Class#10

- Continuous-time periodic signals: the Fourier series (3.5)-An application

- Continuous-time nonperiodic signals: the Fourier transform (3.7)

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Chengbin Ma

Preview of Previous Lecture

Natural response and forced response
natural response transient response
(homogeneous solution), and forced response
steady-state response (particular solution)

Fourier Series (FS)

DC component, fundamental frequency, Nth
harmonic component
FS coefficient
Dirichlet conditions
Trigonometric FS
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This Lecture
A real application of FS in analyzing a power
electronic circuit
Extend FS to analyze nonperiodic signals, i.e.,
Fourier transform (FT).

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Application: DC-AC Converter

Example 3.16, p227

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DC/AC Conversion Efficiency

Example 3.16, p227

x(t ) B[k ]cos(k0t )

k 0

B[0] 2T0 / T
2sin(k 2 T0 / T )
B[k ]
, k 0
k
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Class#10

- Continuous-time periodic signals: the Fourier series (3.5)-An application

- Continuous-time nonperiodic signals: the Fourier transform (3.7)

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The Fourier transform

The Fourier transform (FT) is used to represent
a continuous-time nonperiodic signal as a
superposition of complex sinusoids.
1
x(t )
2
X ( j )

X ( j )e

jt

d (IFT)

x(t )e

jt

dt

(FT)

x(t )

jk0t
X
[
k
]
e

1
X [k ]
T

x(t )e jk0t dt

FT

x(t ) X ( j )
Frequency-domain representation
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Basic Idea (1)

Development of the Fourier transform representation of a
continuous-time nonperiodic signal - we think of a nonperiodic
signal as the limit of a periodic signal as the period becomes
arbitrarily large, and we examine the limiting behavior of the
Fourier series representation for this signal.

1
x(t )
2

j t
X
(
j

)
e
d

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Chengbin Ma

Basic Idea (2)

Points: T is infinitely large; thus 0 is infinitely
small and k0 is actually continuous.
x(t ) X [k ]e
1. Represent w(t) using IFS
1
2. Solve W[k] using FS
X [k ] x(t )e
T
3. Further represent w(t) using k

jk0t

jk0t

Eventually
1
x(t )
2

j t
X
(
j

)
e
d

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dt

Derivations (1) Reference

w(t )

jk0t
W
[
k
]
e

T /2

W [k ]

In single period

T /2

1
1
jk0t
jk0t
w
(
t
)
e
dt

x
(
t
)
e
dt

T T / 2
T T / 2

1
jk0t
x
(
t
)
e
dt

x(t )

jk0t
X
[
k
]
e

X [k ]

1
T

x(t )e jk0t dt

T , W [k ] 0.

T , W [k ]T

x(t )e jk0t dt =X ( jk0 ) does not

necessarily approach 0, where X ( j ) = x(t )e jt dt is

the envelope function of W [ k ]T .

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Derivations (2) Reference

We can express the periodic signal in terms of the
envelope function as
w(t )

jk0t
W
[
k
]
e

1
1
jk0t
W [k ]Te
X ( jk0 )e jk0t
k T
k T

1
jk0t
x(t ) X [k ]e jk0t

X ( jk0 )e 0
k
k 2
0
W [k ]T X ( jk0 )
1
jk t

X ( jk )e

2
k 2
T
0
Because T is infinite, 0 is infinitely small!

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Derivations (3) Reference

We have
x(t ) lim w(t ) lim w(t )
T

0 0

1
lim
X ( jk )e jk t
0
k 2

1

X ( j ) e j t d
2

j t
X
(
j

)
e
d

Inverse FT
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IFT and FT
The Fourier transform pair

1
x(t )
2

X ( j ) e

j t

X ( j )

x(t )e

x(t )

X [k ]e

jk0t

j t

dt

1
X [k ] x(t )e jk0t dt
T T

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

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Dirichlet conditions
A continuous-time signal x(t) is Fourier transformable
if it satisfies the Dirichlet conditions:
x(t) is absolutely integrable.
x(t) has finite number of maxima and minima in any finite
interval.
x(t) has finite number of discontinuities within any finite
interval. Furthermore, each of these discontinuities must be
finite.

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Example (1)
Example 3.24 FT of a real decaying exponential.
x(t ) e atu (t ), a 0
X ( j )

j t
at
j t
x
(
t
)
e
dt

e
u
(
t
)
e
dt

( a j ) t

( a j ) t

e
1
dt

( a j ) 0 a j
1
x(t )
2
X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

x(t ) X ( j )
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Example (2)
Figure 3.39 (b) magnitude spectrum. (c) Phase spectrum.
Low-pass filter

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3.7 The Fourier Transform

Example 3.24 FT of a rectangular pulse.
1
x(t )
2

1,
t T0
x(t )
0, otherwise

X ( j )

X ( j )

e
j

x(t )e j t dt

T0

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

j t T0

T0

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

e j t dt

T0

jT0

e
j

jT0

2e

jT0

e
2j

jT0

sinc(u)

sin(T0 )
sin(T0 ) 2T0
2T0 Sa(T0 ) Sa( f )

T0
2

In textbook (page 223), Sa is named as sinc

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Example (3)
Figure 3.40 (b) Spectrum of the rectangular pulse.

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Example (4)
FT of the unit impulse.
1
x(t )
2

FT

(t ) 1

X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

x(t ) (t )
X ( j )

jt
jt

(
t
)
e
dt

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t 0

Chengbin Ma

Example (5)
1
x(t )
2

FT of 1.

X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

1 2 ( )

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

X ( j ) 2 ( )
1
x(t )
2

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2 ( )e

jt

dt e

jt

Chengbin Ma

Example (6)
FT of the delayed unit impulse.
1
x(t )
2

FT

(t t0 ) e

jt0

X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

x(t ) (t t0 )
X ( j )

(t t )e
0

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jt

dt e

jt
t t0

jt0

Chengbin Ma

Example (7)
FT of the complex sinusoids.
1
x(t )
2

j0t

FT

2 ( 0 )

X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

X ( j ) 2 ( 0 )
1
x(t )
2

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2 ( 0 )e jt dt e jt

e j0t

Chengbin Ma

Example (8)
1
x(t )
2

FT of the cosine.

X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

cos(0t ) [ ( 0 ) ( 0 )]

j0t

FT

2 ( 0 ), e

j0t

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

FT

2 ( 0 )

e j0t e j0t FT 2 ( 0 ) 2 ( 0 )
cos(0t )

2
2
Note that the nature of integration is summation, and linearity will automatically follow.

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Example (9)
1
x(t )
2

FT of the sine.

X ( j )
FT

FT

2 ( 0 ), e

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

sin(0t ) [ ( 0 ) ( 0 )]
j
j0t

j0t

FT

x(t ) X ( j )

FT

2 ( 0 )

e j0t e j0t FT 2 ( 0 ) 2 ( 0 )
sin(0t )

2j
2j

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Example (10)
page 246

FT of the sinc function.

sin(Wt ) FT

t
2W

1, W
0, W u ( W ) u ( W )

1
x(t )
2

X ( j )

2W
1
x(t )
2

2W

jt W

1 e

2 jt

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X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

1
jt

e
d

FT

jt

x(t ) X ( j )

1 e jWt e jWt
1 e jWt e jWt

t
2
jt
2j
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Example (11)
Refer to the following slides

FT of the signum function.

jt
u
(
t
)
e
dt U ( j )

u (t )

u (t )e

U ( j )
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jt

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

x(t ) X ( j )
FT
u (t )

[PROOF]
sign(t ) u (t ) u (t )
u (t )

X ( j ) e

X ( j )

1, t 0
FT 2

sign(t ) 0, t 0
j
1, t 0

1
x(t )
2

1
( )
j

1
( )
j

dt

j ( )
u
(

)
e
d U ( j )

1
1
( )
( )
j
j
Chengbin Ma

Reference (1.1)
FT of the unit step function.
FT

u (t )

1
( )
j

1
1
X ( j )
( ) x(t )
2
j
1

2
1

1 jt
1
e d
j
2

1
jt

e d
j

jt

(
)
e
d

cos(t ) j sin(t )
1 1

j
2 2

u t du td

cos(wt)/(jw) is odd function, therefore its

integration from inf to inf is zero

du
u

sin(t )

1
2
1
x(t )
2

X ( j ) e

j t

1 sin(u )
du , t 0
X ( j ) x(t )e j t dt

1 sin(t )
2 u

FT

2
x(t ) X ( j )
1 sin(u ) du , t 0
2 u
u is negative

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Reference (1.2)
FT of the unit step function (Continue).
sin(Wt )


t
2W

let W = 1

sin(t )
1, W
1, 1

0, W
t

2 0, 1

sin(t ) jt
sin(t )
1 sin(t )

0
e dt
dt
dt 1

t
t
2 t
2

=0 1

2 , t 0
d 1
, t 0
2

1 sin(t )
1 1, t 0
d
x(t )

2
2 0, t 0

sin(u )
1

du
u
2

sin(t )

This is exactly the definition of u(t)

1
x(t )
2
X ( j )

X ( j ) e

j t

x(t )e

j t

dt

FT

x(t ) X ( j )
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Homework
None
Read the PPTs and try to solve the examples
by yourself carefully!

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Slide 29

Chengbin Ma