CEM Study Guide - KATZ

Study
Guide
for the
Certified Energy Manager Exam

July, 2014

The information on the following pages was personally compiled during my studies to
prepare for the Certified Energy Manager exam. These notes and formulas served as a
reference during classes and the exam itself, and I hope it can be of benefit to others.

The initial section, Energy Units and Formulas by Topic Area, is organized in the
same as order as the information that follows in Sections 1-16. Thus, formulas with
examples are first given for Audits, followed by Energy Procurement and Electrical
Systems, Energy Cost Analysis, Lighting, etc. on pages 3-58.

On a personal note, I recommend taking the on-line CEM practice exam 2-3 weeks
prior to the actual exam using this guide or similar reference information.

Larry S. Katz, CEM
Long Branch, New Jersey
LSKatz10@gmail.com

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Contents

Energy Units and Formulas by Topic Area
page
Codes and Standards and Indoor Air Quality
59
Energy Audits and Instrumentation
76
Energy Procurement - Energy Bills Electrical Systems

IV. ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
86
Energy Cost Analysis and Life Cycle Cost
97
Lighting

HVAC Systems
99
114
Boilers

VII. INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
128
Steam Distribution Systems / Combustion

130
Control Systems and Computers
141
Energy Systems Maintenance

XVI. MAINTENANCE AND COMMISSIONING
142
Insulation

VIII. BUILDING ENVELOPE
144
Process Energy Management - Motors
147
Renewable Energy Systems and Water Management

IX. CHP SYSTEMS and RENEWABLE ENERGY
XIII. THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
162
Distributed Generation CHP

IX. CHP SYSTEMS and RENEWABLE ENERGY
164
Building Automation and Control Systems / Energy Info Systems 178

XI. BUILDING AUTOMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

Green Buildings

185
XII. GREEN BUILDINGS, LEED, AND ENERGY STAR

Energy Units and Formulas by Topic Area

Electricity
Power

Measure of Energy/Time
1 kWh = 3412 Btu (IT)
1 BTU/hr is a measure of Power
1 kWh = .03412 therms

1 kWh = .003413 MCF
1 ton = 12,000 Btu/hr

1 horsepower = 746 W = .746 KW
Natural Gas
1 horsepower = 2545 Btu/h

1 watt (W) = 1 J/sec
1 therm = 100,000 Btu

1 therm = 29.31 kWh
Water, Steam
1 DTherm = 10 therms

= 1,000,000 Btu
1 Gallon water = 8.345 LBs water
= 1 MMBTU
1 LB water = .1198 Gallons water

1 LB water is heated 1 degF by 1 BTU
1 therm = 100 ft3 natural gas

3
1 Dtherm = 1000 ft natural gas
1 LB water at 212F liquid boils off as
= 1 MCF = 10 CCF
steam or steam condenses to water using

about 970 BTU
1 ft3 natural gas = 1,000 BTU
1 LB water at 32F changes from liquid to

solid or ice melts to liquid using about 144
Weight
BTU latent specific heat or reverse
1 LB = .454 kg
Water Flow:

500 LB/hr water = 1 gpm water
Capacitance

C(farads) = KVAR/ [ 2(pi)(F in Hz)V2]
Air
F = 50 or 60 Hz, usually
1 ft = 0.07788 lbs at 50degF
= KVAR / [ 377 x V2 ]
1 ft = 0.07640 lbs at 60degF

1 ft = 0.07495 lbs at 70degF
Light

1 foot-candle = 1 lumen per sq.ft.
Pressure

= approx. 10 lux
1 Bar = 14.50 psig

1 psia = 14.7 + psig
ENERGY USE INDEX
a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi(g) above
(EUI) = BTUs/ft2 per year
atmospheric pressure will have a pressure

of 65 + 14.7 = 79.7 psia
ENERGY COST INDEX
1 psi = 144 pound force/square foot
(ECI) = $ /ft2 per year

Geometry

Solar Power
Area Tank (cylinder) = 2 x 2(pi)r2 (top and
Incident Solar power averages:
of tank
350 Wh/square foot per day in the U.S. bottom) + 2(pi)r x length
2
Volume of Tank = (pi)r h

Area of Sphere = 4(pi)r2
Volume of Sphere = 4/3(pi)r3

Degree Days
Heating Degree Days (HDD): when its cold and you need heating
HDD = (65degF - Avg Temp of period) x (days of the given period)
Cooling Degree Days (CDD) when its hot and you need cooling
CDD = (Avg Temp of period - 65degF) x (days of the given period)
______________________________________________________________________
Approximate Heating Value of Common Fuels
Gas
Natural Gas 1,000 Btu/cu ft
100,000 Btu/therm
23,600 Btu/lb
Propane
92,500 Btu/gal (LP)
21,000 Btu/lb
2,500 Btu/cu ft
LP Gas
95,000 Btu/gal
Methane
Landfill gas
Butane
Methanol
1,000 Btu/cu ft
500 Btu/cu ft
3,200 Btu/cu ft
57,000 Btu/gal
Ethanol
84,400 Btu/gal
Crude Oil
5,100,000 Btu/barrel
Gasoline
14,600 Btu/lb
130,000 Btu/gal (liquid)
125,000 Btu/gal
20,000 Btu/lb
Fuel Oil
Light Heating Oil
140,000 Btu/gal
Kerosene
#4
#6
Waste oil
Biodiesel
Diesel/heating oil
135,000 Btu/gal
145,000 Btu/gal
153,000 Btu/gal
125,000 Btu/gal
120,000 Btu/gal (Waste vegetable oil)
19,700 Btu/lb
Coal
Hard Coal (anthracite)
Soft Coal (bituminous)
also called #2 Fuel Oil
12,500 Btu/lb
13,000 Btu/lb
12,000 Btu/lb
25,000,000 Btu/ton
26,000,000 Btu/ton
24,000,000 Btu/ton
Others
Rubber pelletized
16,000 Btu/lb
32-34,000,000 Btu/ton
Plastic
18-20,000 Btu/lb
Nuclear
33,000,000,000
Btu/lb
conversions,
and fission
to more complex conversions
and
calculations in the
Hydrogen
61,000
Btu/lb
future.
Woods
The principle
of performing unit
conversions
to carryBtu/cord
out
Softwood
2-3,000
lb/cord is simply
1015,000,000
Hardwood
4-5,000 lb/cord
Btu/cord
algebraically
correct multiplications
and divisions1824,000,000
using correct
units at each
Sawdust
green
10-13
lb/cu
ft
8-10,000,000
Btu/ton
step, starting with the given piece of information and transforming it into
Sawdust kiln dry 8-10 lb/cu ft
14-18,000,000 Btu/ton
the desiredChips
units with
the use of one or more conversion
factors. If we ever
45% moisture 10-30 lb/cu ft
7,600,000 Btu/ton
perform one
of these basic unit
conversion
and find
that we
Hogged
10-30
lb/cu ft calculations,
16-20,000,000
Btu/ton
have different
andlb/cu
the ftright. We9-10,500,000
do not haveBtu/ton
the correct
Bark units on the left
10-20
Wood pellets
40-50
lb/cu
ft method
16,000,000
answer in terms
of the desired
units.
This
is given Btu/ton
the colloquial
10%
moisture
name Railroad Track Method, because the vertical separation lines remind
us of railroad
Before we
start, here
are the
conversionBtu/ton
factors that
Corntracks.
shelled
7,800-8,500
Btu/lb
15-17,000,000
we will usecobs
in class and because
youre in
the energy
management
8,000-8,300
Btu/lb
16-17,000,000
Btu/tonfield
Youll use these extensively in your work!
Conversion factors for Unit Conversions:
1 kWh3,412 Btu
1 ft3 natural gas..1,000 Btu
1 Ccf natural gas100 ft3 natural gas
1 Mcf natural gas1,000 ft3 natural gas
1 therm natural gas100,000 Btu
1 barrel crude oil5,100,000 Btu
1 ton coal25,000,000 Btu
1 gallon gasoline125,000 Btu
1 gallon ethanol84,400 Btu
1 gallon #2 fuel oil140,000 Btu
1 gallon LP gas.95,000 Btu
1 HP..746 Watts
1 Mbtu1,000 Btu
1 MMBtu.1,000,000 Btu
1 Decatherm..1,000,000 Btu
1 therm ..100,000 Btu
1 Quad.1x1015 Btu
1 MW1,000,000 Watts
Temperature Range for Heat Transfer

Ammonia
Mercury
Methanol
Silver
Water
-95 and 140F

375 and 1,000F
-50 to 240F
2,700 to 3,600F.
40 and 425F.
Pour point
The pour point is the lowest temperature at which an oil will continue to behave like a
normal liquid.
Most oils have a pour point of 5 degrees above the solidification point. Pour point is
significantly influenced by the amount of wax in the oil. It is important to know the pour
point of an oil so as to arrange the necessary heating during storage and use.
For air:
1 lb/hr = 4.5 Q
1 ton = Q h 2670

Small fans 0.40 0.50 efficiency
Large fan 0.55 0.60 efficiency

For water:
1 lb/hr = 500 gpm
Small pumps 0.40 0.60 efficiency
Large pumps 0.70 0.85 efficiency
Air Weights by Temperature

Temp Specific Weight
(oF) (lb/ft3) x 10-2
-40 9.456
-20 9.026
0
8.633
10
8.449
20
8.273
30
8.104
40
7.942
50
7.786
60
7.636
70 oF 7.492(lb/ft3) x 10-2 = .07492 lb/ft3
80
7.353
90
7.219
100 7.09

120
140
160
180
200
300
400
500
750
1,000
1,500

6.846
6.617
6.404
6.204
6.016
5.224
4.616
4.135
3.28
2.717
2.024
AUDIT

Energy Indexes

Energy Use Index (EUI): BTUs/sq ft/yr energy in BTUs per conditioned

square foot per year.

Energy Cost Index (ECI): $/sq ft /yr energy cost in $s per conditioned

square foot per year.

Energy Procurement and Electrical Systems

Contract

Fuel Availability
Purchase price
Contract terms, clauses
Volume commitments
RISK tolerance
Environmental (emissions, etc.)

Ratchet Clause: Demand is billed at a percent (Usually > 50%) of the largest kW
demand over the past 11 months, or the current month demand, WHICHEVER IS
GREATER.

Load Factor
Average Load
Load Factor = ---------------------- for a specified period (month, hours, day(s), etc.)
Peak Load

Load Strategies

Off Peak Air Conditioning (OPAC) OPERATING STRATEGIES

Load Leveling Partial Load Shifting
Partial shifting of AC load to off-peak hours
Chiller runs at constant load or near constant load for 24 hours per day
Very cost effective for new construction
Less costly to purchase
Less space needed
But ~ less savings

Full Shift Strategy operate at peak load hours only.

Power Factor

Total Power
(Apparent) KVA
Reactive Power (KVAr)
Real Power (Actual work performed)

(Total Power)2 = (Real Power)2 + (Reactive Power)2

Real Power
Power Factor = ------------------- = cos (cos = adjacent / hypotenuse)

Total Power

Single Phase:

Real Power
Power Factor = -------------------

Total Power

Real Power (W) = Total Power (VxA) x PF

W = V x A x pf

Three Phase:

Real Power = 3 x V x A x PF

= 1.73 x V x A x PF

Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power factor
improvement.

BILLING: Some rate schedules will calculate the billed demand as follows:

Base Power Factor (minimum acceptable)
Billed Demand (kW) = Actual Demand x -------------------------

Actual Power Factor

10

Power Voltage Current Calculations

Y Circuit

V Line = V phase x 1.73 where

V Line = Voltage from line to line

(voltage measured between any two line conductors

in a balanced three-phase system.)
V phase = Voltage across component (can be Line to Neutral)

(voltage measured across any one component (source winding or load
impedance) in a balanced three-phase source or load.

Delta Circuit
I Line = I phase x 1.73 where
I Line = Current from winding point to corresponding load point

(current through any one line conductor)

I phase = Current through each load resistor and source winding

(current through any one component)

11
Example:

If electricity is selling for $0.06 per kilowatt-hour and is used for electric heating
with an efficiency of 90%, what is the equivalent price of natural gas per therm if
it can be burned with an efficiency of 80%?

i.
$1.33/therm
ii.
$1.47/therm
iii.
$1.56/therm
iv.
$1.65/therm
v.
$1.780/therm

Solution: Same amount of heat generated with less efficient gas heater.

$ .06/kWh Equiv. Rate
--------------- = ------------------------
90% 80%

Equivalent Rate = $ .0533/kWh x 29.31 kWh/therm = $ 1.56/therm

Example:

An audit for one firm showed that the power factor is almost always 70% and that
the demand is 1000 KW. What capacitor size is needed to correct power factor to
90%?

Find KVAR at PF=.70
Find KVAR at PF = .90

Difference = Capacitor in KVARs required

.7 = Real / Total
.7 = 1000 KVA / Total

Total = 1428.6 kVA

(1428.6)2 = (1000)2 + (Reactive Power)2
Reactive Power = 1020 kVA

.9 = Real / Total
.9 = 1000 KVA / Total

Total = 1111.1

(1111.1)2 = (1000)2 + (Reactive Power)2
Reactive Power = 484.3 kVA

KVARs to add to get to 90% PF = 1020-484.3 = 535.7 KVARs

12

Example:

The amount of the active power that must be supplied by capacitors to correct a
power factor of 84% to 95% in a 400HP motor at 75% load and 98% efficiency is:

400 HP x .746 kW/HP = 298.40kW
298.4 kW x 75% load = 223.80 kW
223.8 kW / 98% efficiency = 228.4 kW

PF = .84

.84 = Real / Total

.84 = 228.4 KVA / Total
Total = 271.9 kVA

(271.9)2 = (228.4)2 + (Reactive Power)2

.95 = Real / Total

.95 = 228.4 KVA / Total
Total = 240.42 kVA

(240.42)2 = (228.4)2 + (Reactive Power)2

KVARs to add to get to 95% PF = 147.46 75.07 = 72.43 KVARs

Example:

A 3/4 HP electric motor has a power factor of .85. The nameplate current is 10 Amps
at 115 Volts, or 1150 Volt Amps. What is Reactive Power?

Based on Provided Current Draw and Volts:
Total Power = 1150 VA

PF = .85 = Real Power / Total Power
Real power = 977.50 VA

(1150)2 = (977.5)2 + (Reactive Power)2
Reactive Power = 605.8 VA

13
Example:

Given:
75% ratchet clause
highest peak over last 11 months: 940kW
Current month peak: 650kW
What is billed demand for the current month?

75% x 940kW = 705kW

705kW > 650kW

Therefore:

Billed demand = 705kW
Example:

V Line =

V line = V phase x 1.73

240V = V phase x 1.73

V / 1.73 x
= V1.73
phase
V240
phase

V Phase = 138.7V

V Line
= Voltage from line to line
V Phase = Voltage from Line to Neutral
Thus:
240 = V phase x 1.73

V Phase = 138.7
14

Energy Cost Analysis and Life Cycle Cost

Discounted After-Tax Cash Flow (ATCF)

ATCF will have a rate that is less than MARR.

ATCF with straight-line depreciation:

ATCF = Annual profit { (Annual profit Annual depreciation) x tax rate) }

Annual profit = Annual energy savings, e.g.
Straight-line Depreciation = Total Cost of Project / life of project years

Discounted Benefit Cost Ratio

PV (Benefits)
BCR = ------------------------
PV (Costs)

NPV = PV Initial Project Cost

Net Gain Total Benefit Total Cost

ROI = ---------------- = -----------------------------------------

Total Cost
Total Cost

Example:

A $1.4M project , 10 years, straight line depreciation, annual savings of $235,000,
tax bracket of 34%, has an ATCF of:

Depreciation = $1,400,000/10 years = $140,000

ATCF = 235,000 ((235,000-140,000) x .34) = $ 202,700

15
Example:

An Energy Saving device saves $25,000 for 8 years
What should a company pay (PV) if MARR [minimum attractive rate of return] is
15%?

SOLVE FOR PV
N=8
PMT=$25,000
I/Y=15%
Solve for PV = $112,183 or less

Example:

A project costs $38,250, and will result in $30,500 savings per year for 15 years.
What is the Rate of Return (ROR) ? SAME AS (IRR)

SOLVE FOR i (I/Y)
N=15
PV = - $38,250
PMT = $30,500
[CPT] I/Y = 79.3%

16

Example:

A project costs $38,250, and will result in $30,500 savings per year for 15 years.
What is the Net Present Value (NPV) if interest rate is 10% ?

SOLVE FOR PV
N=15
I=10
Payment = $30,500

PV = $231,985 (calculated)

NPV = $231,985 $38,250 = $193,735

Example:

A project will cost $100,000, and save $23,400 of energy a year for 12 years. If the
MARR is 12%, is this a worthwhile project? How much money (FV) will be
available in 12 years if all energy savings are banked and earn 10%?

SOLVE FOR I/Y = MARR
N=12
PV = - $100,000
PMT= $23,400
I/Y = 21.03% > 12% MARR

SOLVE FOR FV using I/Y
N=12
PV = $100,000
PMT= -$23,400
I/Y = 10
FV = $186,549

Example:
What is the BCR for the above where a project will cost $100,000, and save
$23,400 of energy a year with 10% interest rate for 12 years?

PV Benefits (23,400 per year; 10% IR) = $159,440

BCR = $159,440 / $100,000 = 1.59

17
Lighting

Typical lamp efficacies (lumens/watt)

100 W filament lamp
14 lumens/watt
58 W fluorescent tube
89 lumens/watt
400 W high-pressure sodium 125 lumens/watt
131 W low-pressure sodium 198 lumens/watt

Light Units

1 foot-candle = 1 lumen per sq.ft

Lighting Formulas:

1 Lux (lx) = 1 Footcandle (fc) x 10.76

Lux = Total Lumens Area
Ballast factor (BF) is a ratio:

Lamps lumen output on commercial ballast
BF = --------------------------------------------------------

Lamp's rated light output

18

Calculating Average Light Level Throughout a Space (three formulas)

Lighting Design Methods

Average Maintained Illumination (Footcandles); LLF = light loss factor

Fixtures x Lamps per Fixture x Lumens per Lamp x CU x LLF
Foot Candles = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(Area of the Room in ft2 )

To Calculate number of Fixtures:

FC x (Area of the Room)
# Fixtures = -----------------------------------------------------------------

Lamps per Fixture x Lumens per Lamp x CU x LLF

or

# Fixtures = -----------------------------------------

Lumens in the Room x CU x LLF

Lumen Method / Zonal Cavity Method (determining cavity ratios)

Total Lumens in Room/Fixture = ------------------------------------------------
# Fixtures x CU x LLF x Ballast Factor

Light Loss Factor (LLF) = Ballast Factor x Fixture Ambient Temperature
Factor x Supply Voltage Variation Factor x Lamp Position Factor x Optical
Factor x Fixture Surface Depreciation Factor x Lamp Burnouts Factor x Lamp
Lumen Depreciation Factor x Fixture Dirt Depreciation Factor x Room
Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor

Lamp Burnout Factor = 1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without
Being Replaced

19
Zonal Cavity Design Method

N = F A / (Lu L Cu) where

N is number of lamps needed
F is the required foot-candle level at the work area
A is area of the room square feet
Lu is lamp output in lumens
L is the depreciation factor for the lamp and fixture
Cu is coefficient of utilization

Inverse Square Law

E = I/D2 where
E is luminance, or intensity of light at a specific point, in lumens per
square foot
I is the luminous intensity, or the radiated energy density in Watts
per steradian
D is the distance in feet from the source

This is the Point to point method to establish the required irradiated light
to satisfy a specific luminance requirement. This relationship can only be
used when surface is directly under the source and normal
(perpendicular) to the light ray.

For all other positions a more generalized formula is:

E = I x cos /D2 where:

= the angle between the line joining the source to the point on the illuminated
surface and a line normal (perpendicular) to the illuminated surface.

To Find D: (its a triangle!)

D = (H2 + L2)
or
D2 = H2 + L2

I = Candlepower in candelas (cd)
D = Direct distance between the lamp and the point where light level is
calculated
H = Distance between the lamp and the point direct below on the workplane
L = Distance between that point and the point where light level is being
calculated

20

Room Cavity Ratio

RCR = 5 MH (L + W) / (L x W) where:

Mounting height (MH): Distance in feet between the bottom of the
fixture and the workplane.
Room Area = length x width
Rooms are rectangular

Ceiling Cavity Ratio = [5 x Ceiling Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room
Width)] (Room Length x Room Width)

Floor Cavity Ratio = [5 x Floor Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room
Width)] Room Length x Room Width

Room Cavity Ratio (for irregular-shaped rooms) = (2.5 x Room Cavity
Depth x Perimeter) Area in Square Feet

Reflected Reading
Room Surface Reflectance (%) = -------------------------- where:

Incident Reading

Reflected Reading = Measurement from a light meter holding it
about 1.5 feet away from the surface with the sensor parallel and
facing the surface.

Incident Reading = Measurement from a light meter held flat against
the surface and facing out into the room.

Calculating Number of Lamps And Fixtures And Spacing

Maximum Allowable Spacing Between Fixtures = Fixture Spacing Criteria
x Mounting Height

Mounting height (MH): Distance in feet between the bottom of the fixture
and the workplane

Spacing Between Fixtures = (Area in Square Feet Required # Fixtures)

Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Row (Nrow) = Room Length
Spacing

Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Column (Ncolumn) = Room
Width Spacing

21

For above two formulas, round results to the nearest whole integer.
Spacing row = Room Length (Number of Fixtures/Row - 1/3)

Spacing column = Room Width (Number of Fixtures/Column -1/3)

If the resulting number of fixtures does not equal the originally calculated
number, calculate impact on the designed light level:

% Design Light Level = Actual No. of Fixtures Originally Calculated No. of
Fixtures

To calculate fixtures mounted in continuous rows:

Number of Luminaires in a Continuous Row = (Room Length Fixture
Length) - 1

Number of Continuous Rows = Total Number of Fixtures Fixtures Per
Row

Lamp Maintenance

Calendar Lamp Life (Years) = Rated Lamp Life (Hours) Annual Hours of
Operation (Hours/Year)

Lamp Burnout Factor = [1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without
Being Replaced]

Group Relamping Cost

Annualized Cost ($) = A x (B + C)

A = Operating Hours/Year Operating Hours Between Relampings

B = (Percentage of Lamps Failing Before Group Relamping x Number of
Lamps) x (Lamp Cost + Labor Cost to Spot Replace 1 Lamp)

C = (Lamp Cost, Group Relamping + Labor Cost to Group Relamp 1 Lamp) x
Number of Lamps

22

Spot Relamping Cost

Average Annual Cost ($) = (Operating Hours/Year Rated Lamp Life) x
(Lamp Cost + Labor Cost to Replace 1 Lamp) x Total Number of Lamps

Cleaning Cost ($) = Time to Wash 1 Fixture (Hours) x Hourly Labor Rate ($)
x Number of Fixtures in Lighted Space

To Spot Replace or Group Relamp

Spot replacement relamp = Lamp cost + Labor Cost
Group Relamping = (Lamp cost + Labor Cost) / Relamping Interval which is the %
of rated lamp life

Determine Labor rates, Compare spot vs. group relamping.

23
Calculate Annual Savings using Group Relamp

Address 3 parts

Watts saved x 8760 x $/kWh = USAGE energy savings
kW saved x monthly demand chg x 12 months = DEMAND energy savings

Annual savings for rated hours based on cost of lamp:

Calculate total lamp hours = # lamps x 8760
Equiv. Lamps needed original = Lamp hours / Lamp Life
Equiv. Lamps needed replacement = Lamp hours / Lamp Life

Equiv. Lamps needed original x cost/lamp = Annualized cost/lamp orig
Equiv. Lamps needed replacement x cost/lamp = Annualized cost/lamp replacement

Annualized Cost replacement - Annualized Cost original = Annual cost savings

Example:

Given:
15 minutes to relamp one; 25 minutes to group relamp 8
Labor rate = $10
Replace Rate: 80% of rated life
Which labor rate is better spot or group?

Spot Relamp labor = $2.50 ($10/hr x hr)
Lamp Cost = $ .85
One relamp = $3.35/lamp

Group Relamp labor = 8 lamps in 25min is roughly 3 min per lamp
3/60 per hour for one lamp = $ .50 per lamp
Lamp Cost = $ .85
G = (.50 + .85)/80% = $1.69/lamp

24

Illuminance Number of Footcandles Facilities and Rooms

HOUSE Room Foot Candles Needed
Living Room
10-20
Kitchen General
30-40
Kitchen Stove
70-80
Kitchen Sink
70-80
Dining Room
30-40
Bedroom

10-20
Hall Way

5-10
Bathroom
70-80

25
Table 1. ASHRAE/IES 90.1 - Lighting Power Allowances using the Building Area
Method.

Maximum Lighting Power Density (W/sq.ft.) Allowed per ASHRAE/IES 90.1 Standard - 2010
W/sq.ft.
W/sq.ft.
Automotive Facility
0.982
Manufacturing Facility 1.11
Convention Center
1.08
Motel
0.88
Court House
1.05
Movie Theater
0.83
Dining: Bar Lounge/Leisure
0.99
Multi-Family
0.60
Dining: Cafeteria/Fast Food
0.90
Museum
1.06
Dining: Family
0.89
Office
0.90
Dormitory
0.61
Parking Garage
0.25
Exercise Center
0.88
Penitentiary
0.97
Gymnasium
1.00
Performing Arts Theatre 1.39
Healthcare Clinic
0.87
Police/Fire Station
0.96
Hospital
1.21
Post Office
0.87
Hotel
1.00
Religious Building
1.05
Library
1.18
Retail
1.40
Manufacturing Facility
1.11
School/University
0.99
Motel
0.88
Sports Arena
0.78
Motion Picture Theater
0.83
Town Hall
0.92
Multi-Family
0.60
Transportation
0.77
Museum
1.06
Warehouse
0.66
Office
0.90
Workshop
1.20
26

Lamp Types Characteristics - Overview

Type (code)
Common
Colour rendering
ratings (watts)
Compact fluorescent
555
Colour
temperature (K)
good
2,7005,000
lamps (FS)
High-pressure mercury
Life (hours)
5,000
10,000
80750
fair
3,3003,800
20,000
501,000
poor to good
2,0002,500
6,000
lamps (QE)
High-pressure sodium
lamps (S-)
24,000
Incandescent lamps (I)
5500
good
2,700
1,0003,000
Induction lamps (XF)
2385
good
3,0004,000
10,000
60,000
LED lamps
17-36
75-80
3,500- 5,000
50,000 +
Low-pressure sodium
26180
monochromatic
1,800
16,000
lamps (LS)
Low-voltage tungsten
yellow colour
12100
good
3,000
2,0005,000
352,000
good to excellent
3,0005,000
6,000
halogen lamps (HS)

Metal halide lamps (M-)
20,000
Tubular fluorescent
4100
fair to good
2,7006,500
lamps (FD)
Tungsten halogen lamps
10,000
15,000
1002,000
good
3,000
2,0004,000
(HS)

27
HVAC Efficiency Ratings, Formulas

COP = Coefficient of Performance

heat absorbed by EVAPORATOR
COP = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(heat rejected by CONDENSER - heat absorbed by EVAPORATOR]

CAPACITY 3.517 x Tons
COP = ------------------ = -----------------------
LOAD kW

Higher COP means more efficiency.

Air Conditioning EER or SEER

12 x Tons
EER (Btu/Wh) = -------------

kW

12 kW
-------- = -------

EER Ton (= Btu/12,000 of course)

3.517 kW
-------- = -------

COP Ton

EER (Btu/Wh) = COP x 3.412 Btu/Wh

BTU/h BTU/h
LOAD (W) = -------------- = ----------

BTU/Wh EER

Load (W) x Hrs of Operation
Energy (Wh) = ---------------------------------------
COP

28

Affinity Laws (Fan/Pump Laws)

Air
Law 1. (the impeller diameter (D) is held constant):

Law 1a. Flow is proportional (per ft, e.g.) to shaft speed:
Nx = speed in CFM for a fan
Law 1b. Pressure or Head (per in2, eg) is proportional to the square of shaft
speed:
Law 1c. Power is proportional to the cube of shaft speed (per ft3, e.g.):

Px = energy, in kW, e.g.

Water/Liquid

Law 2. (the shaft speed (N) held constant)
Law 2a. Flow is proportional to the impeller diameter to the 3rd power:

Law 2b. Pressure (Head) is proportional to the square of impeller diameter:
Law 2c. Power is proportional to the fifth power of impeller diameter:

Where:
is the volumetric flow rate (e.g. CFM, GPM or L/s),
is the impeller diameter (e.g. in or mm),
is the shaft rotational speed (e.g. rpm),
is the pressure or head developed by the fan/pump (e.g. psi or Pascal), and
is the shaft power (e.g. W).
These laws assume that the pump/fan efficiency remains constant

i.e.
.

29

Water

Flow Rate in Heating Systems and Chiller Systems

H = 500 x Q x T or Q = H/ (500 x T)

H = 500 x Q x T x COP of system or Q = H/ (500 x T x COP)

Q = Water flow rate (GPM)
H = Heat flow rate (Btu/hr)
T = Temperature difference (deg F) (usually around 20F or sofyi )
COP = coeff. of performance [or system efficiency ] when applicable

[ 500 = 8.34 lb/gal. x 1 Btu/lb degF x 60 min/hr ]
Evaporator Flow Rate

The evaporator water flow rate can be expressed as

Qe = Htons x 24 / T

Htons = Air conditioned cooling load (tons)
Qe = evaporator water flow rate (gal/min)
T = temperature difference (deg F) between inlet and outlet

Condenser Flow Rate
The condenser water flow rate can be expressed as
Qc = Htons x 30 / T

Qc = Condenser water flow rate (GPM)
Htons = Air conditioning cooling load (tons)
T = Temperature differential between inlet and outlet (F)

Flow Rate through a Valve

Q = Cv (P/G)

Where
Q = (Capacity) flow rate (GPM)
Cv = Valve Sizing Coefficient (unique for each style and size of valve)
P = Pressure differential (psi)
G = Specific Gravity of Fluid (water at 60F = 1.000)

30

Air

Heat transfer equation sensible heat gain:

Q sensible (BTU/hr) = CFM x T x 1.085 Btuh

Q sensible = Sensible heat gain (Btu/hr)
CFM = ventilation air flow rate cu.ft./min
T = (To Tc )
o To = outside dry bulb temp F
o Tc = Dry bulb temperature of air leaving the cooling coil, F

Heat transfer equation change in ENTHALPY:

Q total (Btu/hr) = CFM x 4.5 x (h2 h1)

Q total = enthalpy change (Btu/hr)
h2 = Outside/Inside air enthalpy (Btu/lb) (dry air)
h1 = Enthalpy of air leaving the cooling coil (Btu/lb) (dry air)

Heat transfer equation air flow through openings of various size:

Impact change with weather stripping, caulking, etc. to limit loss of indoor air to the
outdoor elements, and vice versa.

BTU/Year = CFM x 25.92 x (HDD+CDD)

Q total = enthalpy change (Btu/hr)
25.92 = constant in [min lb BTU / day ft3 lb degF ]

Waste Heat Recovery

Amount of potentially available waste heat, expressed in power (BTUs/hour) is
calculated as follows:

Q (Btus/h) = M Cp T where:
M is the mass flow rate in pounds/hour
Cp is specific heat of the medium in BTU/lb.-degree F
T is the starting temperature of the medium minus the ambient air
temperature

31

Air Compressors

Air Leak Rate (SCFM)

V x (P1 P2)
Leak Rate (SCFM) = ------------------

T x 14.7

SCFM = standard cubic feet per minute = the volumetric flow rate of a gas

corrected to "standardized" conditions of 14.73 psia

V = Volume Air (cu. ft.)

P1 = Pressure

P2 = Pressure

T = temperature difference (deg F)

Air Leaks size of hole

Typical compressor efficiency of 18kW/100cfm = .18 kW/cfm

VOLUME IN cfm:
32

$'./*Heat and Cooling +!!$'+),"Load: People

H sensible = N * (H sensible) * (CLF)
Figure 35

H latent = N * (H latent)
Internal Heat Gains
Where:
The
next component of the space cooling load is the heat that originates within
H sensible
Total Sensible
heat gain heat
(Btu/hr)
per
table lights, cooking
the space.
Typical= sources
of internal
gain are
people,
H
l
atent
=

T
otal
l
atent
h
eat
g
ain
(
Btu/hr)

per
processes, and other heat-generating equipment, suchtable
as motors, appliances,
N = number of people in space.
and office equipment.
CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy
per table
While all of these sources contribute sensible heat to the space, people, cooking
Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or if cooling is off at night or during
processes, and some appliances (such as a coffee maker) also contribute latent
weekends.
heat to the space.

&","&*-.*(/)$,$)0
(#0"1+*"$23+,*'4"35#1637#88',"9
-*+)0').C3$'./*35#16C3#135+$6').37-*#1"9
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/"+4235#16378+,*#129
+*/$"*',-37.2()+-'&(9
!"#!$%&"
'"()*+($#
&()"#)
'"()*+($#
:;<3=*&>/
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?@;3AB
?;;3AB
:;<3=*&>/
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E@<3=*&>/
?G@<3AB
?:;;3AB
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Figure 36
As mentioned in Period One, people generate more heat than is needed to
maintain body temperature. This surplus heat is dissipated to the surrounding

air in the form of sensible and latent heat. The amount of heat released by the
body varies with age, physical size, gender, type of clothing, and level of
physical activity. This table is an excerpt from the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals. It includes typical sensible and latent heat gains per person,
TRG-TRC002-EN

33
! QL = latent heat gain from people, Btu/hr [W]

! CLF = cooling load factor, dimensionless
)")',&!"#$%&
9-&%+'.* 3
!"#$%&'()*$&+*"+,*&*-)*$&%+'.*
5
34
33
35
!"%& !"*' !"#% !"## !"!$ !"!% !"!& !"!' !"!( !"!) !"!) !"!#
!"%& !"*& !"$# !"$& !")' !"#* !"#( !"#! !"!* !"!% !"!' !"!(
!"%& !"*& !"$# !"$& !"$+ !"+# !")+ !")! !"#& !"#) !"!+ !"!*
!"%& !"*& !"$# !"$& !"$+ !"+# !"+( !"+& !"(# !")) !"#* !"#(
34
!"%& !"*& !"$# !"$& !"$+ !"+# !"+( !"+& !"+% !"+* !"(( !")'
Figure 37
Similar to the use of the CLTD for conduction heat gain and SCL for solar heat
gain, the cooling load factor (CLF) is used to account for the capacity of the
space to absorb and store

heat. Some of the sensible heat generated by people
is absorbed and stored by the walls, floor, ceiling, and furnishings of the space,
and released at a later time. Similar to heat transfer by conduction through an
external wall, the space can therefore experience a time lag between the time
that the sensible heat is originally generated and the time that it actually
contributes to the space cooling load. For heat gain from people, the value of
CLF depends on 1) the construction of the interior partition walls in the space,
2) the type of floor covering, 3) the total number of hours that the space is
occupied, and 4) the number of hours since the people entered the space.
Figure 37, CLF Factors for People, is an excerpt from the 1997 ASHRAE
HandbookFundamentals. It shows that one hour after people enter the space,
35% (1 0.65) of the sensible heat gain from the people is absorbed by the
surfaces and furnishings in the space, and 65% is the actual cooling load in the
space. Following the table to the right, however, you see that, as the people are
in the space for a longer period of time, the surfaces and furnishings of the
space can no longer absorb as much heat, and they release the heat that was
33
34

Heating and Cooling Load: Glass, Solar Radiation

Sensible Heat Load from the Conduction Through Glass

H = U * A * (CLTD)

H = Sensible heat gain (Btu/Hr)
U = Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or glass. (Btu/Hr Sq-ft F)
A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans (sq-ft)
CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature Difference (in F) for glass.

Radiant sensible loads - from the transparent/translucent elements such as
window glass, skylights and plastic sheets:

H = A*(SHGC)*(SC)*(CLF)

H = Sensible heat gain (Btu/Hr)
A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans (sq-ft)
SHGC = Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
SC = Shading Coefficient
CLF = Solar Cooling Load Factor.

Cooling Load:

q (BTU/hr) = sum of all surfaces [ A x SC x MSHG x CLF ]

Where:
q = cooling load (Btu/hr) the load to be cooled
A = Window Area (Sq. ft)
SC = Shading Coefficient
MSHG = maximum solar heat gain (BTU / hr / ft2) SEE a TABLE
CLF = cooling load factor SEE a TABLE

To reduce cooling load:

Reduce area A where solar radiation enters
Improve shading coefficient SC (add shades, sun screens, reflective
materials)
Use lower MSHG based on direction for given location, month

35
Heat Load - Motors

Single Phase:

BTU/Hr = kW x use factor x 3412 BTU/kWh

or

BTU/Hr = kW x use factor x PF x 3412 BTU/kWh

Three-Phase:

BTU/Hr = [Voltage x Current per phase x PF x 1.732 W] x 3.412 BTU/Wh x use
factor

Heat Load - Lighting

H (Btu/Hr) = K(kW) x 3412 BTU/kWh

K is the lighting load in kW

H = 3.41 * W * F UT * F BF * (CLF)

H = Sensible heat gain (Btu/hr)
W = Installed lamp watts input from electrical lighting plan or lighting load
data
F UT = Lighting use factor, as appropriate
F BF = Blast factor allowance, as appropriate
CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy

Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or if cooling is off at night or during
weekends .
HVAC Control
Reheat Coil Reset
Selects the zone/area with the greatest need for reheat, and establishes the
minimum temperature of the heating hot water so that it is just hot enough to
meet the reheat needs for that time period.
36

Example: What is kW load of a 100 ton system with COP of 3.5?

3.517 kW
-------- = -------

COP Tons

3.517 x Tons kW 351.7
----------------- = = ------------- = 100.49 kW
COP
3.5

Example:

Run time = 2000 hours/year
10.8 kW load reduction
COP = 2.6

How much energy is saved? Energy = kWh

(10.8kW x 2000 hrs per yr)
Energy = ------------------------------------
2.6

Energy Savings = 8,307.7 kWh/year

Example:

A 500-ton absorption chiller operating at a COP of 0.70; what is kW load?

3.517 kW
-------- = -------

COP Ton

3.517 kW
-------- = -------
kW = 2,512
.70 500

Example:

Given:
6000 HDD
900 Ft/min air flow;

37
8x10 panes of glass missing qty 6

What are BTUs lost /year?

BTU/Year = CFM x 25.92 x (HDD+CDD)
Find CFM and use formula:
8 x 10 = 8/12 ft x 10/12 ft = 80/144 ft2 x 6 windows = 3.33 ft2 total opening
CFM = 900 ft/min x 3.33 ft2 = 3,000 CFM

BTU/Year = 3,000 x 25.92 x 6,000

= 466,560,000 BTU/yr

Example:

10. An absorption system with a COP of 0.8 is powered by hot water that enters at
200 F and exits at 180 F at a rate of 25 gpm. The chilled water operates on a 10 degF
temperature difference and the condenser cooling water on a 22 F temperature
difference. Calculate the chilled water flow.

H = Enthalpy calculated by energy of hot water entering and exiting.

H = 500 x Q x T x COP of system
= 500 x 25 x 20 x .8
= 200,000 BTU/hr

To solve for chilled water flow:

Q = H/ (500 x T)

= 200,000 BTU/hr / (500 x 10degF)

Q = 40gpm

Example: A equal pct. valve has coeff of flow of .62, water temp is 182, diff
pressure = 36 psi. What is flow rate?

Q = .62 (36/.972 ) = 3.77 GPM

38

Example:

11. 10,000 cfm of air leaves an air handler at 50 F; it is delivered to a room at 65F.
No air was lost in the duct. No water was added or taken away from the air in the
duct. How many BTU/hr was lost in the ductwork due to conduction?
i. 162,000 BTU/hr
ii. 75,000 BTU/hr
iii. 126,550 BTU/hr
iv. 256,000 BTU/hr
v. 10,000 BTU/hr

Q Sensible (BTU/hr) = CFM x T x 1.085 Btuh

= 10,000 x 15 x 1.085
= 162,750 BTU/hr

Example:

34. A building has solar gray glass with a shading coefficient of 0.5 and Venetian
blinds with a shading coefficient of 0.4. The combined shading coefficient for the
building is:

SC must be measured in this example as there is no mathematical way to
combine shading coefficients.

The shading coefficient SC is the % heat gain that passes through the window.

Example:

window glazing has SC = .35.
Therefore, 35% of heat gain passes through the window, and 65% of heat

gain is stopped through the window.

Example: book ex. 6-4

200 fixtures, 4 lamps per fixture
40Watt bulbs replaced by 34 W bulbs no air conditioning
operate 24x7

39
With Air Conditioning, what is additional savings? HVAC unit has COP = 2.8

200 x 6 x 4 = 4800 W load saved
kWh/year saved = 4.8 x 8760 = 42,048 kWh/yr

Savings from air conditioning with new lamps:

kWh/year saved = 42,048 kWh/yr / 2.8 = 15,017 kWh/yr

OR

BTU/Hr = K (kW) x 3412 BTU/kWh
BTU/Hr = 4.8 x 3412 BTU/kWh = 16377 BTU/hr
BTU = 16377 x 8760 = 143,467,776 BTU/year

Energy to remove heat of BTUs saved by A/C:
Watt-hrs = 143,467,776 BTUs/[2.8 x 3.412 BTU/Wh] = 15,021 kWh

Example: 6-6:

A 5-hp fan motor is 84% eff; , replace with 1.5 hp motor with eff=85.2. What is load
reduction?

5hp x .746kW/.84 = 4.44 kW used
1.5hp x .746kW/.852 = 1.31 kW used
Energy saved = 4.44 1.31 = 3.13 kW

Review:

Maximum Solar Heat Gain - MSHG

Cooling Load Factors - CLF

40

Boilers, Steam Formulas

Boiler Blowdown Rate
The blow down rate of a boiler depends on
steam consumption (steam used in the process and not returned as condensate
to the boiler)
concentration of impurities in the feed water
maximum allowable Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the boiler
The blowdown rate can be calculated:
qBD = qS fc / (bc - fc)
where
qBD = blowdown rate (kg/h)

qS = steam consumption (kg/h) [ the % of condensate NOT
returned as condensate to the boiler
fc = Total Dissolved Solids - TDS - in the feed water (ppm)
bc = maximum allowable Total Dissolved Solids(TDS) in the
boiler water (ppm)

41
Cost of Steam Loss

Given:
steam pressure psi
ambient outside temperature degF
leak losses lb/hr
boiler efficiency
fuel cost

Solve:
Use Steam Tables for BTU/lb
Find fuel amount lost per year in BTUs or LBS

Example:

For a 600psia steam pressure and 75F ambient temperature with 3750 lb/hr of
losses, with a boiler efficiency of 85% and fuel of $65/ton coal at 14,500 BTU/lb.

Calculate cost of lost steam per YEAR: Use Steam Tables for BTU/lb

600psia -> 1203.7 BTU/lb STEAM

75F -> 43 BTU/lb SATURATED LIQUID

--------------------

1160.7 BTU/lb

Find fuel amount lost per year (tons of coal):

1160.7 BTU/lb x 3750 lb/hr x 8760 hrs/yr x $65/ton
Tons Coal = -------------------------------------------------------------------- = $100,543/year

14,500 BTU/ lb x 2000 lb/ton x .85

Steam Leak Through Orifice

Lost Steam (Lb/h) = .70 x .0165 x 3600 x A x P.97

Lost Steam (Lb/h) = 41.58 x A x P.97 where

P = Pressure of steam line in psia
A = Area of hole in square inches
(TAKE NOTE IF YOU ARE GIVEN THE DIAMETER OR RADIUS OF THE HOLE!)

42

% Flash Steam Generated

h(f1) h(f2)
Flash % = -----------------------

H(fg2)

hf1 = Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Water at Inlet
hf2 = Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Water at Outlet
hfg2 = Latent Heat of Saturated Steam at Outlet

Example:

Steam enters a heat exchanger at: 1200psia and 567degF
Leaves as water at: 120psia and 300degF

How much heat is exchanged per pound of entering steam?

Use Steam Tables to find saturated liquid enthalpies (BTU/lb)
delta h = h1 h0

h1 = 571.9 BTU/lb enthalpy for 1200psia and 567F

h2 = 269.7 BTU/lb enthalpy for 300 degF
------------------

h0 = 302.2 BTU/lb

NOTE (I think this is right):

For h2 1200 psi has temp of 567F; thus the enthalpy is 571.9
For h1 120 psi shows a steam temp of 341.27F; therefore, use enthalpy for 300F

saturated liquid.

Example:
Hole diameter:
Pressure: 100 psig
Steam Leak (lb/hr) = 41.58 x (.252 x 3.14159) x 114.7.97 = 812 lb/hr

43
Combustion Efficiency and Temperature: determine parameters with Chart:

% excess air
% flue gas Oxygen
% flue gas CO2

44

Air - Excess Air Factor

Mass (kg) Air To Combust 1 kg Of Fuel
EA = ------------------------------------------------------------

Stochiometric Air (AF)

Excess air factors found in practice
As mentioned, the excess air factor of a burner furnace or boiler is a yardstick about
its efficiency as well as the skill of the operator.

Standard average figures are
Gas burners, forced draft

Atmospheric gas burners
Oil burners
Coal dust burners
Coal firing (mechanical)
Coal firing (hand)
1.1 - 1.3
1.25 - 1.5
1.15 - 1.3
1.2 - 1.3
1.3 - 1.5
1.5 - 2.5

Table 1: Air-to-fuel ratio of various fuels

Phase
AF
CO2 max
wet
CO2 max
dry
Very light fuel oil
liquid
14.27
13.56
Light fuel oil
liquid
14.06
13.72
Medium heavy fuel

oil
liquid
13.79
14.00
Heavy fuel oil
liquid
13.46
14.14
Bunker C
liquid
12.63
16.23
Generic Biomass
(maf)
solid
5.88
17.91
Coal A
solid
6.97
16.09
gas
15.55
11.65
solid
11.44
21.00
Fuel
LPG (90 P : 10 B)
Carbon

45
Insulation

Heat Transfer - Insulation

Thermal Conductivity (K) ability of a material to conduct heat

K is in (BTU)(in) / (ft2 )(hr)(degF) at room temperature;

K varies by Temperature;

charts give K values for varying temperature

Thermal Resistance (R Value):

R = d / K

R is expressed (ft2 )(hr)(degF) / BTU

d = thickness of material (inches)

Total R value of materials = sum of individual R values of each material

Conductance:

1

U = --- BTU / ft2 x h x degF

R

Total U value of multiple materials IS NOT THE sum of individual U values

Heat Load / Transfer Conduction

Obtain K value from table
Obtain Rinsulation values and Rsurface values from tables.

Use d = thickness of material given
Calculate U
Calculate Heat Loss Q in BTU/hr

46

Heat transfer equation change in TEMPERATURE:

Q total = U x A x T

or
Q total = U x A x (DD/time period) x 24h/day

Q total = Rate of heat transfer per surface area involved (BTU/hr)
U = Conductance; [U = 1/R]
A = Area of heat transfer surface
T = temperature difference (deg F) between adjacent space and room
temp
DD/year = total of HDD and CDD during the year or time period (deg F days)

Pipes

For calculating heat transfer in pipes:

a) Table 11-4 nominal pipe size (diam) to determine outside radius
b) Determine R material using K and d thickness
c) Table 11-3 to determine R surface
d) R material + R surface = R total

U = 1 / R total

Solve for Q = heat loss without insulation = U x A x T

e) Determine d thickness including insulation:

d = r2 ln (r2/r1) where:

r1= outside radius of pipe

r2= outside radius of pipe plus insulation

f) calculate new R total

g) calculate Q with insulation

47
Tanks

a) Table 11-3 obtain R surface coefficient

b) Use R tank

R total = R tank + R surface coefficient

d

R tank = ---- where d = thickness

K

c) Solve for Q:
1. heat loss WITHOUT insulation
2. heat loss WITH insulation

Q = U x A x T

Example:

Insulation Problems: Identify a material with a certain R value

Note that R may be expressed as:

R = hr ft2 F/Btu inch per inch
= d / K
R = 1 / K when thickness is per inch (per 1 inch)

Reference a books K table to find 1/R = K and the material.

Example:

Problem 6-3: p267
Wall Area = 100 ft2
U = .25 BTU / ft2 hr degF
DD = 3,000 heating season
What is heat amount lost through wall?

Q total = U x A x (DD/time period) x 24h/day

= .25 BTU / ft2 hr degF x 100 sq ft x 3000 x 24

= 1,800,000 BTU / year

48

Example:

Nominal 4 Steel Pipe

Thickness of .25

500 ft long

180F hot water

Ambient air = 80F

Add 2 silicate insulation (K=.4)

Heating efficiency = 80%

What amount of heat is saved on BTUs?

a) Table 11-4 nominal pipe size (diam) to determine outside radius

r = 2.25

b) Determine R material using K and thickness d

steel material K = 314.4

thickness = .25

R material = d/K = .25 / 314.4 = .0008

c) Table 11-3 to determine R surface

R surface = 0.46 at Ts - Ta = 100F

d) add R material + R surface = R total

.0008 + .46 = .4608

U = 1 / R total = 2.17

Solve for Q = heat loss without insulation

Q = U x A x T

A = 2(pi)r x length

= (2 x (3.1415) x 2.25)/12 in/ft x 500 ft

= 589 ft2

Q = 2.17 x 589 x 100 = 127,821 BTU/hr

e) Determine d thickness including insulation:

d = r2 ln (r2/r1) where:

r1= outside radius of pipe

r2= outside radius of pipe plus insulation

r2 = 2.25 + 2 = 4.25

49
d = r2 ln (r2/r1)

= 4.25 x ln (4.25/2.25)

= 2.70
f) calculate new R total

R material + R surface = R total
K material = .4 from chart

R material = 2.70 / .4 = 6.75
R TOTAL = R surface .46 + R material 6.75 = 7.21

U = 1 / R total = .14
g) calculate Q with insulation

Q = U x A x T

A = 2(pi) 4.25 x length = 1112 ft2

Q = .14 x 1112 x 100 = 127,821 BTU/hr = 15,576 BTU/hr

Annual savings = (127,821 - 15,576 BTU/hr) x 8760 = 983 MMBTU/yr

983 x $6/MMBTU /.80 efficiency = $7,374/yr

50

Building Envelope

Dry Bulb
Dew Point Temp
Enthalpy
Wet Bulb Temp
Humidity

REFER TO PSYCHOMETRIC CHART

Ventilation Rate Procedure Building Zone Outdoor Air Flow

Vbz = RpPz + RaAz zone (ft2)
Vbz = breathing zone outdoor airflow

Pz = zone population largest number of people occupying zone / typical usage
(DESIGN OCCUPANCY)
Rp = People outdoor airflow rate required per person FROM TABLE
Ra = Area outdoor airflow rate per unit area FROM TABLE
Az = zone floor
SEE TABLES for VENTILATION RATES by ROOM TYPE
Example:
For a 4000 sq ft science lab and calculated minimum outdoor air flow of
3000 cfm, what is max occupancy?

V(bz) = 3000
A = 4000

Vbz = RpPz + RaAz zone (ft2)
3000 = 10 x Pz + .18 x (4,000 ft2)
solve for Pz = 228 persons

51
Motors - Process Energy Management

Motor Load Factors:

NPHP x ( .746 kW/HP) x (Load Factor)
kW = ----------------------------------------------------

Efficiency

where NPHP is nameplate horsepower

Example: 100 hp rated motor with 95% efficiency and 60% load (factor).

Find the kW Load:

kW = 100 x .746 x .6 / .95 = 47.12 kW

Determining Motor Loads From Measured Data

Note: Methods are listed from LEAST to MOST Accurate

At zero load, the motor operates at (or very near) the synchronous speed.
At full load, the motor operates at its rated speed = nameplate speed.

S synchronous = (120 x F) / P
S = speed in RPM
F = frequency in hertz
P = # of poles in motor
# of
Poles
2
4
6
8
Calcs in chart:
Synchronous
Speed
3600
1800
1200
900
NOTE: for a POLE PAIR: DOUBLE the number of poles.

EXAMPLE: four 2-pole pairs = 8 POLES TOTAL

52

Slip Method

A motor's speed and slip is proportional to its load.
(S synchronous - S ) Time Slip
% Motor Load = ----------------------------------- = -------------------------------

( S synchronous S Full Load) Design Slip

S = measured motor speed, RPM

Ssynchronous = Motor's synchronous speed (zero or no load) = NLRPM
SFull Load = Motor's full load (rated load) speed = FLRPM

Note: Slip = (S synchronous - S)

Example:

Given:

Motor nameplate data:
Ssynchronous = 1800 RPM
Full Load (Rated) Speed: S Full Load = 1750 RPM

Measured motor speed
S = 1770 RPM

What is the motor load?

Motor Load = (1800 - 1770)/(1800 - 1750) = 60%

Example:

Given:

Motor Load = 85% Full Load (Rated) Speed: S Full Load = 860 RPM
Twin 4-pole motors Freq: 60 Hz (assumed)

What is the measured motor speed?

Motor Load = (Ssynchronous - S)/( Ssynchronous - SFull Load)
85% = (Ssynchronous - S)/( Ssynchronous - 850)

Ssynchronous (8 poles) = (120 x 60) / 8

= 900
85% = (900-S) / (900-860)
S= 900-85% x (900-860) = 866 RPM

53
Voltage Compensated Slip Method

Measurements required:

V = average RMS line-line current
Inputs required:
S synchronous = Motor's synchronous speed

S Full Load = Motor's full load (rated) speed
V rated
= Motor's rated voltage
Motor Load = (S synchronous - S)/ [ (S synchronous S FullLoad) x (Vrated/V)2 ]

Slip = (S synchronous - S)

Example:

Motor nameplate data:
S synchronous = 1800 RPM
S Full Load = 1750 RPM

V rated = 240 V
Measured motor speed = S = 1770 RPM

V = average RMS line-line voltage = 224 V

What is the motor load?

Load = (1800 - 1770)/[(1800 - 1750)*(240/224)^2] = 52%
Voltage Compensated Current Ratio


Inputs required:
I = RMS motor current, average of 3 phases.

V = average RMS line-line current
Irated = nameplate rated current at full load
Vrated = nameplate rated voltage at full load

Motor Load = (I/Irated) x (V/Vrated)

Example:

Motor nameplate data: Irated = 20 Amps; Vrated = 240 V

Measured RMS line current: Ia = 16.2 Amps, Ib = 15.5 Amps, Ic = 16.8 Amps
Measured RMS line-line voltage: Vab = 232 V, Vbc = 228 , Vac = 236 V

What is the Motor Load?

I = (Ia + Ib + Ic)/3 = (16.2 + 15.5 + 16.8)/3 = 16.167 Amps

V = (Vab + Vbc + Vac)/3 = 232 V

Motor Load = (16.167/20) x (232/240) = 78.1%

54

Direct KWh Calculation

Measurements required: P measured = measured motor load, kW

or

I = RMS motor current, average of 3 phases.
V = average RMS line-line VOLTAGE
PF = measured power factor

Inputs required:
HP = Motor's rated power output, HP (or kW)

h Full Load = Motor's full load rated efficiency

Formulas:

Motor Load = Pmeasured / Prated

Pmeasured = 3 * V * I * PF / 1000 [kW]

(if not measured directly from the meter)
Prated = HP * (0.746 kW/HP) / hrated

= motor's power input at rated full load

55
Example: Given:

Motor nameplate data: HP = 40hp, hFull Load(rated) = 91.2%

Measured RMS line current: Ia = 36 Amps, Ib = 38 Amps, Ic = 37 Amps

Measured RMS line-line voltage: Vab = 469 V, Vbc = 473, Vac = 467 V

Measured PF: PFa = 0.75, PFb = 0.78, PFc = 0.76

What is the Motor Load?

I = (Ia + Ib + Ic)/3 = 37 Amps

V = (Vab + Vbc + Vac)/3 = 469.67 V

PF = (PFa + PFb + PFc)/3 = 0.763

Pmeasured = 3 * 469.67 * 37 * 0.763 = 22.9 kW
Prated = 40 * (0.7457 kW/HP) / 91.2% = 32.7 kW

Motor Load = 22.9 / 32.7 = 70%

Computerized Modeling Techniques

ORMEL 96 that uses an equivalent circuit technique, based on IEEE's standard
112, to determine motor load. It requires:

Being implemented in the Motor Master+ Software


Inputs required:

Motor nameplate data, including kVA code.

Also:

Specialized Motor Testing Equipment

Laboratory Methods

56

Air Compressors

Air Leak Rate (SCFM)

V x (P1 P2)
Leak Rate (SCFM) = ------------------

T x 14.7

SCFM = standard cubic feet per minute = the volumetric flow rate of a gas

corrected to "standardized" conditions of 14.73 psia

V = Volume Air (cu. ft.)

P1 = Pressure

P2 = Pressure

T = temperature difference (deg F)

Air Leaks size of hole

Typical compressor efficiency of 18kW/100cfm = .18 kW/cfm

VOLUME IN cfm:

57
Renewable Energy Systems and Water Management

Thermal Storage Formula:
C (BTUs) = m Cp T where:
C is the stored BTUs

m is the mass of the substance (lb)
Cp is the specific heat capacity of the substance (Btu/lboF)
T is the temperature change (oF)
Thermal efficiency is defined as:
= Thermal efficiency
= Total work output by all systems
= Total heat input into the system
58

1. Codes and Standards and Indoor Air Quality

ASHRAE

ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2013

ASHRAE Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings

US standard that provides minimum requirements for energy efficient
designs for buildings except for low-rise residential buildings.
There are many states that apply the ASHRAE 90.1 standard to different
buildings that are being constructed or under renovation. Most states apply
the standard or equivalent standards for all commercial buildings
while others apply the standard or equivalent standards for all government
buildings.
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America IESNA and ANSI take
part

ASHRAE 90.1 covers:
Buildings
building envelope
majority of mechanical and lighting systems
New buildings being constructed
Additions / alterations to existing buildings and their systems

Not Covered:
Single family homes
multifamily of three stories or less homes,
manufactured or modular homes,
buildings that do not use electricity or fossil fuels
equipment and building systems that are used for industrial,
manufacturing, or commercial purposes

Energy Elements Covered:
Envelope
o insulation
o fenestration (window design)
o doors
o air leakage
o type of building each has different requirements to meet
nonresidential conditioned space
residential conditioned space
semi-heated space.
o Roof
o Walls
o Floor

59
HVAC
Hot Water
Lighting lighting power density
ASHRAE/IES 90.1 Lighting Power Allowances using the Building Area
Method.

ASHRAE 90.1 Industrial processes (added in 2013)
Economizers for data centers (2011)
Building Envelope include skylights, solar reflectance, thermal emittance,
air barriers, and solar orientation
Revisions affect the maximum:
o fan power limits
o pump head calculation
o chilled water pipe sizing
o radiant panel insulation
o single-zone V A V
o supply air temperature reset.
HVAC
o Energy recovery is required for many more HVAC systems.
o Several reheat exceptions were eliminated or modified.
o Restrictions were placed on overhead air heating.
o Economizer requirements were added for more climate zones and
smaller systems.
Lighting
o Power densities (LPD) dropped slightly on average.
o Daylighting and associated lighting control requirements were
added.
o Many lighting control requirements were added, including
independent functional testing of lighting controls, occupancy and
vacancy controls, exterior lighting controls, and whole-building
shutoff.
o Offices and computer classrooms now require 50 percent of 120V
receptacles to be automatically switched.
Requirements were added for service water booster pumps and elevators.
Revised, stricter opaque element and fenestration requirements at a
reasonable level of cost-effectiveness
Revised equipment efficiencies for heat pumps, packaged terminal air
conditioners (PTACs), single package vertical heat pumps and air
conditioners (SPVHP and SPVAC), and evaporative condensers
New provisions for commercial refrigeration equipment and improved
controls for heat rejection and boiler equipment
Improved requirements for expanded use of energy recovery, small-motor
efficiencies, and fan power control and credits
Improved equipment efficiencies for chillers
60

A new alternate compliance path to Section 6, "Heating, Ventilating, and Air-

Conditioning," for computer room systems, developed with ASHRAE
Technical Committee (TC) 9.9.

The Federal Energy Policy Act of 2005 established a tax deduction for
energy-efficient commercial buildings applicable to qualifying systems and
buildings placed in service from January 1, 2006, through December 31, 2007. A
tax deduction of $1.80 per square foot is available to owners of new or
existing buildings who install:

(1) interior lighting
or (2) building envelope
or (3) heating, cooling, ventilation, or hot water systems

that reduce the buildings total energy and power cost by 50% or more
in comparison to a building meeting minimum requirements set by
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2001.

ASHRAE 90.2 is a Residential Energy Std- low-rise residential buildings (single
family to multi-family).

ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.2-2007 - Published standard.
(Supersedes ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.2-2004. Superseded 90A-1980 & 90B-1975 for
all requirements for low-rise residential buildings)

This standard provides minimum energy efficiency requirements for the design
and construction of:
1) new residential dwelling units and their systems
2) where explicitly specified:
o new portions of residential dwelling units and their systems
o new systems and equipment in existing dwelling units.
o Note: There are no requirements in this standard that apply to new
portions of residential dwelling units and their systems, nor to new
systems and equipment in existing dwelling units. For the purpose of
this standard, 'residential dwelling units' include single-family
houses, multi-family structures (of three stories or fewer above
grade), and modular houses.
This standard does not include 'transient' housing such as hotels, motels,
nursing homes, jails, and barracks, or manufactured housing.

This standard applies to the building envelope, heating equipment and
systems, air-conditioning equipment and systems, domestic water-
heating equipment and systems, and provisions for overall building
design alternatives and trade-offs.

61
This standard does not apply to:

o specific procedures for the operation, maintenance and use of
residential buildings,
o portable products such as appliances and heaters; and
o residential electric service or lighting requirements.
The Standard shall not be used to abridge any safety, health or
environmental requirements.

ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2010 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
Specify minimum ventilation rates and other measures intended to provide IAQ that
is acceptable to human occupants and that minimizes adverse health effects.

1. Intended for regulatory application to new buildings and additions
2. Guide the improvement of IAQ in existing buildings

All spaces intended for human occupancy excluding low-rise residential (62.2)
Defines requirements for ventilation, air-cleaning design, commissioning,
installation and O&M
Additional requirements & other standards may apply (labs, healthcare, industrial,
etc.)
May be applied to both new and existing buildings, not intended to be used
retroactively
Does not prescribe specific ventilation rates for smoking spaces
Ventilation requirements based on chemical, physical, & biological contaminants
Consideration or control of thermal comfort is not included
In addition to ventilation, the standard contains requirements related
to certain sources
ASHRAE Standard 62 prescribes a ventilation standard of 15 cubic feet of
outside air per building occupant.
o This level may be ensured by controlling the indoor CO2 content.
o The ventilation demand in each zone can be determined by remote
CO2 sensors in a similar manner as a thermostat that regulates the
degree of cooling or heating supplied.

Acceptable IAQ may not be achieved in all buildings meeting these
requirements because of:
Diversity of sources and contaminants
Air temperature, humidity, noise, lighting, and psychological/social factors
Varied susceptibility in the occupants
Introduction of outdoor contaminants
In an average HOME, the standard number of air changes per hour (ACH) = 0.35. In
other words, it will take a little less than three hours for the air in the home to
recycle entirely.

62

ANSI/ASHRAE/ISO Standard 135-2008 - BACnet
BACnet originated & supported by ASHRAE

BACnet makes it possible to integrate a facilitys various control systems to a
single workstation application for ease of operation.
allows users to expand and upgrade controls using technology from multiple
vendors
common communication infrastructure and front-end building automation
systems

The protocol defines a model for building automation systems:
Data and control functions structured in an object oriented fashion

Services that describe data requests and responses
Network datalink types
A scalable and flexible internetwork and network architecture.

ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1 The Green Standard
Standard 189.1 provides a total building sustainability package for those who
strive to design, build and operate green buildings.
Site location and sustainability

energy use
recycling
water use efficiency
energy efficiency
indoor environmental quality
Standard 189.1 serves as a compliance option in the 2012 International Green

Construction CodeTM (IgCC) published by the International Code Council. The IgCC
regulates construction of new and remodeled commercial buildings.

63
INTERNATIONAL

IEC Codes
International Electrotechnical Commission is a non-profit, non-governmental

international standards organization that prepares and publishes International
Standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies collectively
known as "electrotechnology". IEC standards cover a vast range of technologies
including:
power generation
transmission and distribution
home appliances
office equipment
semiconductors
fibre optics
batteries
solar energy
nanotechnology
marine energy
PLC Programmable Logic Controller

programming via the IEC 61131-3 standard
others

The IEC charter embraces all electrotechnologies including
energy production and distribution
electronics
magnetics and electromagnetics
electroacoustics
multimedia
telecommunication
medical technology
general disciplines such as terminology and symbols, electromagnetic
compatibility (by its Advisory Committee on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
ACEC), measurement and performance, dependability, design and
development, safety and the environment.

64

IECC - International Energy Conservation Code from the ICC

Model Energy Code (MEC) was predecessor

Published and maintained by the International Code Council (ICC) as the
International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) as of 1998, contains energy
efficiency criteria for new residential and commercial buildings and
additions to existing buildings. It covers the buildings ceilings, walls, and
floors/foundations; and the mechanical, lighting, and power systems.

IECC - International Energy Conservation Code is a building code created by
the International Code Council in 2000. It is a model code adopted by many states
and municipal governments in the United States for the establishment of
minimum design and construction requirements for energy efficiency.

Building exterior
Mechanical systems
Lighting systems
Internal power systems

Designed to address the design of energy-efficient building envelopes and
installation of energy efficient mechanical, lighting and power systems through
requirements emphasizing performance that will result in the optimal utilization of
fossil fuel and nondepletable resources in all communities, large and small.

commercial buildings
low-rise residential buildings (3 stories or less in height above grade.)
establishes minimum regulations for energy efficient buildings using
prescriptive and performance-related provisions.
Fully compatible with all of the International Codes (I-Codes) published
by the International Code Council (ICC),
o International Building Code,
o International Existing Building Code,
o International Fire Code,
o International Fuel Gas Code,
o International Green Construction Code
o International Mechanical Code, ICC Performance Code,
International Plumbing Code,
o International Private Sewage Disposal Code,
o International Property Maintenance Code,
o International Residential Code,
o International Swimming Pool and Spa Code TM
o International Wildland-Urban Interface Code
o International Zoning Code.

65
International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IMVP)

The International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IMVP)
provides an overview of current best practice techniques available for verifying
results of:
energy efficiency
water efficiency
renewable energy projects
Indoor Air Quality

May also be used by facility operators to assess and improve facility performance.
Energy conservation measures covered herein include:
fuel saving measures
water efficiency measures
load shifting
energy reductions through installation or retrofit of equipment
modification of operating procedures.

ISO 50001: Energy management systems

Requirements for establishing, implementing, maintaining and improving an
energy management system, whose purpose is to enable an organization to follow
a systematic approach in achieving continual improvement of energy
performance, including energy efficiency, energy security, energy use and
consumption.

ISO 50001 requires an organization to demonstrate that they have improved
their energy performance. Structure:

1.: General Requirements
2.: Management Responsibility
3.: Energy Policy
4.: Energy Action Plan
5.: Implementation and Operation
6.: Performance Audits
7.: Management Review

Method: ISO 50001 provides a framework of requirements that help organizations
develop a policy for more efficient use of energy
fix targets and objectives to meet the policy
use data to better understand and make decisions concerning energy use and
consumption
measure the results
review the effectiveness of the policy
continually improve energy management
66

FEDERAL REGULATION

Federal Power Act
1930 Act created the Federal Power Commission
Originally had authority for hydro-electric plants
FPC is now FERC
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the United States federal
agency with jurisdiction over:
interstate electricity sales

wholesale electric rates
hydroelectric licensing
natural gas pricing
oil pipeline rates
The responsibilities of FERC now include the following:
regulating the transmission and sale of natural gas for resale in interstate
commerce
regulating the transmission of oil by pipelines in interstate commerce
regulating the transmission and wholesale sales of electricity in interstate
commerce
licensing and inspecting private, municipal, and state hydroelectric projects
approving the siting of and abandonment of interstate natural gas facilities,
including pipelines, storage and liquefied natural gas
ensuring the reliability of high voltage interstate transmission system
monitoring and investigating energy markets

Also:
using civil penalties and other means against energy organizations and
individuals who violate FERC rules in the energy markets
overseeing environmental matters related to natural gas and
hydroelectricity projects and major electricity policy initiatives
administering accounting and financial reporting regulations
regulating businesses of regulated companies

In 1938, the Natural Gas Act gave FPC jurisdiction over interstate natural gas
pipelines and wholesale sales.

In 1942, this jurisdiction was expanded to cover the licensing of more natural gas
facilities.

67
1948 - Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act expanded this in
1972)

In 1954, the Supreme Court decision in Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Wisconsin
extended FPC (pre-FERC) jurisdiction over all wellhead sales of natural gas in
interstate commerce.

1963 / 1970 / 1990 The Clean Air Act gives the EPA the power to create and
enforce standards related to air quality, designed to control air pollution on a
national level.
Requires the EPA to develop and enforce regulations to protect the public
from airborne contaminants known to be hazardous to human health.
1963 version of the legislation established a research program, expanded in
1967.
1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate, requiring
comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary
(industrial) pollution sources and mobile sources. It also significantly
expanded federal enforcement.
1990 amendments addressed acid rain, ozone depletion and toxic air
pollution, established a national permits program for stationary sources,
and increased enforcement authority. The amendments also established new
auto gasoline reformulation requirements, set Reid vapor pressure (RVP)
standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline, and mandated
new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states.
includes a provision for citizen suits.

1972 1977 1987 Clean Water Act (Federal Water Pollution Control Act) is the
primary federal law governing water pollution.
restore and maintain integrity of the nation's waters (chemical,

physical, and biological)
prevent point and nonpoint pollution sources
provide assistance to publicly owned wastewater treatment works
maintain the integrity of wetlands.
does not directly address groundwater contamination
68

Major amendments were enacted in the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the
Water Quality Act of 1987.
Groundwater protection provisions are included in:
Safe Drinking Water Act 1974

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1976
Superfund Act 1980

1976 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) principal federal
law governing the disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste.

1977 Department of Energy (DOE) Organization Act passed by Congress in
response to an energy crisis in 1973. Consolidated various energy-related agencies
into a Department of Energy.
FPC was renamed the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), a

separate independent regulatory body.
As a further protection, when the Department of Energy proposes a rule, it
must refer the proposal to FERC, and FERC can take over the proceeding if
FERC determines that the rulemaking "may significantly affect" matters in its
jurisdiction.[4]
The DOE Act transferred regulation of interstate oil pipelines from the
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to FERC. However, the FERC lost
some jurisdiction over the imports and exports of gas and electricity.

In 1978, FERC was given additional responsibilities for harmonizing the regulation
of wellhead gas sales in both the intrastate and interstate markets.

National Energy Act of 1978 included:
Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA) of 1978.

o FERC administered program for new cogeneration and small power
production.
o To encourage improved efficiency at central power plants: buy power from
other energy producers.
The Natural Gas Policy Act, which reduced the scope of federal price regulation,
to bring greater competition to both the natural gas and electric industries. Also
protects consumers from sharp upticks in heating oil pricing.
FOR FERC/PURPA co-gen qualifying facility (QF) criteria SEE CHP SECTION 14.

69

Fuel Use Act of 1978 declared that major fuel-burning installations could not use
natural gas as a primary source of energy. The intention of this law was to force
industrial concerns to use alternative fuels.

1979 to present (10 surveys conducted) - Commercial Buildings Energy
Consumption Survey (CBECS) conducted by the Department of Energy provides
data on commercial energy use.
covers primarily non-industrial usage
concentrates on energy use for air conditioning and lighting.

1980 Superfund Act [Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA) ] federal law designed to clean up sites contaminated
with hazardous substances as well as broadly defined "pollutants or contaminants".

1982 IEEE-519 PQ (Power Quality) Standard - To minimize the impact of
facility harmonic distortion on the utility power system and on neighboring facilities
IEEE standard 519 provides recommended limits for total harmonic voltage
and current distortion. THD total harmonic distortion

In 1989, Congress ended federal regulation of wellhead natural gas prices, with the
passage of the Natural Gas Wellhead Decontrol Act of 1989.

2005 The Energy Policy Act of 2005 expanded FERC's authority to impose:
mandatory reliability standards on the bulk transmission system

impose penalties on entities that manipulate the electricity and natural
gas markets.

FERC ORDERS
1985 FERC Order No. 436 required that natural gas pipelines provide open access
to transportation services, enabling consumers to negotiate prices directly with
producers and contract separately for transportation

70

1989 FERC Order 500, issued in late 1989, was an addendum to FERC Order 436
and provided mechanisms for settling certain contract liabilities incurred by
pipelines that could not take all of the gas they had ordered from producers.
1992 FERC issued Order No. 636 - Restructuring of Gas Pipeline Services (The
Restructuring Rule). This mandated unbundling of sales services from
transportation services, providing customers with full choice of providers and
opening these markets to competition.

FERC Order No. 636A clarified 636
determine rates for "small customers"

capacity releases for any period of less than one calendar month without
bidding for the released capacity.
distribute revenue responsibility among customers
requiring pipelines to recover 10 percent of their gas supply realignment
costs from their Part 284 interruptible transportation service.
true-up mechanisms that provide a reasonable opportunity for pipelines to
recover (but not over-recover) costs.

FERC Order No. 637 further addressed inefficiencies in the capacity release market.

1998 FERC Orders 888 and 889 - opening the US energy market to
competition.
FERC Order No. 888
Promoting Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-discriminatory
Transmission Services by Public Utilities
Unbundling of electrical services and the separation of marketing
functions
utilities to provide open access to their energy rate schedules (tariffs),

FERC Order 889
set standards making pricing and tariff information available to the
marketplace
established OASIS, a bulletin board system that allows energy customers on
the wholesale market to schedule and reserve capacity on the US
regional energy grids to insure that energy can be delivered to customers
without competitive interference.

FERC is self-funding, in that the it pays for its own operations by imposing annual
charges and fees on the industries it regulates.

71
The FERC has recent activity:
Regional Transmission Organizations (RTOs)

Independent System Operators (ISOs)
new law dealing with LNG terminals, electric reliability
new merger regulations and new anti-market manipulation regulations.
Also:
FERC regulates approximately 1,600 hydroelectric projects in the U.S.

Largely responsible for permitting construction of a large network of
interstate natural gas pipelines.
works closely with the United States Coast Guard to review the safety,
security, and environmental impacts of proposed LNG terminals and
associated shipping.

Executive Order 13423 requires Federal agencies to lead by example in
advancing the nations energy security and environmental performance by
achieving the following goals:
Energy Efficiency: Reduce energy intensity 30 percent by 2015, compared
to an FY 2003 baseline.
Greenhouse Gases: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions through reduction of
energy intensity 30 percent by 2015, compared to an FY 2003 baseline.
Renewable Power: At least 50 percent of current renewable energy
purchases must come from new renewable sources (in service after January
1, 1999).
Building Performance: Construct or renovate buildings in accordance with
sustainability strategies, including resource conservation, reduction, and use;
siting; and indoor environmental quality.
Water Conservation: Reduce water consumption intensity 16 percent by
2015, compared to an FY 2007 baseline.
Vehicles: Increase purchase of alternative fuel, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid
vehicles when commercially available.
Petroleum Conservation: Reduce petroleum consumption in fleet vehicles
by 2 percent annually through 2015, compared to an FY 2005 baseline.
Alternative Fuel: Increase use of alternative fuel consumption by at least 10
percent annually, compared to an FY 2005 baseline.
Pollution Prevention: Reduce use of chemicals and toxic materials and
purchase lower risk chemicals and toxic materials.
Procurement: Expand purchases of environmentally sound goods and
services, including biobased products.
Electronics Management: Annually, 95 percent of electronic products
purchased must meet Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool
standards where applicable; enable Energy Star features on 100 percent of
computers and monitors; and reuse, donate, sell, or recycle 100 percent of
electronic products using environmentally sound management practices.

72

Energy Act 1992 restricted production of incandescent bulbs, T12s; established

lighting efficacy and color index standards

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 EPACT The act, described by proponents as an
attempt to combat growing energy problems, changed US energy policy by
providing tax incentives and loan guarantees for energy production of various
types.

General provisions

Federal buildings must be 30% more efficient than ASHRAE or IECC
where life cycle cost effective
Under an amendment in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of
2009, Section 406, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorizes loan
guarantees for innovative technologies that avoid greenhouse gases
the Act increases the amount of biofuel (usually ethanol) that must be
mixed with gasoline sold in the United States to 4 billion US gallons
$200 million annually for clean coal initiatives, repealing the current 160-
acre (0.65 km2) cap on coal leases, allowing the advanced payment of
royalties from coal mines and requiring an assessment of coal resources on
federal lands that are not national parks;
it authorizes subsidies for wind and other alternative energy producers;
it adds ocean energy sources, including wave and tidal power for the first
time as separately identified, renewable technologies;
it authorizes $50 million annually over the life of the law for biomass grants;
it includes provisions aimed at making geothermal energy more competitive
with fossil fuels in generating electricity;

o The federal Energy Policy Act of 2005 established a tax deduction for
energy-efficient commercial buildings applicable to qualifying systems
and buildings placed in service from January 1, 2006, through December 31,
2007. This deduction was subsequently extended through 2008, and then
again through 2013 by Section 303 of the federal [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query/z?c110:H.R.1424.enr: Energy Improvement and Extension Act of
2008] (H.R. 1424, Division B), enacted in October 2008.

A tax deduction of $1.80 per square foot is available to owners of new or
existing buildings who install (1) interior lighting; (2) building envelope, or
(3) heating, cooling, ventilation, or hot water systems that reduce the
buildings total energy and power cost by 50% or more in comparison
to a building meeting minimum requirements set by ASHRAE Standard
90.1-2001.

Energy savings must be calculated using qualified computer software
approved by the IRS.

73

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 EPACT Continued requires the Department
of Energy to:
study and report on existing natural energy resources including wind,
solar, waves and tides;
study and report on national benefits of demand response and make a
recommendation on achieving specific levels of benefits and encourages
time-based pricing and other forms of demand response as a policy
decision;
designate National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors where there are
significant transmission limitations adversely affecting the public (the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission may authorize federal permits for
transmission projects in these regions);
report in one year on how to dispose of high-level nuclear waste;
it authorizes the Department of the Interior to grant leases for activity that
involves the production, transportation or transmission of energy on the
Outer Continental Shelf lands from sources other than gas and oil
it requires all public electric utilities to offer net metering on request to
their customers;
it prohibits the manufacture and importation of mercury-vapor lamp
ballasts after January 1, 2008;
tax breaks for homes energy conservation improvements
incentives to companies to drill for oil in the Gulf of Mexico;
it exempts oil and gas producers from certain requirements of the Safe
Drinking Water Act;
it requires that the Federal Fleet vehicles capable of operating on
alternative fuels be operated on these fuels exclusively
it sets federal reliability standards regulating the electrical grid

2007 The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) originally
named the Clean Energy Act of 2007 ( is an Act of Congress concerning the energy
policy of the United States.

to move the United States toward greater energy independence, security,
to increase the production of clean renewable fuels
to protect consumers, to increase the efficiency of products, buildings,
and vehicles
to promote research on and deploy greenhouse gas capture and storage
options
improve the energy performance of the Federal Government

The final bill focused on:
automobile fuel economy
development of biofuels
energy efficiency in public buildings
lighting

74

ICAL SYSTEMS
TOPICS
Energy
r
r Correction
re and Analysis
ed Drives
ty
Steve Doty and Wayne C. Turner, and Guide to Energy Management, 7th Edition by Barney L. Capehart,
Wayne C. Turner and William J. Kennedy. However, some other books are also referenced as appropriate.
The study guide will not lead you to answers to all of the questions, but it will certainly lead you to a very large
number
correct answers.
A personand
withEthe
necessary
experience
2008
The ofEnergy
Improvement
xtension
Act
of 2008 who
reviews the study guide should not
have any problem passing the exam.
contains a new tax credit for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for less than
year will:
after
he first
250,000
re sold.
Thea
exam
betopen
book,
last fourahours,
and have 130 questions to answer. Of the 130 questions, 120 are
scored
extends
xisting located
tax credits
for are
renewable
energy
initiatives,
including
and 10 e
randomly
questions
trial questions
being
prepared for
possible use on future exams.
cellulosic
e
thanol
a
nd
b
iodiesel
d
evelopment,
a
nd
w
ind,
s
olar,
g
eothermal
The 120 questions counting toward an examinees score are worth 8.7 points each. The 10 trial questions do not
count
toward
the examinees
score. The trial questions are randomly located and are not identified. Therefore,
and
hydro-electric
power.
should
be answered.
are 17 sections
listed
from which questions mainly are
all 130
It equestions
stablishes
electricity
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fuel
for tbelow
ax purposes.
drawn.
STUDY GUIDE TOPICS & REFERENCES

I. CODES AND STANDARDS and INDOOR AIR QUALITY
CODES AND STANDARDS SUBJECT TOPICS
Federal Power Act
FERC
National Energy Act of 1978
Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Orders 436, 500, 636, 636A, 888, and 889
Energy Policy Act of 1992
Energy
Policy Act of 2005 Energy Efficiency Requirements and Tax Incentives
Load
Factors
Executive
Order 13423 of 2007
Reactive
Power
Three
Phase
Systems and Security Act of 2007
Energy
Independence
Peak
Demand
Reductionand Extension Act of 2008
Energy
Improvement
Motors
and
Motor
Drives
American Recovery
and Reinvestment Act of 2009
Affinity
Laws
(Pump
and Fan Laws)
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
90.1-2004 and 2007
Harmonics
IEEE PQ Standard 519
and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 4.

nd Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 11.
art, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 3.
IEC and IEEC Codes

ASHRAE Standard 90.2
TOPICS
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 -2004 and 2007
ntilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Model Energy Code
ws
Performance
Rating (COP,
EER, kW/ton)
ASHRAE Standard
135-2008
ic Chart
HVAC
Economizers
ANSI/MSE
2000:2008
pment Types
Air Distribution Systems (Reheat, Multizone, VAV)
Chillers
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 1.
r
Energy
Consumption
Estimates
REF: Doty
and Turner,
Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 20.
ression Cycle
Absorption Cycle
wers
Air
and Water
Based
Heat Flow
INDOOR
AIR
QUALIY
SUBJECT TOPICS
entilation Standard
Demand
Control
Ventilation
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 2004 and 2007
Acceptable Air Quality
and Thumann, Handbook of Energy
Engineering,
7, 8.
Ventilation
Rate Chapter
Procedure
nd Turner, Energy Management Handbook,
Chapter
10.Procedure
Alternate Air
Quality
art, Turner and Kennedy, Guide toTypical
Energy Air
Management,
Chapter 6.
Contaminants
VOCs and Bioaerosols
IAQ Problem Causes
CO2 Measurement and Control
S AND DRIVES
Microbial Contamination
TOPICS
n Motors
AC Synchronous Motors
REF: ASHRAE
62.1 2004
and 2007 Standard
High Efficiency
Motors
REF:
Doty
and
Turner,
Energy
Management Handbook, Chapter 17
and Slip
Power Factor and Efficiency

75
Control
Variable Frequency Drives
mp Laws
Variable Flow Systems
ion Criteria
New
vs Rewound Motors
II. ENERGY
ACCOUNTING
AND ECONOMICS
TEMS
2. Energy Audits And Instrumentation

Audits

Walk-through energy audit is the least expensive, because it only entails a cursory
evaluation of possible energy savings.
In a mini-audit, various tests and measures are performed to determine whether
particular energy conservation strategies will be effective.
In a maxi-audit, the most comprehensive and time- consuming process, the
amounts of energy consumed in various processes is assessed and computer
simulations are employed to identify possible sources of savings.

Commissioning

Building commissioning is a process that ensures that all of a buildings
systems have been designed, installed, and are functioning according to the
needs of the building and its occupants, verifying that design and operating
parameters have been met and reducing the buildings operating costs by
maximizing the efficiency of its systems.

Design flaws, construction defects, malfunctioning equipment, and
other problems may be identified and corrected.
Other benefits may include better environmental conditions leading
to improved worker productivity.

As many as 15% of new buildings may even be missing some specified
equipment.

In addition to the problems with new buildings, existing buildings often
undergo changes in occupancy and function that render some systems
inadequate.

Continuous commissioning - a program for monitoring performance and
identifying problems through data from existing operation and
maintenance programs as well as special tests that are performed as needed.

Phases of commissioning:

planning phase, decisions are made regarding the building systems that
will be analyzed, who will perform the analyses, and how they will be
accomplished.
investigation phase - background data are accumulated on the selected
systems, tests are conducted and test data are obtained, and deficiencies
are identified.

76

Implementation phase - the highest priority problems are corrected and

improvement in performance is verified.
The hand off phase - delivery of the building with a report that identifies
the improvements and provides recommendations for proper operation
and maintenance.

Documentation:
An executive summary of the commissioning effort
Background information on the building and its systems
The detailed commissioning plan
A description of the tests performed and their results, including
measured data for the operators to use as a baseline
A description of any deficiencies found and their corrective actions
A cost savings analysis for the corrected deficiencies
A list of recommendations for long term maintenance and operation of
the building and any appropriate capital improvements

Initial Commissioning occurs during production of new building or system, and is
defined as systematic process beginning with program phase and ending with post-
acceptance phase. In the case of installing new equipment in an existing building
(e.g. installing a new cooling system newly in an existing building which only has a
heating system), it is referred to as initial commissioning.

Retro-Commissioning means the first time commissioning being implemented in
existing building in which a documented commissioning was not implemented
before. In many cases, design documents of the existing building have been lost or
unmatched with the current situation. Therefore, the retro-commissioning process
would include verification matters on the design as shown in parts of initial
commissioning.

Re-Commissioning occurs when building owner hopes to verify, improve and
document performance of a building system that has already had initial
commissioning or retro- commissioning implemented in past. The re-
commissioning is, in other words, a commissioning implemented after the initial
commissioning. Re- commissioning is the event that reapplies the original
commissioning in order to keep building system performance in accordance with
the design or current operating needs.

On-Going Commissioning (real-time commissioning) is conducted continually
for the purposes of maintaining, improving and optimizing building system
performance after initial commissioning or retro- commissioning and before
degradation or disorder of the system goes too far. On-going commissioning lays
emphasis on the performance optimization. On-going commissioning is a
successive commissioning process during operation and maintenance level to
resolve operating problems, improve comfort, optimize energy use, and recommend
retrofits if necessary.

77
Energy Service Companies

Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) are consulting firms that perform auditing,
designing changes to existing building systems, installing or arranging for the
installation of modifications, monitoring performance, and providing long-term
maintenance.
Financing for energy upgrades may be provided directly from the ESCO but usually a
third party like a bank or other financial institution is used. An ESCO may be a utility
company or its subsidiary.
Energy Savings Performance Contract (ESPC):
Make energy improvements while minimizing or eliminating the up front

costs to the building owners.
A successful project is one where the improvements generate cost savings
that pay for the project over the term of the contract.
When the contract ends, the future savings go to the building owners.
ESCO obtains financing and purchases the required equipment and
installation.
The customer pays the ESCO who distributes funds to the service providers
and the bank.
Verify energy savings: DOE Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) has
published the Measurement and Verification Guideline for Federal Energy Projects.
This guideline was developed by the North American Energy Measurement and
Verification Protocol (NEMVP), which is an ESCO organization.
defines the testing, estimation, and validation methods used before and after
energy use.
descriptions for verification methods, which include computer simulation,
spot measurements and metering, and monitoring performance for the full
term of the contract.
There are other published standards for measurement and verification including the
International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol and ASHRAE
Guideline 14, Measurement of Energy & Demand Savings.
78

Instrumentation

Electric metering equipment

The utility companys electric meter is a Watt-hour meter. They count the
revolutions of a spinning disc that rotates with a speed that is proportional to
the power being consumed.

Newer meters are electronic and display the cumulative product of the
voltage, current, and time on a digital readout. They may also record and
display the power factor, peak demand, with time stamps. Data can be
sent to the utility by radio or on a carrier through the power line.

A power factor meter is used to evaluate the relative phase of voltages and
currents. These are typically three phase devices.

Light Measurement

Light Meter or Foot candle meter measures light intensity, the amount of
illumination the inside surface of a one-foot-radius sphere would be
receiving if there were a uniform point source of one candela in the exact
center of the sphere. Illumination = luminous flux, the measure of the
effective visible light emitted from a device and measured in lumens.

Alternatively, it can be defined as the illuminance on a one-square
foot surface of which there is a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen.

1 foot-candle = 1 lumen per sq.ft.

= approx. 10 lux

Temperature measurement

Electronic Thermometers consist of thermistor or thermocouple devices
and pyrometers.
Thermistors are resistors whose value changes with temperature.
Thermocouples are considerably more accurate and must be used
with special wiring. There are several types of thermocouples
covering different temperature ranges.
Pyrometers respond to surface temperature or received
radiation. Some convert received infrared energy to an
equivalent temperature. Optical pyrometers receive incandescent
light and quantify the wavelengths to derive the temperature. These
are typically used to measure extremely high temperatures.

Bimetallic strip is a cheaper alternative for temperature measurement,
but due to its inaccuracy, it is not recommended for energy use analysis.

79
Infrared Meter: Find hot spots and phase imbalances

Air velocity measurement

Air flow measurements are typically used to ensure proper ventilation or
to diagnose problems. The flow of air is characterized by changes in
pressure so in some cases the pressure is what is being measured. This
characteristic was formalized by Bernoulli in his principle that stated that as
the velocity of a fluid (like air) increases, its pressure decreases.

The Pitot tube is a pressure measuring device that is adapted for air
velocity measurements according to Bernoullis principle.
The true air velocity measuring device is called an anemometer. One type
uses rotating cups to measure air speed. Another type of anemometers uses a
heated wire whose temperature responds to the convective cooling of the
flow of surrounding air. temperature sensor can be a thermistor or a
thermocouple.

Pressure Measurements

Pressure measurements are typically used to ensure proper airflow in HVAC
systems.
The manometer is the device used for measuring pressure. One type of
manometer contains a column of fluid in a tube that is open on one end
and which responds to pressure with the movement of the fluid. This
motion is coupled to a pressure indicator.

The inclined manometer is built with the column at an angle to increase the
motion and produce more sensitivity to pressure changes.
Manometers may read absolute pressure which is the pressure referenced to
an absolute vacuum, gauge pressure which is referenced to atmospheric
pressure, or differential pressure where the difference in pressure between
two points is displayed.

Another pressure gauge is the Bourdon tube, which is a tube that is built to
respond to pressure by deforming its shape.

A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric
pressure.

Humidity measurement

The hygrometer is the instrument used to measure humidity. A
psychrometer is a type of hygrometer that performs this measurement by
evaluating the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures, which relate directly to
relative humidity.

80

Modern devices are electronic and use sensors whose electrical
characteristics (usually resistance or capacitance) change with humidity.

Infrared measuring equipment

Infrared radiation comes from heat energy and has a wavelength longer than
that of visible light. Its intensity is directly related to the temperature of
the surface being measured.

Infrared measuring devices are primarily used to identify losses of heat. An
image is generated that shows the intensity of infrared energy with color
variations for different temperatures.

Modern devices are quite lightweight and portable. Aerial surveys of infrared
radiation are available. They provide a good overview of heat distribution
external to a building and identify losses including those from external
features such as pipelines.

81
Combustion analyzers
Orsat analyzer measures the relative concentration of individual
components of exhaust gas - CO2, CO, and O. The Orsat apparatus is the best
piece of equipment for analyzing stack gas. This is important because
excessive levels of molecular oxygen indicate an inefficient boiler.
Similarly, there may be a health hazard if the boiler is producing too
much carbon monoxide.

In an Orsat apparatus, there is a tube of potassium hydroxide, the tube of
cuprous chloride, and a tube of potassium pyrogallate. Flue gas is introduced
to each of these tubes, and the amount of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and oxygen, respectively, that is removed suggests the extent
to which these latter gases are present in the flue gas.

Although very accurate, this process is time consuming and cumbersome as it
requires the use of several wet chemicals within the device.

The gas remaining after the introduction of flue gas is assumed to be
nitrogen.

Fyrite Analyzers are individual analyzers for each gas component, cheaper
and smaller than the Orsat type. They are still very accurate and they can be
used multiple times without requiring a chemical charge.

Smoke detectors are sometimes used to find unburned carbon in exhaust
gasses.

Wet stack gas versus dry stack gas values:
chemical cell sensors for O2 and CO measure on a dry stack gas
Zirconium Oxide sensors measure the O2 on a wet and hot stack gas
basis.

STR = Stack Temperature Rise. Measure with Combustion analyzer, flue
gas analyzer, and thermometer.
Combustion efficiency varies depending on the conditions under which the

fuel is used. Combustion efficiency can be affected by the characteristics of
the fuel, the temperature of combustion, and the amount of oxygen and CO2
present.
82

Particulate Matter Analyzer

Relevant measuring values :
Particulate matter
CO and O2
flue gas
combustion air temperature
flue gas loss
flue gas humidity
Fuel Energy Capacity: HHV and LHV

There are two ways to evaluate the energy capacity of a fuel:
Higher Heating Value (HHV) is the full energy content including all
products of combustion
Lower Heating Value (LHV) omits the energy in the water vapor that
is formed during combustion of the fuel. The energy of the water
vapor is about 10% of the total energy content. LHV values are
therefore 10% less than the HHV value for the same fuel.
The simplest way to avoid the confusion of the two methods is to
report the energy content in therms or BTUs, which always relate
to HHV.

Fuel energy content

The most common measure of energy content is the energy density, which
is the total energy per unit of weight (or mass). The energy density of some
common fuels is as shown in MJ/kg and BTU/lb:

Fuel
BTU/lb
MJ/kg
Nuclear fission
77,000,000
33,000,000,000
Hydrogen
142
61,000
Gasoline
47
20,000
15-25
Coal
6400-10,700

LPG
34
14,600

Diesel/heating oil
19,700
46
Natural gas
55
23,600
Propane
49
21,000

83
Harmonics

Measure Harmonics using a true-rms responding test tool when

measuring non-linear loads, especially current, or a THD Analyzer. Use a
notch filter to eliminate a harmonic.
Certain harmonic frequencies create problems unique to that harmonic:
third harmonic causes overheating in neutral conductors and
transformers.
fifth harmonic can cause motor issues, such as overheating,
abnormal noise and vibrations, and motor inefficiency.

Other typical non-linear loads added during energy upgrades include
electronic ballasts, computers, controls (PLCs, etc.), and various
components of building automation systems.
The bottom line: All electronic equipment creates harmonics and distorts
the voltage distributed in-plant.

Motors

A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a
cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. The
principle is used for the study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or
vibrating objects.

Dynometers measures force, torque, or power of a motor (motor shaft
power).

Vibration Anaylsis to find:
bad bearings
bad gears
failing machine mounts

Energy Indexes

Energy Use Index (EUI):
BTUs/sq ft/yr energy in BTUs per conditioned square foot per year.

Energy Cost Index (ECI):
$/sq ft /yr energy cost in $s per conditioned square foot per year.

84

Energy Accounting
Point of Use Costs
Btu Reporting
Efficiency Measures

REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 4.
REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 4.
III. ENERGY AUDITS AND INSTRUMENTATION

SUBJECT TOPICS
Role of Audits
Energy Management Measures
Combustion Analysis
Power Factor Correction
Very Basic Thermodynamics
Air Velocity Measurement
Light Level Measurement
Infrared Equipment
Fuel Choices
Energy Use Index
Audit Equipment
Load Factors
Combustion Analyzers
Electric Metering Equipment
Temperature Measurement
Pressure Measurement
Humidity Measurement
Energy and Power Measurement
HHV and LHV
Energy Cost Index
REF: Mehta and Thumann,

Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 3.


85
3. Energy Procurement - Energy Bills Electrical

Measurements Electrical Systems

Energy Procurement Factors:
Fuel Availability
Purchase price
Contract terms, clauses
Volume commitments
RISK tolerance
Environmental (emissions, etc.)

Terminology

LDC Local distribution company

ISO Independent system operator

PX - Power Exchange, an open market for the sale and distribution of power.

EWG EWGs are exempt wholesale generators, independent power plants that
produce electricity for sale in the wholesale market. They are exempt from the
restrictions imposed by the Public Utility Holding Company Act that was enacted to
control the activities of large power companies.

Retail and Wholesale Wheeling (de-regulation): customers could buy electricity
from a host of competing suppliers who would be given the right to "wheel" their
power across the transmission lines of local utilities. Co-ops may be hurt by dereg
because lower costs in attractive regions could mean higher costs in rural areas.

Primary Service: Voltage service at a transformer prior to step down; customer
owns the transformer in this case.

Secondary Service: The output side of a transformer and the circuit connected
with it. Voltage delivered between 0 and 750 volts. Also referred to as service
delivery voltage.

86

Evergreen Clause: energy contract automatically renews

Take or Pay: commitment to purchase energy whether used or not.

Rate Structure and Analysis

Utility Costs:
Physical Plant
Transmission
Substations
Distribution Systems
Meters
Admin
Energy
o O&M
o Fuel costs
Interest on Debt
Profit

Customer Rate Schedule Items

Admin/Cust Charge
Energy Charge
o Energy in kWh
On-peak
Off-peak
o Transmission (may be separate)
o Capacity (may be separate)
Fuel Cost Adjustment
Demand Charge (may also be part of energy charge)
Demand Ratchet
Power Factor
Franchise Payment
Sales Tax

Ratchet Clause: Demand is billed at a percent (Usually > 50%) of the largest kW
demand over the past 11 months, or the current month demand, WHICHEVER IS
GREATER.

Protective Clothing: Minimum Protection: ????????????????
Rubber gloves
Steel-toe or rubber sole shoes ???
Eye protection
Arc flash clothing protection?

87

Harmonics see:
Instrumentation
Motors

Load Strategies

Off Peak Air Conditioning (OPAC) OPERATING STRATEGIES

Load Leveling Partial Load Shifting
Partial shifting of AC load to off-peak hours
Chiller runs at constant load or near constant load for 24 hours per day
Very cost effective for new construction
Less costly to purchase
Less space needed
But ~ less savings

Full Shift Strategy operate at peak load hours only.

88

Three-phase Y and Delta configurations

SUMMARY:
The conductors connected to the three points of a three-phase source or
load are called lines.
The three components comprising a three-phase source or load are called
phases.
Line voltage is the voltage measured between any two lines in a
three-phase circuit.
Phase voltage is the voltage measured across a single component in a
three-phase source or load.
Line current is the current through any one line between a three-phase
source and load.
Phase current is the current through any one component comprising a
three-phase source or load.
In balanced Y circuits, line voltage is equal to phase voltage times the
square root of 3, while line current is equal to phase current.

In balanced circuits, line voltage is equal to phase voltage, while line

current is equal to phase current times the square root of 3.
-connected three-phase voltage sources give greater reliability in the

event of winding failure than Y-connected sources.
Y-connected sources can deliver the same amount of power with less
line current than -connected sources.

89
Initially we explored the idea of threephase power systems by connecting three voltage
sources together in what is commonly known as the Y (or star) configuration. This
configuration of voltage sources is characterized by a common connection point joining
one side of each source. (Figure below)
Threephase Y connection has three voltage sources connected to a common point.

If we draw a circuit showing each voltage source to be a coil of wire (alternator or
transformer winding) and do some slight rearranging, the Y configuration becomes
more obvious in Figure below.
Threephase, fourwire Y connection uses a "common" fourth wire.

The three conductors leading away from the voltage sources (windings) toward a load are
typically called lines, while the windings themselves are typically called phases. In a
Yconnected system, there may or may not (Figure below) be a neutral wire attached at
the junction point in the middle, although it certainly helps alleviate potential problems
should one element of a threephase load fail open, as discussed earlier.

90

Three-phase, three-wire Y connection does not use the neutral wire.

When we measure voltage and current in three-phase systems, we need to be
specific as to where we're measuring. Line voltage refers to the amount of voltage
measured between any two line conductors in a balanced three-phase system. With
the above circuit, the line voltage is roughly 208 volts. Phase voltage refers to the
voltage measured across any one component (source winding or load impedance) in
a balanced three-phase source or load. For the circuit shown above, the phase
voltage is 120 volts. The terms line current and phase current follow the same logic:
the former referring to current through any one line conductor, and the latter to
current through any one component.

Y-connected sources and loads always have line voltages greater than phase
voltages, and line currents equal to phase currents. If the Y-connected source or load
is balanced, the line voltage will be equal to the phase voltage times the square root
of 3:

However, the Y configuration is not the only valid one for connecting three-phase
voltage source or load elements together. Another configuration is known as the
Delta, for its geometric resemblance to the Greek letter of the same name (). Take
close notice of the polarity for each winding in Figure below.

91

Three-phase, three-wire connection has no common.

At first glance it seems as though three voltage sources like this would create a
short-circuit, electrons flowing around the triangle with nothing but the internal
impedance of the windings to hold them back. Due to the phase angles of these three
voltage sources, however, this is not the case.

One quick check of this is to use Kirchhoff's Voltage Law to see if the three voltages
around the loop add up to zero. If they do, then there will be no voltage available to
push current around and around that loop, and consequently there will be no
circulating current. Starting with the top winding and progressing
counter-clockwise, our KVL expression looks something like this:

Indeed, if we add these three vector quantities together, they do add up to zero.
Another way to verify the fact that these three voltage sources can be connected
together in a loop without resulting in circulating currents is to open up the loop at
one junction point and calculate voltage across the break: (Figure below)

92

Voltage across open should be zero.

Starting with the right winding (120 V 120o) and progressing counter-clockwise,
our KVL equation looks like this:

Sure enough, there will be zero voltage across the break, telling us that no current
will circulate within the triangular loop of windings when that connection is made
complete.

Having established that a -connected three-phase voltage source will not burn
itself to a crisp due to circulating currents, we turn to its practical use as a source of
power in three-phase circuits. Because each pair of line conductors is connected
directly across a single winding in a circuit, the line voltage will be equal to the
phase voltage. Conversely, because each line conductor attaches at a node between
two windings, the line current will be the vector sum of the two joining phase
currents. Not surprisingly, the resulting equations for a configuration are as
follows:

93
Let's see how this works in an example circuit: (Figure below)

The load on the source is wired in a .

With each load resistance receiving 120 volts from its respective phase winding at
the source, the current in each phase of this circuit will be 83.33 amps:

So each line current in this three-phase power system is equal to 144.34 amps,
which is substantially more than the line currents in the Y-connected system we
looked at earlier. One might wonder if we've lost all the advantages of three-phase
power here, given the fact that we have such greater conductor currents,
necessitating thicker, more costly wire. The answer is no. Although this circuit
would require three number 1 gage copper conductors (at 1000 feet of distance
between source and load this equates to a little over 750 pounds of copper for the
whole system), it is still less than the 1000+ pounds of copper required for a

94

single-phase system delivering the same power (30 kW) at the same voltage (120
volts conductor-to- conductor).

One distinct advantage of a -connected system is its lack of a neutral wire. With a
Y-connected system, a neutral wire was needed in case one of the phase loads were
to fail open (or be turned off), in order to keep the phase voltages at the load from
changing. This is not necessary (or even possible!) in a -connected circuit. With
each load phase element directly connected across a respective source phase
winding, the phase voltage will be constant regardless of open failures in the load
elements.

Perhaps the greatest advantage of the -connected source is its fault tolerance. It is
possible for one of the windings in a -connected three-phase source to fail open
(Figure below) without affecting load voltage or current!

Even with a source winding failure, the line voltage is still 120 V, and load phase
voltage is still 120 V. The only difference is extra current in the remaining functional
source windings.

The only consequence of a source winding failing open for a -connected source is
increased phase current in the remaining windings. Compare this fault tolerance
with a Y-connected system suffering an open source winding in Figure below.

Open Y source winding halves the voltage on two loads of a connected load.

95

SUBJECT TOPICS
Thermal Resistance
Heat Transfer Coefficients
Insulation
Vapor
Barriersvoltage while one
With a -connected load, two of the resistances suffer reduced
Solar Heat
Solar Shading
remains
at Gain
the original line voltage, 208. A Y-connected
load suffers an even worse
Thermally
Light
Facilities
Thermally
Heavy Facilities
fate (Figure below) with the same winding failure in a Y-connected
source
Conduction
Heat
Loads
Psychrometric
Chart

Air Heat Transfer
Water Heat Transfer
REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 9 & 15.
REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapters 6 & 11.
IX.
CHP SYSTEMS and RENEWABLE ENERGY

SUBJECT TOPICS
Topping Cycles
Bottoming Cycles
Combined Cycles
Fuel Selection

Operating Strategies
Prime Movers
Regulations
Codesoand
Standards
Open
source winding of a "Y-Y" system halves the voltage
n two
loads, and looses one
Combined
Heat
and
Power
Distributed
Generation
load entirely.
HHV and LHV
Thermal Efficiencies

Solar, Wind, Biomass, and Hydropower
Wind Energy Systems
In this case, two load resistances suffer reduced voltage while the third loses supply
Solar Thermal and Solar Photovoltaic Systems
voltage completely! For this reason, -connected sources are preferred for
reliability.
if dual
voltages
are needed
(e.g. 120/208)
REF: MehtaHowever,
and Thumann,
Handbook
of Energy
Engineering,
Chapter 9.or preferred for
lower
l
ine
c
urrents,
Y
-connected
s
ystems
a
re
t
he
c
onfiguration
REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 7. of choice.
REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapters 13 and 14

X. ENERGY PROCUREMENT
SUBJECT TOPICS
Deregulated Natural Gas
FERC Orders 888 and 889
Utility Restructuring
Marketers and Brokers
LDC, ISO, PX, EWG

Retail and Wholesale Wheeling
Electric Deregulation
Natural Gas Policy Act
HHV and LHV
Distributed Generation

REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 21, 23, & 24.
IV.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
SUBJECT TOPICS
Demand and Energy
Load Factors
Real Power
Reactive Power
Power Factor
Three Phase Systems
Peak Demand Reduction
Motors and Motor Drives
Variable Speed Drives
Affinity Laws (Pump and Fan Laws)
Power Quality
Harmonics
Grounding
.
96

REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy,
Guide to Energy Management, Chapter
3.
V. HVAC SYSTEMS
SUBJECT TOPICS
4. Energy Cost Analysis and Life Cycle Cost

Discounted After-Tax Cash Flow (ATCF)

Discounted after-tax cash flow is similar to simple discounted cash flow (DCF), but
tax implications are also taken into consideration.

ATCF will have a rate that is less than MARR.

General Note: Interest Rate

PV increases as interest rate decreases.

PMT increases as interest rate increases.

Lower interest rates (discount factors) tend to emphasize first costs more
than later year cash flows.

Example: if interest rate = 0%, you would be more concerned about the
immediate expense than if interest rate = 25%

97
Microbial Contamination
REF: ASHRAE 62.1 2004 and 2007 Standard
REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 17
II. ENERGY ACCOUNTING AND ECONOMICS

SUBJECT TOPICS
Simple Payback Period
Time Value of Money
Present Worth
Net Present Value
Present Worth Method
After Tax Cash Flow Analysis
Internal Rate of Return
Energy Accounting
Point of Use Costs
Life Cycle Cost Method

Interest Formulas and Tables
Project Life
Annual Cost Method
Economic Performance Measures
Depreciation Methods
Impact of Fuel Escalation Rates
Btu Reporting
Efficiency Measures

XVII. ALTERNATIVE
FINANCING
REF: DotyTOPICS
and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 4.
SUBJECT
REF:
Capehart,
Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management,
ChapterPerformance
4.
Energy Service Companies
Energy Savings
Contracting
Utility Financing
Shared Savings Contracts
Demand Side Management
Contracting and Leasing
III. ENERGY AUDITS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Measurement and Verification Protocols
Savings Determination
SUBJECT TOPICS
Risk
Assessment
Energy Policy Act of 1992, 2005
Role
of Audits
Audit Equipment
Loans,
Stocks
and
Bonds
Federal
Facility Requirements
Energy Management Measures
Load Factors
EISA
2007 Analysis
Combustion
Combustion Analyzers

Electric Metering Equipment
Very
Basic
Thermodynamics
Temperature
Measurement
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy
Engineering,
Chapter 16.
Air
Velocity
Measurement
Pressure
Measurement
Light Level Measurement
Humidity Measurement

Infrared Equipment
Energy and Power Measurement
Fuel Choices
HHV and LHV
Energy Use Index
Energy Cost Index

98

5. Lighting

About 40 percent of a typical commercial building's electrical energy is used for

lighting.
Common Lamp Characteristics and Definitions
Lumen Output: The lumen is a unit of luminous flux that is a measure of the total
light from a source.
Luminous Efficacy: The efficiency of light sources, calculated by dividing light
output by the power input = lumens per watt (LPW). The higher the LPW, the more
efficient the light source.
Average Rated Life: This is the median value of life expectancy assigned to a lamp,
in hours, at which half of a large group of lamps have failed.
Lumen Depreciation: Also known as lumen maintenance, percent of initial lumens
and is one of several light loss factors used in lighting calculations. LLD can be
calculated by dividing the mean (design) lumens by the initial lumen rating.
Color Temperature: The color temperature of a lamp is described in terms of its
appearance (when lighted) to the eye;
Kelvin scale ranging from 1,500K, which appears red- orange, to 9,000K,
which appears blue.
Light sources lie somewhere between these two, with those of higher color
temperature than 4,100K appearing "cool" and those of a lower color
temperature than 3,100K being "warm."
Color Rendering Index (CRI): Color rendition describes the effect a light source has
on the appearance of colored objects. The color-rendering capability of a lamp is
measured as the CRI.
The higher the CRI, the less distortion of the object's color by the lamp's
light output.
The scale ranges from 0 to 100. A CRI of 100 indicates that there is no color
shift as compared to a reference source. The lower the CRI, the more
pronounced the shift may be. CRI values should only be compared among
lamps of similar color temperature.

99
Quantity of Light
The total light from a light source is measured in lumens. Lamps are now labeled
with measured lumen ratings and efficiency ratings (efficacy).
The quantity of light that falls on a work surface is measured in footcandles.

One footcandle = one lumen per square foot of area.
An illuminance meter is a useful tool to measure the amount of light in work
spaces. It is important to understand that the footcandle measure indicates
only a level of illuminance.
Quality of Light
Lighting quality is complex and there is no single measure

highly subjective and not easily quantified
certain quality characteristics
Veiling reflections (reflected glare) detract from lighting quality by obscuring

task details by reducing contrast - most noticeable from luminaires located in front
of and above the viewing task.
Glare: is defined as the sensation produced by brightness within the visual field,
sufficiently greater than the brightness to which the eye is adapted to cause a loss of
visual performance. Building interiors has discomfort glare.
Remove glare:
Louvers such as are found in deep-cell parabolic luminaires or low-glare

acrylic lenses that reduce surface brightness at high viewing angles
Use of indirect lighting

Lamp color also affects lighting quality. Recommendations regarding pleasant
combinations of lamp color temperature and illuminance are changing and are best
left to building occupant preferences.
When lamps of good color rendering are used, illuminance may be lowered
to achieve equivalent brightness and visual clarity. Example: When
upgrading from cool-white lamps to higher CRI T8 lamps, employees may
respond that the new lamps are "too bright."
Lamp flicker can also reduce lighting quality.
Flicker is especially noticeable at high light levels, such as industrial

inspection lighting.
Electronic ballasts that operate fluorescent lamps at high frequency can

100

reduce flicker to an imperceptible level.

To improve lighting quality, it is important to balance office lighting for visual
performance and for visual comfort.
Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) is a rating of lighting systems that is expressed
as a percentage of people who will find the lighting system acceptable in terms of
discomfort glare. IESNA minimum recommendation for office interiors is 70%, and
the recommendation for computer applications is 80%.

101
Lamps
LAMP TYPES
Incandescent
The oldest practical lamp type,

inexpensive and available in hundreds of sizes, shapes and wattages and are
easily dimmed.
very inefficient
short lamp life
contribute to building heat.
voltage-sensitive, with lamp life, lumen output, and wattage dependent on
the applied voltage.
Tungsten-halogen
more efficient than standard incandescent lamps

A halogen fill gas combines with the tungsten molecules that boil off the
filament
increases the LPW (Luminous Efficacy)
whiter light
longer life
lowers the LLD.
Fluorescent Lamps
commonly used lamp type in commercial and industrial applications

electric discharge source in which light is generated when ultraviolet (UV)
energy from a mercury arc strikes a fluorescent phosphor on the inside
surface of the tube
tube contains mercury vapor at low pressure and a small amount of inert
argon gas (or krypton in reduced-wattage lamps)
long life (12,000-20,000 hours)
high efficacy (75-90 LPW)
excellent color rendering, especially w/ newer rare-earth (RE) lamps.
temperature-sensitive
rated life depends upon the hours per start.
ballast is required to properly start and operate fluorescent lamps.
Least sensitive to voltage variations
Compact Fluorescent Lamps
folded or bridged tube design with high CRI

long life (10,000 hours)
available in preheat and rapid-start models.

102

used as alternatives to incandescent lighting.

Configurations now include twin tubes, quad tubes, and triple tubes in both
preheat and rapid- start models.
High-Intensity Discharge Lamps
classified as electric arc discharge lamps

operate under high pressure and generate their light directly from the arc.
The arc is contained in a small arc tube that is enclosed in a larger outer glass
bulb. The outer glass may be clear or coated on the inside with a fluorescent
phosphor.
Included in this classification are:
o mercury vapor - oldest HID source and is now considered obsolete.
The disadvantages of MV lamps include poor color rendition, lumen
depreciation, and high mercury content
o metal halide
replacement lamp for MV lamps,
arc tube contains, in addition to smaller amounts of mercury,
additives called metal halides that provide a brighter, whiter
light
improved lumen and color performance
for safety reasons prevent MH lamps from reaching
"nonpassive failure" by turning these systems off at least 15
minutes every week, group relamping before the end of rated
life, and operating in the correct position and on matching
ballasts.
A metal halide lamp can use a number of different metals, each
of which give off a specific characteristic color:

dysprosiumbroad blue-green

indiumnarrow blue

lithiumnarrow red

scandiumbroad blue-green

sodiumnarrow yellow

thalliumnarrow green

tinbroad orange-red
Disadvantage: tendency to shift colors as lamp ages
o high-pressure sodium lamps
primary source for industrial lighting, highway, and street
lighting
HPS lamps have a characteristic yellow color, high efficacy-60
to 140 LPW depending on wattage
long life rating of 24,000 hours
Standard HPS lamps cycle at the end of their life, indicating the
need for replacement., but recent advances include higher CRI
models and models that do not cycle at end of life.
A double arc-tube HPS lamp is available for safety and security
applications.

103
HID lamps require time to strike and, when power is removed, longer to
cool down and restrike.
The National Electric Code (NEC) requires a backup lighting system for
HID lighting for public safety.
high lumen ratings
long life

Ballasts
Ballasts are required to start and operate fluorescent and HID lamps
(discharge lamps)
Functions:
o provide the right voltage to start the arc discharge
o regulate the lamp current to stabilize light output
o In rapid-start ballasts, a third function is to provide the energy to
heat the electrodes.
Original electromagnetic units that consist of a core of magnetic steel
laminations surrounded by two copper or aluminum coils. The efficiency of
magnetic ballasts has been improved by using low-loss magnetic material
and copper windings, resulting in lower internal losses.
New electronic ballasts

Fluorescent ballasts are provided to operate fluorescent lamps in the following
ways:
Preheat: Lamp electrodes are heated prior to the application of a high
starting voltage that initiates the arc discharge.
The starting electrode voltage is applied through a "starter," a thermal switch
that, when it opens, applies the high starting voltage across the electrodes.
No power is applied to heat the cathodes during operation.
Lamps of less than 30 watts are usually operated preheat causes
"flickering" when starting.
The ballast has two windings to provide the proper low voltage to the
electrodes during starting and operation.
Rapid-Start: Lamp electrodes are heated prior to and during operation,
characterized by smooth starting and long lamp life.
Instant-Start: Lamp electrodes are not heated, provide a high open-circuit
voltage across the unheated electrodes to initiate the arc discharge. Instant-
start operation is more efficient than rapid-start, but as in preheat, lamp life
is shorter.
Ballast efficiency is regulated by the federal appliance standard to meet a
minimum ballast efficacy factor (BEF). BEF is used to compare the
performance of ballasts on a specific lamp, and is not of particular value in
evaluating efficiency opportunities.
The percent rated light output is found by multiplying the ballast factor by
100 percent.

104

Ballast factor (BF) is a ratio:

Lamps lumen output on commercial ballast
= --------------------------------------------------------
Lamp's rated light output
The efficiency of fluorescent ballasts can be improved when fluorescent lamps

are operated by an electronic ballast at high frequency - they convert the input
power to light output more efficiently.
o The LPW of the lamp/electronic ballast combination is increased,
producing more light for the same power, or producing the same light with
lower power.
o System input watts can actually be less than the total of the lamp wattages. In
fact, when a 32-watt T8 lamp is operated at high frequency, it consumes
only about 28 watts, making the system input about 60 watts. The actual
watt input is controlled by the ballast factor, which can range from 47 to 130
percent.
Generally, the lower the ballast factor, the lower the input watts. Proper
selection of all electronic ballast parameters are important for successful lighting
applications.

Luminaires
Complete package of fixture plus lamp, ballast, lenses, etc. Optical system
includes the lamp cavity and diffusing media and includes one or more of the
following components:
Reflectors redirect light by using the principle of reflection.

Retrofit reflectors upgrade the performance of fluorescent luminaires
by increasing the interior reflectance.
A refractor is a component that redirects light by refraction.
Lenses are made of a transparent or translucent material that has a
prismatic configuration on the bottom surface to alter the directional
characteristics of light passing through it.
o Polystyrene lenses are the least expensive, but yellow due to the
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from lamps.
o Lenses made from acrylic are light-stabilized and do not discolor.
Translucent sheets of milky-white plastic, called diffusers, scatter light
uniformly in all directions below the ceiling plane, reducing source
brightness and shielding the lamps.
Baffles are one-way louvers made of metal or plastic.
Louvers consist of baffles, arranged in a geometric pattern, that control
the light distribution and shield the source from view at certain angles.
Products range from small-cell plastic louvers to large-cell aluminum

105
louvers.
Parabolic luminaires use large-cell louvers in a parabolic shape. The
resulting light distribution reduces glare, controls light output, and has
high aesthetic appeal.
Paracube louvers are small metallic-coated plastic squares; one-inch
squares are the most common size. Small-cell louvers have high visual
comfort probability (VCP), but sacrifice luminaire efficiency and spacing
criteria. The highly polished surfaces used in some louvers and reflectors
are called specular.
Semi-specular finishes reflect some of the light directionally, with some
amount of diffusion.
Types of Luminaires
Luminaires are classified according to the manner in which they control or
distribute their light output. They can be direct (downward), indirect (upward) or
direct-indirect.
Direct luminaires can be open or shielded.
Indirect luminaires radiate light up to a reflecting ceiling.
Direct-indirect luminaires combine the efficiency and high CU of direct
luminaires with the uniformity and glare control of indirect luminaires.
Luminaire Light-Loss Factors
Luminaire surface depreciation is the nonrecoverable light-loss factor that

describes how light is lost as the reflecting surfaces degrade over time.
Luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD) is the recoverable light loss factor that
describes how light is lost from the initial illuminance provided by clean, new
luminaires after dirt collects on the reflecting surfaces at the time when it is
expected that cleaning will be done.

Photometrics
A Photometric Report for a luminaire shows the light distribution in the form of a
polar graph and a table whose values represent the variation in candlepower
of a luminaire in a given reference plane.
106

Lighting Controls
switching
occupancy sensors
scheduling controls
photocells
Lighting Control Strategies

Tuning, daylight harvesting, and lumen depreciation compensation are the
three major control strategies used to reduce lighting power.
Tuning - adjusting the light output of luminaires to a specific level needed

for a task or to achieve a particular aesthetic environment. (Dimming is one
type of tuning strategy.)
Daylight harvesting systems change the light level gradually according to
the daylight level using photosensors. Unlike photocells that switch lights
based on light level, these silicon sensors have an analog output that depends
on the amount of light falling on them.
Lumen depreciation compensation employs special photosensors that
detect the actual light level and track the lumen depreciation of the lamps.
When the lamps are new and surfaces clean, the output of the dimming
ballasts and input power is low, saving energy. Input power and light level
gradually increase as lamps age and surfaces accumulate dirt, to compensate
for these depreciation effects.
Sensor Types:
o Ultrasonic personnel sensors offer the greatest coverage. Some of
these sensors can cover up to 2,000 square feet.
o A personnel sensor turns off or decreases the lighting automatically
when there are no people in the covered area.
o Some audio sensors can cover up to 1,600 square feet.
o Infrared sensors cover much less area, up to 130 square feet.
Lighting Efficiency and Retrofits - Steps

1. Use the most efficient lamp-ballast combination. Lamps and ballasts should
be selected as a system and the ballast factor (BF) taken into consideration.
2. Use the most efficient luminaire for the application.
3. Consider increasing the efficiency of the space with light-colored ceilings,
walls, and partitions.
4. Consider task-ambient lighting.
5. Consider lighting controls to limit the time lights are on in unoccupied
spaces, or to reduce lighting power.

107
Maintenance
The light output of lighting systems decreases over time

Many lighting systems are overdesigned to compensate for future,
unnecessary light loss
Improving maintenance practices can reduce light loss and allow reductions
in energy consumption or improve light levels.
Group maintenance practices save money.
Proper maintenance is the most neglected, most cost-effective way of
reducing the overall cost of lighting.
When maintenance is not performed, performance suffers gradually. The
final result is a degraded lighting system performing at as low as 50 percent
of its capability.
Lumen depreciation, luminaire dirt depreciation, and room surface dirt
depreciation light loss factors can be recovered by performing maintenance.

Measurements
Luminous Efficacy = Lumens/Watts

Color Temperature: Appearance of light generated vs. black bodied radiator
at that temp on the absolute temp scale (degrees Kelvin).
Color Rendering Index (from 0 to 1): How well can you distinguish colors
under a light with a particular color temperature.
Illuminance: Light level; the amount of light produced by a light source.
Equal to luminous intensity divided by the square of the distance between
the light source and the point of observation.

Measurement Devices

Light measurement

Digital Illuminance Meter

Light Meter or Foot candle meter measures light intensity, the amount of
illumination the inside surface of a one-foot-radius sphere would be
receiving if there were a uniform point source of one candela in the exact
center of the sphere. Alternatively, it can be defined as the illuminance on a
one-square foot surface of which there is a uniformly distributed flux of
one lumen.

Other Devices

Operating Hour Monitor
Occupancy monitor
Occupancy sensor

108


The Zonal Cavity Design Method, also called the lumen method, is a process for
determining the number of lamps needed in a specific area to provide adequate
lighting. The lumen method uses the equation:

N = F A / (Lu L Cu) where

N is number of lamps needed
F is the required foot-candle level at the work area
A is area of the room square feet
Lu is lamp output in lumens
L is the depreciation factor for the lamp and fixture
Cu is coefficient of utilization

Most of these terms are self explanatory. The depreciation factor L is the light
delivered to the light emitted, after accounting for dirt and deposits in and on
the lamp and fixture. The coefficient of utilization Cu is the ratio of delivered
lumens to radiated lumens and is caused by absorption of light in the walls
and ceiling. Manufacturers data is provided for a lamps coefficient of
utilization.

Room Cavity Ratio (for regular rooms shaped like a square or rectangle)

= [5 x Room Cavity Depth x (Room Length + Room Width)] (Room Length x

Room Width)

Room Cavity Ratio (for irregular-shaped rooms) = (2.5 x Room Cavity
Depth x Perimeter) Area in Square Feet

Ceiling Cavity Ratio = [5 x Ceiling Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room
Width)] (Room Length x Room Width)

Floor Cavity Ratio = [5 x Floor Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room
Width)] Room Length x Room Width

Room Surface Reflectance (%) = Reflected Reading Incident Reading
Reflected Reading = Measurement from a light meter holding it about 1.5
feet away from the surface with the sensor parallel and facing the surface.

Incident Reading = Measurement from a light meter held flat against the
surface and facing out into the room.

109
Calculating Number of Lamps And Fixtures And Spacing

Maximum Allowable Spacing Between Fixtures = Fixture Spacing Criteria
x Mounting Height

Mounting height (MH): Distance in feet between the bottom of the fixture
and the workplane

Spacing Between Fixtures = Square Root of (Area in Square Feet
Required No. of Fixtures)

Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Row (Nrow) = Room Length
Spacing

Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Column (Ncolumn) = Room
Width Spacing

For the above two formulas, round results to the nearest whole integer.
Spacing row = Room Length (Number of Fixtures/Row - 1/3)

Spacing column = Room Width (Number of Fixtures/Column -1/3)

If the resulting number of fixtures does not equal the originally calculated
number, calculate impact on the designed light level:

% Design Light Level = Actual No. of Fixtures Originally Calculated No. of
Fixtures

To calculate fixtures mounted in continuous rows:

Number of Luminaires in a Continuous Row = (Room Length Fixture
Length) - 1

Number of Continuous Rows = Total Number of Fixtures Fixtures Per
Row

Lamp Maintenance

Calendar Lamp Life (Years) = Rated Lamp Life (Hours) Annual Hours of
Operation (Hours/Year)

Lamp Burnout Factor = [1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without
Being Replaced]

110

5.4 Lighting SURVEY

Location
Lighting level
Hours and Days of operation
# fixtures
# lamps on
Color?
Task Lighting?
Required light levels

5.5 Regulatory

Proper Disposal
Energy Act 1992 restricted production of incandescents, T12s; established
lighting efficacy and color index standards

EMOs:
Electronic Ballasts more effective than coil or core ballasts Ballasts limit
the current through an electrical load by providing resistance.
Lighting Controls: dimmers, occupancy sensors
Switches access to switches in rooms occupied
Timers
Photocell detects daylight, turn off lighting when daylight is available

Series resistors are used as ballasts to control the current through LEDs.

Top 10 Lighting Retrofits
10. Occupancy sensors for interior lighting control. Choose the right
technology and ensure it is applied correctly. Remember, PIR cannot see
behind obstructions.
9. Astronomical electronic timer for exterior lighting control. This means
lights on at dusk, off at dawn; an additional channel allows timed control of
lights at fixed times. It is a cost-effective alternative to photocells.
8. Switch/timer for interior spaces where sensors are not cost-effective.
Use the preset, electronic switchplate or switch version, which is low-cost and
has a good payback. Use switch-type for electronic ballasts; the warning flick
model is recommended.
7. Exit light LED (solid-state light-emitting diode) kit. Either LED tubes or

111
arrays; products that overdrive the LED's will shorten life and cause lamp
lumen depreciation.
6. T8/electronic ballast fixture upgrade. Retrofit or change to new fixtures,
depending on cost-effectiveness, the need to retain UL listing, and ceiling
material (asbestos). New fixtures optimize performance and retain UL listing.
Retrofits are good for asbestos ceilings, but violate UL listing if sockets are
relocated.
5. Exit light retrofit lamps. Try special long-life incandescent lamps, usually
in a "twist-of-the-wrist" (TOW) light tube.
4. T10 "quick and dirty" fixture upgrade. The simplest is a four-lamp to two-
lamp retrofit using two 3,700-lumen T10 lamps and one of two existing T12
two-lamp ballasts (remove and dispose of the second ballast). This works
well for 34-watt T12 replacements; disadvantage is T10 cost.
3. Self-ballasted compact fluorescent lamps (CFL's). In a TOW retrofit to
replace incandescent lamps watch equivalency recommendations; you
usually need one size higher because of multiple sensitivities of CFL's that
need to be calculated for actual lumen output (position, temperature, BF, and
LLD).
2. R and PAR lamp replacements. TOW retrofit to replace older, less-efficient
incandescent floods and spots. Newer bulbs replace those banned by EPAct
and have the same light output and beam patterns. Usually tungsten- halogen
(T-H), krypton R lamps, or ER lamps replace 75R30 in down-lights.
1. Energy-efficient incandescent bulbs. A TOW retrofit using reduced
wattage bulbs with the same light output as standard wattage incandescent
bulbs. Krypton gas is an older technology, T-H is the newest.
Note: Although simple, the TOW approach lacks persistence. The TOW may
be replaced by something less expensive and less efficient.

112

XIV. LIGHTING SYSTEMS

SUBJECT TOPICS
Light Sources
Lamp Life
Lumens
Coefficient of Utilization
Lamp Lumen Depreciation
Dimming
Color Temperature
Visual Comfort Factor
Ballasts
Lighting Retrofits
EPACT 2005 Lighting Efficiency
Efficiency and Efficacy

Strike and Restrike
Footcandles
Inverse Square Law
Room Cavity Ratios
Light Loss Factors
Lighting Controls
Color Rendering Index
Reflectors
Ballast Factor
IES Lighting Standards
LED Lighting

REF:
Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 4.

REF:
Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 13.
REF:
Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 5.

XV. BOILER AND STEAM SYSTEMS

SUBJECT TOPICS
Combustion Efficiency
Excess Air
Steam Traps
Condensate Return
Waste Heat Recovery
Scaling and Fouling
HHV and LHV
Air to Fuel Ratio

Boiler Economizers
Steam Leaks
Boiler Blowdown
Flash Steam
Turbulators
Condensing Boilers

REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 5 and 6.
REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 7 and 8.

MAINTENANCE SUBJECT TOPICS
Combustion Control
Steam Leaks
Insulation
Group Relamping
Preventive Maintenance
Boiler Scale
Compressed Air Leaks

Steam Traps
Outside Air Ventilation
Scheduled Maintenance
Proactive Maintenance
Water Treatment

COMMISSIONING SUBJECT TOPICS
Purpose of Commissioning
Need for Commissioning
Retro-Commissioning
Measurement and Verification
Phases of Commissioning
Commissioning Documentation
Benefits of Commissioning
Commissioning New Buildings
Real Time and Continuous Commissioning
Commissioning Agent
Facility Design Intent
Re-commissioning

113
6.
HVAC Systems Heating Volume Air Cooling

Heat Transfer

Conduction Transfer from hot side to cooler side through a medium

Convection Heat transferred between a moving liquid or gas and some

conducting surface
Radiation waves (no medium)

Types of HVAC systems

n Single zone, which is used in one conditioned area, or with a group of areas with
similar heat and cooling needs.
n Multizone systems use cooled and heated air that is mixed under the
control of thermostats located at the individual zones.
o Dual duct systems are of the multizone type with the air mixing done at
the individual zone locations.
o Variable Air Volume systems deliver varying amount of conditioned air
at a constant temperature as required.

A unit heater has a fan and a heating coil but no ducting.
Perimeter radiation has heaters with no fans.
Hot water converters use a heat exchanger consisting of concentric pipes
containing steam or hot water circulated around the conditioned air.

In a Constant Air Volume (CAV) air handling system, the ventilation device is
operated at a constant speed, which produces a constant flow of conditioned air.
Various control devices such as valves and dampers are operated to maintain the
temperature. The efficiency is limited.

A Variable Air Volume (VAV) unit offers variable speed control that modifies the
volume of conditioned air that is delivered VAV controls temperatures by
controlling air movement. Usually the control is by VFDs for the fans but it may
also be by mechanical adjustment. VAV systems are inherently more efficient than
CAV as they only supply the air required to provide the required comfort. Power
requirements relate to the cube of air movement; thus, less air volume means less
electrical load.

Installing a fan inlet damper system is a good strategy for conserving
energy in a VAV system.

Another possibility would be to install static pressure controls so that the
pressure bypass dampers can be regulated more effectively.

114

HVAC Deck Systems use hot and cold decks to manage the intake of outside air and
the output of indoor, conditioned air. For large HVAC systems, hot and cold decks
are an efficient way for handling and conditioning hot and cold air according to the
needs of each building zone. Generally:

Air traveling over cooling coils is pushed into one duct holding cool air.
Air traveling over heating coils is pushed into another duct storing hot air for
ventilation.

A mixture of cool and hot air can also be supplied as the hot deck damper opens and
the cold deck damper closes

Terminal Reheat Air System (single zone system) supplies a constant volume of
air, at a constant temperature, through a single duct run. This air handling fan
supplies air through a run of duct and provides air to in-duct heating coils.
Heating coil cannot be modified in a reheat system.
o Operates when the cooling load is less than maximum.
o Uses more energy, though provides a high degree of temperature and
humidity control FOR A SINGLE ZONE.

The air temperature is selected low enough to cool the highest heat gain area,
usually at 55 to 60 deg F. The thermostat-controlled reheat coils heat the air
delivered to areas that do not require the full cooling capacity of the air.

Room thermostats modulate the reheat coil control valves to control the
volume of heating water passing through the reheat coil to regulate the temperature
of the air entering the area.

Increasing the air volume of single-zone units would reduce the energy efficiency of
a terminal reheat HVAC system. Instead, the air volume of single-zone units should
be decreased to promote efficiency.

Remotely mixing air

Induction systems - conditioned air is mixed with recirculated room air at
individual control boxes. The primary air is delivered at high pressure
and the addition of room air is induced by the flow of the cooled air from
its nozzles.

A fan coil system conditions all of the return air in a small terminal called a
fan coil unit (FCU). The FCU contains only a blower and a heating and
cooling coil.

115
A unit ventilator conditions return and outside air, which is mixed as

required. It circulates, heats, cools, and filters the air while allowing outside
air in through a controlled damper.

Induction systems use secondary water ???????????

Demand Control Ventilation

Demand control ventilation is a means of ventilation control where the quantity of
outside air that is mixed into the HVAC system is variable and is determined
by demand rather than being at a preset value. This procedure can save
considerable energy by reducing the quantity of warmer outside air introduced
when it is not needed.

The alternative is to use a fixed mixing ratio based on the design occupancy
levels for each zone in the building.

ASHRAE Standard 62 prescribes a ventilation standard of 15 cubic feet of outside
air per building occupant. This level may be ensured by controlling the indoor CO2
content. The ventilation demand in each zone can be determined by remote CO2
sensors in a similar manner as a thermostat that regulates the degree of cooling or
heating supplied.

116

Heat Exchangers

A metallic radiation recuperator is the simplest type of heat exchanger.

It comprises two metal tubes, one inside the other.
Ceramic-tube recuperator are similar, but allow operation at much

higher temperatures.
A convective recuperator consists of several parallel tubes through

which hot gases are carried, as combustion air flows in the same direction
along the outside.
A combined radiation and convective recuperator provides the

maximum effectiveness of heat transfer.

Double pipe heat exchanger

Double pipe heat exchangers are the simplest exchangers used in industries.
Low efficiency
High space occupied for such exchangers in large scales

Shell and tube heat exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes.
One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled.
The second fluid runs over the tubes (in the shell) that are being heated or
cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required.

A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of
tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.

Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure
applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar (435+ psig) and temperatures
greater than 260 C). This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust
due to their shape.

Several thermal design features must be considered when designing the tubes in
the shell and tube heat exchangers:
Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both
economical and compact. However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to
foul up faster and the small size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling
difficult.
Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined
to ensure:
o There is enough room for corrosion

117
o That flow-induced vibration has resistance

o Axial strength
o Availability of spare parts
o Hoop strength (to withstand internal tube pressure)
o Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure in the shell)
Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller
shell diameter and a long tube length.
Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube
pitch (i.e., the centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1.25
times the tubes' outside diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger overall
shell diameter, which leads to a more expensive heat exchanger.
Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for the inner tubes,
increases the turbulence of the fluids and the effect is very important in the
heat transfer giving a better performance.
Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are
four main types of tube layout, which are, triangular (30), rotated triangular
(60), square (90) and rotated square (45). The triangular patterns are
employed to give greater heat transfer as they force the fluid to flow in a
more turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed
where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular.
Baffle Design: baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct
fluid across the tube bundle, run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the
bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length.
o Segmental baffle - The semicircular segmental baffles are oriented at
180 degrees to the adjacent baffles forcing the fluid to flow upward
and downwards between the tube bundle.
o Baffles must be spaced with consideration for the conversion of
pressure drop and heat transfer.
o For thermo economic optimization it is suggested that the baffles be
spaced no closer than 20% of the shells inner diameter.
o Having baffles spaced too closely causes a greater pressure drop
because of flow redirection, but also important to ensure the baffles
are spaced close enough that the tubes do not sag.
o Disc and donut baffle, which consists of two concentric baffles. An
outer, wider baffle looks like a donut, whilst the inner baffle is shaped
like a disk. This type of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side
of the disk then through the donut baffle generating a different type of
fluid flow.
Plate Heat Exchanger
Multiple, thin, slightly separated plates that have very large surface areas and
fluid flow passages for heat transfer.
This stacked-plate arrangement can be more effective, in a given space,

than the shell and tube heat exchanger.
118

While being less effective than rotary type systems, fixed plate heat exchangers
have no moving parts. Plates consist of alternating layers of plates that are
separated and sealed. Typical flow is cross current and since the majority of plates
are solid and non permeable, sensible only transfer is the result.
The tempering of incoming fresh air is done by a heat or energy recovery core.
Humidity levels are adjusted through the transferring of water vapor. This is
done with a rotating wheel either containing a desiccant material or permeable
plates. In this case, the core is made of aluminum or plastic plates.
o Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-type heat
exchanger increasingly practical.
o In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers of this type are called plate-
and-frame; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are normally of
the gasket type to allow periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection.
o There are many types of permanently bonded plate heat exchangers, such
as dip-brazed, vacuum-brazed, and welded plate varieties, and they are often
specified for closed-loop applications such as refrigeration.
o Plate heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates that are used, and
in the configurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped with
"chevron", dimpled, or other patterns, where others may have
machined fins and/or grooves.

Plate and Shell Heat Exchanger
Combines plate heat exchanger with shell and tube heat exchanger
technologies.
The heart of the heat exchanger contains a fully welded circular plate pack
made by pressing and cutting round plates and welding them together.
Plate and shell technology offers high heat transfer, high pressure,
high operating temperature, compact size, low fouling and close
approach temperature. In particular, it does completely without gaskets,
which provides security against leakage at high pressures and
temperatures.

Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger
Uses an intermediate fluid or solid store to hold heat, which is then moved to the
other side of the heat exchanger to be released. Two examples:
Adiabatic wheels, which consist of a large wheel with fine threads rotating
through the hot and cold fluids
Fluid heat exchangers.

Plate fin heat exchanger

119
Uses "sandwiched" passages containing fins to increase the effectiveness of

the unit. The designs include crossflow and counterflow coupled with various fin
configurations such as straight fins, offset fins and wavy fins.
Plate and fin heat exchangers are usually made of aluminum alloys, which provide
high heat transfer efficiency. The material enables the system to operate at a
lower temperature and reduce the weight of the equipment.
Advantages:
High heat transfer efficiency especially in gas treatment (natural

gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation plants and
transport industries such as motor and aircraft engines.)
Larger heat transfer area
Approximately 5 times lighter in weight than that of shell and tube
heat exchanger.
Able to withstand high pressure
Disadvantages:
Might cause clogging as the pathways are very narrow

Difficult to clean the pathways
Aluminum alloys are susceptible to Mercury Liquid
Embrittlement Failure

Pillow plate heat exchanger
Commonly used in the dairy industry for cooling milk in large direct-expansion
stainless steel bulk tanks. The pillow plate allows for cooling across nearly the
entire surface area of the tank, without gaps that would occur between pipes
welded to the exterior of the tank.
The pillow plate is constructed using a thin plate welded in a regular pattern
of dots or with a serpentine pattern of weld lines. After welding the enclosed
space is pressurized with sufficient force to cause the thin metal to bulge out
around the welds, providing a space for heat exchanger liquids to flow, and
creating a characteristic appearance of a swelled pillow formed out of metal.

Fluid heat exchangers
This is a heat exchanger with a gas passing upwards through a shower of fluid
(often water), and the fluid is then taken elsewhere before being cooled. This is
commonly used for cooling gases whilst also removing certain impurities, thus
solving two problems at once. It is widely used in espresso machines as an
energy-saving method of cooling super-heated water to use in the extraction of
espresso.

120

Waste Heat Recovery Units
A Waste Heat Recovery Unit (WHRU) is a heat exchanger that recovers heat from a
hot gas stream while transferring it to a working medium, typically water or
oils.
The hot gas stream can be the exhaust gas from a gas turbine or a diesel engine
or a waste gas from industry or refinery.
Big systems with high volume and temperature gas stream, typical on
industry, can benefit from Steam Rankine Cycle (SRC) in a WHRU.
The recover of heat from low temperature systems requires more efficient
working fluids than steam.
An Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) WHRU can be more efficient at low
temperature range using Refrigerant that boil at lower temperatures then
water. Typical organic refrigerants are Ammonia, Pentafluoropropane(R-
245fa and R-245ca), and Toluene.
The refrigerant is boiled by the heat source in the Evaporator to produce
super-heated vapor. This fluid is expanded in the turbine to convert
thermal energy to kinetic energy; that is, converted to electricity in the
electrical generator. This energy transfer process decreases the
temperature of the refrigerant that, in turn, condenses. The cycle is closed
and completed using a pump to send the fluid back to the evaporator.

Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger
Another type of heat exchanger is called "(Dynamic) Scraped Surface Heat

Exchanger". This is mainly used for heating or cooling with high-
viscosity products, crystallization processes, evaporation and high-
fouling applications. Long running times are achieved due to the continuous
scraping of the surface, thus avoiding fouling and achieving a sustainable heat
transfer rate during the process.

Phase-change heat exchangers

In addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in just a single phase, heat

exchangers can be used either:
To heat a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it
Used as condensers to cool a vapor and condense it to a liquid.

In chemical plants and refineries, reboilers used to heat incoming feed for
distillation towers are often heat exchangers. Distillation set-ups typically use
condensers to condense distillate vapors back into liquid.

121
Change
Continuous Driving
Phases[11]
of
Examples
phase
force
phase
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Gravity No
Spray columns, packed columns
Cooling towers, falling droplet evaporators
Yes

Forced No
Liquid
flow
Spray condensers/evaporation, jet

condensers
Liquid
Gravity No
Yes
Yes
Spray coolers/quenchers
Bubble columns, perforated tray columns

Bubble column condensers
Forced No
Gas spargers
In chemistry, sparging, also known as gas
flushing in metallurgy, is a technique which
involves bubbling a chemically inert gas, such
as nitrogen, argon, or helium, through a liquid.
This can be used to remove dissolved
gases (e.g. oxygen) from the liquid.

Gas flow Yes
Direct contact evaporators, submerged

combustion

Direct contact heat exchangers
Direct contact heat exchangers involve heat transfer between hot and cold streams
of two phases in the absence of a separating wall. Thus such heat exchangers can be
classified as:
Gas liquid
Immiscible liquid liquid
Solid-liquid or solid gas
Such types of heat exchangers are used predominantly in air conditioning,

humidification, industrial hot water heating, water cooling and condensing plants.

HVAC Air Coils
One of the widest uses of heat exchangers is for air conditioning of buildings
and vehicles. This class of heat exchangers is commonly called air coils, or just
coils due to their often-serpentine internal tubing.
Liquid-to-air, or air-to-liquid HVAC coils are typically of modified crossflow
arrangement. In vehicles, heat coils are often called heater cores.
122

On the liquid side of these heat exchangers, the common fluids are water, a water-
glycol solution, steam, or a refrigerant.
For heating coils, hot water and steam are the most common, and this
heated fluid is supplied by boilers, for example.
For cooling coils, chilled water and refrigerant are most common. When
a refrigerant is used, the cooling coil is the evaporator in the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle, commonly called DX coils. Some DX coils
are "microchannel" type.
On the air side of HVAC coils a significant difference exists between those used for
heating, and those for cooling.
Heating coils need not consider moisture condensation on their air-side

Cooling coils must be adequately designed and selected to handle their
particular latent (moisture) as well as the sensible (cooling) loads.
Water that is removed is called condensate.

Spiral heat exchangers
A spiral heat exchanger (SHE), may refer to a helical (coiled) tube configuration, more
generally, the term refers to a pair of flat surfaces that are coiled to form the two
channels in a counter-flow arrangement.
The main advantage of the Spiral Heat Exchanger is its highly efficient use of space.
This attribute is often leveraged and partially reallocated to gain other improvements in
performance, according to well known tradeoffs in heat exchanger design. (A notable
tradeoff is capital cost vs operating cost.)
A compact SHE may be used to have a smaller footprint and thus lower allaround capital costs
Over-sized SHE may be used to have less pressure drop, less pumping energy,
higher thermal efficiency, and lower energy costs.
Self cleaning: SHEs are often used in the heating of fluids that contain solids
and thus tend to foul the inside of the heat exchanger. The low pressure drop lets
the SHE handle fouling more easily.
Self-Cleaning Water filters are used to keep the system clean and running without the
need to shut down or replace cartridges and bags.
There are three main types of flows in a spiral heat exchanger:
1. Counter-current Flow: Fluids flow in opposite directions. These are used for
liquid-liquid, condensing and gas cooling applications. Units are usually
mounted vertically when condensing vapor and mounted horizontally when
handling high concentrations of solids.

123
2. Spiral Flow/Cross Flow: One fluid is in spiral flow and the other in a cross flow.
Spiral flow passages are welded at each side for this type of spiral heat
exchanger. This type of flow is suitable for handling low density gas, which
passes through the cross flow, avoiding pressure loss. It can be used for liquidliquid applications if one liquid has a considerably greater flow rate than the
other.
3. Distributed Vapor/Spiral flow: This design is that of a condenser, and is
usually mounted vertically. It is designed to cater for the sub-cooling of both
condensate and non-condensables. The coolant moves in a spiral and leaves via
the top. Hot gases that enter leave as condensate via the bottom outlet.
The SHE is good for applications such as pasteurization, digester heating, heat
recovery, pre-heating (see: recuperator), and effluent cooling. For sludge treatment,
SHEs are generally smaller than other types of heat exchangers.

Heat Exchanger Selection Criterion

Cost
High/low pressure limits
Thermal performance
Temperature ranges
Product mix (liquid/liquid, particulates or high-solids liquid)
Pressure drops across the exchanger
Fluid flow capacity
Cleanability, maintenance and repair
Materials required for construction
Ability and ease of future expansion
Material selection, such as copper, aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel,
nickel alloys, and titanium.

Typically in the manufacturing industry, several differing types of heat
exchangers are used for just the one process or system to derive the final
product. Example:
Kettle (reboiler) HX for pre-heating
Double pipe HX for the carrier fluid
Plate and frame HX for final cooling

Fouling occurs when impurities deposit on the heat exchange surface. Deposition of
these impurities can decrease heat transfer effectiveness significantly over time and
are caused by:
Low wall shear stress
Low fluid velocities
High fluid velocities
Reaction product solid precipitation

Types of Fouling:

124

Crude Oil Exchanger Fouling. A series of shell and tube heat exchangers
typically exchange heat between crude oil and other oil streams to heat the
crude to 260 C prior to heating in a furnace. Fouling occurs on the crude side
of these exchangers due to asphaltene insolubility.
Cooling Water Fouling. Cooling water typically has a high total dissolved
solids content and suspended colloidal solids. To prevent fouling, designers
typically ensure that cooling water velocity is greater than 0.9 m/s and bulk
fluid temperature is maintained less than 60 C. Other approaches to control
fouling control combine the blind application of biocides and anti-scale
chemicals with periodic lab testing.

Maintenance

Plate heat exchangers must be disassembled and cleaned periodically.
Tubular heat exchangers can be cleaned by such methods as acid
cleaning, sandblasting, high-pressure water jet, bullet cleaning, or drill
rods.
In large-scale cooling water systems for heat exchangers, water treatment
such as purification, addition of chemicals, and testing, is used to
minimize fouling of the heat exchange equipment. In steam systems for
power plants, etc. to minimize fouling and corrosion of the heat exchange and
other equipment.
A variety of companies have started using water borne oscillations
technology to prevent biofouling. Without the use of chemicals, this type of
technology has helped in providing a low-pressure drop in heat exchangers.

Economizers -- Economizers in HVAC systems facilitate the use of outside air as

a cooling source when it is appropriate.

air must be cold enough and its water content must also be low enough.
requires an additional fan to move the outside air and equipment to sense
the changeover point and control the flow.
Enthalpy controllers use the air temperature and the wet bulb temperature
or relative humidity to sense this point so that the total heat contents of the
air sources are considered.
In very dry climates, a simple temperature sensor may perform as well.

Heat Transfer



conducting surface

125
Heat Exchangers General

The minimum allowable temperature for waste streams is often closely connected
with material corrosion problems. Depending on the fuel used, combustion related
flue gases contain varying concentrations of carbon dioxide, water vapor, NOX, SOX,
unoxidized organics, and minerals. If exhaust gases are cooled below the dew
point temperature, the water vapor in the gas will condense and deposit
corrosive substances on the heat exchanger surface. Heat exchangers designed
from low-cost materials will quickly fail due to chemical attack. Therefore, heat
exchangers are generally designed to maintain exhaust temperatures above
the condensation point.

3.3.1 Challenges to Recovering Low-Temperature Waste Heat

Low-temperature heat recovery faces at least three challenges:

Corrosion of the heat exchanger surface: As water vapor contained in the
exhaust gas cools, some of it will condense and deposit corrosive solids and
liquids on the heat exchange surface. The heat exchanger must be designed
to withstand exposure to these corrosive deposits. This generally requires
using advanced materials, or frequently replacing components of the heat
exchanger, which is often uneconomical.
Large heat exchange surfaces required for heat transfer: Heat transfer
rates are a function of the thermal conductivity of the heat exchange
material, the temperature difference between the two fluid streams, and the
surface area of the heat exchanger. Since low-temperature waste heat will
involve a smaller temperature gradient between two fluid streams, larger
surface areas are required for heat transfer. This limits the economics of
heat exchangers.
Finding a use for low-temperature heat: Recovering heat in the
low-temperature range will only make sense if the plant has a use for
low-temperature heat. Potential end-uses include domestic hot water, space
heating, and low-temperature process heating. Other options include using a
heat pump to upgrade heat to a higher temperature to serve a load
requiring higher temperatures. Additionally, low-temperature power
generation technologies are slowly emerging.

Technologies are available that can cool gases below dew point temperatures
to recover low-temperature waste heat.
deep economizers
indirect contact condensation recovery
direct contact condensation recovery
recently developed transport membrane condensers

126

Power Factor
Three Phase Systems
Peak Demand Reduction
Power Quality has been limited due to hHarmonics
Commercialization
igh costs and because facilities
IEEE
PQ Standard
lack an Grounding
end-use for the recovered heat. When
facilities
lack an 519
end-use for waste
.
heat, some have found other means for recovery, including heat pumps and
REF: Mehtapand
Thumann,
Handbook
Energy Engineering,
Chapter
4. limited
low-temperature
ower
generation.
These oftechnologies
are also
frequently
by economic constraints.
V. HVAC SYSTEMS
SUBJECT TOPICS
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Affinity Laws
Performance Rating (COP, EER, kW/ton)
Psychrometric Chart
HVAC Economizers
HVAC Equipment Types
Air Distribution Systems (Reheat, Multizone, VAV)
Degree Days
Chillers
Heat Transfer
Energy Consumption Estimates
Vapor Compression Cycle
Absorption Cycle
Cooling Towers
Air and Water Based Heat Flow
ASHRAE Ventilation Standard
Demand Control Ventilation

VI.
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 7, 8.

MOTORS AND DRIVES
SUBJECT TOPICS
AC Induction Motors
DC Motors
Load Factor and Slip
Motor Speed Control
Fan and Pump Laws
Motor Selection Criteria
Motor Management Software
High Efficiency Motors
New vs Rewound Motors


127
7. Boilers

Boiler Types:

Fire Tube Boiler fuel and air combust, go through tube, heat water above tube.
Largest number of boilers installed in buildings and factories

Water Tube Boiler fuel combusts to heat water AROUND TUBES, produces
steam

Fluidized Bed Boiler can use many kinds of fuel, including waste plastic, peat,
solid waste, rice hulls, etc.

Boiler Efficiency

Typical boiler efficiency will be in the 75 - 85% range.

A boiler will operate most efficiently between 65%-85% full-load rating.

Largest number of boilers installed in buildings and factories: fire-tube boilers.

128

XIV. LIGHTING SYSTEMS

SUBJECT TOPICS
Light Sources
Lamp Life
Lumens
Coefficient of Utilization
Lamp Lumen Depreciation
Dimming
Color Temperature
Visual Comfort Factor
Ballasts
Lighting Retrofits
EPACT 2005 Lighting Efficiency
Efficiency and Efficacy

Strike and Restrike
Footcandles
Inverse Square Law
Room Cavity Ratios
Light Loss Factors
Lighting Controls
Color Rendering Index
Reflectors
Ballast Factor
IES Lighting Standards
LED Lighting


SUBJECT TOPICS
Excess Air
Steam Traps
Condensate Return
Waste Heat Recovery
Scaling and Fouling
HHV and LHV

Air to Fuel Ratio

Boiler Economizers
Steam Leaks
Boiler Blowdown
Flash Steam
Turbulators
Condensing Boilers


Combustion Control
Steam Leaks
Insulation
Group Relamping

129
Boiler Scale

Steam Traps

Water Treatment
8. Steam Distribution Systems

Steam Traps

There are three primary categories of steam traps:
mechanical
thermostatic
thermodynamic
Steam trap primary missions:
Prevent Water Hammer

Return Condensate to boiler
Improve steam quality for further processes
Remove condensate (dissolved gases) and air to prevent escape of
live steam from the distribution system

The steam trap must adapt to the application. Examples:

A disc thermodynamic steam trap should never be used together
with a modulating heat exchanger
A floating ball steam trap is overkill for draining steam pipes.

The table below can be used as a short guide for the selection of steam traps:
Operation
Type of Steam
Trap
No or
little
load
Light Load
Normal Load
Heavy Load
Float &
Thermostatic
No Action
Usually continuous.
May cycle.
Usually continuous.
May cycle.
Continuous
Inverted Bucket
Small
Dribble
May dribble
Intermittent
Bimetal
Thermostatic
No Action Usually Dribble Action
130

May blast at high

pressures
Normal
Failure
Mode
Closed
Continuous Variable
Continuous
Open
Operation
Type of Steam
Trap
Impulse
No or
little
load
Light Load
Normal Load
Heavy Load
Small
Dribble
Usually continuous
with blast at high
loads
Usually continuous
with blast at high
loads
Continuous
Open
Intermittent
Intermittent
Continuous
Open
Thermodynamic No Action
Disc
Normal
Failure
Mode

131
Inverted Bucket Steam Trap

The inverted bucket is the most reliable steam trap operating principle known.
The heart of its simple design is a unique leverage system that multiplies the
force provided by the bucket to open the valve against pressure. Since the
bucket is open at the bottom, it resists damage from water hammers, and wearing
points are heavily reinforced for long life.

excellent ability to handle dirt
excellent ability to purge system
excellent corrosion resistance
excellent energy conservation
excellent operation against back pressure
excellent performance on very light loads
excellent resistance to hydraulic shocks
excellent resistance to wear
fair ability to handle flash steam
fair ability to handle start up air loads
good resistance to damage from freezing
immediate responsiveness to slugs of condensate
intermittent operation - condensate drainage is continuous,
discharge is intermittent
large comparative physical size
open at mechanical failure
poor ability to vent air at very low pressure
small dribble at no load, intermittent at light and normal load,
continuous at full load
vents air and CO2 at steam temperature
132

Thermostatic Steam Traps

There are two basic designs for the thermostatic steam trap, a bimetallic and a
balanced pressure design. Both designs use the difference in temperature
between live steam and condensate or air to control the release of condensate
and air from the steam line.
In a thermostatic bimetallic trap it is common that an oil filled element expands
when heated to close a valve against a seat. It may be possible to adjust the
discharge temperature of the trap - often between 60oC and 100oC.
This makes the thermostatic trap suited to get rid of large quantities of air and
cold condensate at the start-up condition. On the other hand the thermostatic
trap will have problems to adapt to the variations common in modulating heat
exchangers.
delayed responsiveness to slugs of condensate

do not vent air and CO2 at steam temperature
excellent ability to handle start up air loads
fair ability to handle dirt
fair energy conservation
fair resistance to wear
good ability to purge system
good ability to vent air at very low pressure
good corrosion resistance
intermittent operation
open or closed at mechanical failure depending of the construction
poor ability to handle flash steam
poor resistance to hydraulic shocks (good for bimetal traps)
small comparative physical size

133
Float Steam Traps

In the float steam trap a valve is connected to a float in such a way that a valve
opens when the float rises.
The float steam trap adapts very well to varying conditions as is the best choice
for modulating heat exchangers, but the float steam trap is relatively expensive
and not very robust against water hammers.
closed at mechanical failure

continuous operation but may cycle at high pressures
excellent ability to handle start up air loads
excellent ability to vent air at very low pressure
fair ability to purge system
good corrosion resistance
good energy conservation
good resistance to wear
immediate responsiveness to slugs of condensate
large comparative physical size
no action at no load, continuous at full load
poor ability to handle dirt
poor resistance to damage from freezing
poor resistance to hydraulic shocks
relatively expensive
not very robust against water hammers
134

Thermodynamic Disc Steam Traps

The trap operates by means of the dynamic effect of flash steam as it passes
through the trap. The thermodynamic trap is a robust steam trap with simple
operation.
delayed responsiveness to slugs of condensate

excellent ability to purge system
excellent corrosion resistance
excellent resistance to hydraulic shocks
intermittent operation
not recommended at low pressure operations
open at mechanical failure
poor ability to handle dirt
poor ability to handle start up air loads
poor energy conservation
poor operation against back pressure
poor performance on very light loads
poor resistance to wear
small comparative physical size

135
Combustion

All fuels consist mostly of atomic Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen
(N), Sulfur (S), minerals (ash) and water (H2O).

Combustion Process

Fuel combustion means to let the molecular Oxygen (O2) in air react with the
combustible components of a fuel. As an example the fuel Carbon (C) reacts with
O2 of the air to generate Carbon Dioxide (CO2). If the reaction is incomplete Carbon
Monoxide (CO), a deadly gas, is generated.

It is worthwhile to point out that all combustion products such as CO2, CO, NOx,
CnHm, SO2, SO3, except for the water generated by combustion of H to H2O, are
harmful.

There is essentially nothing benign in stack gas, except the water vapor.
Even the water vapor, because it reacts with SO3 to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is
not really harmless.

This environmental and health threat of stack gas is one more reason to reduce
energy consumption per unit of product output.

The excess air parameter
One kg of fuel requires a certain minimum of ambient air to be fully combusted.
We call this minimum amount of air stochiometric air or theoretical air to
combust the fuel.

The stochiometric air would completely combust the fuel to Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
water (H2O), and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) if Sulfur is present.

If the fuel does not get enough air for combustion it will generate smoke and a
potential unhealthy mixture of stack gas products. In addition energy is wasted.

The same applies if too much excess air is used for combustion.

Flue gas and stack gas are the same the product that leaves the furnace after
combustion.

Gas Levels

A level of 3,000 ppm would be considered a high but not dangerous level of
carbon dioxide. Generally, experts agree that a level of carbon dioxide between

136

1,000 and 10,000 ppm is not problematic. However, levels higher than 1,000
ppm indicate improper ventilation or over-density of combustion or personnel.
Because carbon dioxide levels are considerably easier to check than the levels
of other gases, abnormally high CO2 is often an indicator for necessary
repairs.

Air - Excess Air Factor

A less trivial issue in combustion technology is therefore to ensure the proper
amount of air that minimizes environmental impact and fuel consumption. For
convenience we define the stochiometric air as the air to fuel ratio AF (kg
air/kg fuel), and the excess air factor as

The AF is a property of a fuel that can be calculated from the ultimate chemical
composition of the fuel.

AF ratio is a fuel specific parameter that has nothing to do with the
furnace design or combustion process

A burner requires 20 % excess air to correctly combust fuel oil is the same as
saying the burner operates at an excess air factor of 1.2. A ideal combustion
process would require 0 % excess air or has an excess air factor of 1.

A combustion process requiring 100 % excess air uses twice as much air as
necessary, or in other words has an excess air factor of two.

Table 1: Air-to-fuel ratio of various fuels
Phase
AF
CO2 max
wet
CO2 max
dry
Very light fuel oil
liquid
14.27
13.56
Light fuel oil
liquid
14.06
13.72
Medium heavy fuel

oil
liquid
13.79
14.00
Heavy fuel oil
liquid
13.46
14.14
Bunker C
liquid
12.63
16.23
Generic Biomass
(maf)
solid
5.88
17.91
Coal A
solid
6.97
16.09
gas
15.55
11.65
solid
11.44
21.00
Fuel
LPG (90 P : 10 B)
Carbon

137
Types Of Furnaces And Excess Air

A stoker-fired coal furnace has the highest optimal level of excess-air operation,
between 20 percent and 30 percent. At this level, the furnace will operate with
maximum efficiency. However, it may be necessary to operate with slightly higher
excess air in order to maintain safety standards.

Propane, natural gas, and coke oven gas furnaces all have an optimal excess-air
standard of between 5 percent and 10 percent.

Pulverized coal furnaces have an optimal excess-air level of between 15 percent
and 20 percent.

Derivation of excess air factor,
The amount of excess air can not be measured directly, but is rather derived from a
measurement of either the O2 or CO2 content of the stack gas. Whether one
measures O2 or CO2 is irrelevant for the calculation of the excess air, or , as long as
one has obtained an accurate measurement of either O2 or CO2. As previously shown
in lecture 6, various sensors and methods exist to measure O2 or CO2. There is no
simply and also accurate equation to calculate if O2 or CO2 is known. The correct
equation based on a CO2 measurement is

where
CO2 max = the maximum CO2 content of the dry stack gas at stochiometric

combustion. Given in volume %
VSG
= dry stack gas in mn3/kg at stochiometric condition
VAF
= air-to-fuel ratio expressed as mn3/kg
3
mn
= normal cubic meter at 0 oC and 1.01325 bar.

The factor f =
is between 0.93 to 0.97 for fuel oils.
It is between 0.98 and 1 for solid fuels and between 0.9 and 1.9 for gases.

138

Excess air factors found in practice

As mentioned, the excess air factor of a burner furnace or boiler is a yardstick
about its efficiency as well as the skill of the operator.

Standard average figures are
Gas burners, forced draft

Atmospheric gas burners
Oil burners
Coal dust burners
Coal firing (mechanical)
Coal firing (hand)
1.1 - 1.3
1.25 - 1.5
1.15 - 1.3
1.2 - 1.3
1.3 - 1.5
1.5 - 2.5

These are best values that can be achieved with careful monitoring and constant
adjustment of the combustion air at varying loads. In reality energy auditors may
see much higher numbers.

Wet stack gas versus dry stack gas values
There can be a considerable amount of confusion and misjudgment of the situation
if one does not clearly indicate whether O2 or CO2 measurements were conducted on
either a wet or dry stack gas basis. Chemical cell sensors for O2 and CO measure on a
dry stack gas basis while Zirconium Oxide sensors measure the O2 on a wet and hot
stack gas basis.

Of the four options O2 % (dry), O2 % (wet), CO2 % (dry) CO2 % (wet) only one
value needs to be measured. The others are calculated based on the ultimate
chemical composition of the fuel.

Liquefaction

Pyrolysis is a process where heat is used to drive off the unstable elements of coal.

This method of liquefaction actually generates solid, liquid, and gas products.
Unfortunately, neither it nor the other methods of liquefaction currently
produce enough energy to be commercially viable.

In direct liquefaction, coal is converted into slurry and combined with hydrogen at
both high and low pressures, resulting in the creation of liquid hydrocarbons.
Unreacted coal and ash are removed from these hydrocarbons to create hydrogen.

In indirect liquefaction, coal is converted into a synthesis gas and then catalyzed to
create liquid hydrocarbons or methanol.

139

SUBJECT TOPICS
Waste Heat Recovery
Industrial Energy Management
Steam Systems
Heat Exchangers
Turbines
Compressed Air Systems
Air Compressor Controls
Boilers and Thermal Systems

Fuel Choices
Steam Tables
Compressors
Pumps and Pumping Systems
Air Compressors
Air Leaks
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 5, 6 & 15.
REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 5, 6 & 8.
REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 7, 8 &11.

VIII.

BUILDING ENVELOPE

SUBJECT TOPICS
Thermal Resistance
Insulation
Solar Heat Gain
Thermally Light Facilities
Conduction Heat Loads
Air Heat Transfer

Vapor Barriers
Solar Shading
Thermally Heavy Facilities
Psychrometric Chart
Water Heat Transfer

IX.

SUBJECT TOPICS
Topping Cycles
Combined Cycles

Prime
Movers

Regulations
Combined Heat and Power
HHV and LHV
140

Bottoming Cycles
Fuel Selection

Codes and Standards

XI.
9. Control Systems and Computers
See 15 for Building Automation
BUILDING AUTOMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

SUBJECT TOPICS
Energy Management Strategies
Basic Controls
BACnet & LON
Power Line Carriers
Distributed Control
Optimization Controls
Building Control Strategies
Expert Systems
Self-Tuning Control Loops
TCP/IP
BAS Systems
Terminology
PID Controls
Signal Carriers
Direct Digital Control
Central Control
Reset Controls
Communication Protocols
Artificial Intelligence
Energy Information Systems
Internet, Intranets and WWW
Web Based Systems
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 4 and 10.

SUBJECT TOPICS
Green Buildings
Sustainable Design
ASHRAE 90.1 Energy Cost Budget Method
Certified, Silver, Gold, and Platinum
LEED CI
Water Efficiency
Materials and Resources
ENERGY
STAR Rating

141
Energy Star Label
ASHRAE Standard 189
USGBC
LEED Certification
LEED O&M
LEED NC
LEED CS
Energy and Atmosphere
Indoor Environmental Quality
Portfolio Manager

Green Globes
ASHRAE Green Guide
10.
Energy Systems Maintenance
Maintenance and Commissioning

Combustion Control
Steam Leaks
Insulation
Group Relamping
Boiler Scale
Steam Traps
Water Treatment

Cooling towers need to be inspected for clogs every day. During this inspection,
it is also necessary to identify any unusual noises made by the cooling tower.

Other maintenance tasks related to cooling towers do not need to be performed
as often:
level of the gear reducer oil only needs to be checked weekly, and the
gear reducer oil only needs to be checked for sludge and water once per
month.
Loose bolts only need to be tightened a couple of times a year
Rarely necessary to inspect the cooling tower for leaks more often than
three times annually.
Suction screen on a cooling tower will only need to be cleaned once per
week.

Refer to Section with type of equipment to maintain

142

SUBJECT TOPICS
Excess Air
Steam Traps
Condensate Return
Waste Heat Recovery
Scaling and Fouling
HHV and LHV
Air to Fuel Ratio

Boiler Economizers
Steam Leaks
Boiler Blowdown
Flash Steam
Turbulators
Condensing Boilers


Combustion Control
Steam Leaks
Insulation
Group Relamping
Boiler Scale

Steam Traps
Water Treatment

COMMISSIONING SUBJECT TOPICS
Purpose of Commissioning
Need for Commissioning
Retro-Commissioning
Measurement and Verification
Phases of Commissioning
Commissioning Documentation
Benefits of Commissioning
Commissioning New Buildings
Real Time and Continuous Commissioning
Commissioning Agent
Facility Design Intent
Re-commissioning

143
11.
Insulation

Heat Transfer



conducting surface

Thermal Equilibrium:
Total heat flow through a system = Heat flow through any part of the system.

Insulation Types

Material properties:
Cell Structure
Temperature Use (materials have recommended temp ranges;
material breaks down for given temperatures, usually at the high end)
Thermal Conductivity K value should be chosen for mean
temperature experienced by the insulation
Fire Hazard ratings for flame spread and smoke development
Forms blankets, bats, rigid boards, blocks, halp-pipe sections, etc.

Common Materials
Mineral fiber-rock wood: Mineral fiber insulation made from molten
rock. Fairly impervious to heat, used in relatively high temps
Fiberglass most popular, blankets, batts, boards, pipe coverings.
Temp range is somewhat limited.
Foam good K values but not as fire retardant, or not very good K
values but good fire retardant. Applicable in cold applications.
Calcium Silicate good for high temps, made of silica and lime,
extremely durable, high thermal resistance
Refractories-Ceramic Fiber used alone or added to fire brick;
alumina-silica product
Refractories-Fire Brick made of Refractory clay; high temp
resistance, low heat storage
Others: cellular glass, perlite, diatomaceous earth.

11.3 Economical Thickness:
As thickness increases, insulation cost increases, loss of heat reduces

There is an Economical Thickness at Minimum Cost to make the solution

worthwhile. (Figure 11-4)

144

Building Envelope

Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point temperatures are commonly used to
determine the state of humid moist air.

The knowledge of only two of these values is enough to determine the state -
including the content of water vapor and the sensible and latent energy (enthalpy).

Dry Bulb Temperature - Tdb
The Dry Bulb temperature, usually referred to as air temperature, is the air
property that is most common used, basically the ambient air temperature.
It is called "Dry Bulb" because the air temperature is indicated by a
thermometer not affected by the moisture of the air.
The dry-bulb temperature is an indicator of heat content and is shown along the
bottom axis of the psychrometric chart. Constant dry bulb temperatures appear as
vertical lines in the psychrometric chart.
Wet Bulb Temperature - Twb
The Wet Bulb temperature is the temperature of adiabatic saturation indicated
by a moistened thermometer bulb exposed to the air flow (a thermometer with
the bulb wrapped in wet muslin).
The rate of evaporation from the wet bandage on the bulb, and the temperature
difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb, depends on the humidity of the air.
The evaporation is reduced when the air contains more water vapor.
The wet bulb temperature is always lower than the dry bulb temperature but will
be identical with 100% relative humidity (the air is at the saturation line).
Combining the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature in a psychrometric diagram or
Mollier chart gives the state of the humid air.
Dew Point Temperature - Tdp is the temperature at which water vapor starts to
condense out of the air (the temperature at which air becomes completely
saturated). Above this temperature the moisture will stay in the air.
if the dew-point temperature is close to the dry air temperature - the

relative humidity is high
if the dew point is well below the dry air temperature - the relative
humidity is low
If moisture condenses on a cold bottle taken from the refrigerator, the dew-point
temperature of the air is above the temperature in the refrigerator.

145
The Dew Point temperature can be measured by filling a metal can with water and
some ice cubes. Stir by a thermometer and watch the outside of the can. When the
vapor in the air starts to condensate on the outside of the can, the temperature on
the thermometer is pretty close to the dew point of the actual air.
The Dew Point is given by the saturation line in the psychrometric chart.

Pickup and Pull-down Times

Pickup and pull-down are the processes of restoring a comfortable room
temperature after prolonged inactivity.

If a building has a high thermal quality, it will be better at retaining its original
temperature, and will therefore not require a great deal of pickup or pull-down
time.

VII.Dew
INDUSTRIAL
SYSTEMS
Point Temperature Charts
SUBJECT TOPICS
Dew point temperatures from dry and wet bulb temperatures are indicated in
Waste Heat Recovery
Boilers and Thermal Systems
standard charts.

Industrial Energy Management

Steam Systems
Heat Exchangers
Turbines
Compressed Air Systems

Air Compressor
Controls

Fuel Choices
Steam Tables
Compressors
Pumps and Pumping Systems
Air Compressors
Air Leaks
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 5, 6 & 15.
REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management Handbook, Chapter 5, 6 & 8.
REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 7, 8 &11.


SUBJECT TOPICS
Thermal Resistance
Insulation
Solar Heat Gain
Thermally Light Facilities
Conduction Heat Loads
Air Heat Transfer

Vapor Barriers
Solar Shading
Psychrometric Chart
Water Heat Transfer


IX.
146

12.
Process Energy Management - Motors

MotorMaster Program economic analysis, efficiency
Motors
DC Motor converts DC electrical energy to a mechanical energy.

This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to
move. This is known as motoring action.
The DC Motor is capable of maintaining the same speed under variable load.
Synchronous Motor
Main Features
Principle of Operation
Methods of Starting
Application
Synchronous motors are called so because the speed of the rotor of this motor is same
as the rotating magnetic field. It is basically a fixed speed motor because it has only
one speed, which is synchronous speed and therefore no intermediate speed is there or in
other words its in synchronism with the supply frequency. Synchronous speed is given
by
The stator is given is given three phase supply and the rotor is given dc supply.
Synchronous motors features:
inherently not self starting. They require some external means to bring their speed
close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence
for constant supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective
of load condition
This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical
power factor. This makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.
Application of Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power
factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical
power factor, it is used in power system in situations where static capacitors are
expensive.

147
Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500
rpm) and high power is required. For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500
KW, synchronous motors are preferred to three phase induction motor
whose size, weight and cost is very high.
Examples:
o Reciprocating pump
o Compressor
o Rolling mills
Induction motor
Also called asynchronous motor because it runs at a speed less than synchronous
speed. In this, we need to define what is synchronous speed. Synchronous speed is the
speed of rotation of the magnetic field in a rotary machine and it depends upon the
frequency and number poles of the machine. An induction motor always runs at a speed
less than synchronous speed because the rotor will never reach its rotating magnetic field
speed i.e. the synchronous speed due to flux.
There are basically two types of induction motor that depend upon the input supply
single phase induction motor (not self-starting)
three phase induction motor (self-starting).
Giving electric supply to the stator winding, flux will generate in the coil due to flow of
current in the coil. Now the rotor winding is arranged in such a way that it becomes shortcircuited in the rotor itself. The flux from the stator will cut the coil in the rotor and since
the rotor coils are short circuited, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction, electric current will start flowing in the coil of the rotor. When the current will
flow, another flux will get generated in the rotor. Now there will be two flux, one is
stator flux and another is rotor flux and the rotor flux will be lagging to the stator
flux. Due to this, the rotor will feel a torque which will make the rotor to rotate in the
direction of rotating magnetic flux. So the speed of the rotor will be depending upon the
ac supply and the speed can be controlled by varying the input supply. This is the
working principle of an induction motor of either type.
Types Induction Motor
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Split phase induction motor

Capacitor start induction motor
Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor
Shaded pole induction motor

148

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Squirrel cage induction motor

Slip ring induction motor
We had mentioned above that single phase induction motor is not a self starting and three
phase induction motor is self starting. So what is self starting? When the machine starts
running automatically without any external force to the machine, then it is called as self
starting.
Why is Three Phase Induction Motor Self Starting?
In three phase system, there are three single phase line with 120 phase difference. So the
rotating magnetic field is having the same phase difference which will make the
rotor to move. If we consider three phases a, b and c, when phase a is magnetized, the
rotor will move towards the phase a winding, in the next moment phase b will get
magnetized and it will attract the rotor and than phase c. So the rotor will continue to
rotate.
Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting?
AC circuit, single phase is applied; since pulsating magnetic field can be assumed as
two oppositely rotating magnetic fields, there will be no resultant torque produced
at the starting and due to this the motor does not run. After giving the supply, if the
rotor is made to rotate in either direction by external force, then the motor will start to
run. This problem has been solved by making the stator winding into two winding, one is
main winding and another is auxiliary winding and a capacitor is fixed in series with the
auxiliary winding. This will make a phase difference when electric current will flow
through the both coils. When there will be phase difference, the rotor will generate a
starting torque and it will start to rotate. Practically we can see that the fan does not
rotate when the capacitor is disconnected from the motor but if we rotate with hand it will
start to rotate. So this is the reason of using capacitor in the single phase induction motor.
Advantages of induction motor:
efficiency up to 97%.
The direction of rotation of induction motor can easily be changed by changing
the sequence of three phase supply, i.e. if RYB is in forward direction, the RBY
will make the motor to rotate in reverse direction (This is in the case of three
phase motor but in single phase motor, the direction can be reversed by reversing
the capacitor terminals in the winding.)
Disadvantage of induction motor:
The speed of the motor varies with the load given to the motor

149

Motor rewinding can repair a failed motor, but you can lose 1-2% efficiency.
Efficiency may be increased if enough space is available within the frame and
adding more copper for the windings.

Compressors

Reciprocating Compressor - or piston compressor is a positive-
displacement compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver
gases at high pressure. Best suited for higher pressure applications and
where the demand is more constant to prevent frequent cycling of the power.
Centrifugal compressors, sometimes termed radial compressors, are a
sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery. The
idealized compressive dynamic turbo-machine achieves a pressure rise by
adding kinetic energy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor
or impeller, and then converted to an increase in potential energy/static
pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser.

Pumps
Pumps are motor driven devices used to move liquids. They are similar in
operation to fans and compressors used to move or pressurize air.
o A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a
rotating impeller to increase the pressure and flow rate of a fluid.
Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move
liquids through a piping system.
o
Positive displacement pumps force the liquid to move by

compressing a confined volume of liquid and forcing it into the
discharge pipe. Positive displacement pumps may be rotary or
reciprocating. positive displacement pumps are constant flow
machines, however, a slight increase in internal leakage as the
pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate.
Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the

suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid
flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and
the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The
volume is constant through each cycle of operation.
150

Turbines
Turbines are rotary engines that convert the potential energy of fluids into mechanical
motion. They have one primary moving part, which is the rotor. The rotor consists of
a central shaft with blades to respond to the motion and pressure of the applied gas or
liquid. Fluid pressure and motion are converted to rotational energy in a turbine.
Turbines that respond to motion are known as impulse turbines because they
convert the fluids impulse (mass and velocity) to torque.
Reaction turbines convert the fluids pressure to rotary motion. The fluid at the
exhaust side of the turbine contains either lower pressure or less velocity than at
the input. Turbines can be driven by gas, steam, or water.

Full Load RPM (FLRPM) - speed at which the motor will rotate at rated voltage and
frequency during full torque. This "full load" speed will normally vary between 87%
and 99% of synchronous speed depending on design. This is known as slip.
Synchronous speed is the theoretical speed of a motor based on the rotating magnetic
field.
Insulation. Insulation is crucial in a motor to withstand the greatest temperature that
occurs at the hottest point within the motor for as long as the temperature normally exists.
Time rating. Continuous duty will be shown as "CONT" on the nameplate.
Horsepower. Horsepower is determined by the output when the motor is loaded to rated
torque at rated speed. These are the standard NEMA ratings:
Torque is the turning or twisting force supplied by a drive to the load, measured in inch
pounds or foot-pounds. Torque and horsepower are related as shown:
HP = (Torque X Speed) / Constant
If Torque is given in Ft. Lbs, the constant is 5252

If Torque is given in In. Lbs the constant is 63,025

151
Locked Rotor Indicating Code Letter. When a motor is started, there is an 'inrush' of
current; standardized and defined by a series of code letters which group motors based on
the amount of inrush in terms of kilovolt amperes. The code letter defines low and high
voltage inrush values on dual voltage motors. These values can be used for sizing starters,
etc.
Code
KVA/HP
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P
R
0.00-3.14
3.15-3.54
3.55-3.99
4.00-4.49
4.50-4.99
5.00-5.59
5.60-6.29
6.30-7.09
7.10-7.99
8.00-8.99
9.00-9.99
10.00-11.99
11.20-12.49
12.50-13.99
14.00-15.99
Approx. Mid-Range
Value
1.6
3.3
3.8
4.3
4.7
5.3
5.9
6.7
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.6
11.8
13.2
15.0
Using this chart and the job voltage, you can calculate the across the line starting inrush
by using the following:
200 Volts LRA = Code letter value x HP x 2.9
230 Volts LRA = Code letter valve x HP x 2.5
460 Volts LRA = Code letter value x HP x 1.25
Motor Service Factor (SF) is a factor that when multiplied by horsepower, gives us the
allowable horsepower loading, which may be carried under the conditions specified for
the service factor at rated voltage and frequency. This is practical as it gives you some
'fudge' in estimating horsepower needs and actual running horsepower requirements. It
also allows for cooler winding temperatures at rated load, protects against intermittent
heat rises, and helps to offset low or unbalanced line voltages.
The drawbacks to running in the service factor area is that it will reduce motor
speed and efficiency & increase motor temperature. This in turn effects the overall life
span of the motor. It is for this reason that you should not run in the SF range
continuously. Service factors were established for operations at rated voltage, frequency,
ambient and sea level conditions.

152

How does Service Factor (S.F.) Apply To A Motor?

To determine the service factor horsepower of a motor, multiply the nameplate
horsepower (not amperage) by the service factor. For example, a 10 hp motor with a
nameplate service factor of 1.15 has a service factor maximum horsepower of:
(10 HP) x (1.15 S.F.) = 11.5 Hp
Efficiency. Efficiency is the ratio of the power output divided by the power input. The
efficiency is reduced by any form of heat, including friction, stator winding loss, rotor
loss, core loss (hysteresis and eddy current), etc.
NEMA Design Letter. Changes in motor windings and rotor design will alter the
performance characteristics of induction motors. To obtain uniformity in application,
NEMA has designated specific designs of general purpose motors having specified
locked rotor torque, breakdown torque, slip, starting current, or other values. NEMA
design letters are A, B, C, and D.
NEMA Design A motors have normal starting torques, but high starting currents. This is
useful for applications with brief heavy overloads. Injection molding machines are a good
application for this type of motor.
NEMA Design B motors are the most common. They feature normal starting torque
combined with a low starting current. These motors have sufficient locked rotor torques
to start a wide variety of industrial applications.
NEMA Design C motors have high starting torques with low starting currents. They are
designed for starting heavy loads due to their high locked rotor torques and high full load
slip.
NEMA Design D motors have high starting torque and low starting current, however they
feature high slip. This reduces power peaks in the event that peak power is encountered,
motor slip will increase.
Enclosure Type. open drip-proof (ODP), totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC), explosion
proof (EXP), totally enclosed non-vent (TENV), totally enclosed chemical duty, and
totally enclosed wash down.
Manufacturer's Identification Numbers. The model, date, & serial number are
supplied to aid in identification.
Bearing Part Numbers. The bearing part numbers are included if replacement bearings
need to be obtained.
Connection Diagrams. This diagram is to aid a qualified electrician in the wiring of a
motor.

153
Motor Load Calculation Method: Computerized Modeling Techniques

Equivalent circuit model: a mathematical model of the motor is made that takes into
account for friction losses, winding losses, stray load losses, etc. The US
Department of Energy's Oakridge National Lab has developed a program
called ORMEL 96 that uses an equivalent circuit technique, based on IEEE's
standard 112, to determine motor load. It requires:

Being implemented in the Motor Master+ Software


Inputs required:

Motor nameplate data, including kVA code.

Formula:
n/a

Example:
n/a

Method: Specialized Motor Testing Equipment

A number of manufacturers produce specialty motor performance testing
equipment. These include the Vogelsang and Benning Motor-Check
(www.vogelsangbenning.de), the ECNZ Vectron Motor Monitor, and the Niagra
Instruments MAS-1000 (www.bwdarrah.com/productgs/prod02a3.htm).

These instruments perform testing to IEEE standard 112 Method E, or similar.
Typically, these tests require the motor to be disconnected from the load for a no
load test, and disconnected from power for a resistance test.

These systems have shown to be accurate to within 3% for adverse conditions (e.g.,
voltage deviation, voltage unbalance, damaged or rewound windings, etc.) and
within 2% for normal conditions. These systems perform all calculations internally.
The equipment is relatively expensive, requires some expertise for correct
operation, and requires the motors to be temporarily taken out of service.

Method: Laboratory Methods

Dynometers and other test equipment can be used to directly measure the actual
motor shaft power, input power, efficiency, etc. Generally, these are not suitable for
field-use.

A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a cyclically
moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. The principle is used for the
study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or vibrating objects.

154

Test Your Knowledge

The following measurements are available: motor current, motor voltage, and motor
speed. The nameplate data is available. Which load calculation method is
recommended for best accuracy:
a) Voltage-compensated slip
b) Voltage-compensated current ratio
c) Direct kWh Calculation
d) ORMEL 96 equivalent circuit model, as implemented in Motor Master+ software
(assuming nameplate has KVA rating)

The following measurements are available: motor current, motor voltage, and motor
speed. The nameplate is missing. Which load calculation method is recommended
for best accuracy:
a) Voltage-compensated slip
b) Voltage-compensated current ratio needs nameplate
c) Direct kWh Calculation needs power measurement, load efficiency
d) ORMEL 96 equivalent circuit model, as implemented in Motor Master+ software

The maintenance department has kept historic records of motor current for all of its
motors (all 3 phases). No other motor data is available. Which of the following
methods can be used to estimate motor load?
a) Voltage-compensated slip need speed
b) Voltage-compensated current ratio need rated V and I
c) Direct kWh Calculation need speed +
d) Can not be done. Not enough data.

You only have a clamp-on multimeter that measures current and voltage. Which
calculation techniques can you use to determine motor load?
a) Voltage-compensated slip need speed
b) Voltage-compensated current ratio need I-rated and V-rated
c) Direct kWh Calculation need efficiency rating
d) Can not be done. Not enough data.

You only have a stroboscope. Can you determine a motor's load?
a) Can not be done. Not enough measurements.
b) Slip You can obtain all speed measurements
c) Voltage-compensated slip
d) Voltage-compensated current ratio
e) ORMEL 96 equivalent circuit model, as implemented in Motor Master+ software

155
Motor Efficiency Factors and Maintenance / Areas for Improvement

Belts Cogged v-belts and synchronous v-belts can increase efficiency 2-4% vs. V-
belts that may slip

Lubrication reduce friction losses, save 1-2%

Periodic Maintenance - check:
operating temperature
electrical
bearing condition by using industrial stethoscope to measure noise

Vibration Anaylsis to find:
bad bearings
bad gears
failing machine mounts

Motor Rewinding
Less expensive than motor replacement
HOWEVER, damage resulting in a 1-2% loss in efficiency is fairly common
during the rewind process.

Air Compressors - Compressed Air Systems

Compressed Air Systems use
compressors
Air dryer and air filters
Receiving Tank
Controls
Piping
End Uses

Compressors:
Reciprocating
Rotary Screw
Dynamic Centrifugal

Air Dryers
Refrigerated most common low initial and operating costs
Regenerative Desiccant use desiccant to dry - NEEDS PRE-FILTER (air
filter)
Heat of Compression for lubricant free Rotary Screw Compressors
Deliquescent Desiccant dissolvable; regular replacement necessary,
costs labor and material - NEEDS PRE-FILTER (air filter)
Membrane type for low volume applications

156

Air Filters
Removes particles, Particulates, and lubricants
Upstream and/or downstream use
Keep clean so as not to cause pressure drop / throttling

For every 1 psi dropped from compressed air source, there is a .5% loss of energy.
Thus, if a filter clog causes a 4 psi drop, than 2% energy is lost due to this drop.

Similarly:
For every 1 psi REDUCTION of pressure above 100 psi, there is a .5% energy saved.
Thus, if the pressure setting of the air compressor is reduced from 150 to 140 psi, there is
a 5% energy savings.

Finding the right setting means accounting for leaks, and other component losses;
trial and error is often used to find the right pressure setting.

It takes about 7 hp of input to the air compressor to produce 1 hp to the end users.

7:1

Maintenance / Energy Savings Opportunities:
Keep air filters clean
Avoid running at partial load or unloaded
Optimize by sequencing, use a variable speed compressor to trim system
supply
Use engineered air nozzles to use less compressed air for blow-off
Heat recovery: a 100hp compressor generates 250,000 BTU/hr; output temp
not that high but could be used with heat exchanger for certain applications.

The lowest allowed pressure to an end user is 90% of supply pressure
which is a maximum 10% loss factor).

157
HARMONICS

IEEE-519 PQ (Power Quality) Standard - To minimize the impact of facility
harmonic distortion on the utility power system and on neighboring facilities
IEEE standard 519 provides recommended limits for total harmonic voltage
and current distortion. THD total harmonic distortion

The pulsed current waveforms from VFDs contained not only the 60hz components
but also multiple higher frequencies called harmonics. Effects:
High peak current
Elevated true rms current
Lower total power factor

VFD mismatches
One of the most common energy-saving applications in facilities is to use VFDs
on centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers. Varying motor speeds is a much more
efficient way to control flow rates and, thereby, maintain water temperatures than
to run the motor and pump at full speed and throttle a valve to adjust flow rates. But
problems will result if:
The VFD has not been properly sized and selected

The drive and motor installation was not done with a VFD in mind
Parameters were not properly set at startup
The effects of harmonic currents were not considered in design and
addressed in maintenance
The non-linear effect of electronic loads

When the diodes suddenly allow current flow, it creates a notch on the sine wave
that causes sine wave distortion. The VFD rectifier circuit also causes currents to
flow back into the distribution system in multiples of 60 hertz (Hz). Current that
flows back in multiples of the fundamental is called harmonic current. The third
harmonic is three times the fundamental of 60 Hz, or 180 Hz. The fifth harmonic
current is at 300 Hz, and so on.
third harmonic causes overheating in neutral conductors and
transformers
fifth harmonic can cause motor issues, such as overheating, abnormal
noise and vibrations, and motor inefficiency.
The bottom line: All electronic equipment creates harmonics and distorts the
voltage distributed in-plant.
158

Other typical non-linear loads added during energy upgrades include electronic
ballasts, computers, controls (PLCs, etc.), and various components of building
automation systems.
Always use a true-rms responding test tool when measuring non-linear loads,
especially current, or a THD Analyzer. Use a notch filter to eliminate harmonic
VFD troubleshooting examples
Poor motor speed control and/or nuisance trips: For example, a typical VFD
problem encountered in the field is that the drive fails to control motor speed
properly and may even experience nuisance trips. The two mostly likely causes of
this particular problem:
Voltage unbalance on the three phases supplying the drive

Harmonics flowing out of the drive, back into the distribution system
The solution: Run shielded cable for these low-voltage signals and ground only
at one end. When routing these low-voltage conductors, ensure they are not
installed close to power conductors. Electromagnetic induction from power cables
can affect low-voltage control.
Installation checks: To troubleshoot VFD control problems, first review the
installation design. Chances are that the proper drive, motor and associated
equipment were selected but verify anyhow. Walk down and observe the
installation. Were correct cable types selected and installed properly? Is the
installation suitable for the environment in which it is installed? Are enclosures free
of dust and adequate ventilation provided?
Drive parameter checks: Review the parameters programmed into the drive. Does
the data entered match the motor nameplate? Has the drive been set for proper
operation, such as variable torque for energy-saving pump and fan applications? If
the VFD is not controlling the motor as expected, it could be because operational
parameters were either not set correctly or, more than likely, were reset by some
well-meaning individual attempting to correct other problems.
Quick measurement checks: Measure VFD input voltage with a true-rms
digital multimeter, verifying voltage unbalance falls within manufacturers
specifications. Measure harmonic frequencies and levels at the point where power is
supplied into the VFD, using a power quality clamp meter or power quality analyzer.
Also, check for harmonics back at the feeder where the power to the VFD is also
supplying other loads.
The solution: If voltage unbalance is the problem, shift and evenly distribute
single-phase loads. If harmonics are found to be the cause, contact the drive
manufacturer or a harmonic filter manufacturer and determine and install a properly
tuned harmonic filter.

159
Problems with lighting retrofits

Nuisance tripping
Without a doubt, lighting retrofits save money on the monthly electric utility bill.
But many facilities invest in lighting upgrades only to find lights flickering or not
operating at all.
Seemingly unrelated, three-phase motors overheat, servers and

computers malfunction, and data is lost.
Nuisance trips on circuit breakers suddenly begin occurring.
Newly installed electronic equipment mysteriously trips on overvoltage
or overtemperature yet the equipment does not show any signs of such
abnormal conditions.
Such problems are generally associated with harmonics. One IEEE study
indicates that these harmonics can become a significant issue if fluorescent
lighting comprises 25 percent or more of the facility load.
Electronic ballasts often introduce harmonic currents back into the
distribution system. If the facility is an older one and only one neutral wire was
pulled in for each of the three ungrounded phase conductors to the lighting circuit
(sharing neutrals), the result may be overheating neutral conductors, panelboards
and transformers. Maintenance often finds and corrects these problems.
A tip: Pull-in additional neutral conductors, one per phase total as needed. Infrared
thermography can often identify these issues before failure.

Dimmer controls: Common retrofits to T-8 lamps with electronic ballasts and the
replacement of incandescent lamps with compact fluorescents (CFLs) both create
significant energy savings. For additional energy savings, dim the fluorescent
lighting when full light output is not needed. This dimming can be achieved with
manual dimmers or with photosensors that sense light level either indoors or
outdoors as required.
Make sure to match the proper type of dimmer control with the ballast and
lamp type to be dimmed. Mismatches here can result not only in improperly
operating equipment, but in damaged lighting system components, as well.
Depending on the type of dimming controls used, additional control wiring
operating at zero to 10 volts may be installed. Placing such control wiring too
close to power conductors during installation or maintenance can result in
erratic lighting control.
160


Power Quality
Harmonics
Grounding
. Keep control wiring as short as possible during installation.
A tip:
Automated
lighting
controls
that sManagement
witch lighting Handbook,
banks off aChapter
nd on erratically
REF: Doty
and Turner,
Energy
11.
after
the Capehart,
installation Turner
of energy-saving
controls
should
be checked
for proper Chapter
sensor 3.
REF:
and Kennedy,
Guide
to Energy
Management,
operation. Some photo sensors may have a deadband adjustment available to
change the time between lights-off and lights-on.
V. HVAC SYSTEMS
SUBJECTmTOPICS
Overheating
otors: As part of the energy savings lighting upgrades, banks of
Heating,
Ventilating,
and
(HVAC)
lighting
may
be switched
to sAir
ave Conditioning
energy. Depending
on the circuits switched,
Affinity
Laws could result on three-phase sPerformance
Rating (COP,
EER, kW/ton)
phase
unbalances
ystems. Maintenance
gets the
call
t
o
r
eplace
m
otors
t
hat
h
ave
b
een
d
estroyed
b
y
o
verheating.
Psychrometric Chart
HVAC Economizers
HVAC Equipment Types
Air Distribution Systems (Reheat, Multizone, VA
A tDegree
ip: Check
the voltage supplied to the motor during
all phases of plant
Days
Chillers
operation.
Heat Transfer
Energy Consumption Estimates
Vapor Compression Cycle

Absorption Cycle
Cooling Towers
Air and Water Based Heat Flow
ASHRAE
Standard
Demand
Control
Ventilation
Operation
of aVentilation
motor at greater
than 5 percent unbalance
will
probably
result in
Maximum voltage unbalance at motor terminals should not exceed 1 percent.
motor damage.
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 7, 8.

REF: Doty and Turner, Energy Management
Handbook, Chapter 10.


VI.
MOTORS AND DRIVES

SUBJECT TOPICS
AC Induction Motors
DC Motors
Load Factor and Slip
Motor Speed Control
Fan and Pump Laws
Motor Selection Criteria
Motor Management Software
High Efficiency Motors
New vs Rewound Motors


161
13. Renewable Energy Systems and Water Management

Example:

Build a PV array to produce 12V (DC) and 3Amp draw using PV cells of .5V and 1A:

Solution:
Need 24 cells combined to produce 12V.

Need three sources of 1Amp to produce 3Amps current draw.

Array: 24rows x 3columns; each column carries 1A with 12V

potential.

_______________________________

| | |

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

cell cell cell Device drawing 3A with 12V

cell cell cell

cell cell cell

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

cell cell cell

|

| | |

|

_______________________________

162


Sustainable Design
LEED Certification
ASHRAE
90.1Turner
Energy
Budget
Method
LEED O&M
REF:
Capehart,
andCost
Kennedy,
Guide
to Energy Management,
Chapters 6 & 11.
IX.

LEED NC
LEED CI
LEED CS
WaterSYSTEMS
Efficiency and RENEWABLE ENERGYEnergy and Atmosphere
CHP
Materials and
Resources
SUBJECT
TOPICS
Topping
Cycles
Bottoming
CyclesManager
ENERGY
STAR Rating
Portfolio
Combined
Cycles
Fuel
Selection
Energy Star Label
Green Globes
Prime
Movers
Operating
Strategies
ASHRAE Standard 189
ASHRAE
Green Guide
Regulations
Codes and Standards
REF: United States Green Buildings Council, website
with LEED presentations, www.usgbc.o
HHV and LHV
REF: ENERGY STAR presentation, ENERGY STAR
website, www.energystar.gov.
Wind Energy Systems
REF:Thermal
Capehart,
and Kennedy,
Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 16
Solar
andTurner
Solar Photovoltaic
Systems

Capehart, Turner
and Kennedy,
Guide to Energy
Management, Chapters 13 and 14
XIII. REF:
THERMAL
ENERGY
STORAGE
SYSTEMS
SUBJECT TOPICS
X. ENERGY
PROCUREMENT
Design Strategies
SUBJECT
TOPICS
Storage Media
Advantages and Limitations
Chilled Water Storage
Ice Storage
SizingOrders 888 and 889
Volume
Requirements
FERC
Electric
Deregulation
Full Storage
Systems
Storage
Utility
Restructuring
NaturalPartial
Gas Policy
Act Systems

HHV and LHV

REF:ISO,
Mehta
Thumann, Handbook of EnergyDistributed
Engineering,
Chapter 12.
LDC,
PX,and
EWG
Generation


REF:
Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter 1.


163
14.
Distributed Generation CHP
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of aheat engine or power
station to simultaneously generate electricityand useful heat.
Trigeneration or combined cooling, heat and power (CCHP) refers to the simultaneous
generation of electricity and useful heating and cooling from the combustion of a fuel or
a solar heat collector. A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is called a trigeneration
or polygeneration plant.
Cogeneration is a thermodynamically efficient use of fuel. In separate production of
electricity, some energy must be discarded as waste heat, but in cogeneration this thermal
energy is put to use.
hot water for district heating with temperatures ranging from approximately 80 to
130 C. combined heat and power district heating (CHPDH).
Small CHP plants are an example of decentralized energy. By-product heat at

moderate temperatures (100180 C, 212356 F) can also be used in absorption
refrigerators for cooling.
The Topping Cycle utilizes the primary energy source to generate electrical or
mechanical power. Secondarily, the rejected heat, in the form of useful thermal energy,
is supplied to the process.
Equipment Used in Topping Cycle:
Combustion turbine-generators
Steam turbine-generator sets
Reciprocating internal-combustion-engine generators
A Bottoming Cycle has the primary energy source applied to a useful heating
process. Secondarily, the reject heat from the process is then used to generate electrical
power. Transfer of heat energy from high temperature exhaust gas to water and
steam takes place by a waste heat recovery boiler in the bottoming cycle.
Typical bottoming cycle: directs waste heat from a process to waste-heat-recovery
boiler that converts this thermal energy to steam which is supplied to a steam turbine,
extracting steam to the process and also generating electrical power.
164

The thermodynamic cycle of the basic combined cycle consists of two power plant
cycles. One is the Joule or Brayton cycle which is a gas turbine cycle and the other
is Rankine cycle which is a steam turbine cycle.[1] The cycle 1-2-3-4-1 which is
the gas turbine power plant cycle is the topping cycle. It depicts the heat and work
transfer process taking place in high temperature region.
The cycle a-b-c-d-e-f-a which is the Rankine steam cycle takes place at a low
temperature and is known as the bottoming cycle. Transfer of heat energy from high
temperature exhaust gas to water and steam takes place by a waste heat recovery boiler in
the bottoming cycle. During the constant pressure process 4-1 the exhaust gases in
the gas turbine reject heat. The feed water, wet and super heated steam absorb some of
this heat in the process a-b, b-c and c-d.
In the United States, Consolidated Edison distributes 66 billion kilograms of 350 F
(180 C) steam each year through its seven cogeneration plants to 100,000 buildings
in Manhattanthe biggest steam district in the United States. The peak delivery is 10
million pounds per hour (or approximately 2.5 GW).
CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching
an efficiency of up to 80%, for the best conventional plants. This means that less fuel
needs to be consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy.
Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for extraction of steam at lower pressures
after it has passed through a number of turbine stages, or they may be designed for final
exhaust at back pressure (non-condensing), or both.
Combined Cycle Arrangement
In electric power generation a combined cycle is an assembly of heat engines that work in
tandem from the same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy, to:
1) drives electrical generators.
2) use a second subsequent heat engine to extract energy from the waste heat
(energy) of the working fluid of the first engine.
Combustion turbine-generator -> turbine exhaust gases directed into a waste-heatrecovery boiler -> boiler converts the exhaust gas heat into steam -> drives a steam
turbine, extracting steam to the process while driving an electric generator.
By combining these multiple streams of work upon a single mechanical shaft
turning an electric generator, the overall net efficiency of the system may be increased
by 50 60 percent. That is, from an overall efficiency of say 34% (in a single cycle) to
possibly an overall efficiency of 51% (in a mechanically combination of two (2) cycles)
in net Carnot thermodynamic efficiency. This can be done because heat engines are only
able to use a portion of the energy their fuel generates (usually less than 50%). In an
ordinary (non combined cycle) heat engine the remaining heat (e.g., hot exhaust fumes)
from combustion is generally wasted.

165
A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat (heat driven operation) or be run as
a power plantwith some use of its waste heat, the latter being less advantageous in terms
of its utilisation factor and thus its overall efficiency. The viability can be greatly
increased where opportunities for Trigeneration exist. In such cases, the heat from the
CHP plant is also used as a primary energy source to deliver cooling by means of
an absorption chiller.
CHP is most efficient when heat can be used on-site or very close to it. Overall
efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This
requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity
can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for
the same energy loss.
Thermally enhanced oil recovery (TEOR) plants often produce a substantial
amount of excess electricity. After generating electricity, these plants pump leftover
steam into heavy oil wells so that the oil will flow more easily, increasing production.
Thermal efficiency
Thermal efficiency in a trigeneration system is defined as:
Where:
= Thermal efficiency
= Total work output by all systems
= Total heat input into the system
Typical trigeneration models have losses as in any system. The energy
distribution below is represented as a percent of total input energy:[14]
Electricity = 45%
Heat + Cooling = 40%
Heat Losses = 13%
Line Losses = 2%
Conventional central coal- or nuclear-powered power stations convert only about

33% of their input heat to electricity. The remaining 67% emerges from the turbines as
low-grade waste heat with no significant local uses so it is usually rejected to the
environment. These low conversion efficiencies strongly suggest that productive uses be

166

found for this waste heat, and in some countries these plants do produce byproduct steam
that can be sold to customers.
But if no practical uses can be found for the waste heat from a central power station, e.g.,
due to distance from potential customers, then moving generation to where the waste heat
can find uses may be of great benefit. Even though the efficiency of a small distributed
electrical generator may be lower than a large central power plant, the use of its waste
heat for local heating and cooling can result in an overall use of the primary fuel supply
as great as 80%. This provides substantial financial and environmental benefits.
Trigeneration has its greatest benefits when scaled to fit buildings or complexes of
buildings where electricity, heating and cooling are perpetually needed. Such
installations include but are not limited to: data centers, manufacturing facilities,
universities, hospitals, military complexes and colleges.
Localized trigeneration has addition benefits as described by distributed generation.
Redundancy of power in mission critical applications
Lower power usage costs
Ability to sell electrical power back to the local utility
are a few of the major benefits. Even for small buildings such as individual family
homes trigeneration systems provide benefits over cogeneration because of increased
energy utilization.
Types of Plants
Topping cycle plants primarily produce electricity from a steam turbine. The exhausted
steam is then condensed and the low temperature heat released from this condensation is
utilized for e.g. district heating or water desalination.
Bottoming cycle plants produce high temperature heat for industrial processes, then a
waste heat recovery boiler feeds an electrical plant. Bottoming cycle plants are only used
when the industrial process requires very high temperatures such as furnaces for glass
and metal manufacturing, so they are less common.
Large cogeneration systems provide heating water and power for an industrial site or an
entire town.

167
Engine Types
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine(usually,
although there are also pneumatic and hydraulic reciprocating engines) that uses one or
more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. The main types are:
Internal combustion engine

Steam engine
Stirling engine
Steam Turbines

Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power
plants. These turbines exhaust steam from a boiler in a partially condensed
state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to
a condenser.

Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for
process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a
regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are
commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants,
and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process
steam are needed.

Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power
plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of
the turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is
added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the
turbine and continues its expansion. Using reheat in a cycle increases the
work output from the turbine and also the expansion reaches conclusion
before the steam condenses, there by minimizing the erosion of the blades in
last rows. In most of the cases, maximum number of reheats employed in a
cycle is 2 as the cost of super-heating the steam negates the increase in the
work output from turbine.

Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting
type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and
used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to
improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a
valve, or left uncontrolled.

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate
stage to produce additional power.

168

Common CHP plant types:

An internal combustion engine provides the most electricity per heat unit for a
cogeneration plant. However, this type of engine can only produce a moderate amount of
steam pressure and have a considerably lower fuel utilization efficiency. Steam turbines
produce a great deal more steam pressure.
Gas turbine CHP plants using the waste heat in the flue gas of gas turbines.
The fuel used is typically natural gas
Gas engine CHP plants use a reciprocating gas engine which is generally more
competitive than a gas turbine up to about 5 MW. The gaseous fuel used is
normally natural gas. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged
units that can be installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with
simple connections to the site's gas supply and electrical distribution and heating
systems.
Biofuel engine CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or diesel
engine, depending upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar
in design to a Gas engine CHP plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of
reduced hydrocarbon fuel consumption and thus reduced carbon emissions. These
plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed
within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's
electrical distribution and heating systems. Another variant is the wood gasifier
CHP plant whereby a wood pellet or wood chip biofuel is gasified in a zero oxygen
high temperature environment; the resulting gas is then used to power the gas
engine. Typical smaller size biogas plant see [18]
Combined cycle power plants adapted for CHP
Steam turbine CHP plants that use the heating system as the steam condenser for
the steam turbine.
Molten-carbonate fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells have a hot exhaust, very
suitable for heating.
Nuclear power plants can be fitted with taps after the turbines to provide steam to a
heating system. With a heating system temperature of 95 C it is possible to extract
about 10 MW heat for every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of 130 C the
gain is slightly smaller, about 7 MW for every MWe lost.
Smaller cogeneration units may use a reciprocating engine or Stirling engine. The heat is
removed from the exhaust and radiator. The systems are popular in small sizes because
small gas and diesel engines are less expensive than small gas- or oil-fired steam-electric
plants.

169
Some cogeneration plants are fired by biomass,[20] or industrial and municipal waste
(see incineration).
Some cogeneration plants combine gas and solar photovoltaic generation to further
improve technical and environmental performance.
Heat recovery steam generators
A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is a steam boiler that uses hot exhaust
gases from the gas turbines or reciprocating engines in a CHP plant to heat up
water and generate steam. The steam, in turn, drives a steam turbine or is used in
industrial processes that require heat. HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished
from conventional steam generators by the following main features:
The HRSG is designed based upon the specific features of the gas turbine or
reciprocating engine that it will be coupled to.
Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low, heat transmission is
accomplished mainly through convection.
The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to keep head losses down. Thus,
the transmission coefficient is low, which calls for a large heating surface area.
Since the temperature difference between the hot gases and the fluid to be heated
(steam or water) is low, and with the heat transmission coefficient being low as
well, the evaporator and economizer are designed with plate fin heat exchangers.
MicroCHP
Micro combined heat and power or 'Micro cogeneration" is a so-called distributed

energy resource (DER). The installation is usually less than 5 kWe in a house or
small business. Instead of burning fuel to merely heat space or water, some of the
energy is converted to electricity in addition to heat. This electricity can be used
within the home or business or, if permitted by the grid management, sold back
into the electric power grid.
The development of small scale CHP systems has provided the opportunity for inhouse power backup of residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) arrays.
Engine Types / Technology

MicroCHP installations use five different technologies:
Microturbines
Internal combustion engines
Stirling engines
Closed cycle steam engines
Fuel cells.

170

One author indicated in 2008 that MicroCHP based on Stirling engines is the most cost
effective of the so-called microgeneration technologies in abating carbon emissions;
A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that MCHP is the most cost-effective
method of utilising gas to generate energy at the domestic level. However, advances in
reciprocation engine technology are adding efficiency to CHP plant, particularly in
the biogas field. As both MiniCHP and CHP have been shown to reduce emissions
they could play a large role in the field of CO2 reduction from buildings, where more
than 14% of emissions can be saved using CHP in buildings.
The United States Department of Energy has an aggressive goal of having CHP
constitute 20% of generation capacity by the year 2030. Eight Clean Energy
Application Centers have been established across the nation whose mission is to develop
the required technology application knowledge and educational infrastructure necessary
to lead "clean energy" (combined heat and power, waste heat recovery and district
energy) technologies as viable energy options and reduce any perceived risks associated
with their implementation.

171
FERC Qualifying Facility (QF)
(b) Cogeneration facilities. A cogeneration facility, including any diesel and

dualfuel cogeneration facility, is a qualifying facility if it:
(1) Meets any applicable standards and criteria specified in
292.205(a), (b) and (d); and
(2) Unless exempted by paragraph (d), has filed with the Commission a
notice of selfcertification, pursuant to 292.207(a); or has filed with the
Commission an application for Commission certification, pursuant to
292.207(b)(1), that has been granted.
292.205 Criteria for qualifying cogeneration facilities.
(a) Operating and efficiency standards for toppingcycle facilities
(1) Operating standard. For any toppingcycle cogeneration facility, the useful
thermal energy output of the facility must be no less than 5 percent of the
total energy output during the 12month period beginning with the date the
facility first produces electric energy, and any calendar year subsequent to the
year in which the facility first produces electric energy.
(2) Efficiency standard. (i) For any toppingcycle cogeneration facility for which
any of the energy input is natural gas or oil, and the installation of which began on
or after March 13, 1980, the useful power output of the facility plus onehalf
the useful thermal energy output, during the 12month period beginning with
the date the facility first produces electric energy, and any calendar year
subsequent to the year in which the facility first produces electric energy, must:
(A) Subject to paragraph (a)(2)(i)(B) of this section be no less than 42.5
percent of the total energy input of natural gas and oil to the facility;
or
(B) If the useful thermal energy output is less than 15 percent of the
total energy output of the facility, be no less than 45 percent of the
total energy input of natural gas and oil to the facility.
(ii) For any toppingcycle cogeneration facility not subject to paragraph (a)(2)(i)
of this section there is no efficiency standard.
172

(b) Efficiency standards for bottomingcycle facilities.

(1) For any bottomingcycle cogeneration facility for which any of the energy
input as supplementary firing is natural gas or oil, and the installation of
which began on or after March 13, 1980, the useful power output of the facility
during the 12month period beginning with the date the facility first produces
electric energy, and any calendar year subsequent to the year in which the facility
first produces electric energy must be no less than 45 percent of the energy
input of natural gas and oil for supplementary firing.
(2) For any bottomingcycle cogeneration facility not covered by paragraph (b)(1)
of this section, there is no efficiency standard.
(c) Waiver. The Commission may waive any of the requirements of paragraphs
(a) and (b) of this section upon a showing that the facility will produce significant
energy savings.
(d) Criteria for new cogeneration facilities. Notwithstanding paragraphs (a) and
(b) of this section, any cogeneration facility that was either not a qualifying
cogeneration facility on or before August 8, 2005, or that had not filed a notice
of selfcertification or an application for Commission certification as a qualifying
cogeneration facility under 292.207 of this chapter prior to February 2, 2006,
and which is seeking to sell electric energy pursuant to section 210 of the Public
Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978, 16 U.S.C. 824a1, must also show:
(1) The thermal energy output of the cogeneration facility is used in a
productive and beneficial manner; and
(2) The electrical, thermal, chemical and mechanical output of the
cogeneration facility is used fundamentally for industrial, commercial,
residential or institutional purposes and is not intended fundamentality
for sale to an electric utility, taking into account technological, efficiency,
economic, and variable thermal energy requirements, as well as state laws
applicable to sales of electric energy from a qualifying facility to its host
facility.
(3) Fundamental use test. For the purpose of satisfying paragraph (d)(2)
of this section, the electrical, thermal, chemical and mechanical output
of the cogeneration facility will be considered used fundamentally for
industrial, commercial, or institutional purposes, and not intended
fundamentally for sale to an electric utility if at least 50 percent of the
aggregate of such output, on an annual basis, is used for industrial,
commercial, residential or institutional purposes. In addition,
applicants for facilities that do not meet this safe harbor standard may
present evidence to the Commission that the facilities should nevertheless
be certified given state laws applicable to sales of electric energy or
unique technological, efficiency, economic, and variable thermal energy
requirements.

173
(4) For purposes of paragraphs (d)(1) and (2) of this section, a new
cogeneration facility of 5 MW or smaller will be presumed to satisfy
the requirements of those paragraphs.
(5) For purposes of paragraph (d)(1) of this section, where a thermal host existed
prior to the development of a new cogeneration facility whose thermal output will
supplant the thermal source previously in use by the thermal host, the thermal
output of such new cogeneration facility will be presumed to satisfy the
requirements of paragraph (d)(1).
[45 FR 17972, Mar. 20, 1980, as amended by Order 478, 52 FR 28467, July 30,
1987; Order 575, 60 FR 4857, Jan. 25, 1995; Order 671, 71 FR 7868, Feb. 15,
2006; Order 732, 75 FR 15966, Mar. 30, 2010; 76 FR 50663, Aug. 16, 2011]
Thermal storage
Thermal storage is the temporary storage of energy at high or low temperatures for
use at a later time when it is needed.
The time gap between when the energy is available and when it can be used may be
anywhere from several hours to several months, so the operating cycles can be anywhere
from daily to seasonal. The storage may be in sensible heat or latent heat. The terms hot
and cold refer to the temperature, not the heat value.
Thermal storage at low temperatures is considered to be from 20 to 70 degrees F.

Hot temperature storage is at temperatures of 70 to 160 degrees F.
Technically the refrigeration and storage of a cold medium is not heat
storage, it is the storage of the work used to reduce the entropy of the
medium.
Benefits of thermal storage -- Savings from thermal storage can be realized in a number
of ways:
Using thermal storage may allow smaller and cheaper equipment to be used.
The operating costs of smaller capacity devices may also be less.
Alternative energy sources such as solar and wind power may become feasible
with the availability of storage.
Off peak utility rates may make the consumption of purchased energy at one
time and use at another much cheaper.
Heat reclamation may become easier with the use of storage.
174

Thermal storage becomes a viable option when:
There are high loads for short periods of time,

There are high demand and peak rates imposed by utilities
Capacity of building systems needs to be increased, possibly due to expansion
or the use of cogeneration where thermal storage may be used instead of
purchasing new equipment to add capacity.
Materials used for thermal storage:
Water is the most commonly used medium. Heated or cooled water is stored in
tanks for later use.
Ice is generated and stored for later use in cooling. The transfer of heat is
accomplished using water or air.
Various phase change materials such as salt hydrates can be used to store the
latent heat of fusion.
Subterranean rock beds and earth are sometimes used for storage or as a
source or sink of heat for heat pumps.
Size and volume of material needed for thermal storage -- The capacity of sensible
heat storage (store heat in a material) is given by:
ASHRAE Standard includes procedures for measuring the performance of
water based systems.
Thermal Storage Strategies

A full storage system shuts off the chiller during peak load hours and runs entirely
on the stored cold medium. This type of system is also called a load shifting system as it
shifts the peak cooling load to off-peak hours when the system usually operates at full
capacity to recharge the storage medium.
In a partial storage system, the chillers operate continuously. The excess capacity
during the off peak time is stored and used to meet part of the peak period cooling load.
Partial storage systems may be operated to level the load or to limit the demand. The
initial and operating costs of the equipment are minimized because the refrigeration unit
is about half the size of one needed in a conventional design. In the load-leveling mode,
the system operates at a relatively constant capacity and the storage augments the
output during peak periods. In the demand-limiting case the chiller runs at a lower
capacity during peak demand periods.

175
Energy storage with ice is through latent heat. The relatively low melting point of ice
makes it useful for thermal storage in refrigeration use.
The high heat of fusion for ice allows for higher density energy storage than for
water. Freezing and melting a quantity of ice at the freezing point captures and released
as much energy as a 144 Fahrenheit degree change in water temperature. Consequently,
the required volume of ice is much less than water for a given amount of energy.
Distribution for transfer of heat is by air or water, both of which are easy and cheap to
control. Interfacing HVAC systems with either transfer medium is straightforward. A
disadvantage of ice is the relatively low efficiency in producing the ice with a
refrigeration system because the chillers are not very efficient at the lower temperatures
required. Ice can be stored in tanks and the standby loss is manageable.
Phase changing mediums
The latent heat of fusion from other phase changing media can also be used, and the
operating temperatures of these materials may make them better suited for some
applications. Examples are the true storage of heat (not storage of work used in
freezing) from boilers and solar systems. In some cases, the specific freezing/melting
point can be tailored to a specific application by combining different materials in a
eutectic mixture. In a true eutectic mixture, all constituents change from the liquid to
solid states at the same temperature.
Commonly used phase changing materials are salt hydrates, organic materials, and
clathrates, which have a lattice of one type of molecule containing a second type of
molecule. Such a mixture of refrigerant and water make a good medium for cooling
storage.
Characteristics of Earth
Another medium for thermal storage is the earth itself. While the specific heat of
earthen materials is considerably less than that of water, the medium is certainly
cheap and plentiful.
The earth is commonly used as a thermal sink or source in heat pumps. Operationally
the heat is freely conducted into and out of the unlimited supply of the earth. Water is
normally used to transfer the heat through a buried heat exchanger. Actual storage
and containment of heat can be made with rock beds. Generally, the fluid used to
transfer the heat in and out is air. The temperatures involved with earthen storage
makes it compatible with solar energy systems.
176

Green
Buildings
USGBC
Industrial
Energy Management
Fuel
Choices
Sustainable
Design
LEED
Certification
Steam Systems
Steam Tables
ASHRAE
90.1 Energy Cost Budget Method
LEED O&M
Heat Exchangers
Compressors
Certified,
Silver,
Gold,
and
Platinum
LEED
NCPumping Systems
Turbines
Pumps and
LEED
CI Air Systems
LEED
CS
Compressed
Air
Compressors
Thermal Storage
Formula:
Water
Efficiency
Energy
Air Compressor Controls
Air Leaksand Atmosphere
C=
m Cp STAR
T where:
ENERGY
Rating
Portfolio
Manager
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering, Chapter
5, 6 & 15.
Energy
Starand
Label
Green
Globes
REF: Doty
Turner, Energy Management Handbook,
Chapter
5, 6 & 8.
C is the
energy 189
in BTUs
ASHRAE
Standard
Green
Guide7, 8 &11.
REF: Capehart,
Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy ASHRAE
Management,
Chapter
m is the mass of the substance (lb)
o
Cp
is theStates
specific
heatBuildings
capacity of
the substance
(Btu/lb
F)
REF:
United
Green
Council,
website
with
LEED
presentations, www.usgbc.org
o
T
is
the
temperature
change
(
F)
REF: ENERGY STAR presentation, ENERGY STAR website, www.energystar.gov.
XIII.
IX.
REF:
Capehart,
Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 16
SUBJECT
TOPICS
REF:
Doty
and
Turner,
Energy Management Handbook,
Thermal Resistance
HeatChapter
Transfer23.
Coefficients
Insulation
Vapor Barriers
Solar Heat Gain
Solar Shading
Thermally LightENERGY
Facilities
THERMAL
STORAGE SYSTEMS
Conduction TOPICS
Heat Loads
Psychrometric Chart
SUBJECT
Air HeatStrategies
Transfer
Water
Heat Strategies
Transfer
Design
Operating
Storage Media
REF: Mehta
Thumann, Handbook of Energy Engineering,
Chapter 7.
Chilled
Waterand
Storage
Ice Storage
REF:
Doty
and
Turner,
Energy
Management
Handbook,
Chapter
9 & 15.
Sizing
Volume Requirements
REF:Storage
Capehart,
Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Partial
Management,
Full
Systems
StorageChapters
Systems6 & 11.
CHPDoty
SYSTEMS
and
RENEWABLE
ENERGY
REF:
and Turner,
Energy
Management Handbook,
Chapter 19.
SUBJECT TOPICS
Topping Cycles
Bottoming Cycles
Combined Cycles
Fuel Selection
Prime Movers
Regulations
Codes and Standards
HHV and LHV
Wind Energy Systems
Solar Thermal and Solar Photovoltaic Systems


REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapters 13 and 14
X. ENERGY PROCUREMENT
SUBJECT TOPICS
FERC Orders 888 and 889
Utility Restructuring
LDC, ISO, PX, EWG

Electric Deregulation
Natural Gas Policy Act
HHV and LHV


177
15. Building Automation and Controls;


Control Systems and Computers

Manual Systems Dimmers and switches
Basic Controls Timers and Dimmers
o Account for daylighting using photocell
o Use timers for night set-backs, etc.
Programmable controllers with sensors for processes
o Buildings with 100+ control points; 100,000 sqft or more
o Manage demand to not exceed a set peak
o Monitor CO2 level in exhaust to adjust air intake, e.g.
Computerized Systems (Energy Management Control Systems EMCS)
o Light Dimming
o Duty Cycling
o Combustion Control
o Surge protection / turn-off loads on power outage to avoid huge surge
when power is restored
o Temperature Reset based on Heating/Cooling demand
o A few to several 1,000s control points
o Fire safety
o Equipment Mtce status
o Report generation
Issues to address for ECMS success:
o optimize efficiency the ECMS wont do that for you\
o can simple manual controls do the job? ECMS really needed?
o Requirements must be carefully defined to select the right ECMS and
have positive impact
o Insure adequate Buyer commitment, and seller/vendor support
o Asses vendors carefully before committing
Web Based BAS more and more widespread
Computer Systems
o BLAST
Space Load predicting
Air Distribution Simulation calculate required hot water,
steam, gas, chilled water, HVAC electric demand
Central Plant simulator for boilers, chillers, CHP, solar energy
o DOE-2.1
Building Description Language (BDL) details of building
envelope factors
LOADS hourly space loads
SYSTEMS determines room temperature settings
PLANT allocate equipment to meet load, simulates their
operation
ECONOMICS life cycle costing, paybacks, etc.

178

Understanding Building Automation and Control Systems

Building Automation Systems (BAS) are centralized, interlinked, networks of
hardware and software, which monitor and control the environment in
commercial, industrial, and institutional facilities.
ensures the operational performance of the facility

comfort and safety of building occupants
Typically, such control systems are installed in new buildings or as part of a

renovation where they replace an outdated control system.
Related Terms
Building Automation and Control Systems (BACS), Building Control System

(BCS), and/or Building Management System (BMS)same as Building
Automation System or the subject of this page.
ControlsThis term is appropriate in describing discrete devices that
control particular pieces of equipment or processes.
Direct Digital Control (DDC)describes the communication method
used in modern devices (hardware and software). Collectively, DDC
products control various building systems and form the automation
system.
Energy Management System (EMS)generally understood to be the same as
a Building Automation System but may have special emphasis on energy
metering/monitoring
Energy Management and Control Systemwell, youre getting the idea.
Smart (Intelligent) Buildinga building equipped with a data-rich BAS.
Programmable Logic Controller PLC programming via the IEC 61131-3
standard
Controllers
All controllers have a set of common characteristics:
o input signal
o a device to implement the control algorithm
o a process that is controlled
o an output that is used to control the process.

Most controls are closed loop in which there is an error signal that is developed
from the difference between the input and the feedback of the output.

179
The simplest controls are open loop.

More Specifically:
In a reverse-acting pneumatic controller, the output signal increases as
the controlled variable decreases.
In a non-relay controller, there is a bleed nozzle and an air-supply
restrictor.
In a relay-type controller, the instrumentation activates a relay device

Control Algorithm / Control Modes
The simplest control algorithm is on/off, in which the need for a process is
detected and the controller activates it.
Proportional control: the manipulated variable is directly proportional to
the magnitude of the error signal. This mode of control is common as it
drives the process in a simple linear way.
Integral control: the value of the manipulated variable is changed at a rate
that is proportional to the error signal: the error is averaged over time.
The output is driven harder as time goes on until the process is forced to
respond.
Derivative controller: the manipulated variable is proportional to the rate
of change of the error signal. Quicker system response to impulse inputs is
achieved with the use of this mode. The derivative control function is not used
alone; it is usually used along with proportional control. The difference
between the settings where the controller operates to one position and the
other is known as the differential. Some controllers incorporate intentional
hysteresis to prevent continuous cycling between control states.
Operation of systems
Most systems now use direct digital control.
o Electronic sensors feed the EMS, which sends control signal to the appropriate
valves, dampers, and other devices.
o DDC is faster, more flexible, and more accurate than the pneumatic controls used
in the past.
o Remote devices are connected to a field interface device (FID) that interprets
commands. In a fully distributed system, the FIDs are smart devices that receive
sensed information and perform control functions independently.
o More sophisticated EMSs have the ability to learn building characteristics and
adjust their control parameters.

180

What is Controlled? Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) systems;

HVAC
Chillers
Boilers
Air Handling Units (AHUs)
Roof-top Units (RTUs)
Fan Coil Units (FCUs)
Heat Pump Units (HPUs)
Variable Air Volume boxes (VAVs)
Lighting
Other systems that are often controlled and/or brought under a complete
automation system include:
Power monitoring
Security
Close circuit video (CCTV)
Card and keypad access
Fire alarm system
Elevators/escalators
Plumbing and water monitoring

Economizer Control

Enthalpy Economizer

The enthalpy economizer switchover cycle chooses whether the mixed air
system should be using outdoor air for free cooling or return air by
measuring the total heat content or enthalpy of each air stream.

The enthalpy economizer is sometimes referred to as the true economizer
because it can sense both the sensible and latent components of the air.
Dry bulb temperature and relative humidity are measured in both outdoor
air and return air streams.

Enthalpy is a much more accurate measure of the load on the cooling
coil. To maximize the efficient use of energy in a system, enthalpy should
be used.

181
HVAC Control
Reheat Coil Reset
Selects the zone/area with the greatest need for reheat, and establishes the
minimum temperature of the heating hot water so that it is just hot enough to
meet the reheat needs for that time period.

ASHRAE Standard 135 developed the BACnet (Building Automation and Control
Networks) communication protocol that eventually became the industry open
standard.
BAS resides as software on an operator workstation (computer) or is
available as a web page.
Various types of controllers manage equipment and portions of the
network. Sensors provide input data to the controllers..
Echelon Corporations LAN is called LONWorks and it comes with the

LonTalk specification. LON is proprietary, designed to be a general purpose control
network solution,
some specific building control functions that are built into BACNet
are missing from LON.
Echelon uses its own unique control language that is different from the
BACNet standard.
Devices using one of these languages will not work those using the other
And, if you are building green, be aware that an automation system can contribute
greatly to your ability to earn such recognition as the EPA ENERGY STAR or the
LEED certification associated with the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC).

Todays BAS Trends
Wireless technology is beginning to replace traditionally wired BAS

infrastructure.
Enterprise-level initiatives are making the communication protocol of the
BAS less important.
While it is quite common to replace a pneumatic control system with a direct
digital control (DDC) system, pneumatic-to-DDC bridging strategies also
exist.
GUI Controlled interface
182

Proportional, Integral, Derivate (PID) control theory.

The PID controller is a feedback controller which calculates error, which is the
difference between the input and the desired set point. The goal is to minimize
the error by adjusting an output.
PID controller incorporates combinations of the different types of control. It is
designed with three separate control paths and the manipulated variable is the
weighted sum of each algorithm.

Example:
input is the temperature sensor

the set point is the desired value of the room temperature
output is a damper which allows air flow.
To minimize the error between the actual temperature and set point, the amount
of air flow is adjusted via damper.
Incorrect PID settings can cause a system to hunt if set points are exceeded
by outputs reacting too aggressively, causing increase in energy consumption
and mechanical equipment failures.
Direct Digital Control (DDC) microprocessor is directly in the control loop.
Self-tuning feature observes actual control points and self-adjusts loop
constants to insure control system response remains accurate.
Data Transmission
o dedicated communication lines
o RF transmission
o carrier signal on the power lines
Communication protocols
Many controllers work with the BACNet standard. Busses may be Ethernet or
some other LAN protocols, wireless internet, serial (RS-232, -422, or -485), or
use RF links or power line carriers. Other protocols can be used such as ARCNET
and LonTalk. DyNet uses a standard RS-485 serial bus. Modicons Modbus is
compatible with computer serial busses and Ethernet. oBIX (for Open Building
Information Exchange) is a standard for web service based control. This is very
useful where information from the system needs to be shared among different
users.

183
The Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) is a control method for

building lighting. DALI devices interface with light ballasts through a dedicated
cable that is shared among all devices.
X10 is a language and protocol that uses a power line carrier on existing wiring.
X10 is standardized and widely used so products from different manufacturers
can be mixed and matched. Clipsal has a proprietary variation of X10 for its
products called C-Bus.
Expert systems
Expert systems, or knowledge based systems, are computerized devices that
have incorporated some specific subject matter knowledge into a seemingly
intelligent computer program. The appearance to the user is one of engaging in dialog
with a knowledgeable human being.
o These products are an offshoot of research in the field of artificial intelligence
o Some Energy Management Systems now use expert system programming
in their management of building energy assets.
o Interactive user interface that asks detailed questions to gather
building and use information and then helps the user solve problems
XI.
BUILDING AUTOMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

SUBJECT TOPICS
Energy Management Strategies
Basic Controls
BACnet & LON
Power Line Carriers
Distributed Control
Optimization Controls
Expert Systems
TCP/IP
BAS Systems
Terminology
PID Controls
Signal Carriers
Central Control
Reset Controls
Web Based Systems



184
ENERGY STAR
XII. GREEN
BUILDINGS, LEED, AND

SUBJECT
TOPICS
Green Buildings
Sustainable Design
USGBC
LEED Certification
16.
Green Buildings and Sustainable Design

Four APPROACH options for M&V:

Spot Measurement
Continuous Measurement
Utility Bill Compare
Calibrates Simulation

M&V Options from the Intl Performance Measurement Verification Protocol
(IPMVP)

1. Option (A) Retrofit Isolation: Key Parameter Measurement (Spot Measurement)

2. Option (B) Retrofit Isolation: All Parameter Measurement (Continuous
Measurement)

3. Option (C) Whole Facility / Utility Bill Compare

4. Option (D) Calibrated Simulation (Calibrates Simulation)

Option (A) Retrofit Isolation: Key Parameter Measurement

Savings are determined by field measurement of the key performance
parameter(s) which define the energy use of the energy conservation
measures (ECM) affected system(s) and/or the success of the project.
Parameters not selected for field measurement are estimated. Estimates can
be based on historical data, manufacturers specifications, or engineering
judgment. Documentation of the source or justification of the estimated
parameter is required.

Typical applications may include a lighting retrofit, where the power drawn
can be monitored and hours of operation can be estimated.

Option (B) Retrofit Isolation: All Parameter Measurement
Savings are determined by field measurement of all key performance
parameters which define the energy use of the ECM-affected system.

Typical applications may include a lighting retrofit where both power drawn
and hours of operation are recorded.

Option (C) Whole Facility

185
Savings are determined by measuring energy use at the whole facility or sub-
facility level. This approach is likely to require a regression analysis or
similar to account for independent variables such as outdoor air
temperature, for example.

Typical examples may include measurement of a facility where several ECMs
have been implemented, or where the ECM is expected to affect all
equipment in a facility.

Option (D) Calibrated Simulation
Savings are determined through simulation of the energy use of the whole
facility, or of a sub-facility. Simulation routines are demonstrated to
adequately model actual energy performance measured in the facility. This
Option usually requires considerable skill in calibrated simulation.

Typical applications may include measurement of a facility where several
ECMs have been implemented, but no historical energy data is available.

186

LEED

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a set of rating
systems for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings,
homes and neighborhoods.

Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) - only members of the USGBC
and specific "in-house" committees may add, subtract or edit the standard, based on
an internal review process.

LEED MC and EB O&M require commissioning; each are good for 5 years.

LEED was most recently updated in 2009, to LEEDv3. It encompasses nine rating
systems for the design, construction and operation of buildings, homes and
neighborhoods.

LEED focuses on the design of the building and not on its actual energy
consumption, and therefore it has suggested that LEED buildings should be tracked
to discover whether the potential energy savings from the design are being used in
practice.

Five overarching categories correspond to the specialties available under the LEED
Accredited Professional program. That suite currently consists of:

Green Building Design & Construction

LEED for New Construction
LEED for Core & Shell
LEED for Schools
LEED for Retail: New Construction and Major Renovations
LEED for Healthcare

Green Interior Design & Construction

LEED for Commercial Interiors
LEED for Retail: Commercial Interiors

Green Building Operations & Maintenance

LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations & Maintenance

Green Neighborhood Development

LEED for Neighborhood Development

Green Home Design and Construction

187
LEED for Homes (The LEED for Homes rating system is different from
LEED v3, with different point categories and thresholds that reward
efficient residential design.

LEED also forms the basis for other sustainability rating systems such as the
Environmental Protection Agency's Labs21.Green Building Operations &
Maintenance

Under LEED 2009, there are 100 possible base points distributed across six
credit categories:
Sustainable Sites
Water Efficiency
Innovation in Design.

Up to 10 additional points may be earned:

four additional points may be received for Regional Priority Credits
six additional points for Innovation in Design (which includes exemplary
performance credits for existing credit categories).

Buildings can qualify for four levels of certification:

Certified: 4049 points
Silver: 5059 points
Gold: 6079 points
Platinum: 80 points and above

Goal of the credit system

The LEED 2009 performance credit system aims to allocate points "based on the
potential environmental impacts and human benefits of each credit." These are
weighed using the environmental impact categories of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's Tools for the Reduction and Assessment of
Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI).[14] and the environmental-
impact weighting scheme developed by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST).

To participate in LEED 2009, a building must comply with:
environmental laws and regulations
occupancy scenarios
building permanence and pre-rating completion

188

site boundaries
area-to-site ratios

Its owner must share data on the building's energy and water use for five
years after occupancy (for new construction) or date of certification (for
existing buildings)

Each of the performance categories also have measures in each category which are
mandatory and receive no points.

Credit Weighting Process - The weighting process has three steps:

A collection of reference buildings are used to estimate the environmental
impacts of any building seeking LEED certification in a designated rating
scheme.
NIST weightings are used to judge the relative importance of these impacts in
each category.
Data regarding actual impacts on environmental and human health are used
to assign points to individual categories and measures.

This system results in a weighted average for each rating scheme based upon actual
impacts and the relative importance of those impacts to human health and
environmental quality.

From 2010, buildings can use carbon offsets to achieve Green Power Credits for
LEED-NC (New Construction Certification) :[17]

In 2012 the USGBC launched GBIG, the Green Building Information Gateway, in
an effort to connect green building efforts and projects from all over the world. It
provides searchable access to a database of activities, buildings, places and
collections of green building-related information from many sources and programs,
as well as, specifically provides information about LEED projects.

LEED is a design tool and not a performance measurement tool. It is also not
yet climate-specific, although the newest version hopes to address this weakness
partially. Because of this, designers may make materials or design choices that
garner a LEED point, even though they may not be the most site- or climate-
appropriate choice available.

On top of this, LEED is also not energy-specific. Since it only measures the overall
performances, builders are free to choose how to achieve points under various
categories.

189
ECB for LEED Certification

In effect, before a building project can be considered for LEED certification (let alone
receive points for energy performance), the project team first must show that the
building and its systems satisfy the energy standards compulsory conditions for
compliance. The team then must demonstrate compliance with whichever criteria is most
rigorous:
o All of the prescriptive provisions in Standard 90.12004, or
o The Energy Cost Budget Method defined in Section 11 of Standard 90.1
2004; or,
o The requirements in the local energy code.
Its comparatively easy to show compliance with either Standard 90.1s prescriptive
provisions or the local energy code; however, neither of these approaches accommodates
unique designs or affords as much design flexibility as the Energy Cost Budget (ECB)
Method.
Using the ECB Method, the designer still must meet the mandatory provisions of the
standard but can trade off prescriptive requirements by designing other parts of
the building to reduce energy costs. As an example, a design team may find that its
impractical to implement the prescriptive requirement for an economizer on a particular
project. In lieu of the economizer, they could reduce energy costs by installing more
efficient lighting and mechanical systems and by using low-pressure- drop filters.
For LEED certification, the team must show that the energy costs of the proposed
design are less than or equal to the energy costs of a similar budget building that
complies with the minimum requirements of Standard 90.1in this case, one with an
economizer. To be considered valid, the comparison must be based on a model created
with acceptable simulation software.

190

EnergyStar

ENERGY STAR is a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) voluntary program
that helps businesses and individuals save money and protect our climate through
superior energy efficiency.

The ENERGY STAR program was established by EPA in 1992, under the authority of
the Clean Air Act Section 103(g).

Clean Air Act Section103(g) directs the Administrator to "conduct a basic
engineering research and technology program to develop, evaluate, and
demonstrate nonregulatory strategies and technologies for reducing air
pollution."

In 2005, Congress enacted the Energy Policy Act. Section 131 of the Act amends
Section 324 (42 USC 6294) of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act, and
"established at the Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency
a voluntary program to identify and promote energyefficient products and
buildings in order to reduce energy consumption, improve energy security, and
reduce pollution through voluntary labeling of or other forms of communication
about products and buildings that meet the highest energy efficiency standards."

ENERGY STAR certification for your building

Buildings can earn ENERGY STAR certification just like a refrigerator or light bulb.
No matter where you see it, the ENERGY STAR label means the same thing an
energy-efficient top performer that saves money without sacrificing performance.
ENERGY STAR certified buildings save energy, save money, and help protect the
environment by generating fewer greenhouse gas emissions than typical buildings.
To be certified as ENERGY STAR, a building must earn an ENERGY STAR score of
75 or higher, indicating that it performs better than at least 75 percent of similar
buildings nationwide.
ENERGY STAR award is good for 1 year.
Through Portfolio Manager, EPA delivers 1 100 ENERGY STAR scores for
many types of buildings. The ENERGY STAR score accounts for differences in
operating conditions, regional weather data, and other important considerations.
Learn more about how the 1 100 ENERGY STAR score is calculated.
To achieve EnergyStar Building Rating, buildings must be independently verified
to perform among the top 25 percent of similar buildings nationwide.

191
On average, ENERGY STAR labeled buildings use 35 percent less energy and
generate 35 percent fewer greenhouse gas emissions than their peers, making
them an important part of the fight against climate change.

How the calculation works

Inputs: Building size, location, number of occupants, number of PCs, etc.,
Outputs:
the scores algorithm estimates how much energy the building would use if it
were the best performing, the worst performing, and every level in between.
Compares the actual energy data you entered to the estimate to determine
where your building ranks relative to its peers.
Calculations are based on source energy and account for the impact of
weather variations, as well as changes in key property use details.

Program Integrity

To maintain consumer trust and improve the oversight of ENERGY STAR certified
products, homes, and commercial facilities, EPA has implemented thirdparty
certification requirements and testing.

192

Energy Cost Budget Method

The Energy Cost Budget (ECB) Method is a procedure that is part of the ASHRAE
Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low Rise Residential Buildings, Standard 90.1.
The Energy Cost Budget Method compares the energy cost of the proposed building
design with that of a hypothetical budget building design, which determines the annual
energy cost budget and, in turn, minimum compliance with Standard 90.1.
In other words: Compliance is met by showing that the overall cost of energy
in the subject building is less than that of a reference building that does meet
the criteria from the other methods.
Creating an acceptable ECB model involves several steps.
Step 1: Verify compliance with the mandatory provisions of Standard 90.12004.

Before constructing the comparative model, make sure that the proposed building
design satisfies all of the mandatory provisions in the 2004 standard.
Step 2: Determine which prescriptive requirements to implement. Once the
proposed building meets these mandatory provisions, determine which of the
prescriptive requirements align with the design goals for the project.
Step 3: Model the proposed design in accordance with Section 11.3 of Standard
90.1. Model the proposed building, taking care that the simulation represents the
actual design as closely as possible. Include all control strategies, heat-recovery
devices, and equipment capacities. Also, make sure that the schedules for occupancy,
lights, HVAC, and so on represent realistic operation of the building. Use utility rates
approved by the adopting authority (that is, the agency or agent that adopted Standard
90.12004) for the economic calculations.
Step 4: Model the budget design to determine the annual energy cost budget.
Basically, this step creates a second building model thats based on the proposed
design but changes all Standard 90.1-governed design details to represent minimum
compliance. Often, the budget building model differs from the proposed design
in:
o Envelope characteristics (U-factors, C-factors, F-factors, solar heat gain
coefficients, and percentage of fenestration in walls and/or roofs)
o Lighting power densities
o Economizer type (if required)
o Heat-recovery type (if required)
o HVAC system type (cooling, heating, and fan control types, per Figure 11.3.2
and Table 11.3.2A in Section 11 in the standard)
o Fan energy
o Cooling equipment (capacity and energy rate)
o Heating equipment (capacity and energy rate
o Omission of daylighting or shading via overhangs
All details not covered by the 2004 energy standard must be identical in both models.
Furthermore, the heat capacitance represented for opaque assemblies (walls, roofs,
floors, and doors) must be the same in both models, despite any differences in the

193
envelopes of the proposed and budget building designs.
Step 5: Compare the annual energy costs of the two models. To comply with the
ECB method
of Standard
90.12004, the projected
energy cost of SYSTEMS
the proposed
XI.
BUILDING
AUTOMATION
AND CONTROL
building
must not TOPICS
exceed that of the nearly identical budget building (which is
SUBJECT
minimally
compliant
with the
standard). If the proposed building
design meets this
Energy
Management
Strategies
Terminology
Basic
criterion
for Controls
minimum energy performance, the project teamPID
canControls
submit their
BACnet
& in
LON
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modeling
results
conjunction with the LEED-NC Letter Template
for EAp2.
Power Line Carriers
Note: As stated
earlier,
its not necessary to create an ECB model
if (inControl
addition to the
Distributed
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mandatoryOptimization
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project
meets
or
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all
of
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Controls
Reset Controls
in the standard.
Expert Systems
TCP/IP
BAS Systems
Web Based Systems

SUBJECT TOPICS
Green Buildings
Sustainable Design
ASHRAE 90.1 Energy Cost Budget Method
LEED CI
Water Efficiency
ENERGY STAR Rating
Energy Star Label
ASHRAE Standard 189
USGBC
LEED Certification
LEED O&M
LEED NC
LEED CS
Portfolio Manager
Green Globes
ASHRAE Green Guide

REF: United States Green Buildings Council, website with LEED presentations, www.usgbc.org
REF: ENERGY STAR presentation, ENERGY STAR website, www.energystar.gov.
REF: Capehart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management, Chapter 16
XIII. THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

SUBJECT TOPICS
Design Strategies
Storage Media
Chilled Water Storage
Sizing
Full Storage Systems
Ice Storage
Volume Requirements
Partial Storage Systems
REF: Mehta and Thumann, Handbook

194
of Energy Engineering, Chapter 12.

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Study

Codes and Standards and Indoor Air Quality

Energy Audits and Instrumentation

Energy Procurement - Energy Bills Electrical Systems

Energy Cost Analysis and Life Cycle Cost

Steam Distribution Systems / Combustion

Control Systems and Computers

Energy Systems Maintenance

Process Energy Management - Motors

Renewable Energy Systems and Water Management

Distributed Generation CHP

Building Automation and Control Systems / Energy Info Systems 178

Energy Units and Formulas by Topic Area

92,500 Btu/gal (LP)

130,000 Btu/gal (liquid)

also called #2 Fuel Oil

Temperature Range for Heat Transfer

-95 and 140F

Energy Procurement and Electrical Systems

Real Power (Actual work performed)

Power Voltage Current Calculations

V Line = V phase x 1.73 where

V phase = Voltage across component (can be Line to Neutral)

I Line = I phase x 1.73 where

I Line = Current from winding point to corresponding load point

(current through any one line conductor)

.84 = Real / Total

(Total Power)2 = (Real Power)2 + (Reactive Power)2

.95 = Real / Total

(Total Power)2 = (Real Power)2 + (Reactive Power)2

V line = V phase x 1.73

Energy Cost Analysis and Life Cycle Cost

Ballast factor (BF) is a ratio:

Calculating Average Light Level Throughout a Space (three formulas)

Zonal Cavity Design Method

Room Cavity Ratio

Spot Relamping Cost

Calculate Annual Savings using Group Relamp

Illuminance Number of Footcandles Facilities and Rooms

Manufacturing Facility 1.11

Dining: Bar Lounge/Leisure

Dining: Cafeteria/Fast Food

Performing Arts Theatre 1.39

Motion Picture Theater

Lamp Types Characteristics - Overview

Incandescent lamps (I)

Induction lamps (XF)

halogen lamps (HS)

HVAC Efficiency Ratings, Formulas

Affinity Laws (Fan/Pump Laws)

Law 1a. Flow is proportional (per ft, e.g.) to shaft speed:

Nx = speed in CFM for a fan

Nx = speed in CFM for a fan

Nx = speed in CFM for a fan

Law 2. (the shaft speed (N) held constant)

Law 2b. Pressure (Head) is proportional to the square of impeller diameter:

Law 2c. Power is proportional to the fifth power of impeller diameter:

is the volumetric flow rate (e.g. CFM, GPM or L/s),

is the impeller diameter (e.g. in or mm),

is the shaft rotational speed (e.g. rpm),

is the shaft power (e.g. W).

These laws assume that the pump/fan efficiency remains constant

T = Temperature difference (deg F) (usually around 20F or sofyi )

COP = coeff. of performance [or system efficiency ] when applicable