VThe Tempest

The Tempest
This article is about the Shakespeare play. For other uses, and perhaps the commedia dell'arte. It diers from
see The Tempest (disambiguation).
Shakespeares other plays in its observation of a stricter,
The Tempest is a play by William Shakespeare, believed more organised neoclassical style. Critics see The Tempest as explicitly concerned with its own nature as a play,
frequently drawing links between Prosperos art and
theatrical illusion, and early critics saw Prospero as a representation of Shakespeare, and his renunciation of magic
as signalling Shakespeares farewell to the stage. The
play portrays Prospero as a rational, and not an occultist,
magician by providing a contrast to him in Sycorax: her
magic is frequently described as destructive and terrible,
where Prosperos is said to be wondrous and beautiful.
Beginning in about 1950, with the publication of Psychology of Colonization by Octave Mannoni, The Tempest was
viewed more and more through the lens of postcolonial
theoryexemplied in adaptations like Aim Csaires
Une Tempte set in Haitiand there is even a scholarly
journal on post-colonial criticism named after Caliban.
The Tempest did not attract a signicant amount of attention before the ban on the performance of plays in
1642, and only attained popularity after the Restoration,
and then only in adapted versions. In the mid-19th century, theatre productions began to reinstate the original
Shakespearean text, and in the 20th century, critics and
scholars undertook a signicant re-appraisal of the plays
value, to the extent that it is now considered to be one of
Shakespeares greatest works. It has been adapted numerous times in a variety of styles and formats: in music, at
least 46 operas by composers such as Fromental Halvy,
Zdenk Fibich and Thomas Ads; orchestral works by
Tchaikovsky, Arthur Sullivan and Arthur Honegger; and
songs by such diverse artists as Ralph Vaughan Williams,
Michael Nyman and Pete Seeger; in literature, Percy
Bysshe Shelleys poem With a Guitar, To Jane and W.
H. Audens The Sea and the Mirror; novels by Aim Csaire and The Diviners by Margaret Laurence; in paintings by William Hogarth, Henry Fuseli, and John Everett
Millais; and on screen, ranging through a hand-tinted
version of Herbert Beerbohm Trees 1905 stage performance, the science ction lm Forbidden Planet in 1956,
Peter Greenaways 1991 Prosperos Books featuring John
Gielgud as Prospero, to Julie Taymor's 2010 lm version
which changed Prospero to Prospera (as played by Helen
Mirren), and Des McAnu's 2010 Stratford Shakespeare
Festival production which starred Christopher Plummer.
The shipwreck in Act I, Scene 1, in a 1797 engraving by Benjamin

Smith after a painting by George Romney
to have been written in 161011, and thought by many

critics to be the last play that Shakespeare wrote alone.
It is set on a remote island, where Prospero, the rightful Duke of Milan, plots to restore his daughter Miranda
to her rightful place using illusion and skilful manipulation. He conjures up a storm, the eponymous tempest, to
lure his usurping brother Antonio and the complicit King
Alonso of Naples to the island. There, his machinations
bring about the revelation of Antonios lowly nature, the
redemption of the King, and the marriage of Miranda to
Alonsos son, Ferdinand.
There is no obvious single source for the plot of The
Tempest, but researchers have seen parallels in Erasmuss
Naufragium, Peter Martyrs De orbe novo, and eyewitness reports by William Strachey and Sylvester Jordain
of the real-life shipwreck of the Sea Venture on the islands of Bermuda, and the subsequent conict between
Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers. In addition,
one of Gonzalos speeches is derived from Montaigne's
essay Of the Canibales, and much of Prosperos renunciative speech is taken word for word from a speech by
Medea in Ovid's poem Metamorphoses. The masque in
Act 4 may have been a later addition, possibly in honour
of the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V in
1613. The play was rst published in the First Folio of
1623.
The story draws heavily on the tradition of the romance,
and it was inuenced by tragicomedy, the courtly masque
1
2 PLOT
Characters
Plot
as the magicians so-called slave. In slavery, Caliban has

come to view Prospero as a usurper and has grown to resent him and his daughter. Prospero and Miranda in turn
view Caliban with disappointment, contempt and disgust.
Prospero only performs one act of magic himself directly
on stage: he disarms Ferdinand, causing his nerves to
become in their infancy again. The rest of his magic
is through controlling spirits (or mentioned as happening
previously), which is how magicians of the time were believed to operate.
The play opens as Prospero, having divined that his
brother, Antonio, is on a ship passing close by the island, has raised a tempest which causes the passengers
to believe they are shipwrecked and marooned. Also on
the ship are Antonios friend and fellow conspirator, King
Alonso of Naples, Alonsos brother and son (Sebastian
and Ferdinand, respectively) and Alonsos trusted counselor, Gonzalo. All these passengers are returning from
the wedding of Alonsos daughter Claribel with the King
of Tunis. Prospero contrives to separate the shipwreck
survivors into several groups by his spells, and so Alonso
and Ferdinand are separated, each believing the other to
be dead.
Prospero and Miranda from a painting by William Maw Egley;

ca. 1850
The Magician, Prospero, rightful Duke of Milan, and his

daughter, Miranda, have been stranded for twelve years
on an island after Prosperos jealous brother Antonio
(aided by Alonso, the King of Naples) deposed him and
set him adrift with the then-3-year-old Miranda. Gonzalo, Alonsos counselor, had secretly supplied their boat
with some food, fresh water, rich garments, linens, stus
and necessaries, and volumes (books) that Prospero
prizes. Possessing magic powers due to his great learning,
Prospero is reluctantly served by a spirit, Ariel, whom
Prospero had rescued from a tree in which he had been
trapped by the cruel witch, Sycorax, after he had refused
to obey her. Prospero maintains Ariels loyalty by repeatedly promising to release the airy spirit from servitude. Sycorax had been exiled from Algiers to the island for wreaking havoc with her magic, and had died
before Prosperos arrival. Her son, Caliban, a deformed
monster and the only non-spiritual inhabitant before the
arrival of Prospero, was initially adopted and raised by
him. He taught Prospero how to survive on the island,
while Prospero and Miranda taught Caliban religion and
their own language. Following Calibans attempted rape
of Miranda, he had been compelled by Prospero to serve
Miranda by John William Waterhouse
Three plots then alternate through the play. In one, Caliban falls in with Stephano and Trinculo, two drunkards,
believing Stephano to be a brave god who bears celestial liquor. They attempt to raise a coup against Prospero, which ultimately fails. In another, Prospero works
to encourage a romantic relationship between Ferdinand
and Miranda; the two fall immediately in love, but Prospero worries that too light winning [may] make the prize
light, and compels Ferdinand to become his servant, pretending that he regards him as a spy. In the third subplot,
Antonio and Sebastian conspire to kill Alonso and Gonzalo so that Sebastian can become King. Ariel thwarts
them, at Prosperos command. Ariel appears to the three
men of sin (Alonso, Antonio and Sebastian) as a harpy,
reprimanding them for their betrayal of Prospero. Prospero, who has witnessed this, lanes to visit Ferdinand and
Miranda. The three guilty nobles run o, distracted and
in a frenzy, and Gonzalo and the attendant lords chase
3.2
Contemporary sources
after to prevent them from what this ecstasy may now

provoke them to.
Prospero then explains that he tested Ferdinand, and betroths a willing Miranda to him. He then asks Ariel to
bring some other spirits and create a masque to entertain
the young couple. These spirits present a blessing by Iris,
Ceres, and Juno, followed by dancing. Prospero suddenly
remembers the plot against his life, dismisses the spirits
and Miranda and Ferdinand, and sets a trap for Caliban,
Trinculo, and Stephano. They are chased ostage by goblins in the shape of hounds.
Prospero, all his enemies in his power, discovers that
Ariel would pity them if he were human, and decides
to forgive the people who tried to kill him. He tells Ariel
to fetch the nobles while he breaks his charms.
In the conclusion, all the main characters are brought together before Prospero, who forgives Alonso, Antonio
and Sebastian. Ariel is charged to prepare the proper sailing weather to guide the Kings ship back to the Royal
eet and then to Naples, where Ferdinand and Miranda
will be married. After discharging this task, Ariel will
nally be free. Prospero pardons Caliban, who is sent to
prepare Prosperos cell, to which Alonso and his party are
invited for a nal night before their departure. (It is however not made clear whether, after their departure, Caliban will remain on the island or whether he will be taken
to Naples). Prospero indicates that he intends to entertain
them with the story of his life on the island. Prospero has
resolved to break and bury his magic sta, and drown
his book of magic, and in his epilogue, shorn of his magic A depiction from Nicholas Rowes 1709 edition of Shakespeares
powers, he invites the audience to set him free from the plays of the stage direction of the opening of the 1674 adaptation
island with their applause.
3
3.1
Date and sources

Date
The Tempest is thought by most scholars to have been

written in 161011, and is generally accepted as the last
play that Shakespeare wrote alone, although some have
questioned either or both assertions.[1] Scholars also note
that it is impossible to determine if the play was written
before, after, or at the same time as The Winters Tale, the
dating of which has been equally problematic.[2] Edward
Blount entered The Tempest into the Stationers Register
on 8 November 1623. It was one of 16 Shakespearean
plays that Blount registered on that date.[3]
3.2
Contemporary sources
There is no obvious single origin for the plot of The Tempest; it seems to have been created out of an amalgamation of sources.[4] Since source scholarship began in the
18th century, researchers have suggested passages from
Erasmuss Naufragium (1523), (translated into English

1606)[5] and Richard Eden's 1555 translation of Peter
Martyrs De orbo novo (1530).[6] In addition, William
Strachey's A True Reportory of the Wracke and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight, an eyewitness report
of the real-life shipwreck of the Sea Venture in 1609 on
the island of Bermuda while sailing towards Virginia, is
considered by most critics to be one of Shakespeares
primary sources because of certain verbal, plot and thematic similarities.[7] Although not published until 1625,
Stracheys report, one of several describing the incident,
is dated 15 July 1610, and critics say that Shakespeare
must have seen it in manuscript sometime during that
year. E.K. Chambers identied the True Reportory as
Shakespeares main authority for The Tempest,[8] and
the modern Arden editors say Shakespeare surely drew
on Strachey and Montaigne for specic passages in the
play.[7] There has been, however, some scepticism about
the alleged inuence of Strachey in the play. Kenneth
Muir argued that although "[t]here is little doubt that
Shakespeare had read ... William Stracheys True Reportory" and other accounts, "[t]he extent of the verbal
echoes of [the Bermuda] pamphlets has, I think, been exaggerated. There is hardly a shipwreck in history or c-
4 TEXT
her, thus mirroring the relationship between Miranda and
Prospero.[11]
Gonzalos description of his ideal society (2.1.14857,
1605) thematically and verbally echoes Montaigne's
essay Of the Canibales, translated into English in a version
published by John Florio in 1603. Montaigne praises the
society of the Caribbean natives: It is a nation ... that
hath no kinde of trake, no knowledge of Letters, no
intelligence of numbers, no name of magistrate, nor of
politike superioritie; no use of service, of riches, or of
poverty; no contracts, no successions, no dividences, no
occupation but idle; no respect of kinred, but common,
no apparrell but natural, no manuring of lands, no use
of wine, corne, or mettle. The very words that import
lying, falsehood, treason, dissimulation, covetousnes, envie, detraction, and pardon, were never heard of amongst
them.[12] In addition, much of Prosperos renunciative
speech (5.1.3357) is taken word-for-word from a speech
by Medea in Ovid's poem Metamorphoses.[13]
Sylvester Jourdains A Discovery of the Barmudas
tion which does not mention splitting, in which the ship is

not lightened of its cargo, in which the passengers do not
give themselves up for lost, in which north winds are not
sharp, and in which no one gets to shore by clinging to
wreckage, and goes on to say that Stracheys account of
the shipwreck is blended with memories of Saint Paul's
in which too not a hair perished and with Erasmus
colloquy.[9]
Another Sea Venture survivor, Sylvester Jourdain, also
published an account, A Discovery of The Barmudas
dated 13 October 1610, and Edmond Malone argued for
the 161011 date on the account by Jourdain and the Virginia Council of Londons A True Declaration of the Estate of the Colonie in Virginia dated 8 November 1610.[10]
3.3
Other sources
The Tempest may take its overall structure from traditional Italian commedia dell'arte, which sometimes feaThe rst page of The Tempest, printed in the First Folio of 1623
tured a magus and his daughter, their supernatural attendants, and a number of rustics. The commedia often
featured a clown known as Arlecchino (or his predecessor, Zanni) and his partner Brighella, who bear a striking resemblance to Stephano and Trinculo; a lecherous 4 Text
Neapolitan hunchback who corresponds to Caliban; and
the clever and beautiful Isabella, whose wealthy and ma- The Tempest presents relatively few textual problems in
nipulative father, Pantalone, constantly seeks a suitor for comparison with many of Shakespeares other plays. First
5.2
Magic
published in the First Folio in December 1623, the play is

rst in the volume, leading the section of comedies. The
play has more stage directions than any of Shakespeares
other plays, though they appear to have been written for
readers instead of actors. Scholars infer from this that
the editors of the volume, John Heminges and Henry
Condell, included the directions to aid readers, and they
were not necessarily Shakespeares. Scholars have also
wondered about the masque in Act 4, which some think
was an interpolated afterthought, possibly added for the
wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V in 1613.
However, other scholars see this as unlikely, arguing that
taking the masque out of the play creates more problems
than it solves.[14]
Themes and motifs
Our revels now are ended. These our actors,

As I foretold you, were all spirits and
Are melted into air, into thin air;
Andlike the baseless fabric of this vision
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,
And like this insubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a rack behind. We are such stu
As dreams are made on, and our little life
Is rounded with a sleep. ...
5.2 Magic
Magic was a controversial subject in Shakespeares day.
In Italy in 1600, Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake
for his occult studies. Outside the Catholic world, in
Protestant England where Shakespeare wrote The Tempest, magic was also taboo; not all magic, however, was
considered evil.[20] Several thinkers took a more rational
approach to the study of the supernatural, with the determination to discover the workings of unusual phenomena.
The German Henricus Cornelius Agrippa was one such
thinker, who published in De Occulta Philosophia (1531,
1533) his observations of divine magic. Agrippas work
inuenced Dr. John Dee, an Englishman and student
of supernatural phenomena. Both Agrippa and Dee describe a kind of magic similar to Prosperos: one that is
based on 16th-century science, rationality, and divinity,
rather than the occult. When King James took the throne,
Dee found himself under attack for his beliefs, but was
able to defend himself successfully by explaining the divine nature of his profession. However, he died in disgrace in 1608.[21]
Prospero[15]
5.1
The Theatre
The Tempest is explicitly concerned with its own nature

as a play, frequently drawing links between Prosperos art
and theatrical illusion; the shipwreck was a spectacle that
Ariel performed, while Antonio and Sebastian are cast in
a troop to act.[16] Prospero may even refer to the Globe
Theatre when he describes the whole world as an illusion:
the great globe ... shall dissolve ... like this insubstantial pageant.[17] Ariel frequently disguises himself as gures from Classical mythology, for example a nymph, a
harpy, and Ceres, acting as the latter in a masque and
anti-masque that Prospero creates.[18]
Early critics, such as Thomas Campbell in 1838, saw this
constant allusion to the theatre as an indication that Prospero was meant to represent Shakespeare; the characters renunciation of magic thus signalling Shakespeares
farewell to the stage. This theory persists among later
critics, and remains solidly within the critical canon.[19]
Ariel (Fuseli, c.1800-1810)
Shakespeare is also careful to make the distinction that

Prospero presents himself as a rational, and not an occultist, magician. He does this by providing a contrast to
him in Sycorax. Sycorax is said to have worshipped the
devil and been full of earthy and abhored commands.
She was unable to control Ariel, who was too delicate
for such dark tasks. Prosperos rational goodness enables
him to control Ariel where Sycorax can only trap him in a
tree. Sycoraxs magic is frequently described as destruc-
tive and terrible, where Prosperos is said to be wondrous

and beautiful. Prospero seeks to set things right in his
world through his magic, and once that is done, he renounces it, setting Ariel free.[21] Of course, the problem
is, Prospero never actually does any magical acts. Only
Ariel does. The magic of Prospero is a matter of language
alone.
5.3
The soul
The Tempest can be interpreted as Shakespeares last treatise on the human soul, in particular the Renaissance conception of the tripartite soul divided into vegetative, sensitive, and rational spheres, as described in Platos tripartite theory of soul and Christian Philosophy. This was
later also described in Sigmund Freud's id, ego and super ego which was rst linked to The Tempest in the 1956
screenplay for Forbidden Planet by Cyril Hume, Irving
Block, and Allen Adler. The lm presents Caliban reinterpreted as the 'monster from the Id', although the theory
is dismissed as 'obsolete' in that imagined future, and was
also scholarly dismissed by James E Phillips in 1964.[22]
Prospero is exiled to an island with a symbol of his baser,
'vegetative' nature Caliban and his higher, 'sensitive'
or supernatural side Ariel. Some productions have seen
the same actor play all three roles, making them symbols
of the conict within a fully actualised or awakened Prospero that between crude selsh physicality and a higher,
mystical side. In the screenplay for Forbidden Planet it is
revealed that the id monster is an externalization of Dr
Morbius psyche.
For as long as Prospero is battling with these qualities and
lost in books, he is banished from Milan. As the play nds
its conclusion, he is both able to accept his base, brutal
nature (this thing of darkness I acknowledge mine he
says when taking responsibility for Caliban) while letting
go of his connection with higher, powerful forces (then
to the elements be free, and fare thou well he says, setting Ariel free). Abandoning magic and acknowledging
the brutal potential of his nature, he is allowed to return
to his rightful place as Duke, subject to agreement from
the audience: as you from crimes would pardon'd be, let
your indulgence set me free.
6
6.1
Criticism and interpretation

Genre
CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION
reunion. As a result, while The Tempest was originally listed as a comedy in the First Folio of Shakespeares plays, subsequent editors have chosen to give it
the more specic label of Shakespearean romance. Like
the other romances, the play was inuenced by the thennew genre of tragicomedy, introduced by John Fletcher in
the rst decade of the 17th century and developed in the
Beaumont and Fletcher collaborations, as well as by the
explosion of development of the courtly masque form by
such as Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones at the same time.[23]
6.2 Dramatic structure

The Tempest diers from Shakespeares other plays in
its observation of a stricter, more organised neoclassical
style. The clearest indication of this is Shakespeares respect for the three unities in the play: the Unities of Time,
Place, and Action. Shakespeares other plays rarely respected the three unities, taking place in separate locations miles apart and over several days or even years.[24]
The plays events unfold in real time before the audience,
Prospero even declaring in the last act that everything has
happened in, more or less, three hours.[25][26] All action
is unied into one basic plot: Prosperos struggle to regain his dukedom; it is also conned to one place, a ctional island, which many scholars agree is meant to be located in the Mediterranean Sea.[27] Another reading suggests that it takes place in the New World, as some parts
read like records of English and Spanish conquest in the
Americas.[28] Still others argue that the Island can represent any land that has been colonised.[29]
6.3 Postcolonial
In Shakespeares day, much of the world was still being discovered by European seafarers, and stories were
coming back from distant islands, with myths about the
Cannibals of the Caribbean, faraway Edens, and distant
tropical Utopias. With the character Caliban (whose
name is almost an anagram of Cannibal and also resembles "Cariban", the term then used for natives in the
West Indies), Shakespeare may be oering an in-depth
discussion into the morality of colonialism. Dierent
views of this are found in the play, with examples including Gonzalo's Utopia, Prospero's enslavement of Caliban, and Calibans subsequent resentment. Caliban is
also shown as one of the most natural characters in the
play, being very much in touch with the natural world
(and modern audiences have come to view him as far nobler than his two Old World friends, Stephano and Trinculo, although the original intent of the author may have
been dierent). There is evidence that Shakespeare drew
on Montaigne's essay Of Cannibalswhich discusses the
values of societies insulated from European inuences
while writing The Tempest.[30]
The story draws heavily on the tradition of the romance,

a ctitious narrative set far away from ordinary life.
Romances were typically based around themes such as
the supernatural, wandering, exploration and discovery.
They were often set in coastal regions, and typically featured exotic, fantastical locations and themes of transgression and redemption, loss and retrieval, exile and Beginning in about 1950, with the publication of Psychol-
6.4
Feminist
6.4 Feminist
Ferdinand Lured by Ariel by John Everett Millais, 1850
ogy of Colonization by Octave Mannoni, The Tempest was

viewed more and more through the lens of postcolonial
theory. This new way of looking at the text explored
the eect of the coloniser (Prospero) on the colonised
(Ariel and Caliban). Though Ariel is often overlooked
in these debates in favour of the more intriguing Caliban,
he is nonetheless an essential component of them.[31] The
French writer Aim Csaire, in his play Une Tempte sets
The Tempest in Haiti, portraying Ariel as a mulatto who,
unlike the more rebellious Caliban, feels that negotiation
and partnership is the way to freedom from the colonisers. Fernandez Retamar sets his version of the play in
Cuba, and portrays Ariel as a wealthy Cuban (in comparison to the lower-class Caliban) who also must choose
between rebellion or negotiation.[32][33] Although scholars have suggested that his dialogue with Caliban in Act
two, Scene one, contains hints of a future alliance between the two when Prospero leaves, Ariel is generally
viewed by scholars as the good servant, in comparison
with the conniving Calibana view which Shakespeares
audience may well have shared.[34] Ariel is used by some
postcolonial writers as a symbol of their eorts to overcome the eects of colonisation on their culture. For example, Michelle Cli, a Jamaican author, has said that
she tries to combine Caliban and Ariel within herself to
create a way of writing that represents her culture better.
Such use of Ariel in postcolonial thought is far from uncommon; the spirit is even the namesake of a scholarly
journal covering post-colonial criticism.[31]
Prospero, Ariel and sleeping Miranda from a painting by William

Hamilton
The Tempest has only one female character, Miranda.

Other women, such as Calibans mother Sycorax, Mirandas mother and Alonsos daughter Claribel, are only
mentioned. Because of the small role women play in the
story in comparison to other Shakespeare plays, The Tempest has attracted much feminist criticism. Miranda is
typically viewed as being completely deprived of freedom by her father. Her only duty in his eyes is to remain
chaste. Ann Thompson argues that Miranda, in a manner typical of women in a colonial atmosphere, has completely internalised the patriarchal order of things, thinking of herself as subordinate to her father.[35]
The less-prominent women mentioned in the play are subordinated as well, as they are only described through the
men of the play. Most of what is said about Sycorax,
for example, is said by Prospero. Further, Stephen Orgel
notes that Prospero has never met Sycorax all he learned
about her he learned from Ariel. According to Orgel,
Prosperos suspicion of women makes him an unreliable
source of information. Orgel suggests that he is sceptical
of female virtue in general, citing his ambiguous remark
about his wifes delity.[36] However, certain goddesses
such as Juno, Ceres, Iris, and sea nymphs are in one scene
of the play.
7
7.1
AFTERLIFE
Afterlife
Shakespeares day
A record exists of a performance of The Tempest on

1 November 1611 by the Kings Men before James
I and the English royal court at Whitehall Palace on
Hallowmas night. The play was one of the six Shakespearean plays (and eight others for a total of 14) acted at
court during the winter of 161213 as part of the festivities surrounding the marriage of Princess Elizabeth with
Frederick V, the Elector of the Palatinate of the Rhine.[37]
There is no further public performance recorded prior
to the Restoration; but in his 1669 preface to the Dryden/Davenant version, John Dryden states that The Tempest had been performed at the Blackfriars Theatre.[38]
Careful consideration of stage directions within the play
supports this, strongly suggesting that the play was written
with Blackfriars Theatre rather than the Globe Theatre in Oil sketch of Emma Hart, as Miranda, by George Romney
mind.[39]
7.2
Restoration and 18th century
Adaptations of the play, not Shakespeares original, dominated the performance history of The Tempest from
the English Restoration until the mid-19th century.[40]
All theatres were closed down by the puritan government during the Commonwealth. Upon the restoration
of the monarchy in 1660, two patent companiesthe
Kings Company and the Dukes Companywere established, and the existing theatrical repertoire divided between them. Sir William Davenant's Dukes Company
had the rights to perform The Tempest.[41] In 1667 Davenant and John Dryden made heavy cuts and adapted it
as The Tempest or, The Enchanted Island. They tried
to appeal to upper-class audiences by emphasising royalist political and social ideals: monarchy is the natural form of government; patriarchal authority decisive
in education and marriage; and patrilineality preeminent
in inheritance and ownership of property.[40] They also
added characters and plotlines: Miranda has a sister,
named Dorinda; and Caliban a sister, also named Sycorax. As a parallel to Shakespeares Miranda/Ferdinand
plot, Prospero has a foster-son, Hippolito, who has never
set eyes on a woman.[42] Hippolito was a popular breeches
role, a man played by a woman, popular with Restoration theatre management for the opportunity to reveal actresses legs.[43] Scholar Michael Dobson has described
Enchanted Island as the most frequently revived play of
the entire Restoration and as establishing the importance
of enhanced and additional roles for women.[44]
In 1674, Thomas Shadwell re-adapted Dryden and
Davenants Enchanted Island as an opera (although
in Restoration theatre opera did not have its modern meaning, instead referring to a play with added
songs, closer in style to a modern musical com-
edy).[45] Restoration playgoers appear to have regarded

the Dryden/Davenant/Shadwell version as Shakespeares:
Samuel Pepys, for example, described it as an old play
of Shakespeares[40] in his diary. The opera was extremely popular, and full of so good variety, that I cannot be more pleased almost in a comedy[40] according
to Pepys.[46] The Prospero in this version is very dierent from Shakespeares: Eckhard Auberlen describes him
as "... reduced to the status of a Polonius-like overbusy
father, intent on protecting the chastity of his two sexually naive daughters while planning advantageous dynastic marriages for them.[47] Enchanted Island was successful enough to provoke a parody, The Mock Tempest,
written by Thomas Duett for the Kings Company in
1675. It opened with what appeared to be a tempest, but
turns out to be a riot in a brothel.[48]
In the early 18th century, the Dryden/Davenant/Shadwell
version dominated the stage. Ariel waswith two
exceptionsplayed by a woman, and invariably by a
graceful dancer and superb singer. Caliban was a comedians role, played by actors known for their awkward
gures. In 1756, David Garrick staged another operatic
version, a three-act extravaganza with music by John
Christopher Smith.[49]
The Tempest was one of the staples of the repertoire of
Romantic Era theatres. John Philip Kemble produced an
acting version which was closer to Shakespeares original, but nevertheless retained Dorinda and Hippolito.[49]
Kemble was much-mocked for his insistence on archaic
pronunciation of Shakespeares texts, including aitches
for aches. It was said that spectators packed the pit,
just to enjoy hissing Kembles delivery of 'I'll rack thee
with old cramps, / Fill all they bones with aches.[50] The
actor-managers of the Romantic Era established the fashion for opulence in sets and costumes which would dominate Shakespeare performances until the late 19th cen-
7.4
20th century and beyond
9
primacy over the adapted and operatic versions which had
been popular for most of the previous two centuries. The
performance was particularly admired for George Bennett's performance as Caliban; it was described by Patrick
MacDonnellin his An Essay on the Play of The Tempest
published in 1840as maintaining in his mind, a strong
resistance to that tyranny, which held him in the thraldom
of slavery.[52]
The Victorian Era marked the height of the movement
which would later be described as pictorial": based on
lavish sets and visual spectacle, heavily cut texts making room for lengthy scene-changes, and elaborate stage
eects.[53] In Charles Kean's 1857 production of The
Tempest, Ariel was several times seen to descend in a
ball of re.[54] The hundred and forty stagehands supposedly employed on this production were described by the
Literary Gazette as unseen ... but alas never unheard.
Hans Christian Andersen also saw this production and
described Ariel as isolated by the electric ray, referring to the eect of a carbon arc lamp directed at the actress playing the role.[55] The next generation of producers, which included William Poel and Harley GranvilleBarker, returned to a leaner and more text-based style.[56]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Caliban, not

Prospero, was perceived as the star act of The Tempest,
A playbill for a 1757 production of The Tempest at the Drury and was the role which the actor-managers chose for
Lane Theatre Royal
themselves. Frank Benson researched the role by viewing monkeys and baboons at the zoo; on stage, he hung
[57]
tury: Kembles Dorinda and Miranda, for example, were upside-down from a tree and gibbered.
played in white ornamented with spotted furs.[51]
In 1757, a year after the debut of his operatic version, 7.4 20th century and beyond
David Garrick produced a heavily cut performance of
Shakespeares script at Drury Lane, and it was revived, Continuing the late-19th-century tradition, in 1904
protably, throughout the century.[49]
Herbert Beerbohm Tree wore fur and seaweed to play
Caliban, with waist-length hair and apelike bearing, suggestive of a primitive part-animal part-human stage of
7.3 19th century
evolution.[57] This "missing link" portrayal of Caliban
became the norm in productions until Roger Livesey,
in 1934, was the rst actor to play the role with black
makeup. In 1945 Canada Lee played the role at the
Theatre Guild in New York, establishing a tradition of
black actors taking the role, including Earle Hyman in
1960 and James Earl Jones in 1962.[58]
In 1916, Percy MacKaye presented a community masque,
Caliban by the Yellow Sands, at the Lewisohn Stadium in
New York. Amidst a huge cast of dancers and masquers,
the pageant centres on the rebellious nature of Caliban
but ends with his plea for more knowledge (I yearn to
build, to be thine Artist / And 'stablish this thine Earth
among the stars- / Beautiful!") followed by Shakespeare,
as a character, reciting Prosperos Our revels now are
ended speech.[59]
John Gielgud played Prospero numerous times, and called
it his favourite role.[60] Douglas Brode describes him as
It was not until William Charles Macready's inuential universally heralded as ... [the 20th] centurys greatest
production in 1838 that Shakespeares text established its stage Prospero.[61] His rst appearance in the role was in
Miranda and Ferdinand by Angelica Kauman, 1782
10
AFTERLIFE
keenly mimicking the gestures of the islands invaders.

The colonial metaphor was pushed through to its logical
conclusion so that nally Ariel gathered up the pieces of
Prosperos abandoned sta and, watched by awe-struck
tribesmen, tted them back together to hold his wand of
oce aloft before an immobilised Caliban. The Tempest
suddenly acquired a new political dimension unforeseen
by Shakespeare.[66]
Psychoanalytic interpretations have proved more dicult to depict on stage.[67] Gerald Freedman's production
at the American Shakespeare Theatre in 1979 and Ron
Daniels Royal Shakespeare Company production in 1982
both attempted to depict Ariel and Caliban as opposing
aspects of Prosperos psyche. However neither was regarded as wholly successful: Shakespeare Quarterly, reviewing Freedmans production, commented that Mr.
Freedman did nothing on stage to make such a notion
clear to any audience that had not heard of it before.[68]
In 1988, John Wood played Prospero for the RSC,
emphasising the characters human complexity. The
Financial Times reviewer described him as a demented
stage manager on a theatrical island suspended between
smouldering rage at his usurpation and unbridled glee at
his alternative ethereal power.[69]
A charcoal drawing by Charles Buchel of Herbert Beerholm Tree
as Caliban in the 1904 production.
Japanese theatre styles have been applied to The Tempest.

In 1988 and again in 1992 Yukio Ninagawa brought his
version of The Tempest to the UK. It was staged as a rehearsal of a Noh drama, with a traditional Noh theatre at
1930: he wore a turban, later confessing that he intended
the
back of the stage, but also using elements which were
to look like Dante.[58] He played the role in three more
at odds with Noh conventions. In 1992, Minoru Fujita
stage productions, lastly at the Royal National Theatre in
presented a Bunraku (Japanese puppet) version in Osaka
1974.[62]
and at the Tokyo Globe.[70]
Peter Brook directed an experimental production at the
Sam Mendes directed a 1993 RSC production in which
Round House in 1968, in which the text was almost
Simon Russell Beale's Ariel was openly resentful of the
wholly abandoned in favour of mime. According to
control exercised by Alec McCowen's Prospero. ConMargaret Croydons review, Sycorax was portrayed by
troversially, in the early performances of the run, Ariel
an enormous woman able to expand her face and body
spat at Prospero, once granted his freedom.[71] An ento still larger proportions a fantastic emblem of the
tirely dierent eect was achieved by George C. Wolfe
grotesque ... [who] suddenly ... gives a horrendous yell,
in the outdoor New York Shakespeare Festival producand Caliban, with black sweater over his head, emerges
tion of 1995, where the casting of Aunjanue Ellis as Ariel
[63]
from between her legs: Evil is born.
opposite Patrick Stewart's Prospero charged the producIn spite of the existing tradition of a black actor play- tion with erotic tensions. Productions in the late 20thing Caliban opposite a white Prospero, colonial interpre- century have gradually increased the focus placed on
tations of the play did not nd their way onto the stage sexual tensions between the characters, including Prosuntil the 1970s.[64] Performances in England directed by pero/Miranda, Prospero/Ariel, Miranda/Caliban, MiJonathan Miller and by Cliord Williams explicitly por- randa/Ferdinand and Caliban/Trinculo.[72]
trayed Prospero as coloniser. Millers production was deThe Tempest was performed at the Globe Theatre in 2000
scribed, by David Hirst, as depicting the tragic and inwith Vanessa Redgrave as Prospero, playing the role as
evitable disintegration of a more primitive culture as the
neither male nor female, but with authority, human[65]
result of European invasion and colonisation.
Miller
ity and humour ... a watchful parent to both Miranda
developed this approach in his 1988 production at the
and Ariel.[73] While the audience respected Prospero,
Old Vic in London, starring Max von Sydow as ProsJasper Britton's Caliban was their man (in Peter Thompero. This used a mixed cast made up of white actors
sons words), in spite of the fact that he spat sh at the
as the humans and black actors playing the spirits and
groundlings, and singled some of them out for humilicreatures of the island. According to Michael Billington,
ating encounters.[74] By the end of 2005, BBC Radio had
von Sydows Prospero became a white overlord manipuaired 21 productions of The Tempest, more than any other
lating a mutinous black Caliban and a collaborative Ariel
7.5
Music
11
settings of these two songs, and also of Come Unto
These Yellow Sands.[79]
The Tempest has also inuenced songs written in the
folk and hippie traditions: for example, versions of Full
Fathom Five were recorded by Marianne Faithfull for
Come My Way in 1965 and by Pete Seeger for Dangerous Songs!? in 1966.[80] The Decemberists' song The
Island: Come and See/The Landlords Daughter/You'll
Not Feel The Drowning is thought by many to be based
on the story of Caliban and Miranda. Michael Nyman's
Ariel Songs are taken from his score for the lm Prosperos
Books.
Caliban rants at Prospero while Ariel looks on, in a 2014 production by OVO theatre company, St Albans, UK
Among those who wrote incidental music to The Tempest were:
play by Shakespeare.[75] Several critics feel that the play

is autobiographical. Trevor Nunn, in the PBS miniseries
Shakespeare Uncovered, states that he feels that Prospero
is meant to represent Shakespeare himself, and that Prosperos nal farewell to magic is really Shakespeares nal
farewell to his audience.[76]
Arthur Sullivan: His graduation piece, completed

in 1861, was a set of incidental music to "The Tempest".[81] Revised and expanded, it was performed at
The Crystal Palace in 1862, a year after his return
to London, and was an immediate sensation.[82]
The Cirque du Soleil touring production Amaluna is inspired by The Tempest.
7.5
Music
Ernest Chausson: in 1888 he wrote incidental music for La tempte, a French translation by Maurice
Bouchor. This is believed to be the rst orchestral
work that made use of the celesta.[83]
Jean Sibelius: his 1926 incidental music was written for a lavish production at the Royal Theatre in
Copenhagen. An epilogue was added for a 1927 performance in Helsinki.[84] He represented individual
characters through instrumentation choices: particularly admired was his use of harps and percussion
to represent Prospero, said to capture the resonant
ambiguity of the character.[85]
Malcolm Arnold, Lennox Berkeley, Arthur Bliss,
Engelbert Humperdinck, Hector Berlioz, Willem
Pijper and Henry Purcell.
At least forty-six operas or semi-operas based on The

Tempest exist.[86] In addition to the Dryden/Davenant
Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo dancing, detail of a painting by and Garrick versions mentioned in the Restoration and
Johann Heinrich Ramberg
18th century section above, Frederic Reynolds produced
an operatic version in 1821, with music by Sir Henry
The Tempest has more music than any other Shakespeare Bishop. Other pre-20th-century operas based on The
play, and has proved more popular as a subject for com- Tempest include Fromental Halvy's La Tempesta (1850)
posers than most of Shakespeares plays. Scholar Julie and Zdenk Fibich's Boue (1894).
Sanders ascribes this to the perceived 'musicality' or lyri- In the 20th century, Kurt Atterberg's Stormen premiered
cism of the play.[77]
in 1948 and Frank Martin's Der Sturm in 1955. Michael
Two settings of songs from The Tempest which may have
been used in performances during Shakespeares lifetime
have survived. These are Full Fathom Five and Where
The Bee Sucks There Suck I in the 1659 publication
Cheerful Ayres or Ballads, in which they are attributed to
Robert Johnson, who regularly composed for the Kings
Men.[78] It has been common throughout the history of
the play for the producers to commission contemporary
Tippett's 1971 opera The Knot Garden, contains various allusions to The Tempest. In Act 3, a psychoanalyst, Mangus, pretends to be Prospero and uses situations from Shakespeares play in his therapy sessions.[87]
John Eaton, in 1985, produced a fusion of live jazz with
pre-recorded electronic music, with a libretto by Andrew
Porter. Michael Nyman's 1991 opera Noises, Sounds
& Sweet Airs was rst performed as an opera-ballet by
12
Karine Saporta. This opera is unique in that the three vocalists, a soprano, contralto, and tenor, are voices rather
than individual characters, with the tenor just as likely
as the soprano to sing Miranda, or all three sing as one
character.[88]
AFTERLIFE
the songs) and Ryan Knowles.[92] Neiden had previously

been connected with another musical, entitled Tempest
Tossd.[93] In September 2013, The Public Theater produced a new large-scale stage musical at the Delacorte
Theater in Central Park, directed by Lear deBessonet
with a cast of more than 200.[94][95]
The soprano who sings the part of Ariel in Thomas Ads'

21st-century opera is stretched at the higher end of the
register, highlighting the androgyny of the role.[89] This
comment by Mike Silverman of the Associated Press- 7.6
Ades has made the role of the spirit Ariel a tour de force
for coloratura soprano, giving her a vocal line that hovers
much of the time well above high C.
Literature and art
Luca Lombardi's Prospero was premiered 2006 at

Nuremberg Opera House. Ariel is sung by 4 female
voices (S,S,MS,A) and has an instrumental alter ego on
stage (ute). There is an instrumental alter ego (cello)
also for Prospero.
Choral settings of excerpts from The Tempest include
Amy Beach's Come Unto These Yellow Sands (SSAA,
from Three Shakespeare Songs), Matthew Harris Full
Fathom Five, I Shall No More to Sea, and Where the
Bee Sucks (SATB, from Shakespeare Songs, Books I, V,
VI), Ryan Kellys The Tempest (SATB, a setting of the
plays Scene I), Jaakko Mntyjrvi's Full Fathom Five
and A Scurvy Tune (SATB, from Four Shakespeare Songs
and More Shakespeare Songs), Frank Martin's Songs of
Ariel (SATB), Ralph Vaughan Williams' Full Fathom Five
and The Cloud-capp'd Towers (SATB, from Three Shakespeare Songs), and David Willcocks' Full Fathom Five
(SSA).
Orchestral works for concert presentation include Pyotr
Ilyich Tchaikovsky's fantasy The Tempest (1873), Fibichs
symphonic poem Boue (1880), John Knowles Paine's
symphonic poem The Tempest (1876), Benjamin Dale's Miranda by Frederick Goodall, from the Graphic Gallery of
overture (1902), Arthur Honegger's orchestral prelude Shakespeares Heroines
(1923), and Egon Wellesz's Prosperos Beschwrungen
Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the earliest poets to be
(ve works 193436).
inuenced by The Tempest. His With a Guitar, To Jane
Ballet sequences have been used in many performances
identies Ariel with the poet and his songs with poetry.
of the play since Restoration times.[90] A one-act ballet
The poem uses simple diction to convey Ariels closeof The Tempest by choreographer Alexei Ratmansky was
ness to nature and imitates the straightforward beauty
premiered by American Ballet Theatre set to the incidenof Shakespeares original songs.[96] Following the pubtal music of Jean Sibelius on October 30, 2013 in New
lication of Darwin's ideas on evolution, writers began to
York City.
question mankinds place in the world and its relationLudwig van Beethoven's 1802 Piano Sonata No. 17 in D ship with God. One writer who explored these ideas was
minor, Op. 31, No. 2, was given the subtitle The Tem- Robert Browning, whose poem "Caliban upon Setebos"
pest some time after Beethovens death because, when (1864) sets Shakespeares character pondering theologiasked about the meaning of the sonata, Beethoven was cal and philosophical questions.[97] The French philosoalleged to have said Read The Tempest". But this story pher Ernest Renan wrote a closet drama, Caliban: Suite
comes from his associate Anton Schindler, who is often de La Tempte (Caliban: Sequel to The Tempest), in 1878.
not trustworthy.[91]
This features a female Ariel who follows Prospero back
Stage musicals derived from The Tempest have been pro- to Milan, and a Caliban who leads a coup against Proswhich he actively imitates his
duced. A production called The Tempest: A Musical was pero, after the success of
[98]
W. H. Auden's long poem
former
masters
virtues.
produced at the Cherry Lane Theatre in New York City
The
Sea
and
the
Mirror
takes
the form of a reection by
in December 2006, with a concept credited to Thomas
each
of
the
supporting
characters
of The Tempest on their
Meehan and a script by Daniel Neiden (who also wrote
experiences. The poem takes a Freudian viewpoint, see-
7.7
Screen
13
ing Caliban (whose lengthy contribution is a prose poem) Charles Knight produced the Pictorial Edition of the
as Prosperos libido.[99]
Works of Shakespeare in eight volumes (183843). The
In 1968 Franco-Caribbean writer Aim Csaire pub- work attempted to translate the contents of the plays
lished Une Tempte, a radical adaptation of the play based into pictorial form. This extended not just to the acon its colonial and postcolonial interpretations, in which tion, but also to images and metaphors: Gonzalos line
Caliban is a black rebel and Ariel is mixed-race. The about mountaineers dewlapped like bulls is illustrated
[107]
In
gure of Caliban inuenced numerous works of African with a picture of a Swiss peasant with a goitre.
Edmund
Dulac
produced
an
edition
of
Shake1908,
literature in the 1970s, including pieces by Taban Lo Liyspeares Comedy of The Tempest with a scholarly plot
ong in Uganda, Lemuel Johnson in Sierra Leone, Ngg
wa Thiong'o in Kenya, and David Wallace of Zambias summary and commentary by Arthur Quiller-Couch, lavishly bound and illustrated with 40 watercolour illustraDo You Love Me, Master?.[100] A similar phenomenon occurred in late 20th-century Canada, where several writ- tions. The illustrations highlight the fairy-tale quality of
the play, avoiding its dark side. Of the 40, only 12 are
ers produced works inspired by Miranda, including The
Diviners by Margaret Laurence, Prosperos Daughter by direct depictions of the action of the play: the others are
based on action before the play begins, or on images such
Constance Beresford-Howe and The Measure of Miranda
or sounds and sweet
[101]
by Sarah Murphy.
Other writers have feminised Ariel as full fathom ve thy father lies[108]
airs
that
give
delight
and
hurt
not.
(as in Marina Warner's novel Indigo) or Caliban (as in
Suniti Namjoshi's sequence of poems Snaphots of Cal- Fantasy writer Neil Gaiman based a story on the play in
iban).[102]
one issue of his comics series The Sandman. The comic
stands as a sequel to the earlier Midsummer Nights Dream
issue. This issue follows Shakespeare over a period of
several months as he writes the play, which is named as
his last solo project, as the nal part of his bargain with
the Dream King to write two plays celebrating dreams.
The story draws many parallels between the characters
and events in the play and Shakespeares life and family
relationships at the time. It is hinted that he based Miranda on his daughter Judith Shakespeare and Caliban on
her suitor Thomas Quiney.
In the comic Locke & Key, by writer Joe Hill and cocreator and artist Gabriel Rodriguez, the main characters
father, Rendell Locke and his groups of friends in the
school, stage a production of Shakespeares The Tempest
in 1988, in which they used the Keys during the plays
performance to create a grand spectacle.
William Hogarth's painting of The Tempest ca. 1735.
Ilium (novel) and its sequel Olympos (novel) by Dan Simmons is heavily inuenced by The Tempest, a portion of
From the mid-18th century, Shakespeares plays, in- the plot devoted to a re-imagining of The Tempest's charcluding The Tempest, began to appear as the subject acters in a distant sci- future.
of paintings.[103] In around 1735, William Hogarth produced his painting A Scene from The Tempest: a
baroque, sentimental fantasy costumed in the style of Van 7.7 Screen
Dyck and Rembrandt.[103] The painting is based upon
Shakespeares text, containing no representation of the The Tempest rst appeared on the screen in 1905. Charles
stage, nor of the (Davenant-Dryden centred) stage tra- Urban lmed the opening storm sequence of Herbert
dition of the time.[104] Henry Fuseli, in a painting com- Beerbohm Tree's version at Her Majestys Theatre for a
missioned for the Boydell Shakespeare Gallery (1789) 2 1 2 -minute icker, whose individual frames were handmodelled his Prospero on Leonardo da Vinci.[105] These tinted, long before the invention of colour lm. In 1908,
two 18th-century depictions of the play indicate that Percy Stowe directed a Tempest running a little over ten
Prospero was regarded as its moral centre: viewers of minutes, which is now a part of the British Film Institute's
Hogarths and Fuselis paintings would have accepted compilation Silent Shakespeare. Much of its action takes
Prosperos wisdom and authority.[106] John Everett Mil- place on Prosperos island before the storm which opens
lais's Ferdinand Lured by Ariel (1851) is among the Pre- Shakespeares play. At least two other silent versions, one
Raphaelite paintings based on the play. In the late 19th from 1911 by Edwin Thanhouser, are known to have excentury, artists tended to depict Caliban as a Darwinian isted, but have been lost.[109] The plot was adapted for the
missing-link, with sh-like or ape-like features, as evi- Western Yellow Sky, directed by William A. Wellman, in
denced in Noel Paton's Caliban.[98]
1946.[110]
14
AFTERLIFE
Tempest that used Shakespeares language, but was most

notable for its deviations from Shakespeare. One scene
shows a corpulent and naked Sycorax (Claire Davenport) breastfeeding her adult son Caliban (Jack Birkett).
The lm reaches its climax with Elisabeth Welch belting
out Stormy Weather.[112] The central performances were
Toyah Willcox' Miranda and Heathcote Williams' Prospero, a dark brooding gure who takes pleasure in exploiting both his servants[113]
Several other television versions of the play have been
broadcast; among the most notable is the 1980 BBC
Shakespeare production, virtually complete, starring
Michael Hordern as Prospero.
Fyodor Paramonov as Caliban, Maly Theatre (Moscow), 1905
The 1956 science ction lm Forbidden Planet set the

story on a planet in space, Altair IV, instead of an island. Professor Morbius (Walter Pidgeon) and his daughter Altaira (Anne Francis) are the Prospero and Miranda
gures (both Prospero and Morbius having harnessed the
mighty forces that inhabit their new homes). Ariel is represented by the helpful Robbie the Robot, while Sycorax
is replaced with the powerful race of the Krell. Caliban
is represented by the dangerous and invisible monster
from the id, a projection of Morbius psyche born from
the Krell technology instead of Sycoraxs womb.[111]
In the opinion of Douglas Brode, there has only been
one screen performance of The Tempest since the silent
era, he describes all other versions as variations. That
one performance is the Hallmark Hall of Fame version
from 1960, directed by George Schaefer, and starring
Maurice Evans as Prospero, Richard Burton as Caliban,
Lee Remick as Miranda and Roddy McDowall as Ariel.
It cut the play to slightly less than ninety minutes. Critic
Virginia Vaughan praised it as light as a sou, but ...
substantial enough for the main course.[109]
Paul Mazursky's 1982 modern-language adaptation of

The Tempest, with Philip Dimitrius (Prospero) as a disillusioned New York architect who retreats to a lonely
Greek island with his daughter Miranda after learning of
his wife Antonias indelity with Alonzo, dealt frankly
with the sexual tensions of the characters isolated existence. The Caliban character, the goatherd Kalibanos,
asks Philip which of them is going to have sex with
Miranda.[113] John Cassavetes played Philip, Raul Julia Kalibanos, Gena Rowlands Antonia and Molly Ringwald Miranda. Susan Sarandon plays the Ariel character, Philips frequently bored girlfriend Aretha. The lm
has been criticised as overlong and rambling, but also
praised for its good humour, especially in a sequence in
which Kalibanos and his goats dance to Kander and Ebb's
New York, New York.[114]
John Gielgud has written that playing Prospero in a
lm of The Tempest was his lifes ambition. Over the
years, he approached Alain Resnais, Ingmar Bergman,
Akira Kurosawa, and Orson Welles to direct.[115] Eventually, the project was taken on by Peter Greenaway,
who directed Prosperos Books (1991) featuring an 87year-old John Gielgud and an impressive amount of
nudity.[116] Prospero is reimagined as the author of The
Tempest, speaking the lines of the other characters, as
well as his own.[61] Although the lm was acknowledged as innovative in its use of Quantel Paintbox to
create visual tableaux, resulting in unprecedented visual
complexity,[117] critical responses to the lm were frequently negative: John Simon called it contemptible and
pretentious.[118]
The Swedish-made animated lm from 1989 called Resan till Melonia (directed by Per hlin) is an adaptation of the Shakespeare play, focusing on ecologial values. Resan till Melonia was critically acclaimed for its
stunning visuals drawn by hlin and its at times quite dark
and nightmare-like sequences, even though the lm was
originally marketed for children.
Closer to the spirit of Shakespeares original, in the view

In 1979, animator George Dunning, director of Yellow of critics such as Brode, is Leon Gareld's abridgement
Submarine, planned an animated version of The Tempest; of the play for S4C's 1992 Shakespeare: The Animated
Tales series. The 29-minute production, directed by
but died while working on it.
Stanislav Sokolov and featuring Timothy West as the
Also in 1979, Derek Jarman produced a homoerotic
8.1
Notes
15
voice of Prospero, used stop-motion puppets to capture [6] see Kermode (1958, xxxiixxxiii).
the fairy-tale quality of the play.[119] Disneys animated
[7] Vaughan and Vaughan, 287.
feature Pocahontas has been described as a politically
[120]
corrected Tempest.
Another obeat variation (in [8] Chambers (1930: ii. 4904)
Brodes words) was produced for NBC in 1998: Jack
Bender's The Tempest featured Peter Fonda as Gideon [9] Muir (2005: 280).
Prosper, a Southern slave-owner forced o his plantation [10] Malone (1808)
by his brother shortly before the Civil War. A magician
who has learned his art from one of his slaves, Prosper [11] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 12).
uses his magic to protect his teenage daughter and to as- [12] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 61).
sist the Union Army.[121]
[13] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 26, 589, 66).
The PBS series Wishbone featured a television adaptation of The Tempest in its episode Shakespaw with [14] Coursen (2000: 12).
Wishbone as Ariel.
In Julie Taymor's 2010 lm version of The Tempest, Prospero is a woman named Prospera, played by Helen Mirren.
South London was the setting for Rob Curry and Anthony Fletchers 2012 mockumentary version of The
Tempest, which used the themes arising from Shakespeares connection with the discovery of the New World
to explore contemporary multicultural Britain - particularly with regard to the London riots of 2011.
[15] The Tempest, 4.1.148158.

[16] Gibson (2006: 82).
[17] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 254).
[18] Orgel (1987: 27).
[19] Orgel (1987: 1, 10, 80).
[20] Loomie (1971).
[21] Hirst (1984: 235).
The Stratford Shakespeare Festival of Canada presented [22] Phillips (1964)

a version in 2010 in which Christopher Plummer played
Prospero. It was subsequently lmed in hi-def and is now [23] Hirst (1984: 1316, 358).
available on DVD.
[24] Hirst (1984: 345).
The anime and manga series Blast of Tempest was heavily

inuenced by The Tempest and Hamlet. Where several di- [25] The Tempest, 5.1.16
alogues and plot elements pays homage to the two works [26] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 262n).
of Shakespeare, which are two stories of retribution, al[27] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 4).
beit with completely opposing outcome.
In The Maltese Falcon Humphrey Bogart says Its the [28] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 98108).
stu that dreams are made of. This expression is de[29] Orgel (1987: 835).
rived ultimately from Prosperos: We are such stu / As
dreams are made on, and our little life / Is rounded with [30] Carey-Webb (1993: 305).
a sleep.
[31] Cartelli (1995: 82102).
References
All references to The Tempest, unless otherwise specied,

are taken from the Arden Shakespeare Third Series,[122]
based on the First Folio text of 1623.[123] Under its referencing system, 4.1.148 means act 4, scene 1, line 148.
8.1
Notes
[1] Orgel (1987: 634); Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 1).

[2] Orgel (1987: 634).
[32] Meek, Harry. Rodo to Retamar: Shakespearean

Metaphor and Post-Colonial Thought. www.academia.
edu/HMeek.
[33] Nixon (1987: 55778).
[34] Dolan (1992: 31740).
[35] Coursen (2000: 878).
[36] Orgel (1984).
[37] Chambers (1930: ii. 343).
[38] Dymkowski (2000: 5n).
[3] Pollard (2002: 111).
[39] Gurr (1989: 91102); Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 6

7).
[4] Coursen (2000: 7).
[5] Bullough (1975, VIII: 334339).
[41] Marsden (2002: 21).
16
REFERENCES
[43] Marsden (2002: 26).
[79] Sanders (2007: 31).
[44] Dobson (1992: 5960).
[80] Sanders (2007: 189).
[45] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 76, 7980).
[81] Jacobs (1986: 24).
[82] Lawrence (1897); Sullivan (1881).
[47] Auberlen (1991).
[83] Blades and Holland (2003); Gallois (2003).
[84] Ylirotu (2005).
[85] Sanders (2007: 36).
[50] The Tempest, 1.2.370371; Moody (2002: 44).
[86] Wilson (1992).
[51] Moody (2002: 47).
[88] Tuttle (1996).
[53] Schoch (2002: 589).
[89] Sanders (2007: 99); Halliday (1964: 410, 486).
[54] Schoch (2002: 64).
[90] Sanders (2007: 60).
[55] Schoch (2002: 678).
[91] Tovey (1931: 285).
[56] Halliday (1964: 4867).
[92] McElroy, Steven (24 November 2006). A New Theater

Company Starts Big. The New York Times. Retrieved 26
February 2014.

[59] The Tempest, 4.1.146163; Vaughan and Vaughan (1999:
968).
[60] Gielgud (1991).
[61] Brode (2001: 229).
[62] Dymkowski (2000: 21).
[93] Avery, Susan (1 May 2006). Two Tempests, Both

Alike. NY Magazine. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
[94] La Rocco, Claudia (9 September 2013). On a Diverse
Island, a Play About a Magical One The Tempest, at
the Delacorte, Enlists 200 New Yorkers. The New York
Times. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
[95] Simon, Lizzie (2 September 2013). The Teeming 'Tempest'". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
[63] Croyden (1969: 127).

[65] Hirst (1984: 50); Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 114).
[66] Billington (1989).
[68] Saccio (1980); Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 11415).


[69] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 116), citing the Financial
Times of 28 July 1988.
[70] Dawson (2002: 17981).
[103] Orgel (2007: 72).
[104] Orgel (2007: 723).
[105] Orgel (2007: 76); Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 835).
[73] Gay (2002: 1712).
[74] Thomson (2002: 138).
[107] Orgel (2007: 81).
[75] Greenhalgh (2007: 186).
[108] Orgel (2007: 858).
[76] http://www.pbs.org/wnet/shakespeare-uncovered/video/ [109] Brode (2001: 2223).

[77] Sanders (2007: 42).
[110] Howard (2000: 296).
8.2
Secondary sources

[112] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 11819); Brode (2001:
2246).
[114] Brode (2001: 2278).
[115] Gielgud (2005); Brode (2001: 2289).
[116] Rozakis (1999: 275).
[117] Howard (2003: 612).
[118] Forsyth (2000: 291); Brode (2001: 22931).
[119] Brode (2001: 232).
[120] Howard (2000: 309).
[121] Brode (2001: 2312).
[122] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999).
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Croyden, Margaret (1969). Peter Brooks Tempest".
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Further reading
Bowling, Lawrence E. (1951). The Theme of
Natural Order in The Tempest"". College English
(National Council of Teachers of English) 12 (4):
2039. doi:10.2307/372626. ISSN 0010-0994.
JSTOR 372626.
Buchanan, Judith (2005). Shakespeare on Film.

Harlow: Pearson. ISBN 0-582-43716-4.
Buchanan, Judith (2009). Shakespeare on Silent
Film: An Excellent Dumb Discourse. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-87199-9.
Cantor, Paul A. (1980). Shakespeares The Tempest: The Wise Man as Hero. Shakespeare Quarterly (Folger Shakespeare Library) 31 (1): 6475.
doi:10.2307/2869370. ISSN 0037-3222. JSTOR
2869370.
Gilman, Ernest B. (1980). ""All eyes": Prosperos Inverted Masque. Renaissance Quarterly
(The University of Chicago Press) 33 (2): 214230.
doi:10.2307/2861118. ISSN 0034-4338. JSTOR
2861118. OCLC 37032182.
Gra, Gerald; Phelan, James (2000), The Tempest: A Case Study in Critical Controversy, London:
MacMillan
Grant, Patrick (1976). The Magic of Charity: A
Background to Prospero. The Review of English
Studies (Oxford University Press). XXVII (105):
116. doi:10.1093/res/XXVII.105.1. ISSN 14716968.
Knight, G. Wilson (1984), Shakespearean Dimensions, Harvester
Sagar, Keith (2005), The Crime Against Caliban,
Literature and the Crime Against Nature (London:
Chaucer Press)
Yates, Frances A. (1975), Shakespeares Last Plays:
A New Approach, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
Yates, Frances A. (1979), The Occult Philosophy in
the Elizabethan Age, London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul
Zimbardo, Rose Abdelnour (1963). Form and
Disorder in The Tempest. Shakespeare Quarterly (Folger Shakespeare Library) 14 (1): 4956.
doi:10.2307/2868137. ISSN 0037-3222. JSTOR
2868137.
Macaulay, Alastair (2013). American Ballet Theater Opens Its Fall Season - NYTimes.com. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
10 External links
The original-spelling text of The Tempest at Internet
Shakespeare Editions
The Tempest Navigator, including annotated text,
line numbers, scene summaries, and text search
Introductory Lecture on The Tempest
20
Lesson plans for The Tempest at Web English
Teacher
An original-spelling version (.doc format) of
William Strachey's True Reportory of the Wracke
and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight,
hosted by Virtual Jamestown
The Tempest Audio Book a free recorded performance of The Tempest by the Universal Shakespeare
Broadcasting Company.
The Tempest public domain audiobook at LibriVox
10
EXTERNAL LINKS
21
11
11.1
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text
The Tempest Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tempest?oldid=673003840 Contributors: Kpjas, Mav, Eclecticology, Deb,

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22
11
11.2
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Images
File:Alexandrov_Caliban.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Alexandrov_Caliban.jpg License: Public

domain Contributors: http://www.sheleg.ru/foto1/main.php?g2_itemId=434 Original artist: Unknown
File:Angelica_Kauffmann_007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Angelica_Kauffmann_007.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Angelica Kauman
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The Tempest

The shipwreck in Act I, Scene 1, in a 1797 engraving by Benjamin

to have been written in 161011, and thought by many

as the magicians so-called slave. In slavery, Caliban has

Prospero and Miranda from a painting by William Maw Egley;

The Magician, Prospero, rightful Duke of Milan, and his

Miranda by John William Waterhouse

after to prevent them from what this ecstasy may now

Date and sources

The Tempest is thought by most scholars to have been

Erasmuss Naufragium (1523), (translated into English

Sylvester Jourdains A Discovery of the Barmudas

tion which does not mention splitting, in which the ship is

published in the First Folio in December 1623, the play is

Themes and motifs

Our revels now are ended. These our actors,

The Tempest is explicitly concerned with its own nature

Ariel (Fuseli, c.1800-1810)

Shakespeare is also careful to make the distinction that

tive and terrible, where Prosperos is said to be wondrous

Criticism and interpretation

CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION

6.2 Dramatic structure

The story draws heavily on the tradition of the romance,

Ferdinand Lured by Ariel by John Everett Millais, 1850

ogy of Colonization by Octave Mannoni, The Tempest was

Prospero, Ariel and sleeping Miranda from a painting by William

The Tempest has only one female character, Miranda.

A record exists of a performance of The Tempest on

Restoration and 18th century

edy).[45] Restoration playgoers appear to have regarded

20th century and beyond

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Caliban, not

keenly mimicking the gestures of the islands invaders.

Japanese theatre styles have been applied to The Tempest.

Among those who wrote incidental music to The Tempest were:

play by Shakespeare.[75] Several critics feel that the play

Arthur Sullivan: His graduation piece, completed

The Cirque du Soleil touring production Amaluna is inspired by The Tempest.

At least forty-six operas or semi-operas based on The

the songs) and Ryan Knowles.[92] Neiden had previously

The soprano who sings the part of Ariel in Thomas Ads'

Literature and art

Luca Lombardi's Prospero was premiered 2006 at

Tempest that used Shakespeares language, but was most

Fyodor Paramonov as Caliban, Maly Theatre (Moscow), 1905

The 1956 science ction lm Forbidden Planet set the

Paul Mazursky's 1982 modern-language adaptation of

Closer to the spirit of Shakespeares original, in the view

[15] The Tempest, 4.1.148158.

The Stratford Shakespeare Festival of Canada presented [22] Phillips (1964)

The anime and manga series Blast of Tempest was heavily

All references to The Tempest, unless otherwise specied,

[1] Orgel (1987: 634); Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 1).

[32] Meek, Harry. Rodo to Retamar: Shakespearean

[3] Pollard (2002: 111).

[39] Gurr (1989: 91102); Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 6

[4] Coursen (2000: 7).

[40] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 76).

[5] Bullough (1975, VIII: 334339).

[41] Marsden (2002: 21).

[42] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 77).

[78] Vaughan and Vaughan (1999: 1820).

[43] Marsden (2002: 26).