Submarine Main Propulsion Diesels - Chapter 9

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SubmarineMainPropulsionDieselsChapter9
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9
ENGINEPERFORMANCEANDOPERATION
A.COMBUSTION,ANDEFFICIENCY
9A1.Combustion.Engineefficiencyis
acomparisonoftheamountofpower
developedbyanenginetotheenergy
inputasmeasuredbytheheatingvalue
ofthefuelconsumed.Inorderto
understandthevariousfactors
responsiblefordifferencesinengine
efficiency,itisnecessarytohavesome
knowledgeofthecombustionprocess
whichtakesplaceintheengine.
Inthedieselengine,ignitionofthefuel
isaccomplishedbytheheatof
compressionalone.Tosupport
combustion,airisrequired.
Approximately14poundsofairare
requiredforthecombustionof1pound
offueloil.However,toinsurecomplete
combustionofthefuel,anexcess
amountofairisalwayssuppliedtothe
cylinders.Theratiooftheamountofair
suppliedtothequantityoffuelinjected
duringeachpowerstrokeiscalledthe
airfuelratioandisanimportantfactor
intheoperationofanyinternal
combustionengine.Whentheengineis
operatingatlightloadsthereisa,large
excessofairpresent,andevenwhen
theengineisoverloaded,thereisan
excessofairovertheminimum
requiredforcompletecombustion.
1.Thefuelmustenterthecylinderatthe,
propertime.Thatis,thefuelinjection
valvemustopenandcloseincorrect
relationtothepositionofthepiston.
2.Thefuelmustenterthecylinderina
finemistorfog.
3.Thefuelmustmixthoroughlywiththe
airthatsupportsitscombustion.
4.Sufficientairmustbepresenttoassure
completecombustion.
5.Thetemperatureofcompressionmust
besufficienttoignitethefuel.
Figure91isareproductionofa
pressuretimediagramofamechanical
injectionengine.Thelowercurvypartof
whichisadottedline,isthecurveof
compressionandexpansionwhennofuel
isinjected.AtAtheinjectionvalve
opens,fuelentersthecombustion
chamberandignitionoccursatB.The
pressurefromAtoBshouldfallslightly
belowthecompressioncurvewithoutfuel
duetoabsorptionofheatbythefuelfrom
theair.TheperiodfromAtoBisthe
ignitiondelay.FromBthepressurerises
rapidlyuntilitreachesamaximumatC.
Thismaximum,insomeinstances,may
Theinjectedfuelmustbedividedinto occurattopdeadcenter.AtDthe
smallparticles,usuallybymechanical injectionvalvecloses,thefueliscutoff,
atomization,asitissprayedorinjected butburningofthefuelcontinuestosome
undeterminedpointalongtheexpansion
intothecombustionchamber.Itis
stroke.
imperativethateachofthesmall
particlesbecompletelysurroundedby
TheheightofthediagramfromBtoCis
sufficientairtoeffectcomplete
combustionofthefuel.Toaccomplish calledthefiringpressureriseandthe
http://maritime.org/doc/fleetsub/diesel/chap9.htm#fig901
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this,theairinthecylindermustbein
motionwithgoodfuelatomization,
combinedwithpenetrationand
distribution.Inmechanicalinjection
enginesthisisaccomplishedbyforcing
scavengingairintothecylinderwitha
whirlingmotiontocreatethenecessary
turbulence.Thisisusuallydone,inthe
2cycleengine,byshapingtheintake
airports,orbycastingthemsothat
theircentersareslightlytangentialto
theaxisofthecylinderbore.
slopeofthecurvebetweenthesetwo
pointsistherateatwhichthefuelis
burned.
Poorcombustionofthefuelisusually
indicatedbyasmokyexhaust,butsome
smokemaybetheresultofburning
lubricatingoilthathaspassedtherings
intothecombustionchamber.Incomplete
combustionisindicatedbyblacksmoke,
orifthefuelisnotigniting,itmayappear
asbluesmoke.Immediatelyafterstarting
anengine,whenrunningatlightloadsor
Beforeproceedingwiththestudyofthe atoverloads,orwhenchangingfromone
combustionprocess,theconditions
loadtoanother,smokeislikelytoappear.
consideredessentialtogood
Asmokyexhaustfromtheenginedoes
combustionshouldbereviewed:
notindicatewhetheroneorallthe
cylindersare
174
Figure91.Pressuretimediagramofcombustionprocess.
causingitAblacksmokingcylinder
radiationandconvectiontothe
usuallyshowsahigherexhaust
surroundingair.
temperaturewhichcanbeobserved
2.Heatrejectedandlosttothe
frompyrometersinstalledinthe
atmosphereintheexhaust.
individualexhaustlinesfromthe
cylinders.Openingtheindicatorcock
oneachcylindertoobservethecolorof 3.Inefficientcombustionorlackof
perfectcombustion.
theexhaustisanothercheck.Still
anothermethodiscuttingoffthefuel
supplytoonecylinderatatimetosee Alossduetoimperfectorincomplete
combustionisanimportantitem,because
whateffectithasontheengine
suchlosseshaveaseriouseffectonthe
exhaust.Thislattershouldneverbe
powerthatcanbedevelopedinthe
donewhentheengineisoperatingat
cylinderasshownbythepressure
fullloadasoverloadingoftheother
volumediagramorindicatorcard.
cylinderswillresultiftheengineis
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governorcontrolled.
Completecombustionisnotpossiblein
theshorttimepermittedinmodern
9A2.Enginelosses.Itisobviousthat enginedesign.However,theselosses
notalloftheheatcontentofafuelcan maybekepttoaminimumiftheengine
betransferredintousefulworkduring iskeptadjustedtotheproperoperating
thecombustionprocess.Themany
condition.Incompletecombustioncan
differentlossesthattakeplaceinthe
frequentlybedetectedbywatching
transformationofheatenergyintowork exhausttemperatures,notingtheexhaust
maybedividedintotwoclasses,
color,andbeingalertforunusualnoises
thermodynamicandmechanical.The
intheengine.
netusefulworkdeliveredbyanengine
istheresultobtainedbydeductingthe Heatenergylossesfromboththecooling
totallossesfromtheheatenergyinput. watersystemsandlubricatingoilsystem
arealwayspresent.Someheatis
Thermodynamiclossesarecausedby:
conductedthroughtheenginepartsand
radiatedtotheatmosphereorpickedup
1.Losstothecoolingsystemandlosses bythesurroundingairbyconvection.The
by
effectoftheselossesvariesaccordingto
thepartofthecycleinwhichtheyoccur.
The
175
heatappearinginthejacketcooling
waterisnotatruemeasureofcooling
lossbecausethisheatincludes:
1.Heatlossestojacketsduring
compression,combustion,and
expansionphasesoftheworkingcycle.
2.Heatlossesduringtheexhaust
stroke.
3.Heatlossesabsorbedbythewallsof
theexhaustpassages.
4.Heatgeneratedbypistonfrictionon
cylinderwalls.
Heatlossestotheatmospherethrough
theexhaustareinevitablebecausethe
enginecylindermustbeclearedofthe
stillhotexhaustgasesbeforeanother
freshairchargecanbeintroducedand
anotherpowerstrokebegun.Theheat
losttotheexhaustisdeterminedbythe
temperaturewithinthecylinderwhen
exhaustbegins.Itdependsuponthe
amountoffuelinjectedandtheweight
ofaircompressedwithinthecylinder.
Impropertimingoftheexhaustvalves,
whetherearlyorlate,willresultin
increasedheatlosses.Ifearly,thevalve
releasesthepressureinthecylinder
Figure92.Heatbalanceforadiesel
engine.
pumpinglossescausedbyoperationof
waterpumps,lubricatingoilpumps,and
scavengingairblowers,powerrequired
tooperatevalves,andsoforth.Friction
lossescannotbeeliminated,buttheycan
bekeptataminimumbymaintainingthe
engineinitsbestmechanicalcondition.
Bearings,pistons,andpistonringsshould
beproperlyinstalledandfitted,shafts
mustbeinalignment,andlubricatingand
coolingsystemsshouldbeattheirhighest
operatingefficiency.
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beforealltheavailableworkis
obtainediflate,thenecessaryamount
ofairforcompletecombustionofthe
nextchargecannotberealized,
althoughasmallamountofadditional
workmaybeobtained.Thetimingof
theexhaustvalveisacompromise,the
bestpossiblepositionofopeningand
closingbeingdeterminedbytheengine
designer.Itisessentialthatthevalvebe
tightandproperlytimedinorderto
maintainthelosstotheexhaustata
minimum.Thisisalsotrueforairinlet
valvesettingon4cycletypeengines.
Ifanindicatorcardistakenofadiesel
enginecylinder,itispossibleto
calculatethehorsepowerdeveloped
withinthecylinder.Thiscalculation
doesnottakeintoaccountthepower
lossresultingfrommechanicalor
frictionlosses,aswillbediscussed
later,butitreflectstheactualwork
producedwithinthecylinder.
9A3.Compressionratioand
efficiencies.a.Compressionratio.The
termcompressionratioisusedquite
extensivelyinconnectionwithengine
performanceandvarioustypesof
efficiencies.Itmaybedefinedastheratio
ofthetotalvolumeofacylindertothe
clearancevolumeofthecylinder.Itmay
bebestexplainedbyreferencetothe
pressurevolumeindicatorcardofadiesel
cylinder.InFigure93,thevolumeis
reducedfromsquareroot(C)+square
root(D)tosquareroot(C)during
compression.Thecompressionratiois
thenequalto
(squareroot(C)+squareroot(D))/square
root(C)
Mechanicallossesareofseveralkinds,
notallofthempresentineveryengine.
Thesumtotalofthesemechanical
lossesdeductedfromtheindicated
horsepowerdevelopedinthecylinders
willgivethebrakehorsepowerfinally
deliveredasusefulworkbytheengine.
Thesemechanicalorfrictionlosses
includebearingfriction,pistonand
pistonringfriction,and
176
thefuelwouldfireordetonatebeforethe
pistoncouldreachthecorrectfiring
position.
Figure93.Compressionratio.
Compressionratioinfluencesthe
Thetemperatureentropy(TS)diagram
ofanyparticularcycleindicatesthe
amountofheatinputandtheamountof
heatrejected.Forexample,inFigure94,
theTSdiagramofamodifieddiesel
cycle,theheatinputisrepresentedbythe
areaFBDGandtheheatrejectedtothe
exhaustbytheareaFAEG.Theheat
representedindoingusefulworkis
representedbythedifferencebetween
thesetwo,orareaABDE.Theefficiency
ofthecyclecanthenbeexpressedas
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thermalefficiencyofanengine.
(H1H2)/H1whereH1istheheatinput
Theoreticallythethermalefficiency
alonglinesBCandCD(thelines
increasesasthecompressionratiois
representingtheconstantvolumeand
increased.Theminimumvalueofa
constantpressurecombustion),andH2is
dieselenginecompressionratiois
theheatrejectedalonglineEA(theline
determinedbythecompression
representingtheconstantvolume
requiredforstarting,which,tolarge
exhaust).Sinceheatandtemperatureare
extentisdependentonthetypeoffuel
proportionaltoeachother,thecycle
used.Themaximumvalueofthe
efficiencyisactuallycomputedfrom
compressionratioisnotlimitedbythe
measurementsmadeofthetemperature.
fuelusedbutislimitedbythestrength
Thespecificheatofthemixtureinthe
ofthepartsoftheengineandthe
cylinderiseitherknownorassumed,and
allowableenginewgt/bhpoutput.
whencombinedwiththetemperature,the
heatcontentcanbecalculatedatany
b.Cycleefficiency.Theefficiencyof
anycycleisequaltotheoutputdivided instant.Thus,itisseenthattemperature
isameasureofheat,andthattheheatis
bytheinput.Thedieselcycleshows
proportionaltothetemperatureofthe
oneofthehighestefficienciesofany
gas.
engineyetbuiltbecauseofthehigher
compressionratiocarriedandbecause c.Volumetricefficiency.Thevolumetric
ofthefactthatcombustionstartsata
efficiencyofanengineistheratioofthe
highertemperature.Inotherwords,the
volumethatwouldbeoccupiedbytheair
heatinputisatahigheraverage
chargeatatmospherictemperatureand
temperature.Theoretically,thegasoline
pressuretothecylinderdisplacement(the
engineusingtheOttoorconstant
productofthe
volumecyclewouldbemoreefficient
thanthedieselifitcoulduse
compressionratiosashighasthelatter.
Thegasolineengineoperatingonthe
Ottocyclecannotuseacompression
ratiocomparabletothedieselengine
duetothefactthatthefuelandairare
drawnintogetherandcompressed.If
highcompressionratioswereused,
Figure94.Temperatureentropy
diagramofmodifieddieselcycle.
177
areaoftheboretimesthestrokeofthe
piston).Thevolumetricefficiency
determinestheamountofairavailable
forcombustionofthefuel,andhence
influencesthemaximumpoweroutput
oftheengine.
Volumetricefficiencyisactuallythe
completenessoffillingofthecylinder
withfreshairatatmosphericpressure.
Thevolumetricefficiencyofanengine
maybeincreasedbyenlargingtheareas
ofintakeandexhaustvalvesorports,
andbyhavingallvalvesproperlytimed
calculatedaspreviouslyexplained,the
indicatedthermalefficiencycanbe
computed.
Indicatedthermalefficiency=
(IndicatedhpX42.42Btuperminuteper
hp)/(RateofheatinputoffuelinBtuper
minute)X100percent
Inlikemannertheoverallthermal
efficiencycanbefoundfromthebrake
horsepowerortheactualpoweravailable
attheengineshaft.*
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sothatasmuchairaspossiblewill
enterthecylinders.Sinceanyburned
gaseswillreducethechargeoffresh
air,thesuperchargingeffectgainedby
earlyclosingoftheexhaustvalvesor
portswillreducethevolumetric
efficiency.Insomeengines,the
volumetricefficiencyisalsoincreased
byusingspecialapparatustoutilizeair
at2to3psiovertheatmospheric
pressure.Thisprocedureiscommonly
calledsupercharging.
Overallthermalefficiency=
Brakehorsepower/HeatinputoffuelX
100percent
e.Mechanicalefficiency.Themechanical
lossesinanenginedecreasethe
efficiencyoftheengineandrepresentthe
skillwithwhichtheenginepartswere
designedaswellastheskillwithwhich
theoperatormaintainstheengine.As
previouslystated,thebrakehorsepower
isequaltotheindicatedhorsepower
minusthemechanicallosses.Theratioof
brakehorsepowertoindicated
horsepower,then,isthemechanical
efficiencyoftheenginewhichincreases
asthemechanicallossesdecrease.
d.Thermalefficiency.Thermal
efficiencymayberegardedasa
measureoftheefficiencyand
completenessofcombustionofthe
injectedfuel.Thermalefficienciesare
generallyconsideredasbeingoftwo
kinds,indicatedthermalefficiencyand
overallthermalefficiency.
Mechanicalefficiency=
Brakehorsepower/Indicatedhorsepower
X100percent
Ifallthepotentialheatinthefuelwere
deliveredaswork,thethermal
efficiencywouldbe100percent.This
isnotpossibleinpractice,ofcourse.To
determinethevaluesoftheabove
efficienciestheamountoffuelinjected
isknown,andfromitsheatingvalue,or
Btuperpound,thetotalheatcontentof
theinjectedfuelcanbefound.Fromthe
mechanicalequivalentofheat(778
footpoundsareequalto1Btu),the
numberoffootpoundsofwork
containedinthefuelcanbecomputed.
Iftheamountoffuelinjectedis
measuredoveraperiodoftime,therate
atwhichtheheatisputintotheengine
canbeconvertedintopotentialpower.
Then,iftheindicatedhorsepower
developedbytheengineis
*Thispowerreferredtoasshaft
horsepower,istheamountavailablefor
usefulwork.Itisthepoweravailableat
thepropeller.Thereisafurtherlossof
powerbetweenthemainpropulsion
engine(measuredasbrakehorsepower)
andshafthorsepowerduetothefriction
inthereductiongears,hydraulicor
electrictypecouplings,lineshaft
bearings,stuffingboxes,sterntube
bearings,andstrutbearings.Theselosses
insomecasesareconsiderableandthe
totallossmaybeashighas7or8
percent.Therefore,theyshouldnotbe
neglectedinmakingcomputations.
178
B.ENGINEPERFORMANCE
9B1.Engineperformance.a.General. whichtheenginewilloperatewitha
Manyfactorsaffecttheengine
smokyexhaust.
performanceofanengine.Someof
thesefactorsareinherentintheengine f.Injectionrate.Therateofinjectionis
designotherscanbecontrolledbythe importantbecauseitdeterminestherate
operator.Thefollowinglistofvariable ofcombustionandinfluencesengine
conditionsaffectingtheperformanceof efficiency.Injectionshouldstartslowly
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adieselengineisnotcomplete,but
containsalltheimportantfactorsthat
shouldbefamiliartooperating
personnel.
b.Fuelcharacteristics.Thecetane
numberofthefuelhasanimportant
effectonengineperformance.Fuels
withlowcetaneratinghavehigh
ignitionlag.Aconsiderableamountof
fuelcollectsinthecombustionspace
beforeignitionoccurs,withtheresult
thathighmaximumpressuresare
reached,andthereisatendencytoward
knocking.Thistendstoincreasewear
oftheengineandreduceitsefficiency.
Fuelswithhighcetaneratingshavelow
autoignitiontemperaturesandhence
areeasierstartingthanfuelswithlow
cetaneratings.Therefore,dieselengine
performanceisimprovedbytheuseof
highcetanenumberfueloils.
sothatalimitedamountoffuelwill
accumulateinthecylinderduringthe
initialignitionlagbeforecombustion
begins.Itshouldproceedatsucharate
thatthemaximumriseincylinder
pressureismoderate,butitmust
introducethefuelasrapidlyas
permissibleinordertoobtaincomplete
combustionandmaximumexpansionof
thecombustionproducts.
g.Atomizationoffuel.Theaveragesize
ofthefuelparticlesaffectstheignition
lagandinfluencesthecompletenessof
combustion.Smallsizedparticlesare
desirablebecausetheyburnmorerapidly.
Opposedtothisrequirementisthefact
thatsmallparticleshavealow
penetration,andthereisthereforea
tendencytowardincompletemixingof
thefuelandthecombustionair,which
leadstoincompletecombustion.
c.Airtemperature.Thetemperatureof h.Combustionchamberdesign.The
theairinthecylinderdirectlyaffects amountofturbulencepresentinthe
thefinalcompressiontemperature.A
combustionchamberofanengineaffects
highintaketemperatureresultsin
themixingofthefuelandthecombustion
decreasedignitionlagandfacilitates
air.Highturbulenceisanaidtocomplete
easystarting,butisgenerally
combustion.
undesirablebecauseitdecreasesthe
9B2.Power.Engineperformanceofan
volumetricefficiencyoftheengine.
internalcombustionenginemaybe
d.Quantityoffuelinjectedperstroke. measuredintermsoftorque,orpower
Thequantityoffuelinjected
developedbytheengine.Thepowerthat
determinestheamountofenergy
anyinternalcombustionengineis
availabletotheengine,andalso(fora capableofdevelopingislimitedbymean
givenvolumetricefficiency)theair
effectivepressure,lengthofstroke,
fuelratio.
cylinderbore,andthespeedoftheengine
inrevolutionsperminute(rpm).
e.Injectiontiming.Theinjectiontiming
hasapronouncedeffectonengine
a.Meanindicatedpressure.Theaverage
performance.Formanyengines,the
ormeanpressureexertedonthepiston
optimumisbetween5degreesto10
duringeachexpansionorpowerstrokeis
degreesbeforetopdeadcenter,butit
knownasthemeanindicatedpressure.
varieswithenginedesign.Early
Meanindicatedpressureisofgreat
injectiontendstowardthedevelopment importanceinenginedesign.Itcanbe
ofhighcylinderpressures,becausethe obtainedfromindicatorcards
fuelisinjectedduringapartofthe
mathematicallyordirectlyfromthe
cyclewhenthepistonismovingslowly planimeter.Excessivemeanpressures
andcombustionisthereforeatnearly
resultinoverloadingtheengineand
constantvolume.Extremeinjection
consequenthightemperatures.
advancewillcauseknocking.Late
Temperaturesgreaterthanthose
injectiontends"todecreasethemean
contemplatedintheenginedesignmay
indicatedpressure(mip)oftheengine causecrackedcylinderheads,liners,and
andtolowerthepoweroutput.
warpedvalves.Therearetwokindsof
Extremelylateinjectiontendstoward
meaneffectivepressures.One,mip,or
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incompletecombustion,asaresultof
mean
179
indicatedpressureisthatdevelopedin
thecylinderandcanbemeasured.The
otherisbmeporbrakemeaneffective
pressureandiscomputedfromthebhp
deliveredbytheengine.
NOTE.Maximumpressuredeveloped
hasnobearingonmep.
b.Lengthofstroke.Thedistancethe
pistontravelsfromonedeadcenterto
itsoppositedeadcenterisknownasthe
lengthofstroke.Thisdistanceisoneof
thefactorsthatdeterminesthepiston
speedwhichislimitedbythefrictional
heatgeneratedandtheinertiaofthe
movingparts.Inmodernengines,
pistonspeedreachesapproximately
1600feetperminute.Ifthelengthof
strokeistooshort,excessivesidethrust
willbeexertedonatrunktypepiston.
Thelengthofstroke,however,cannot
betoogreatbecauseofthelackof
overheadspaceavailableonsubmarine
typeengines.
c.Cylinderbore.Thecylinderboreis
itsdiameter,andfromthisthecross
sectionalareaofthepistonis
determined.Itisuponthisareathatthe
gaspressureactstocreatethedriving
force.Thispressureisthemean
indicatedpressurereferredtoabove,
expressedandcalculatedforanareaof
1squareinch.Theratiooflengthof
stroketocylinderboreissomewhat
fixedinenginedesign.Thereareafew
instancesinwhichthestrokehasbeen
lessthanthebore,butinalmostevery
casethestrokeislongerthanthebore.
Thisratioinamoderntrunkpistontype
engineisabout1.25,whileina
crossheadtypeengineinusetodayitis
about1.50.
d.Revolutionsperminute.Thisisthe
speedatwhichthecrankshaftrotates,
andsincethepistonisconnectedtothe
shaft,itdetermines,withthelengthof
stroke,thepistonspeed.Sincethe
pistonmovesupanddowneach
singleacting,2strokecycleengine,there
isapowerstrokeforeachrevolution.
Havingdefinedthefactorsinfluencing
thepowercapableofbeingdeveloped,
thegeneralformulaforcalculating
horsepowerisasfollows:
IHP=(PXLXAXN)/33,000
P=Meanindicatedpressure,inpsi
L=Lengthofstroke,infeet
A=Effectiveareaofthepistoninsquare
inches
N=Numberofpowerstrokesperminute
Thehorsepowerdevelopedwithinthe
cylinderasaresultofcombustionofthe
fuelcanbecalculatedbymeasuringthe
meanindicatedpressureandengine
speed.Thenwiththeboreandstroke
known,thehorsepowercanbecomputed
forthetypeofenginebeingused.This
poweriscalledindicatedhorsepower
becauseitisobtainedfromthepressure
measuredfromanengineindicatorcard.
Itdoesnottakeintoaccountthepower
lossduetofriction,aswillbediscussed
later.Example:
Givena12cylinder,2cycle,single
actingenginehavingaboreof8inches
andastrokeof10inches.Itsratedspeed
is720rpm.Whenrunningatfullloadand
speed,themeanindicatedpressureis
measuredandisfoundtobe105psi.
Whatistheindicatedhorsepower
developedbytheengine?
Solution:
Fromtheformula
IHP=(PXLXAXN)/33,000
P=105
L=10/12
A=3.1416(8/2)2
N=720
IHP=(105X(10/12)X3.1416(8/2)2)
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revolution,thepistonspeedisequalto
twicethestroketimestherevolutions
perminute(rpm),andisusually
expressedinfeetperminute.Ifthe
strokeis10inches,andthespeedof
rotationis750rpm,thepistonspeedis
750X2X(12/10)=1,250feetper
minute.
Thepowerdevelopedbytheengine
dependsupontheengine'sspeedand
thetypeofengine.Ifitisasingle
acting,4strokecycleenginetherewill
beonepowerstrokeforeverytwo
revolutionsofthecrankshaft.Ifitisa
X720
IHP=96.96
Sincethisisjustthehorsepower
developedinonecylinder,iftheloadis
perfectlybalancedamongallcylinders,
thetotalindicatedhorsepowerofthe
engineis
IHP=12X96.96=1163.5
180
e.Brakehorsepower.Asstatedabove,
brakehorsepoweristhepower
deliveredbytheengineindoinguseful
work.Numerically,itisequaltothe
indicatedhorsepowerminusthe
mechanicallosses.
BHP=IHPminusthemechanical
losses.
bedeterminedfromtheindicated
horsepowerundervaryingconditionsof
operation.Itshouldbenotedthatasa
rule,indicatorcardstakenonengines
havingaspeedover450rpmarenot
reliableandthereforenoindicator
motionsareprovided.
9B3.Engineperformancelimitations.
Thepowerthatcanbedevelopedbya
Fromtheexampleabove,theIHPwas givensizecylinderwhosepistonstrokeis
foundtobe1163.5.Ifthebrake
fixedislimitedonlybythepistonspeed
horsepowerofthisenginewas900as
andthemeaneffectivepressure.The
determinedinatestlaboratory,thenthe pistonspeedislimitedbytheinertia
mechanicallosseswouldbe
forcessetupbythemovingpartsandthe
problemoflubricationduetofrictional
1163.5900=263.5horsepower
heat.
or
(263.5/1163.5)X100=22.6percent
oftheindicatedhorsepowerdeveloped
inthecylinders
or90/1163.5=77.4percent
mechanicalefficiency.
Enginepowerisfrequentlylimitedby
themaximummeanpressureallowed.
Tofindthebmepoftheaboveengine,
firstobtainthepowerdevelopedinone
cylinder.Thus,
900/12=75.0bhp
Fromthegeneralformulafor
Themeanindicatedpressureislimited
by:
1.Heatlossesandefficiencyof
combustion.
2.Volumetricefficiencyortheamountof
airchargedintothecylinderandthe
degreeofscavenging.
3.Completemixingofthefuelandair
whichrequiresfineatomization,
sufficientpenetration,andaproperly
designedcombustionchamber.
Thelimitingmeaneffectivepressures,
bothbrakeandindicated,areprescribed
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horsepower,
HP=(PXLXAXN)/33,000
75=PX(10/12)X3.1416X(8/2)2
720/33,000
P=(75X33,000)/(10/12X3.1416X
(8/2)2X720)
P=82.1psi
Hence,fortheaboveengineunderthe
conditionsstatedthebmepis82.1
whilethemipis105psi.
Thebrakehorsepoweristhepower
availableattheengineshaftforuseful
work.Brakehorsepowercannotusually
bemeasuredafteranengineisinstalled
inservice,unlesstheenginedrivesan
electricgenerator.Thebrake
horsepowerisdeterminedbyactual
testsintheshopsofthemanufacturer
beforedeliveryoftheengine.Frictional
lossesarequiteindependentoftheload
ontheengine.Hence,unlessthebrake
horsepowerhasbeenmeasuredat
variousloadsandspeeds,the
mechanicallossescannot
bythemanufacturerortheBureauof
Shipsandshouldneverbeexceeded.Ina
directdriveship,themeaneffective
pressuresdevelopedaredeterminedby
therpmoftheshaft.Inelectricdrive
ships,thehorsepowerandmepcanbe
determinedreadilyfromtheelectrical
readings,takingintoaccountgenerator
efficiency.
Thedieseloperatorshouldrememberthat
thetermoverloadingmeansexceeding
thelimitingmeaneffectivepressure.
9B4.Operation.Allsubmarinetype
dieselenginesareratedatagiven
horsepowerandagivenspeedbythe
manufacturer.Thesefactorsshould
ordinarilyneverbeexceededinthe
operationoftheengine.Usingtherated
speedandbhp,itispossibletodetermine
aratedbmepwhicheachindividual
cylindershouldneverexceed,otherwise
thatcylinderwillbecomeoverloaded.
Theratedbmepholdsonlyforrated
speed.Ifthespeedoftheenginedrops
downbelowratedspeed,thenthe
cylinderbmepwhichshouldnotbe
exceededgenerallydropsdowntoa
lowervalueduetopropeller
characteristics.Thebmepshouldnever
exceedthenormalmepatlowerengine
speed.Usuallyit
181
shouldbesomewhatloweriftheengine Dieselenginesdonotoperatewellat
speedisdecreased.
exceedinglylowbmepsuchasthat
occurringatidlingspeed.Thistypeof
Navytypeenginesaregenerallyrated enginerunningtendstogumuppistons,
higherforemergencyusethanwould
rings,valves,andexhaustports.Ifan
normallybethecasewithcommercial engineisrunatidlingspeedforlong
engines.Theeconomicalspeedfor
periodsoftime,itwillrequirecleaning
mostNavytypedieselenginesisfound andoverhaulmuchsoonerthanifithad
tobeabout90percentofratedspeed.
beenrunat50percentto100percentof
Forthisspeedtheoptimumload
load.
conditionshavebeenfoundtobefrom
Someenginemanufacturersdesigntheir
70percentto80percentoftherated
loadoroutput.Thus,wespeakof
enginefuelsystemssothatitis
runningtheenginesatan8090
impassibletoexceedtheratedbmepto
combinationwhichwillgivetheengine anygreatextent.Thisisdonebylimiting
partsalongerlifeandwillkeepthe
themaximumthrottleorfuelcontrol
engineitselfmuchcleanerandinbetter settingbymeansofapositivestop.This
operatingcondition.The8090means regulatesthemaximumamountoffuel
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thatwearerunningtheenginewith80
percentofratedloadat90percentof
ratedspeed.
thatcanenterthecylinderandtherefore
themaximumloadofthecylinder.
C.LOADBALANCE
9C1.Indications.Loadbalancemeans fromindividualcylindersindicatean
theadjustmentoftheenginesothatthe overloadedconditionofthesecylinders.
loadwillbeevenlydistributedamong Ahighcommonexhausttemperaturein
allthecylindersoftheengine.Each
theexhaustheaderindicatesaprobable
cylindermustproduceitsshareofthe
overloadingofthewholeengine.These
totalworkdonebytheengineinorder conditionsareindicatedbypyrometers
tohaveabalancedload.Iftheengineis installedinallmodernengines.A
developingitsratedfullload,ornearly constantcheckonthepyrometerreadings
so,andonecylinderormoreis
willindicateaccuratelywhenany
producinglessthanitsshareofthe
cylinderisfiringproperlyandcarryingits
load,theremainderofthecylinders
correctshareoftheload.Anysudden
obviouslymustbedoingmorethan
changeinthereadingoftheexhaust
theirshareofthetotalworkandhence temperatureofanycylindershouldbe
areoverloaded.
investigatedimmediately.Thedifference
inexhausttemperaturesbetweenanytwo
Anoverloadedconditionofanengine, cylindersshouldnotexceed25degreesF
orofoneormoreofitscylinders,may forawellbalancedengine.Howevera
beindicatedby:
certaintoleranceisallowedusually50
degreesto75degreesispermissible.
1.Blacksmokeintheexhaust.
Thermometersareprovidedinthe
2.Highexhausttemperature.
lubricatingoilandcoolingwatersystems.
Moderndieselengineshave
3.Highlubricatingoilandcooling
thermometersinstalledinthecooling
watertemperature.
systemsofindividualcylinders.An
abnormalriseinanyofthese
4.Hotbearingsandhightemperatures temperaturesmayindicateanoverloaded
ofotherengineparts(ingeneral,ahot conditionandshouldbeinvestigatedas
runningengine).
quicklyaspossible.
5.Excessivevibrationoftheengine.
Ingeneral,excessiveheatinanypartof
theenginemayindicateoverloading.An
6.Unusualsoundoftheengine.
overheatedbearingmaybetheresultof
overloadingacylinder.Anabnormally
Whenblacksmokeisobservedinthe
hotcrankcasecouldresultfrom
exhaustfromthemufflers,itisnot
overloadingtheengineasawhole.
possibletodetermineimmediately
whethertheentireengineorjustoneof Excessivetemperaturesofsomeengine
thecylindersisoverloaded.However, partscanbecheckedbytouch.
byopeningtheindicatorcocksonthe
individualcylinders,thecoloroftheir Ifallcylindersarenotdoinganequal
exhaustscanbedetermined.
Hightemperaturesoftheexhaustgases
182
amountofwork,theforceexertedby
outshouldbewithin10to20psiofeach
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individualpistonswillbeunequal.In
thisevent,theunequalforcesmay
causeanuneventurningmomenttobe
exertedonthecrankshaftand
vibrationswillbesetup.Theskilled
operatorcantellbythefeelandthe
soundofanenginewhenapoor
distributionofloadexists.This,of
course,comesfromlongexperience,
butitisimportantthatthebeginner
availhimselfofeveryopportunityto
observeenginesrunningunderall
conditionsofloadingandperformance.
otherinallcylindersofaproperly
adjustedengine.
Inordertohavetheloadequally
distributed,eachcylindermustreceive
thesameamountoffuel.Itisherethat
theeffectofanimproperlyadjustedfuel
pumpisevident.Acylinderreceiving
morefuelthannecessaryforagivenload
willdevelopmorepowerthanrequired.
Anyadjustmentofthefuelpumpmustbe
undertakenonlybyapersonthoroughly
familiarwiththetypeofpumpbeing
used.Heshouldfirstdeterminebeyond
9C2.Causesofunbalance.Inthe
precedingsectionsomeofthegeneral alldoubtthattheengineisinproper
mechanicalcondition.Agreatmany
causesofunequalloaddistribution
werediscussed.Topreventunbalance factorsmaycausethecylindertofire
unevenly.Someofthesecausesarea
inanengine,theforemost
considerationisthattheenginemustbe cloggedorimproperlytimedfuel
injectionvalve,improperlytimedair
inexcellentmechanicalcondition.A
intakeorexhaustvalve,airorwaterin
leakyvalveorfuelinjector,leaky
thefuelsystem,improperrockerarm
compressionrings,oranyothersuch
valveclearance,dirtorotherforeign
mechanicaldifficultieswillmakeit
impossiblefortheoperatortobalance matterinthefueloilwhichmaybe
pluggingupthestrainersandfilters,and
theloadunlesshesecurestheengine
anyotherfactorthatcontributestopoor
anddismantlesatleastapartofit.
Therefore,theenginemustbeplacedin combustion.Ifacylinderisfiring
propermechanicalconditionbeforethe incorrectly,alwayschecktheabove
conditionsbeforemakingany
loadcanbebalanced.
adjustmentstothefuelpump.
Sincetheheatofcompressionisrelied
Changingtheamountoffuelbeing
upontoignitethefuelinjectedinthe
deliveredbyadjustingthepumpshould
dieselengine,theamountofthis
compressionmustbemaintainedwithin bedoneonlywhenitiscertainthatthe
fixedlimits.Inordertohavethesame causeofthetroubleisinthepump.This
pointcannotbeemphasizedtoostrongly.
typeofcombustionineachcylinder,
Forinstance,ifthefailureofacylinderto
thedegreeofcompressioninall
cylindersshouldbeapproximatelythe firecorrectlywasduetoacloggedfuel
injectionvalvetipandtheoperator
same.Forexample,lowcompression
increasedthefuelsupplytothecylinder
pressureinonecylindermayprevent
allthefuelfromburning,ormayeven withtheintentionofincreasingthepower
developedbythatparticularcylinder,the
preventignitionofthefuelinthat
cylinder.Thiswouldresultinareduced increaseinfuelmightwashthevalve
amountofworkornoworkbeingdone cleanandcausethecylindertobecome
bythiscylinder.Thecommoncausesof badlyoverloadedfromtheexcessfuel
supplied.Thecorrectprocedurewould
lowcompressionare:
havebeentoreplacetheclogged
1.Stickingcompressionrings.
injectionvalvewithaspareandtoclean
theonethatwasremoved.Thedecrease
2.Excessiveringorcylinderwear.
inpowerdeliveredbyacylindermayalso
beduetosomeforeignmatterundera
3.Leakycylinderheadgasketor
valveorpistonring,andoncecleared,the
crackedcylinderhead.
cylinderwouldbecomeoverloadedifthe
fuelsupplyhad,inthemeantime,been
4.Leakyvalveincylinderhead.
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5.Crackedcylinderliner.
increased.
6.Excessiveclearancevolume.
Theoperatorwhoalwaysmaintainshis
plantingoodmechanicalconditionwill
berequiredtomakefew,ifany,
adjustmentstothe
Incorrectingthese,itisgenerally
necessarytoreplacethedefectivepart.
However,insomecasessuchasa
stickingringorvalve,itisnecessary
onlytocleanthepartandreplaceit.
Thesecoldcompressionpressureswith
fuelcut
183
fuelsystemwhileitisrunning.Thefuel
supplytoanindividualcylindershould
notbeadjusteduntilafteranexhaustive
searchhasrevealedthateveryother
conditionisnormalinallrespects.
developedwithinacylinderisdirectly
proportionaltothepowerproducedby
thatcylinder,anyincreaseinonewill
causeacorrespondingincreaseinthe
other.Hence,ifthepowerisnotevenly
distributedthroughoutthecylinders,the
Afteranoverhaulinwhichpistonrings meanindicatedpressuresinthe
ofcylinderlinershavebeenrenewed,
individualcylinderswillvary.
considerableadjustmentoftheengine Temperaturevariesdirectlyasthe
maybenecessary.Lubricatingoilwill pressure,sothatadecreaseinpressure
leakbytheringsintothecombustion
willresultinacorrespondingdecreasein
spaceuntilaftertheringshaveproperly temperature,Thequalityofcombustion
seated.Thecompressionwillalso
obtaineddependsupontheheat,andheat
increaseasthesealbetweentherings
uponthetemperature,sothatwitha
andthelinerbecomesmoreeffective.
decreaseinpressure,combustionwillnot
Thelubricatingoilwillburninthe
besogoodasbefore.Thispoor
cylinder,givinganincorrectindication combustionwilllowerthethermal
offueloilcombustion,andifthepump efficiency,andtheoutputoftheengine
hasbeenproperlysetwhentheengine willbereduced.
wasstarted,theenginewillbe
overloaded,oratleastunbalanced.As Ifanengineisdeveloping600bhp,and
thecompressionrisestonormal
itsmechanicalefficiencyis80percent,
pressure,thepowerdevelopedwill
theindicatedhorsepowerbeing
increaseasalsowilltheconditionsof
developedis750.Iftheenginehas10
pressureandtemperatureunderwhich workingcylinders,eachcylindershould
thecombustiontakesplace.Hence,
beproducing75indicatedhorsepower.
whenanoverhaulhasbeencompleted, Whenthisisnotthecasetheengineis
theenginemustbecarefullywatched
unbalanced.Theeffectherewouldbeto
untiltheringsareseated,andthe
increasethemeanindicatedpressureof
compressionsettothelevelspecifiedin thosecylindersdoinglessthantheirshare
theinstructionsforthattypeofengine. ofthework,andtodecreasethatofthose
Thisadjustmentwillbefacilitatedby
cylindersproducingmorethan75
theuseoffrequentcompressiontests.If indicatedhorsepower.
theengineisnotfittedsothatthe
compressioncanbereadilyvaried,the Theturningmomentactingonthe
crankshaftisproportionaltotheforce
engineshouldberununderlightload
actingonthepiston.Thisforce,inturn,is
untilitiscertainthattheringshave
theresultofthemeanindicatedpressure
seated.
developedinthecylinder.Iftheseforces
9C3.Effectofunbalance.Ingeneral, fromdifferentcylindersarenotequal,
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theeffectofunbalanceisanoverheated
engine.Clearancesareestablishedby
theenginedesignertoallowfor
sufficientexpansionofmovingparts
whenoperatingatthedesigned
temperatures.Consequently,anengine
operatingattemperaturesinexcessof
thoseforwhichitwasdesignedmay
suffermanycasualties.Excessive
expansionofthemovingpartswill
causeseizuresandaburningupofthe
engine.Ifthetemperaturesriseabove
theflashpointofthelubricatingoil
vaporsinthecrankcase,anexplosion
mayresult.Thehightemperaturesmay
destroythelubricatingoilfilmbetween
adjacentsurfacesofthemovingparts
andresultinfurtherincreased
temperaturesduetotheincreased
friction.Infact,theeffectisthesame
asforoverheatingfromanycause.
Sincethemeanindicatedpressure
thereisanuneventurningmomentacting
alongthelengthofthecrankshaft,and
vibrationsresult.Thesevibrations,if
sufficientlysevere,mayshaketheengine
looseinitsfoundation,cracktheengine
housing,framework,andbedplate,
destroythebearings,andevenbreakthe
crankshaft.Itisobviousthatabadly
vibratingenginecanresultinserious
damageandshouldbestopped
immediately.
Toavoidalltheharmfuleffectsof
overloadingandunbalancingofload,the
loadonadieselengineshouldbeequally
distributedamongtheworkingcylinders
andnocylinder,ortheengineitself,
shouldeverbeoverloaded.Inconclusion,
thecorrectproceduretofollowin
balancinganengineis:
1.Maintaintheengineinproper
mechanicalcondition.
184
2.Adjustthefuelsysteminaccordance 4.Keepthecylindertemperaturesand
withthemanufacturer'sinstructions.
pressuresasevenlydistributedas
possible.
3.Operatetheenginewithinthe
temperaturelimitsspecifiedinthe
5.Trainyourselftodetectabadcondition
instructions.
bythesensesoftouchandhearing.
D.ENGINEDYNAMICSANDVIBRATIONS
9D1.Balancing.Itisnotpossibleto
excessivevibrationinservice.Thisisdue
balanceoutalltheforcesproducing
tothelowspeedsusedwiththebalancing
vibrationinanengine.However,the
machines.Dieselenginesintheservice
primaryorprincipalforcesmaybe
mustoperateoverawidespeedrange
almostentirelybalancedbythe
usually,andforthisreasontheyarenot
additionofweightstothecrankshaftor accepteduntilaftertheyhavebeentried
connectingrodsattheproperplaces.
atallspeedsatwhichtheymustoperate
Balancingbytheadditionofweightsso wheninstalledinservice.
astocreateforcesequalandoppositeto
Inanyevent,allrotatingpartsofthe
thoseofinertiaisknownas
engineshouldbeasaccuratelybalanced
counterbalancing.Usually,after
aspossible.
counterbalancing,therearestillsome
smallforcesremainingthathavenot
9D2.Flywheels.Aflywheelstoresup
beencompletelybalancedout.These
energy,theamountofwhichdepends
remainingforcesareproducedbythe
reciprocatingparts,sinceitispossible upontherotatingspeed,theweight,and
thediameterofthewheel.Inmostmarine
tocompletelycounterbalanceall
enginesheavyflywheelsarenot
primaryrotatingforces.
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Allrotatingpartsaresubjectedtotwo
kindsofunbalance.Theyarecalled
staticunbalanceanddynamic
unbalance.Theunbalancedcondition
inbothcasescanbereadilydetermined
andcorrectedbycounterbalancing.
necessary,astheotherrotatingmasseson
theshaftservethesamepurpose.These
massesaretheclutchandgenerator,and
withalargenumberofcylindersfiring,
thepowerstrokeissmoother,andthereis
lessneedforaflywheel.
Astaticbalancingtestisconductedby
placingthetwoendsoftherotatingpart
onperfectlysmooth,horizontal,and
parallelrails.Ifstaticallyunbalanced,
thepartwillrollontherailsuntilits
centerofgravityreachesitslowest
positionandthenitwillcometorest.
If,however,itscenterofgravitylies
alongitsaxisitwillremainatrestwhen
placedinanyposition,anditisthenin
staticbalance.
Theflywheelservesthreepurposes,
namely:
Itfrequentlyoccursthatthecenterof
gravityofabodyliesinitsaxisof
rotationbutthatitsirregularshapeor
compositiongeneratesadisturbing
forcewhenthebodyisrotated.Inthis
casethebodywouldbeinstatic
balanceandindynamicunbalance.In
general,beforebalancing,mostrotating
partsareinbothstaticanddynamic
unbalance.
Whenthespeedoftheshafttendsto
increase,theflywheelabsorbsenergy.
Whenittendstodecrease,theflywheel
givesupitsenergytotheshaftinan
efforttokeepitrotatingatauniform
speed.
Inallcases,completebalancingcanbe
obtainedbyattachingweightstothe
rotatingbody,ifthepositionand
degreeofunbalancingareknown.For
determiningthisunbalanceallnaval
shipyardsareequippedwithbalancing
machines.Experiencewithlargeand
highspeedmachineryhasshownthat
balancingmachinesshowgoodresults
butdonotinsureagainst
1.Topreventtheenginefromstalling
whenrunningatidlingspeed.
2.Toreducethevariationsinspeedatall
loads.
3.Tohelpcarrytheengineovercenters
whenstarting.
9D3.Torsionalvibrations.Thetwisting
anduntwistingoftheshaftsystemresult
intorsionalvibrations.Allshaftshave
someflexibilityandwithweights
attachedtothem,suchaspistons,gears
andcamshaftsindieselengines,they
havewhatisknownasanaturalfixed
frequency.Whenthefrequencyofthe
powerstrokeimpulsescoincideswiththe
naturalfrequencyoftheentireshaft
system,atorsionalvibrationisproduced,
andtheshaftisthensaidtobe
185
rotatingatacriticalspeed.Thiscritical
speedisdependentonthedimensions
ofthecrankshaft,thenumberof
cylinders,allrotatingmassesofthe
engine,othershaftingandmasses
includingthepropeller,thenumberof
powerstrokesperminute,the
arrangementofthecylinders(whether
theyareinlineorinaV),andthe
cylinderfiringorder.
bedplate,crankcase,orsimilarmembers,
resultsinflexuralvibrations.Thecause
offlexuralvibrationliesinthefaulty
balanceoftherotatingandreciprocating
massesoftheengineandthepresenceof
thesocalledfreeforcesorrocking
couples.Itmaybemanifestinthe
horizontalorverticalplanesandmayin
turnbethecauseofvibrationof
surroundingstructures,suchastheship's
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Withoutgoingintofurtherdetail,itis
sufficienttosaythattorsionalcritical
speedsdependuponthenumberof
powerimpulsesperrevolutionandthe
naturalrateofvibrationofthe
combinedshaftsystem.Special
instrumentsareavailablefor
determiningthedegreeoftorsional
vibrationandthenaturalfrequencyof
anyparticularshaftsystem.
hullinmarineinstallations.Thistypeof
vibrationdoesnotdependonthewaythe
engineiscoupledtoitsload,andifan
enginedoesnotvibrateontest,no
vibrationswilldevelopafteritisplaced
inservice.
9D5.Torsionalvibrationdampening.
Therearecertainforcesactingin
resistancetotorsionalvibrations.These
forcesareduetothefrictionofthe
Tochangetherangeorpointof
bearingsthatcarrytheshaftingandthe
maximumvibrationofthecritical
workabsorbedinthemetaloftheshaftin
speedsforagiveninstallationitis
resistingthetwistingcalledhysteresis.
necessarytomakeachangeinthe
Propellersinthewaterarethemost
massesontheelasticshaftsystem.Itis influentialfactor.Alloftheseforcesmay
evidentthereforethatinengines
besaidtobetheresultofnaturalcauses,
operatingataconstantspeed,itismuch andtheyacttodampenout,orreducethe
simplertochangethenaturalfrequency amplitudeofthetorsionalvibrations.In
inordertoavoiddangerouscritical
additiontothesenaturalforces,thereare
speedsthanitisinamarineengine
othermethodsemployedtoreduceor
requiringawiderangeofoperating
eliminatetheseverityofthevibrations.
speeds.
Thismaybeaccomplishedbychanging
thefiringorderofthecylindersinthe
Criticalspeedsandmodeofvibrations engine,orbychangingtherotating
aredeterminedwiththeaidofan
weights,ortheflexibilityoftheshaftings.
instrumentrecordingtorsional
vibrations.Theenginebuilders
Inadditiontotheabovedampening
calculatethecriticalspeedsandfurnish factorsandmethodstherearevarious
aguaranteethat,withtheengine
typesofcommercialtorsionalvibration
coupledtotheloadforwhichitis
dampeners,suchasthatusedontheFM
designed,nodangerouscriticalspeeds 38D81/810cylinderengine.Eachsuch
willoccurwithintheoperatingspeeds. dampenermustbedesignedforaspecific
shaftsystemoperatingwithaparticular
Torsionalvibrationsneednot
typeengine.Vibrationdampenersare
necessarilyshaketheframingofthe
usuallylocatedatornearapointof
engineandmaynotevenbenoticeable maximumtorsionalvibrationamplitude
totheoperator.Thisfacthasbeen
alongtheshaft,generallyattheforward
borneoutinseveralcasualtiesinwhich endofanengine.
thecrankshaftbrokewithoutwarning.
Excessivewearofgearsorofattached Thereareseveraldifferenttypesof
auxiliariesandrepeatedbreakageof
dampeners.All,however,accomplishthe
shaftingorotherpartsattachedtoitcan samepurpose.Theytendtoreducethe
verywellbecausedbytorsional
swingingmotionoftheshaft.Thisis
vibrations.Mostinstallationsinnaval
accomplishedbyhavingafreelyrotating
vesselshavebeencheckedandtestedto diskordisksactingagainstafixeddisk
determinetheexactlocationof
whichcreatesfrictionandtherebyactsas
torsionalvibrations,theiramplitudes,
abrake.Thispreventstheshaft,from
andfrequencies.
twistinganduntwistingwhilerotatingon
itsaxis.
9D4.Flexuralvibrations.Thebending
ofthepartsoftheengineframingsuch
asthe
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186
E.ENGINEPRESSUREINDICATOR
9E1.General.Efficientuninterrupted
performanceoftheenginedepends
uponthemaintenanceofequalcorrect
compressionwithoutfuel,andfiring
pressureswithfuelamongthevarious
cylinders.Poorenginecompression
causeslossofpower,pooracceleration,
smokyexhaust,andstartingdifficulties.
Anabnormallyhighfiringpressurein
oneormorecylindersmaycause
enginewear,unevenrunning,and
overheating.Thesecompression
pressuresmaybemeasuredby
instrumentsknownaspressure
indicators.Compressionreadings
withoutfuelaretakenaftertheengine
iswarmedupandthefuelcutoffon
thatparticularcylinder.Firingpressure
readingsaretakenwiththeengine
warmedupandoperatingunderastated
loadatastatedspeed.
9E2.Typesofengineindicators.
Therearetwogeneralclassesofengine
pressurerecordingindicators.Inthe
first,theinstrumentmeasures
graphicallythecylinderpressureandat
thesametimeindicatesthepositionof
thepistonatanypointofitsstrokeor
cycle.Inotherwords,theindicator
drawsadiagramofthepressureinthe
cylinderwithrespecttothemovement
ofthepiston.Sincethemovementof
thepistonisameasureofthevolume
displaced,thediagramisdrawntothe
ordinatesofpressureandvolume.In
thesecondgeneralclass,theindicator
recordsthemaximumpressuresonly.
Figure95showsthefundamental
principleoftheoperationofanengine
indicatorinwhichthemovementofthe
pistonisrecorded.Theindicator
equipmentincludesasmallcylinder
thatcanbeattachedtothemain
workingcylinderoftheengine,apiston
androdthatworkinthissmallcylinder,
withapencilontheendoftherod.The
pencilpointbearsonthepapertacked
tothedrumwhichismovedbyhook
horizontaldistancewillrepresentpiston
movement.Asanexample,inatwo
strokecycleengine,onecomplete
revolutionorcyclewouldproducea
diagramliketheoneshowninthe
illustration.Thisdiagramiscalledan
indicatorcard.Iftheindicatorspringis
calibratedsothatthenumberofpounds
ofpressurerequiredtoraisethepencil1
inchisknown,thentoreadthepressure
atanypointonthecardallthatis
necessaryistomeasurethedistancein
inchesfromtheatmosphericlineXYon
thediagramtothepointatwhichthe
amountofpressureisdesired,and
multiplythisbythecalibrationnumberof
thespring.Thetotallengthofthe
diagramrepresentsthestrokeofthe
piston.Thishorizontalscalethencanbe
laidoffininches,feet,pistonstroke,or
volumeofpistondisplacement.
Thistypeofindicatorislittleusedby
operatingpersonnelonfleettype
submarinestoday,mainlybecausethere
isnoprovisionmadeonmodernengines
fortheattachmentoftheequipment
necessarytotaketheindicatorcard,and
alsobecausetherearenomeansof
compressionadjustmentotherthan
completeoverhauloftheengine.
Theothertypeofindicator(indicating
maximumpressuresonly)isusedtosome
extentfortakingmaximumcylinder
pressures,tocheckagainstmanufacturer's
testdataandpreviousshipboardpressure
tests.Thetwomostcommonlyused
indicatorsofthistypearethePremax
indicatorandtheKieneindicator.
Themethodnormallyusedtocheckthe
equaldistributionofpoweramongthe
variouscylindersistocomparethe
exhaustgastemperaturesofthecylinders
bymeansofthermocouplesplacedinthe
exhaustelbowsofeachcylinder.
Pyrometerreadingshaveprovedtobea
goodcheckonthegeneralrunning
conditionsofanengine,andtherecords
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andstringoverapulley.Anypressure
intheworkingcylinderentersthe
indicatorcylinderandforcesthesmall
indicatorpistonandpencilinavertical
directionatthesametimethemain
pistonmovesthecardinahorizontal
directionbymeansofthestringand
pulley.
ofexhaustgastemperaturesareofgreat
valueinconjunctionwithindicator
readingsasaidsingettingthebestresults
fromadieselengine.However,even
thoughtheexhausttemperaturesare
normal,theengineattimesmaynot
developitsratedhorsepower.
9E3.Premaxindicator.ThePremax
indicatorisaninstrumentfordetermining
cylinder
Itisreadilyseenthatanyvertical
distanceonthediagramwillrepresent
pressure,andthe
187
Figure95.Principleofengineindicator.
Figure97.Kienepressureindicator.
Figure96.Premaxpressureindicator.
188
compressionandfiringpressures.The
9E4.Kieneindicator.TheKienediesel
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indicatorconsistsessentiallyofapiston indicatorisapressureindicatorgagefor
subjecttocylinderpressure,aspring
measuringthecompressionandfiring
againstwhichthepistonactsandthe
pressureofanenginewhileitisrunning.
tensionofwhichisadjustablebymeans Thecompleteunitconsistsofapressure
ofanindexsleeve,acontrolswitch,
gageandanaircooledpressurechamber
andaneonlightcircuitthatshowsif
whichisattachedtothecylinderindicator
thepistonismoving.Itisattachedto
cock.
thecylinderindicatorcockinthesame
Thecylinderdischargepassesthroughthe
wayasanyotherindicator.The
indicatorplugupthroughthefiller,
pressureactingononesideofthe
screen,andseatpiece.Thisraisesthe
pistonintheindicatorisgradually
valve,allowingthegastopassthrough
increasedbyincreasingthespring
tensionwiththeindexsleeveuntilthis thedrilledholesintheguidepieceinto
thepressurechamberandontothegage.
springpressureisequaltothe
maximumcylinderpressurewhichacts Theactionofthegasinthecurvedtube
ofthegagetendstostraightenthetube,
ontheoppositesideofthepiston.
Whenthetwopressuresareequal,the therebymovingthegageneedleand
recordingthepressureonacalibrated
pistonstopsmoving,asshownby
stoppingoftheneonlightflashes.The scale.
pressurereadingisthenreadonthe
scalesleeve.
189
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Submarine Main Propulsion Diesels - Chapter 9

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Submarine Main Propulsion Diesels - Chapter 9

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6/14/2015

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