Topic X Scientific

Thinking in
Research

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Discuss the different approaches to problem solving;

2.

Compare and contrast the inductive and deductive processes in the

scientific method; and

3.

Assess the components needed for the development of scientific

research.

X INTRODUCTION
The purpose of science is to expand knowledge and discover the truth. By
building theory, researchers undertake research to achieve this purpose.
Prediction and understanding are the two purposes of theory and they usually
go hand in hand. To make a prediction, one must know and understand why
variables behave as they do and theories provide this explanation. A theory is a
coherent set of general propositions used as principles to explain the apparent
relationships of certain observed phenomena. The scientific method is a series of
stages used to develop and refine theories.
Scientific methods and scientific thinking are based on concepts. Concepts are
invented so as to enable us to think and communicate abstractions. Higher-level
concepts are used for specialised scientific explanatory purposes that are not
directly observable. Concepts and constructs are used at the theoretical levels
while variables are used at the empirical level. The scientific research process is
used to develop and test various propositions using inductive-deductive
reflective thinking. Scientific research uses an orderly process that combines

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induction, deduction, observation and hypothesis testing into a set of reflective

thinking activities.
People analyse problems differently because they have selective perception and
conditioning of the environment affecting them; the kind of questions asked
would be different depending on how they see the world. Scientific inquiry is
one of the ways to analyse problems. Understanding the relationship between
science and research will help researchers in formulating the study.

1.1

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Science is a definable subject. It tries to describe reality truthfully. It is an

institution or a system and a way of producing knowledge. Science is also a
product of the system.
To most people, science is classified as hard (physical/biological science) and
soft (human science). The subject matter of science determines the techniques and
instruments used in scientific studies. A scientific method is the method
researchers use to gain knowledge. Business research is scientific because it
studies business actions and interactions truthfully, such as research in the field
of information and communication technology, education etc.
The basic goal of science is to obtain, with confidence, valid generalisations and
to establish relationships between variables. By understanding the relationships,
scientists will be able to understand a phenomenon in terms of the patterns of
relationships, to make predictions and to determine causal relationships. Good
science uses the scientific method and can be characterised by the following:
(a)

It is empirical, meaning that it is compared against reality;

(b)

It is replicable or objective, meaning that the researchers opinion is

independent of the results; other researchers conducting the study would
obtain the same results;

(c)

It is analytical, meaning that it follows the scientific method in breaking

down and describing empirical facts;

(d)

It is theory driven, meaning that it relies on a previous body of knowledge;

(e)

It is logical, meaning that conclusions are drawn from the results based on
logic; and

(f)

It is rigorous, meaning that every effort is made to reduce error.

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It is noted here that the difference between hard science and soft science is
control over confounding variables. For example, in business, there are factors
which may be beyond the control of managers, so there has to be some trade-off
between the rigours of science and the pragmatics of business. There has to be
some give and take between the desires of the businesspeople and the desires of
the researchers.
Although this will lead to error, as long as the researcher informs the decisionmaker of the limitations, and the results are qualified based on the limitations,
the research should go on to produce the information. Good scientific research
also follows the principle of parsimony, that is, a simple solution is better than a
complex solution. Parsimonious research means applying the simplest approach
that will address the research questions satisfactorily.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
What are the characteristics of good science?

1.2

TRADITIONAL SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

There are many ways of gathering information and acquiring knowledge.

Knowledge gained from traditional sources is not scientific and may potentially
have errors. The following are the common sources of knowledge:
(a)

Common Sense
Information and knowledge can be gained by relying on what everyone
knows and what just makes sense. Common sense is valuable in daily
living but it can allow logical fallacies to slip into thinking. Common sense
may contain contradictory ideas that many people may not notice because
the ideas are used at different times. Common sense can originate from
tradition; it is useful and may be correct but it may contain errors,
misinformation and contradiction. It may be prejudiced because of beliefs
and socio-cultural differences. One can avoid making wrong decisions by
accepting the truth that a deficiency of knowledge in common sense exists.
To reduce this deficiency, one has to generate the right kind of knowledge
and common sense knowledge needs to be examined systematically to find
the actual cause. The actual cause can be found by setting up experiments
for systematic testing or continually collecting data to examine the repeat
occurrences of an event. Thus, scientific advances are relied on in scientific

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research, not common sense. The right kind of knowledge is generated

through systematic research.
(b)

Personal Experience
When something happens, you feel it, you experience it and you accept it as
true. Personal experience or seeing is believing is a forceful source of
knowledge. But personal experience can lead one astray. What may appear
true may actually be due to a slight error or distortion in judgment. People
make mistakes or fall for illusions. They may believe what they see or
experience but these may be full of errors. Personal experience is reinforced
by four basic errors:
(i)

Overgeneralisation: People have some evidence that they believe

and then assume that it applies in many other situations too. There
are many individuals, areas and situations that people know little or
nothing about, so generalising from what little they know might seem
reasonable.

(ii)

Selective observation: People take special notice of some other

people or situations and generalise from these observations. The
focus becomes more intense if the objects fit their preconceived ideas;
people become more sensitive to features that confirm their ideas.

(iii) Premature closure: This often operates with and reinforces the first
two errors. Premature closure occurs when people feel they have all
the answers and do not need to listen, seek information or raise
questions any longer.
(iv) Halo effect: This happens in many forms whereby people
overgeneralise from what they interpret to be highly positive or
prestigious.

1.3

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE RESEARCH

Science is characterised by the two pillars of science: logic and observation. A

scientific understanding must make sense (logical) and correspond with what
we observe. Observation is used to confirm the world we see by making
measurements of what is seen. Both are essential to science and relate to the three
major aspects of science:

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(a)

Scientific theory  Deals with the logical aspects of science.

(b)

Data collection  Deals with the observational aspects of science.

(c)

Data analysis  Looks at patterns of observations, compares what is logical

with what is actual.

Science is still an imprecise field because it is imperfect in the current body of

knowledge. From time to time, new concepts are generated to falsify old
concepts. New concepts arise as a result of new findings, new sets of data or new
perspectives of research. As a result, no matter how well a concept seems to be
proven at this moment in time, you have to be aware that new evidences will
overturn older ones and new concepts will emerge. Thus, in science, you must
view knowledge as tentative and not absolute. Theories generated in science are
tentative law and do not forever govern the way the universe works.
A scientific law is not universal. It just tentatively reflects a natural occurrence
under a certain circumstance. However, due to the invention of new measuring
techniques, experimental instruments or observations, the scientific law will be
modified or changed. As a result, scientific laws are tentative statements and
subject to change.
Look at Figure 1.1. Theory is a general statement or proposition explaining what
causes what and why and under what circumstances of certain phenomena. A
theory is generated through analysis of facts in their relationship to one another
that explain phenomena. Facts are discovered through observation. These facts
are then analysed, and a model is created to explain the relationship observed in
a phenomenon. A tentative theory is then developed from the model.

Figure 1.1: A researcher investigating a phenomenon

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From this tentative theory, prediction and hypotheses are derived for further
investigation or testing. The process of further investigation or testing will
continue until the theories and laws derived are refined. The refined laws or
theories are tentative. If an anomaly is found when a new observation does not fit
into a current body of knowledge or the theories or laws are proven wrong, a
modification has to be carried out. The process will continue again and again
when new knowledge is generated from new observations.

1.4

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE MODELS

Research involves the use of theory. In the process of designing a research, theory
may or may not be expressed explicitly, although in the presentation of the
findings and conclusion, relationships with theories will be explicitly made.
(a)

Inductive Model  Moves from the particular to the general, from a set of
specific observations to discovery of a pattern that represents some degree
of order among all given events; the logical model in which general
principles are developed from specific observations.

(b)

Deductive Model  Moves from the general to the specific, from a pattern that
might be logically or theoretically expected and observations that test whether
the expected pattern actually occurs; the logical model in which specific
expectations of hypotheses are developed on the basis of general principles.

Figure 1.2 illustrates the differences between the inductive and deductive models.

Figure 1.2: Differences between the inductive and deductive models

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In the deductive model, existing theory is used to deduce a hypothesis. The

hypothesis is then empirically tested through data collected from the field. The
data is analysed and the findings are used to validate the hypothesis. If the
findings do not fit the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected. If the findings
fit the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is accepted. Consequently, theory is
revised according to the findings.
In the inductive model, an observation is made in order to generate an initial
concept to provide clearer understanding of a phenomenon. The concept is then
used to generate more relevant research questions for further data collection.
Findings are used to validate the initial concept. The validated concept is used as
the basis for new theory development. Next, the theory is compared with an
existing theory. If the new and existing theories are the same, the existing theory
is said to be confirmed or strengthened. If there is any anomaly in the
comparison, the existing theory is modified accordingly.

ACTIVITY 1.1
By providing appropriate examples, discuss the deductive and inductive
methods.

1.5

LINKS BETWEEN THEORY AND RESEARCH

Theory comprises systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and

propositions that are used to explain and predict phenomena (facts). It is a
systematic explanation for the observation that relates to a particular aspect of
behaviour. All operations are carried out on the basis of theories since theories
are general statements about variables and the relationships among them. These
generalisations are used to make decisions and predict outcomes.
Theory serves many useful purposes in research:
(a)

It narrows the range of facts needed to study; any problem can be studied
in many different ways. A theory can suggest the ways that are likely to
yield the greatest meaning;

(b)

It suggests a system for the researcher to impose on data in order to classify

them in a meaningful way;

(c)

It summarises what is known about an object;

(d)

It indicates uniformities that are not immediately observable; and

(e)

It helps to predict future facts that could be found.

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The followings are the components of theory:

(a)

Concepts
A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain
events, objects, conditions and situations. Concepts may be developed
because of frequent, general and shared usage over time. It may be acquired
through experience. Some concepts are unique to a particular culture and
not easily translated into another language.
In research, concepts used must be precise and comprehensible; hypotheses
are designed using concepts, measurement concepts are used to collect
data, new concepts may be invented to express ideas. The success of
research depends on the ability of researchers to conceptualise ideas and
how well others understand the concepts used. Concepts represent
progressive levels of abstractions; the degree to which the concepts do not
have objective referents. A shirt is an objective concept while personality is
a concept with a high degree of abstraction; such concepts are called
constructs.

(b)

Constructs
A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research
and/or theory-building purpose. Constructs are developed by combining
simpler concepts, especially if the idea or image we want to convey is not
directly subject to observation. Intelligent quotient (IQ) is constructed
mathematically from observations of the answers given to a large number
of questions in an IQ test. No one can directly or indirectly observe IQ but it
is a real characteristic of people.

(c)

Definitions
If the meaning of the concept is confused, the value of the research may be
destroyed. If the concepts used give different meanings to different people,
it indicates that the parties are not communicating on the same wavelength.
A concept may be defined with a synonym. For research purposes, the
definition must measure concepts, thus, needing a more rigorous definition.
Operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific testing
criteria or operations; the terms must have empirical referents (must be able
to count, measure or gather information in an objective manner). The
definition must specify the characteristics to study and how to observe the
characteristics. An effective operational definition ensures that two or more

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people will have the same interpretation of a phenomenon. The purpose of

operational definition is basically to provide unambiguous interpretation
and measurement of concepts.
(d)

Variables
At the theoretical level, constructs and concepts are used to relate to
propositions and theory; at this level, constructs cannot be observed. At the
empirical level, propositions are converted into hypotheses and tested; at
this level, the concepts are termed as variables. The term variable is used
as a synonym for construct or the property being studied. Quantitative
variables usually take numerals or values as the indicator of the degree of
level. The followings are some commonly used quantitative variables:
(i)

Dichotomous variable has two values reflecting the prescience or

absence of a property.

(ii)

Discrete variable takes on values representing added categories and

only certain values are possible.

(iii) Continuous variable takes on values within a given range or in some

cases, an infinite set.
On the other hand, qualitative variables do not have any numerical values
and mostly describe in subjective terms.
(e)

Propositions
Propositions are statements about concepts which may be judged as true or
false if they refer to observable phenomena.

(f)

Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a proposition that is formulated for empirical testing:
(i)

Descriptive hypotheses are propositions that typically state the

existence, size, form or distribution of some variables.

(ii)

Relational hypotheses are statements that describe a relationship

between two variables with respect to some case; the relationship can
be correlational or causal (explanatory).
x

Role of hypothesis in research

A hypothesis serves several functions in a research:


It guides the direction of the study;

It limits what is to be studied and what is not;

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It identifies which facts are relevant and which are not;

It suggests the most appropriate form of research design; and

It provides a framework for organising the conclusions.

Criteria of good hypothesis

A good hypothesis meets two conditions:


Adequate for its purpose: A descriptive hypothesis must

clearly state the condition, size or distribution of some
variables in terms of values meaningful to the research task;
and

Testable: A hypothesis is not testable if it requires the use of

techniques that are not available.

(g)

Model
A model is a representation of a developed system used to study some
aspects of the system or the system as a whole. It is different from theory
because theory explains relationships in the system whereas a model is a
representation of the relationships in the system.

(h)

Framework
A framework is an abstract representation of a phenomenon. It describes
the variables studied and the relationships among the variables. It can be
represented graphically in a diagram. Thus, in the early stage of a research,
a theoretical framework is usually constructed based on initial studies or
literature search. The theoretical framework is used to explain the
relationships that need to be investigated and tested in research. A
framework that has been successfully tested will be considered as the final
framework. A research will report the research findings by presenting the
final framework.

(i)

Process
A process is developed for a specific purpose in a business organisation. It
aims to make some change in the organisation. For example, lets say a
company implements a process to improve its quality performance. This
process may involve changes in the structure (for instance, someone is
transferred to a different department) or operations (for example, the
quality inspection procedure is modified) of the organisation. In research, a
process is developed to help solve an organisations problem or improve its
performance. The output of this research will be in the form of a new
process rather than a framework or model. A process is also called a tool,
procedure, method or system.

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SELF-CHECK 1.2
1.

What are the differences between proposition and hypothesis?

2.

What are the differences between concept and construct?

3.

What are the differences between model and framework?

SELF-CHECK 1.3
1.

If research in a social science area cannot be 100% scientific, why

do it at all?

2.

Tick True or False for each statement below:

No.

Question

1.

In deduction, we start from observing data and

developing a generalisation, and then explain the
relationship between observed variables.

2.

Theory helps us to make sense of observed patterns.

3.

The traditional model of science uses inductive logic.

4.

Scientific inquiry is a process involving alteration of

deduction and induction.

5.

A good hypothesis is testable; it means that the

hypothesis is simple, requiring few conditions or
assumptions.

6.

The role of a theory is representation while that of a

model is explanation.

7.

A moderating variable has a contributory effect on the

stated independent-dependent variable relationship.

8.

As income increases, age tends to increase is an

example of a causal/explanatory hypothesis.

9.

In deduction, we observe facts and draw conclusions

from them.

10.

Shoe, chair, demand and bread are all

concepts.

True

False

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Scientific research is an alternative to gain knowledge and information; other

methods to gain knowledge include authority, tradition, common sense,
media myth and personal experience.

Although scientific research does not produce 100% exact information, it is

less likely to have potential errors and less likely to be flawed.

The traditional model of science is made up of three components: theory,

operationalisation and observation.

The inductive and deductive model combines induction, deduction,

observation and hypothesis testing as a problem-solving process.

Scientific methods are based on concepts, constructs and variables, which

when operationalised, enable empirical testing of hypotheses.

Variables are concepts and constructs used at the empirical level. They are
numerals or values that represent the concepts for the purpose of testing and
measurement.

A hypothesis describes relationships between variables.

A good hypothesis can explain what it claims, is testable and has greater range.

Theories are general statements explaining phenomena.

Theories consist of concepts, definitions, and propositions to explain and

predict phenomena.

Models are representations of some aspects of a system or of the system as

a whole.

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Concept

Model

Construct

Generalisation

Deductive models

Process

Definition

Proposition

Empirical

Replicable

Framework

Variables

Hypothesis

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