility

Protocol (HTTP, Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and language


(HTML, Hypertext Markup Language) of the Web have not been
designed for mobile applications and mobile devices, thus
creating many problems!

Typical transfer sizes


HTTP request: 100-350 byte
responses avg. <10 kbyte, header 160 byte, GIF 4.1kByte, JPEG
12.8 kbyte, HTML 5.6 kbyte
but also many large files that cannot be ignored

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The Web is no file system


Web pages are not simple files to download
static and dynamic content, interaction with servers via forms,
content transformation, push technologies etc.
many hyperlinks, automatic loading and reloading, redirecting
a single click might have big consequences!

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WWW example

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Request to port 80
GET / HTTP/1.0

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Response from server

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HTTP/1.1 200 OK

Date: Fri, 06 Nov 1998 14:52:12 GMT

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Server: Apache/1.3b5
Connection: close

Content-Type: text/html
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Institut f&uuml;r Telematik</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#ffffff">
<img src="icons/uni/faklogo_de.gif"
ALT=" [Universit&auml;t Karlsruhe, Fakult&auml;t
f&uuml;r Informatik] ">

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4. WDP - Wireless Datagram Protocol

Protocol of the transport layer within the WAP architecture


uses directly transports mechanisms of different network
technologies
offers a common interface for higher layer protocols
allows for transparent communication using different transport
technologies

Goals of WDP
create a worldwide interoperable transport system with the help of

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WDP adapted to the different underlying technologies


transmission services such as SMS in GSM might change, new

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services can replace the old ones

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5. WTLS - Wireless Transport Layer Security

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Goals

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data integrity

prevention of changes in data


privacy

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prevention of tapping
authentication

creation of authenticated relations between a mobile device and a


server
protection against denial-of-service attacks
protection against repetition of data and unverified data

WTLS
is based on the TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocol (former
SSL, Secure Sockets Layer)
optimized for low-bandwidth communication channels

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6. WTP - Wireless Transaction Protocol

Goals
different transaction services, offloads applications
application can select reliability, efficiency
support of different communication scenarios
class 0: unreliable message transfer
class 1: reliable message transfer without result message
class 2: reliable message transfer with exactly one reliable result message
supports peer-to-peer, client/server and multicast applications

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low memory requirements, suited to simple devices (< 10kbyte )

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efficient for wireless transmission


segmentation/reassembly

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selective retransmission
header compression

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optimized connection setup (setup with data transfer)

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7. WSP - Wireless Session Protocol

Goals

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HTTP 1.1 functionality


Request/reply, content type negotiation, ...
support of client/server, transactions, push technology
key management, authentication, Internet security services
session management (interruption, resume,...)

Services
session management (establish, release, suspend, resume)
capability negotiation
content encoding

WSP/B (Browsing)

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HTTP/1.1 functionality - but binary encoded


exchange of session headers
push and pull data transfer
asynchronous requests

8. WAE - Wireless Application Environment

Goals
network independent application environment for low-bandwidth,
wireless devices
integrated Internet/WWW programming model with high interoperability

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Requirements

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device and network independent, international support

manufacturers can determine look-and-feel, user interface

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considerations of slow links, limited memory, low computing power, small


display, simple user interface (compared to desktop computers)

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Components

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architecture: application model, browser, gateway, server


WML: XML-Syntax, based on card stacks, variables, ...

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WMLScript: procedural, loops, conditions, ... (similar to JavaScript)


WTA: telephone services, such as call control, text messages, phone
book, ... (accessible from WML/WMLScript)
content formats: vCard, vCalendar, Wireless Bitmap, WML, ...

9. Wireless Telephony Application (WTA)

Collection of telephony specific extensions


Extension of basic WAE application model
content push
server can push content to the client

http://csetube.weebly.com/

client may now be able to handle unknown events


handling of network events
table indicating how to react on certain events from the network
access to telephony functions
any application on the client may access telephony functions

Example
calling a number (WML)
wtai://wp/mc;07216086415
calling a number (WMLScript)
WTAPublic.makeCall("07216086415");

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11. Wireless Markup Language (WML)

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WML follows deck and card metaphor

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WML document consists of many cards, cards are grouped to


decks

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a deck is similar to an HTML page, unit of content transmission


WML describes only intent of interaction in an abstract manner

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presentation depends on device capabilities

Features

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text and images


user interaction
navigation

context management
WML example
<WML>
<CARD>
<DO TYPE="ACCEPT">
<GO URL="#card_two"/>
</DO>

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This is a simple first card!


On the next you can choose ...
</CARD>
<CARD NAME="card_two">
... your favorite pizza:
<SELECT KEY="PIZZA">
<OPTION VALUE=M>Margherita</OPTION>
<OPTION VALUE=F>Funghi</OPTION>
<OPTION VALUE=V>Vulcano</OPTION>
</SELECT>
</CARD>

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</WML>

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12. WMLScript

Complement to WML

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Provides general scripting capabilities

Features

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validity check of user input

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check input before sent to server


access to device facilities
hardware and software (phone call, address book etc.)
local user interaction
interaction without round-trip delay
extensions to the device software
configure device, download new functionality after deployment
WMLScript example

function pizza_test(pizza_type) {
var taste = "unknown";

http://csetube.weebly.com/

if (pizza_type = "Margherita") {
taste = "well... ";
}
else {
if (pizza_type = "Vulcano") {
taste = "quite hot";
};
};
return taste;
};

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Unit V

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1.Pervasive Computing
Pervasive computing is the third wave of computing
technologies to emerge since computers first
appeared:
First Wave - Mainframe computing era: one computer
shared by many people, via workstations.
Second Wave - Personal computing era: one
computer used by one person, requiring a conscious
interaction. Users largely bound to desktop.
Third Wave Pervasive (initially called ubiquitous)

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computing era: one person, many computers.

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Millions of computers embedded in the environment,


allowing technology to recede into the background

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Pervasive Environment

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The most important characteristics of pervasive environments are:

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Heterogeneity: Computing will be carried out on a wide spectrum of


client devices, each with different configurations and functionalities.

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Prevalence of "Small" Devices: Many devices will be small, not only


in size but also in computing power, memory size, etc.
Limited Network Capabilities: Most of the devices would have some
form of connection. However, even with the new networking standards
such as GPRS, Bluetooth, 802.11x, etc., the bandwidth is still relatively
limited compared to wired network technologies. Besides, the
connections are usually unstable.
High Mobility: Users can carry devices from one place to another
without stopping the services.
User-Oriented: Services would be related to the user rather than a
specific device, or specific location.

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Highly Dynamic Environment: An environment in which users and


devices keep moving in and out of a volatile network.

Evolution

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Distributed Computing

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intersection of personal computers and local area networks.

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Mobile Computing

The appearance of full- function laptop computers and wireless LANs in the

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early 1990s led researchers to confront the problems that arise in building a distributed

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system with mobile clients. The field of mobile computing was thus born.

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Pervasive Architecture

Architecture is an abstraction of the system.


Architecture defines the system elements and
how they interact.
Architecture suppresses the local information
about the elements.

Defines the properties of the components


Provided services, required services, performance
characteristics, fault handling, resource usage

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Device Technology
Hardware
Battery
Displays
Memory
Processors
Interfaces
Keyboards

HARDWARE - Battery

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Expected lifetime for NiCad, NiMH, and Li ion batteries


Chemistry Standby time (h) Talk time (m)
NiCad

12-27

85-160

NiMH

16-37

110-210

Li ion

21-50

170-225

Hardware-Displays

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LCDs are already replacing the bulky cathode ray tubes.


larger and more readable
dramatic weight, size, and power consumption benefits of LCD technology outweigh
their relatively high cost.
Today's PDAs usually feature dual-scan (DSTN) displays that control individual display
elements via passive matrix addressing.
This technology consumes consid-erably less power than the thin-film transistor (TFT)
active matrix technology.
This latter technology is more expensive, but is capable of sig-nificantly superior
display performance and thus is generally used in portable computers.

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Hardware-Memory
Memory is becoming cheaper, while the demand from applications is growing.
Development is driven in part by smart phones, digital cameras, MP3 players and
PDAs.
For these mobile devices, the currently available technologies and their associated costs
have reached a point where it is now feasible to integrate several megabytes of memory
into a mobile device with an acceptable form factor.
On PCs, permanent data can be stored on hard disk drives.
For mobile devices, this is often not an option because neither the space nor the power
supply is available.
Recently, extremely small removable disk drives like the IBM Microdrive became

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available.

Their capacity ranges between 340 MB and 1 GB, and is sufficient to store, for

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example, several hundred pictures when used in a digital camera

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Hardware-Processors

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During the last couple of years, the clock rate of microprocessors and the processing
power available from them has increased steadily.

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Rapid improvements in the CMOS manufacturing process have created ever-smaller


structures and delivered higher and higher numbers of transistors per chip.

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At the same time, the processor core voltage was low-ered from the industry standard
3.3 V in 1995 to 1.35 V in 2000.
This means lower heat emissions, which in turn paves the way for new improvements
like larger on-die caches.
This, together with advances in packaging technologies, delivers the modern Central
Processing Units (CPUs) found in mobile computers and PDAs today.

Hardware-Human-machine interfaces
Like their PC predecessors, many mobile devices also use keyboards and displays to
interface with their users.

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However, these are usually much smaller and specialized for the application and the
form factor of particu-lar devices.
Phones, for example, tend to have only number keys, plus a few extra keys for the builtin menus.
This is because the size of the device is important and because users enter less text than
on a PC.
Other devices try to limit the number of mechanical keys to an absolute mini- mum,
using them only to trigger the most important applications and for menu navigation.
An example is the PDA.
Finally, there are devices that have no means of display or keyboard whatsoever.
These so-called head-less devices are most often used as controllers and interface only

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to other devices.

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Hardware-Human-machine interfaces

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When reaching a haptic mark, the user feels a resistance generated by the motor against

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the turning direction.

This force increases until a spe-cific position is reached.

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When the knob passes that position, the force gets smaller again.
This can be used to create the impression of a knob that can be put into a programmable

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number of positions.

It allows a single knob to be used for navigating through a menu structure where each
menu choice is represented by one position.

Biometrics

Definition
Biometrics is the science of verifying and establishing the identity of an
individual
through physiological features or behavioral traits.
Examples

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o Physical Biometrics

Fingerprint

Hand Geometry

Iris patterns

o Behavioral Biometrics

Handwriting

Signature

Speech

Gait

o Chemical/Biological Biometrics

Perspiration

Skin composition(spectroscopy)

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Advantages of biometrics

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Uniqueness

No need to remember passwords or carry tokens

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Biometrics cannot be lost, stolen or forgotten


More secure than a long password

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Solves repudiation problem

Not susceptible to traditional dictionary attacks

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Software-Operating systems
The core functionality of every pervasive computing device is determined by its
operating system.
The major differences of operating systems for pervasive devices from the user's point
of view are the human-machine interface, and the speed with which a task can be
performed.
For pervasive devices, there will likely be no equivalent to the Windows/Intel
monopoly in the near future because pervasive devices do have a wide range of usages
(from mobile phones to set-top boxes) with very con-strained hardware.

http://csetube.weebly.com/

There are two trends visible for pervasive computing operating systems.
For personal use, the two major PDA operating systems, Palm OS and Windows CE,
are becoming more similar, and can integrate phone functionality in a new device that
combines a PDA with a cell phone.
For home use, the development is directed towards high-performance multimedia
operating systems, such as embedded Linux or BeOS.

Security

Issues in biometrics
o Biometrics is secure but not secret

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o Permanently associated with user


o Used across multiple applications

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o Can be covertly captured

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Types of circumvention
o Denial of service attacks(1)

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o Fake biometrics attack(2)

o Replay and Spoof attacks(3,5)

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o Trojan horse attacks(4,6,7)


o Back end attacks(8)

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o Collusion
o Coercion

Fingerprints
Minutiae: Local anomalies in the ridge flow
Pattern of minutiae are unique to each
Individual

Pervasive web Application Architecture

http://csetube.weebly.com/

This is an architecture for pervasive computing applications that support multiple


devices, such as PCs, WAP phones, PDA and voice-only phones enabled to access Web
servers through voice gate-ways.
The architecture addresses the special problems associated with pervasive computing,
including diversity of devices, markup language and authentication methods.
shows how pervasive computing applications based on this architecture can be secured.
Users have many different devices that look and behave in very different ways.
Examples of several kinds of pervasive computing devices includes WAP phones,
PDAs, and voice-recognition devices.
These devices proving different user interfaces, use different markup languages, use

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differrent communication protocols, and have different ways of authenticating themselves


to servers.

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Ideally, Web applications that support pervasive computing should adapt to whatever

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device their users are using.

Applications must provide content in a form that is appropriate for the user's particular

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device - WML for WAP phones, Voice XML for voice interaction via a voice browser,
HTML for PCs, and so on.

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Scalability and availability

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Given the ever-growing number of pervasive computing devices, scalability of


pervasive computing applications is a very important issue.
Large telecommunication companies expect millions of users to subscribe for some
applications, for example.
Availability is of particular importance in the pervasive computing environment.
Unlike PC users, most users of pervasive computing devices and applications will
neither understand nor accept comments like 'server currently down for maintenance' - if
a service is not available when they need it, they will assume that it does not work, and
will stop using the application or switch to another service provider.

http://csetube.weebly.com/

Both issues can be resolved by system topologies that employ parallelism and
redundancy to guarantee scalability and availability.

Pervasive application architecture


The model-view-controller (MVC) pattern is a good choice when implementing Web
applications.
standard mapping of the pattern to servlets, JSPs, and EJBs, where controller is
implemented as a servlet, the model implemented as a secure EJBs, and the views as
JSPs.
Pervasive computing applications, however, add an additional level of complexity.

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As devices are very different from each other, we can assume that one controller will fit
all device classes. In the MVC pattern the controller encapsulates the dialog flow of an

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application.

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This flow will be different for different classes of devices, such as WAP phone, voiceonly phones, PCs, or PDAs.

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Thus, we need different controller for different classes of devices.


To support multiple controllers, we replace the servlet's role to that of a simple

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dispatcher that invokes the appropriate controller depending on the type of device being
used

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http://csetube.weebly.com/

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