Module 2: Research Problem and

Research Design

Defining and Identifying the

Problem

Formulation of Hypothesis

Techniques involved in defining

the Problem

Meaning and features of

Research Design

Types of Research: Qualitative

and Quantitative Research

Developing a Research Plan:

Industry Specific Research
Proposals

Identify the Problem

 The first step for any research

project, whether it is a
dissertation, a grant proposal or
research to find the best
practice intervention is formulate
a question you want to answer.
The research problem may be
something the agency identifies
as a problem, some knowledge
or information that is needed by
the agency, or the desire to
identify a recreation trend
nationally Being clear on the
question makes it easier to
formulate a research strategy for
finding the best information
about this question.

 Statement of the problem should

come without any unnecessary
introduction. It presents an overview
of the problem that researcher has in
his/her mind.
Topic of a research study should have
adequacy, relevancy and simplicity.
Normally a research topic should
satisfy the following criteria: (i) state
the key variables included in the
study, (ii) state relationship between
variables, (iii) state population to
which results would be applicable, (iv)
avoid redundant words, and (v) use
only acceptable scientific terms.
Besides, a topic should neither be too
long to be over explicit nor too short
to be over implicit. It should be
concise and to the point.

HYPOTHESES
In our day to day activities we
are often faced with problems.
We undertake a number of
activities to solve them. First we
try to identity possible reasons
for the problem. Then we think
of
possible
intervention
strategies that would solve the
problem. We try to find a
solution to the problem through
logical
reasoning.
These
intelligent
and
logical
guesses about possible
differences,
relationships,
causes and solutions are
called HYPOTHESES.

Definition

A Hypothesis is a hunch or a shrewd

guess or a tentative solution or an
inference or sub-position to be tested
by empirical evidences.

Once the investigator diagnoses the

causes of the pinpointed/specific
problems, he/she starts thinking
about what concrete action, if taken,
would bring about the desired
change/solution.

Then he/she formulates hypothesis

specifying the immediate actions that
could be taken to solve the problems.

Hypothesis

 A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a

proposed
explanation
for
a
phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be
a scientific hypothesis, the scientific
method requires that one can test it.
Scientists generally base scientific
hypotheses on previous observations
that cannot satisfactorily be explained
with the available scientific theories.
Even though the words "hypothesis"
and "theory" are often used
synonymously, a scientific hypothesis
is not the same as a scientific theory.
A
working
hypothesis
is
a
provisionally accepted hypothesis
proposed for further research.

In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a

summary of the plot of a classical drama. The
English word hypothesis comes from the
ancient Greek (hupothesis), meaning "to put
under" or "to suppose".

In Plato's Meno (86e87b), Socrates dissects

virtue
with
a
method
used
by
mathematicians, that of "investigating from a
hypothesis." In this sense, 'hypothesis' refers
to a clever idea or to a convenient
mathematical approach that simplifies
cumbersome
calculations.
Cardinal
Bellarmine gave a famous example of this
usage in the warning issued to Galileo in the
early 17th century: that he must not treat the
motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as
a hypothesis.

Hypothesis
Formulation

 Once you have identified

you research question, it is

time to formulate your
hypothesis.
While
the
research question is broad
and
includes
all
the
variables you want your
study to consider, the
hypothesis is a statement
that specific relationship you
expect to find from your
examination
of
these
variables. When formulating
the hypothesis(es) for your
study, there are a few things
you need to keep in mind

Good hypotheses meet

the following criteria

Identify the independent and dependent

variables to be studied.

Specify the nature of the relationship that

exists between these variables.

Simple (often referred to as parsimonious). It

is better to be concise than to be longwinded. It is also better to have several
simple hypotheses than one complicated
hypothesis.

Does not include reference to specific

measures.

Does not refer to specific statistical

procedures that will be used in analysis.

Implies the population that you are going to

study.

Is falsifiable and testable.

 As indicated , it is better to have

several simple hypotheses than one
complex one. However, it is also a
good idea to limit the number of
hypotheses you use in a study to six
or fewer. Studies that address more
hypotheses than six will often be too
time consuming to keep participants
interested,
and
uninterested
participants do not take the
importance of their responses as
seriously. Another advantage to
limiting the number of formal
hypotheses you formulate is that too
many can make the discussion
section of your paper very hard to
write.

 It is important to remember that you

do not have to have a formal
hypothesis to justify all comparisons
and statistical procedures you might
use. For instance, it is only when you
start doing exploratory analysis of
your data that you realize that gender
is an influencing factor. You do not
have to back up and write a
hypothesis that addresses this
finding. In fact, it is better in most
cases to not do this. You can report
any statistical findings you feel are
relevant, whether or not you have a
hypothesis that addressed them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
A GOOD ACTION
HYPOTHESIS

 The hypotheses formulated in action

research are called ACTION
HYPOTHESES

A good action hypothesis should be

Logically related to the problem
Testable in classrooms situations
Clearly stated without ambiguity
Directly stated in terms of the
expected outcome (should not be a
generalized statement)

Testable within a considerably short

time (maximum of three months)

DIFFERENT FORMS FOR

STATING ACTION
HYPOTHESIS

 a) Declarative form: An

action hypothesis may be

formulated as a statement
with a positive relationship
between the two factors
identified, one being the
cause and the other being
the effect. This is also called
a directional hypothesis.
b) Predictive form: An action

hypothesis clearly predicting

the expected out come
which would emerge after
the action plan is
implemented. This can be
stated using if and then
statement.

 c) Question form: Questions can be

raised as action hypotheses as what
would be the result of the intended
action plan.

d) Null form: A null hypothesis states

that no relationship exists between
the factors considered in the
problems. This form is mostly used
when rigorous statistical techniques
are to be used.(A thoroughly worked
out example for all these forms is
given in the next unit.) Thus, an
action hypothesis provides clarity and
direction to solve a problem. Hence it
is considered an important stage in
action research.

FORMULATION OF AN
ACTION HYPOTHESIS
To form a hypothesis the investigator should

Have a thorough knowledge about the

problem

Be clear about the desired goal (solution)

Make a real effort to look at the problem in

new ways other than the regular practices
(come out form conventional thinking)

Give importance for imagination and

speculation

Think of many alternative solutions.

Thoroughly examine the conditions/contexts

in which the problem exists and then

State the hypothesis

Statistical hypothesis testing-

In statistical hypothesis testing, two

hypotheses are compared. These are called
the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the
hypothesis that states that there is no relation
between the phenomena whose relation is
under investigation, or at least not of the form
given by the alternative hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis, as the name
suggests, is the alternative to the null
hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of
relation. The alternative hypothesis may take
several forms, depending on the nature of the
hypothesized relation; in particular, it can be
two-sided (for example: there is some effect,
in a yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the
direction of the hypothesized relation, positive
or negative, is fixed in advance).

 Conventional significance levels

for
testing
hypotheses
(acceptable
probabilities
of
wrongly rejecting a true null
hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .
01. Whether the null hypothesis
is rejected and the alternative
hypothesis is accepted, must be
determined in advance, before
the observations are collected or
inspected. If these criteria are
determined later, when the data
to be tested are already known,
the test is invalid.

Research Design:
Meaning and Importance

research design is a
framework or blueprint for
conducting the marketing
research project. It details
the procedures necessary
for obtaining the information
needed to structure or solve
marketing
research
problems. In simple words it
is the general plan of how
you will go about your
research.

Definitions of
Research Design
According to Kerlinger

 Research

design is the plan,

structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to
research questions and to control
variance.

According to Green and Tull

A research is the specification of
methods
and
procedures
for
acquiring the information needed. It is
the overall operational pattern or
framework of the project that
stipulates what information is to be
collected from which sources by what
procedures.

 The function of a research

design is to ensure that requisite
data in accordance with the
problem at hand is collected
accurately and economically.
Simply stated, it is the
framework, a blueprint for the
research study which guides the
collection and analysis of data.
The research design, depending
upon the needs of the
researcher may be a very
detailed statement or only
furnish the minimum information
required for planning the
research project.

To be effective, a research
design should furnish at
least the following details.
A statement of objectives of

the study or the research

output.
A statement of the data

inputs required on the basis

of which the research
problem is to be solved.
The methods of analysis

which shall be used to treat

and analyze the data inputs.

 More explicitly, the design decisions

happen to be in respect of:

What is the study about?

Why is the study being made?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where can the required data be
found?

What periods of time will the study

include?

What will be the sample design?

What techniques of data collection
will be used?

How will the data be analyzed?

In what style will the report be
prepared?

Advantages of
research design
Consumes less time.
Ensures project time schedule.
Helps researcher to prepare himself
to carry out research in a proper and
a systematic way.

Better documentation of the various

activities while the project work is
going on.

Helps in proper planning of the

resources and their procurement in
right time.

Provides satisfaction and confidence,

accompanied with a sense of success
from the beginning of the work of the
research project.

Need for Research Design

Research design is needed because it

facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research
operations,
thereby
making
research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal expenditure
of effort, time and money. Research design
has a significant impact on the reliability of
the results obtained. It thus acts as a firm
foundation for the entire research.

For example, economical and attractive

construction of house we need a blueprint (or
what is commonly called the map of the
house) well thought out and prepared by an
expert architect, similarly we need a research
design or a plan in advance of data collection
and analysis for our research project.

Research design stands for advance

planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be used in their analysis.

The need for research

design
The need for research design is as
follows:

It reduces inaccuracy;
Helps to get maximum efficiency and
reliability;

Eliminates bias and marginal errors;

Minimizes wastage of time;

 Helpful for collecting research

materials;

Helpful for testing of hypothesis;

Gives an idea regarding the type of
resources required in terms of money,
manpower, time, and efforts;

Provides an overview to other

experts;

Guides the research in the right

direction

What is Research
Proposal?

 Research proposal is a specific kind

of document written for a specific
purpose. Research involves a series
of actions and therefore it presents all
actions in a systematic and scientific
way. In this way, Research proposal is
a blue print of the study which simply
outlines the steps that researcher will
undertake during the conduct of
his/her study. Proposal is a tentative
plan so the researcher has every right
to modify his proposal on the basis of
his
reading,
discussion
and
experiences gathered in the process
of research. Even with this relaxation
available to the researcher, writing of
research proposal is a must for the
researcher.

Importance of a proposal
before conducting a
research

 Writing the research proposal is very

important before actual conducting of
any research. Because research is a
team work and you have opinion of
others if it is in written form. Research
Proposal is used for finalization of a
research plan after presentation and
discussion before research committee
or board. It is also necessary to
submit for applying grants to any
agency. Once developed, it serves as
a plan for conducting the research.
In reality, as Best (1983) puts it, no
worthwhile research can result in the
absence of a well designed proposal.

 By formulating a research proposal,

researcher wants to show that the
problem propose to investigate is
significant enough, the method plan
to use is suitable and feasible, and
the results are likely to prove fruitful
and will make an original contribution.
In short, through research proposal
researcher wants to convince the
other peoples (reader or audience)
regarding selected problem.

Main components of a research

proposal

 There are no hard and fast rules

governing
the
structure
or
components of a proposal. It mostly
depends on the nature of a research
or format approved by a particular
university or sponsoring agency.
Generally, in a typical format main
components of a research proposal
are as below :

Topic of a research
Background for the problem
Relevant literature & researches
Problem and its key terms
Objectives

 Questions of the study/

hypothesis(es)

Research design
Population and sample
Research tools
Procedures for data collection
Statistical techniques for data
analysis

Time schedule
Cost estimate and budgeting
References/ bibliography

Sampling

In statistics, quality assurance, &

survey methodology, sampling is
concerned with the selection of a
subset of individuals from within a
statistical population to estimate
characteristics
of
the
whole
population.
Each
observation
measures one or more properties
(such as weight, location, color) of
observable bodies distinguished as
independent objects or individuals. In
survey sampling, weights can be
applied to the data to adjust for the
sample design, particularly stratified
sampling. Results from probability
theory and statistical theory are
employed to guide practice. In
business and medical research,
sampling is widely used for gathering
information about a population.

The sampling process comprises

several stages:

Defining the population of concern

Specifying a sampling frame, a set of
items or events possible to measure

Specifying a sampling method for

selecting items or events from the
frame

Determining the sample size

Implementing the sampling plan
Sampling and data collecting
Data which can be selected

Population
definition
Successful

statistical practice is
based on focused problem definition.
In sampling, this includes defining the
population from which our sample is
drawn. A population can be defined
as including all people or items with
the characteristic one wishes to
understand. Because there is very
rarely enough time or money to
gather information from everyone or
everything in a population, the goal
becomes finding a representative
sample (or subset) of that population.

 Sometimes what defines a

population is obvious. For
example, a manufacturer needs
to decide whether a batch of
material from production is of
high enough quality to be
released to the customer, or
should be sentenced for scrap
or rework due to poor quality. In
this case, the batch is the
population.

Sampling frame

 A sampling frame which has the

property that we can identify
every single element and
include any in our sample.The
most straightforward type of
frame is a list of elements of the
population (preferably the entire
population) with appropriate
contact
information.
For
example, in an opinion poll,
possible
sampling
frames
include an electoral register and
a telephone directory.

Probability
sampling

A probability sample is a sample in which

every unit in the population has a chance
(greater than zero) of being selected in the
sample, and this probability can be accurately
determined. The combination of these traits
makes it possible to produce unbiased
estimates of population totals, by weighting
sampled units according to their probability of
selection.

Example: We want to estimate the total

income of adults living in a given street. We
visit each household in that street, identify all
adults living there, and randomly select one
adult from each household. (For example, we
can allocate each person a random number,
generated from a uniform distribution
between 0 and 1, and select the person with
the highest number in each household). We
then interview the selected person and find
their income.

Nonprobability Sampling

Nonprobability sampling is any sampling

method where some elements of the
population have no chance of selection
(these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the
probability of selection can't be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of
elements based on assumptions regarding
the population of interest, which forms the
criteria for selection. Hence, because the
selection of elements is nonrandom,
nonprobability sampling does not allow the
estimation of sampling errors. These
conditions give rise to exclusion bias, placing
limits on how much information a sample can
provide about the population. Information
about the relationship between sample and
population is limited, making it difficult to
extrapolate from the sample to the
population.

 Example:
We
visit
every
household in a given street, and
interview the first person to
answer the door. In any
household with more than one
occupant,
this
is
a
nonprobability sample, because
some people are more likely to
answer the door (e.g. an
unemployed
person
who
spends most of their time at
home is more likely to answer
than an employed housemate
who might be at work when the
interviewer calls) and it's not
practical to calculate these
probabilities.

 Probability sampling includes:

Simple
Random
Sampling,
Systematic Sampling, Stratified
Sampling,
Probability
Proportional to Size Sampling,
and Cluster or Multistage
Sampling. These various ways
of probability sampling have two
things in common:
Every element has a known
nonzero probability of being
sampled and
involves random selection at
some point.

Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample (SRS)

of a given size, all such subsets of
the frame are given an equal
probability. Furthermore, any given
pair of elements has the same
chance of selection as any other
such pair (and similarly for triples,
and so on). This minimises bias
and simplifies analysis of results. In
particular, the variance between
individual results within the sample
is a good indicator of variance in
the overall population, which
makes it relatively easy to estimate
the accuracy of results.

Systematic
sampling

 Systematic

sampling relies on
arranging the study population
according to some ordering scheme
and then selecting elements at
regular intervals through that ordered
list. Systematic sampling involves a
random start and then proceeds with
the selection of every kth element
from then onwards. In this case,
k=(population size/sample size). It is
important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is
instead randomly chosen from within
the first to the kth element in the list. A
simple example would be to select
every 10th name from the telephone
directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also
referred to as 'sampling with a skip of
10').

Stratified sampling

 Where

the
population
embraces a number of
distinct
categories,
the
frame can be organized by
these
categories
into
separate "strata." Each
stratum is then sampled as
an
independent
subpopulation, out of which
individual elements can be
randomly selected. There
are
several
potential
benefits
to
stratified
sampling.

 The

researcher collects
these data at the first
session and at the last
session of the program.
These two sets of data are
necessary to determine the
effect
of
the
walking
program on weight, body
fat, and cholesterol level.
Once the data are collected
on the variables, the
researcher is ready to move
to the final step of the
process, which is the data
analysis.

 First, dividing the population into

distinct, independent strata can
enable researchers to draw
inferences about specific subgroups
that may be lost in a more
generalized random sample.

Second, utilizing a stratified sampling

method can lead to more efficient
statistical estimates (provided that
strata are selected based upon
relevance to the criterion in question,
instead of availability of the samples)

 Third, it is sometimes the case that

data are more readily available for
individual, pre-existing strata within a
population than for the overall
population; in such cases, using a
stratified sampling approach may be
more convenient than aggregating
data across groups

Finally, since each stratum is treated

as an independent population,
different sampling approaches can be
applied to different strata, potentially
enabling researchers to use the
approach best suited (or most costeffective) for each identified subgroup
within the population.

A stratified sampling approach

is most effective when three
conditions are met
Variability within strata are

minimized
Variability between strata

are maximized
The variables upon which

the population is stratified

are strongly correlated with
the desired dependent
variable.
Cluster sampling

 Sometimes it is more cost-effective to

select
respondents
in
groups
('clusters').
Sampling
is
often
clustered by geography, or by time
periods. (Nearly all samples are in
some sense 'clustered' in time although this is rarely taken into
account in the analysis.) For instance,
if surveying households within a city,
we might choose to select 100 city
blocks and then interview every
household within the selected blocks.

 Clustering can reduce travel

and administrative costs. In

the example , an interviewer
can make a single trip to
visit several households in
one block, rather than
having to drive to a different
block for each household.

Quota sampling

 In

quota sampling, the

population
is
first
segmented into mutually
exclusive sub-groups, just
as in stratified sampling.
Then judgement is used to
select the subjects or units
from each segment based
on a specified proportion.
For example, an interviewer
may be told to sample 200
females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and
60.

Errors in sample surveys

 Survey results are typically

subject to some error. Total
errors can be classified into
sampling errors and nonsampling errors. The term
"error" here includes systematic
biases as well as random errors.

Sampling errors and biases

Sampling errors and biases are
induced by the sample design.
They include:
Selection bias: When the true
selection probabilities differ from
those assumed in calculating
the results.

 Random
sampling
error:
Random variation in the results
due to the elements in the
sample being selected at
random.

 Third, many of the ethical norms

help to ensure that researchers
can be held accountable to the
public. For instance, federal
policies
on
research
misconduct, conflicts of interest,
the human subjects protections,
and animal care and use are
necessary in order to make sure
that researchers who are funded
by public money can be held
accountable to the public.

 Fourth, ethical norms in

research also help to

build public support for
research. People more likely
to fund research project if
they can trust the quality
and integrity of research

Non-sampling error

Non-sampling errors are other errors which

can impact the final survey estimates, caused
by problems in data collection, processing, or
sample design. They include:

Over-coverage: Inclusion
outside of the population.

Under-coverage: Sampling frame does not

include elements in the population.

of

data

from

Measurement error: e.g. when respondents

misunderstand a question, or find it difficult to
answer.

Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.

Non-response: Failure to obtain complete

data from all selected individuals.

Levels Of Measurement And

Scaling

 A common feature of marketing

research is the attempt to have
respondents
communicate
their
feelings, attitudes, opinions, and
evaluations in some measurable
form. To this end, marketing
researchers have developed a range
of scales. Each of these has unique
properties. What is important for the
marketing analyst to realise is that
they
have
wildely
differing
measurement
properties.
Some
scales are at very best, limited in their
mathematical properties to the extent
that they can only establish an
association between variables. Other
scales
have
more
extensive
mathematical properties and some,
hold out the possibility of establishing
cause and
effect
relationships
between variables.

 Most
texts
on
marketing
research explain the four levels
of
measurement:
nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio and so
the treatment given to them here
will be brief. However, it is an
important topic since the type of
scale
used
in
taking
measurements directly impinges
on the statistical techniques
which can legitimately be used
in the analysis.

Nominal scales

 This, the crudest of measurement

scales,
classifies
individuals,
companies, products, brands or other
entities into categories where no
order is implied. Indeed it is often
referred to as a categorical scale. It is
a system of classification and does
not place the entity along a
continuum. It involves a simply count
of the frequency of the cases
assigned to the various categories,
and if desired numbers can be
nominally assigned to label each
category as in the example below:

Which of the following food items do

you tend to buy at least once per
month? (Please tick)

Okra
Palm Oil

 Milled Rice
Peppers
Prawns
Pasteurised milk

 The numbers have no arithmetic

properties and act only as labels. The
only measure of average which can
be used is the mode because this is
simply a set of frequency counts.
Hypothesis tests can be carried out
on data collected in the nominal form.
The most likely would be the Chisquare test. However, it should be
noted that the Chi-square is a test to
determine whether two or more
variables are associated and the
strength of that relationship. It can tell
nothing about the form of that
relationship, where it exists, i.e. it is
not capable of establishing cause and
effect.

Ordinal scales

 Ordinal scales involve the

ranking
of
individuals,
attitudes or items along the
continuum
of
the
characteristic being scaled.
For example, if a researcher
asked farmers to rank 5
brands of pesticide in order
of preference he/she might
obtain responses like those
in table 3.2 below.

 An example of an ordinal scale

used to determine farmers'
preferences among 5 brands of
pesticide.
Order of preference

Brand
1 Rambo
2 R.I.P.
3 Killalot
4 D.O.A.
5 Bugdeath

 From such a table the researcher

knows the order of preference but
nothing about how much more one
brand is preferred to another, that is
there is no information about the
interval between any two brands. All
of the information a nominal scale
would have given is available from an
ordinal scale. In addition, positional
statistics such as the median, quartile
and percentile can be determined.

Interval scales

 It is only with an interval scaled data

that researchers can justify the use of
the arithmetic mean as the measure
of average. The interval or cardinal
scale
has
equal
units
of
measurement, thus making it possible
to interpret not only the order of scale
scores but also the distance between
them. However, it must be recognised
that the zero point on an interval
scale is arbitrary and is not a true
zero. This of course has implications
for the type of data manipulation and
analysis we can carry out on data
collected in this form.

It is possible to add or subtract a constant to

all of the scale values without affecting the
form of the scale but one cannot multiply or
divide the values. It can be said that two
respondents with scale positions 1 and 2 are
as far apart as two respondents with scale
positions 4 and 5, but not that a person with
score 10 feels twice as strongly as one with
score 5. Temperature is interval scaled, being
measured either in Centigrade or Fahrenheit.
We cannot speak of 50F being twice as hot
as
25F
since
the
corresponding
temperatures on the centigrade scale, 10C
and -3.9C, are not in the ratio 2:1.

Interval scales may be either numeric or

semantic

Examples of interval scales in numeric and

semantic formats

Please indicate your views on Balkan Olives

by scoring them on a scale of 5 down to 1
(i.e. 5 = Excellent; = Poor) on each of the
criteria listed

Balkan Olives are:

Circle the appropriate score on each line

Succulence 5 4 3 2 1

Fresh tasting 5 4 3 2 1

Free of skin blemish 5 4 3 2 1

Good value 5 4 3 2 1

Attractively packaged 5 4 3 2 1

 Most of the common statistical

methods of analysis require only
interval scales in order that they
might be used. These are not
recounted here because they
are so common and can be
found in virtually all basic texts
on statistics.

Ratio scales

 The highest level of measurement is

a ratio scale. This has the properties
of an interval scale together with a
fixed origin or zero point. Examples of
variables which are ratio scaled
include weights, lengths and times.
Ratio scales permit the researcher to
compare both differences in scores
and the relative magnitude of scores.
For instance the difference between 5
and 10 minutes is the same as that
between 10 and 15 minutes, and 10
minutes is twice as long as 5 minutes.

Ratio scales

 The highest level of measurement is

a ratio scale. This has the properties
of an interval scale together with a
fixed origin or zero point. Examples of
variables which are ratio scaled
include weights, lengths and times.
Ratio scales permit the researcher to
compare both differences in scores
and the relative magnitude of scores.
For instance the difference between 5
and 10 minutes is the same as that
between 10 and 15 minutes, and 10
minutes is twice as long as 5 minutes.

MCQ
Q1A sampling frame is:

a) A summary of the various stages involved

in designing a survey

b) An outline view of all the main clusters of

units in a sample

c) A list of all the units in the population from

which a sample will be selected

d) A wooden frame used to display tables of

random numbers

Q2 A simple random sample is one in which: a)

From a random starting point, every nth unit
from the sampling frame is selected b) A nonprobability strategy is used, making the
results difficult to generalize c) The
researcher has a certain quota of
respondents to fill for various social groups d)
Every unit of the population has an equal
chance of being selected

Q3 It is helpful to use a multi-stage cluster sample

when:
a) The population is widely dispersed
geographically

b) You have limited time and money available for

travelling

c) You want to use a probability sample in order to

generalise the results
d) All of the above

Q4 The standard error is a statistical measure of:

a) The normal distribution of scores around the

sample mean
b) The extent to which a sample mean is likely to
differ from the population mean
c) The clustering of scores at each end of a survey
scale
d) The degree to which a sample has been
accurately stratified

Q5 What effect does increasing the sample size

have upon the sampling error?
a) It reduces the sampling error

b) It increases the sampling error

c) It has no effect on the sampling error

d) None of the above

Q6 Which of the following is not a type of nonprobability sampling?

a) Snowball sampling

b) Stratified random sampling

c) Quota sampling

d) Convenience sampling

Q 7 Which of the following is not a characteristic of

quota sampling?

a) The researcher chooses who to approach and

so might bias the sample
b) Those who are available to be surveyed in
public places are unlikely to constitute a
representative sample

c) The random selection of units makes it possible

to calculate the standard error
d) It is a relatively fast and cheap way of finding
out about public

Q 8 The findings from a study of young single mothers

at a university can be generalised to the
population of:

a) All young single mothers at that university

b) All young single mothers in that society

c) All single mothers in all universities

d) All young women in that university

Q 9 The term 'data processing error' refers to:

a) Activities or events related to the sampling

process, e.g. non-response

b) Faulty techniques of coding and managing

data

c) Problems with the implementation of the

research process

d) The unavoidable discrepancy between the

sample and the population

Q10 What is the difference between

interval/ratio and ordinal variables?

The distance between categories is equal

across the range of interval/ratio data

b) Ordinal data can be rank ordered, but

interval/ratio data cannot

c) Interval/ratio variables contain only two

categories

d) Ordinal variables have a fixed zero point,

whereas interval/ratio variables do not

Key

 1 c
2-d
3-d
4-b
5-a
6-b
7-c
8-a
9-b
10-a

Thank You
Please forward your query

To: psinghal@amity.edu
CC:
manoj.amity@panafnet.com