20XX-01-XXXX

Kinematic Analysis of Formula SAE suspension

Aditya Bhatt
Netaji Subhas Institue of Technology
Copyright 2010 SAE International

ABSTRACT
Formula SAE or FSAE is a Collegiate Design competition organized by SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) that requires students
to conceive, design, fabricate and compete with a small formula style racing car. The role of suspension system is to provide high
level of road handling under all expected accelerations and forces. Vehicle handling decides the performance of a racecar and hence it
becomes essential to optimize the same. Although this goal is superficially simple, the selection of parameters to achieve the ideal
suspension system is the result of evaluating and weighing numerous competing minor objectives, many of which require iterative
calculations and educated predictions of values and some which can only be decided once the vehicle is fabricated. This paper
summarizes the basic suspension parameters like camber, caster, toe, etc that need to be considered in a race car suspension design,
not only by defining the parameters but also by considering the effects of one parameter on the others. By analyzing parameters and
objectives, vital selections like vehicles wheelbase, track width, suspension geometry, shock absorber and its mounting, tire and
wheels were either estimated or decided using the subject knowledge, and later checked via computer simulation. The paper
emphasizes upon creating an innovative suspension design featuring a highly flexible suspension geometry.

INTRODUCTION
Suspension system consists of three groups of components: 1.suspension links that includes control arms, upright and push/pull rods
if used 2.springs that absorb the energy from road inputs that would otherwise be transmitted directly to the vehicle body and
3.dampers that control wheel and body motion by dissipating energy stored in the springs by means of heat. The first part i.e. the
suspension links essentially decide the suspension geometry and hence how these links move relative to each other, and is detailed in
this paper. In a Formula SAE car, the role of the suspension system is to provide best possible handling under all conditions of
propulsion, braking, cornering and ground input. And the ride quality is sacrificed for handling till the point that the driver does not
loses his physical ability to control the vehicle. The ride quality is determined by suspension components second and third. Handling
is affected by tires contact patch. Thus, the aim of suspension geometry should be to ensure maximum tire contact patch possible.

DESIGN PROCEDURE
The following is the algorithm for suspension designing to be followed in given order1. Decide type of suspension system
2. Decide best possible set of tires and wheels
3. Estimate basic dimensions- wheelbase, trackwidth(s), cog height
4. Set static values for suspension parameters.
5. Model the geometry to ensure minimum plausible change in parameters
6. Deign and validate suspension components
Double wishbone independent suspension is the common option for racecars because it is light, offers easy packaging with high
degree of freedom in design of suspension geometry. Non-parallel unequal arms were selected over parallel unequal arms to get a
lower roll centre. Inboard suspension was preferred over outboard via use of pushrods because; this could facilitate ride height
adjustment or adjustment in chassis attitude without altering spring preload, this offers more damper travel for minor wheel
displacement by having increased motion ratio and this system has reduced unsprung mass.
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For tire and wheel selection a decision matrix was made as a result of which it was decided that 13 tire/wheel package should be
preferred over 10. The various considerations in selection include mass moment of inertia, tire data, tire availability, upright
packaging, chassis impact, wheel availability, cost and mass effect and addition. While 10 package offers better moment of inertia
and lesser weight, the 13 package dominates by topping the rest of considerations and overall weighted value. Now that 13 tires
have been selected, the width needs to be decided. Having wider tires increases the tractability but also increase the rotating mass that
needs to be accelerated the amount of rubber to be heated for tires to give best possible performance [3].
Wheelbase is the distance between front and rear axle centerlines. It affects longitudinal load transfer and larger values lead to better
straight line stability at the cost of decreased maneuverability [3]. An estimate of 1850mm was made according to packaging
constraints and though longer than many competitors at the same competition, leads to improved stability in high speed corner entry.
Track width is the distance between left and right wheel centerlines and this is an important dimension that resists overturning moment
due to inertial force at cog and lateral forces at tires. It decides the amount of lateral load transfer [3] and is necessary to plays a
pivotal role in deciding suspension geometry. While the larger track width ensures better camber gain characteristics it leads to
aerodynamic losses at higher speeds. For Formula SAE car, which is a rear wheel racecar front trackwidth is wider than the rear and
this decision is based on corner speeds and horsepower to weight ratio. This design concept is used to increase rear traction during
corner exit by reducing the amount of body roll resisted by the rear tires relative to the front tires [1].
The double wishbone suspension system consists of two control arms- upper arm (UA) and lower arm (LA) and a link to constrain
every but one degree of freedom of the system and to provide steering action in front- tie rod (TR). These links have 8 hard-points
associated with them as shown in fig. 1. The relative positioning of these hard-points is the suspension geometry. The different
suspension parameters are dependent on two or more hard points and the change in values of these parameters under bump, droop,
roll, steer conditions are affected by different hard-points differently as shown in Tab. 1. Some hard-points may have more influence
in change in suspension parameter values than the other. The effect of hard-points to parameter values can be categorized as strong,
moderate and weak. The order followed in modeling suspension parameters is as described next. The suspension geometry is so
modeled to ensure minimum plausible change in parameters and the order followed in modeling parameters is as follows [5]:
1. Caster
2. KPI
3. Wheelbase
4. Camber
5. Toe

Fig. 1: Showing various hard-points for double

wishbone suspension.

SENSTIVITY

TOE

CAMBER

WHEELBASE

KPI

CASTER

STRONG

P1 , P2

P6

P1 , P 2 , P4 , P5

P3 , P6

P3 , P6

MODERATE

P4 , P5 , P6

P3 , P4 , P5 ,
P7, P8

WEAK

P3 , P7 , P8

P1, P2

P3 , P 6 , P7 , P8

P1, P2, P4,

P5, P7, P8

P1 , P 2 , P4 ,
P5 , P 7 , P8

Table 1: Showing sensitivity in the change of suspension parameters to 8 hard-points.

Which means the design order is to minimize change in Caster, than KPI and so on. The changes in these parameters are observed for
maximum wheel travel and chassis roll. The maximum wheel travel in bump or rebound and roll is calculated using dynamic
equations [2]. For a tire with known stiffness, suspension stiffness is calculated from the ride frequency. Spring rates are than
calculated from the suspension stiffness using motion ratio decided. Spring stiffness is used to calculate the roll rates assuming track
change to be negligible. With the given roll rates maximum roll is calculated using a maximum lateral acceleration of 1.5g. The
maximum roll thus calculated comes out to be nearly 1.5 degrees and the maximum wheel travel is 36mm.
Suspension Parameters:
Caster is the angle that the steering axis deviates from vertical in the side view of a vehicle. Its value is positive if lower joint P3 is
forward to upper joint P6. Positive caster generates negative camber on the outside tire when the wheel is steered, and positive camber
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on the inside tire, both of which offset the camber loss due to body roll. Also, caster raises the steered outside wheel relative to the car,
which creates a diagonal load transfer away from the heavily loaded front tire to the less loaded inside rear tire and creates an
oversteering effect while contributing to more responsive turn-in behavior. Due to the benefits of running positive caster, a value as
high as 6 degree is used in front suspension system. But this could lead to very high values for mechanical trail, and hence increasing
the steering effort. To reduce this effort the upper joint is moved farther by a greater distance and the lower joint is brought closer to
the wheel centre. Caster change for maximum wheel travel and body roll is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: Caster change in bump/ rebound and roll

The kingpin inclination (also referred to as the steering axis lateral inclination) is the angle that the steering axis deviates from vertical
in the front or rear view of a vehicle. Kingpin inclination is used to reduce scrub radius, which is the distance along ground between
the wheel centre and the point of intersection of ball joints with the ground. The need for reduction in scrub radius is to minimize the
steering forces. Though, it cannot be eliminated to zero since it provides feedback for drivers through steering wheel. P3 and P6 are the
hard-points that have maximum effect on KPI. P3 should be kept as low as possible for structural reasons [1] [2]. The choice of P6
decides whether we are using short or tall knuckle [1]. A short knuckle was decided to reduce structural requirements of the knuckle
and the freedom to change the tire size and width.
Camber angle is regarded as the inclination of the wheel plane to the vertical. It is the most important suspension parameters that
should be considered. The camber of the wheel is a function of wheel travel and our effort should be to have good camber gain
characteristics so that maximum tire contact patch is ensured for best grip during bump, roll and steering. Camber curves are studied
within the maximum limit of travel. Negative camber will produce a better contact patch shape, producing additional lateral force
without a large increase in slip angle and tire heating while, positive camber will produce corner exit oversteer and reduced tractibility
in rear and will lead to understeer in front. Hence it is suggested that maximum portion of camber curve should be in the negative
camber region. Lesser camber gain is provided in front during roll due to addition of camber from caster. Camber is most sensitive to
P6 and than moderately sensitive to P3, P4, P5, P7, P8.Control arms that have one arm straight across from the ball joint are superior in
stiffness to those which are splayed [1]. Thus P5 and P8are far off from wheel centre while P4 and P7 are closer to wheel centre in the
side view. Also it is suggested that all inner pivots P4, P5, P7, P8 be parallel to the car centerline in the top-view [1]. Camber change
for maximum wheel travel and body roll is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3: Camber change in bump/ rebound and roll

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Toe angle is measured in degrees and is the angle between a longitudinal axis of the vehicle and the line of intersection of the wheel
plane and the road surface. Toe-in increases straight line stability while toe-out quickens transition behavior and both increases tire
wear. The front end develops a toe in at bump this increases straight line stability in braking and points the steered outside tires in the
steered direction during a turn. In the rear a toe-in on rebound is created such that there is increased stability upon braking. Toe
change for maximum wheel travel and body roll is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Toe change in bump/ rebound and roll

STATIC VALUES FRONT

STATIC VALUES REAR

CAMBER ANGLE

-1.0

TOE ANGLE (SAE) (deg)

TOE ANGLE

CAMBER ANGLE

-1.50

0.0

TOE ANGLE (SAE) (deg)

0.0

0.0

TOE ANGLE

0.0

CASTOR ANGLE

6.0

CASTOR ANGLE

2.0

CASTOR TRAIL (mm)

13

CASTOR TRAIL (mm)

13

CASTOR OFFSET (mm)

10.5

CASTOR OFFSET (mm)

10.5

KINGPIN ANGLE (deg)

0.0

KINGPIN ANGLE (deg)

0.0

KINGPIN OFFSET (mm)

24.0

KINGPIN OFFSET (mm)

20.0

MECHANICAL TRAIL (mm)

20.0

MECHANICAL TRAIL (mm)

ROLL CENTRE HEIGHT (mm) :

30

ROLL CENTRE HEIGHT (mm) :

Tab. 2: Static values for suspension parameters

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15
90.0

Kinematic analysis gives us the four bar theory of movement which defines instant centers of motion. Applied to the double wishbone
suspension four-bar theory establishes an instant center. The four bars are the two wishbones, the chassis, and the
upright/hub/wheel/tire assembly. The upright/hub/wheel/tire assembly rotates about this instant center. This is a very useful concept
because it explains camber change for wheel travel. The effect of instant centre and fvsa is to minimize tyre wear and optimize the
suspension gain characteristics. The four bar theory applied twice gives us the roll centre. The roll center is the geometric point of the
vehicle around which the part of the vehicle rolls under the force imparted by a lateral acceleration. The roll centers are important
because they determine the force coupling point between the un-sprung and sprung masses. The lower the roll centre is, more is the
roll couple produced which produces body roll [1][2]. If the roll center is anywhere other than on the ground plane, any lateral force
generated by a tire will create vertical deflection of the sprung mass, known as jacking. [1][2]. Jacking makes the car unpredictable
hence the roll centre should not cross the ground plane at any cost. But to create a car that rolls less roll centers have to be as high as
possible. However, this means a severe jacking up effect. If the roll center were placed closed to the ground plane, jacking would not
be a problem, but the large rolling moment would mean building in a large amount of suspension travel and good camber gain
characteristics over this travel and body roll to make sure that the tires are well positioned relative to the ground for maximum lateral
grip. Large amounts of body roll also has negative effects in that the weight transfer rate is lowered, causing a delayed reaction of the
car body when given a steering input. The common and modern way of approaching these conflicting objectives is to maintain a
relatively large rolling moment by using low roll centers but stiffer springs or anti-roll bars to reduce the amount of body roll. Yet the
suspension cannot be overly stiff or else it cannot deal with road disturbances properly. Following figures show that roll centre does
not crosses ground plane.

Fig. 5: Front roll centre migration

Fig. 6: Rear roll centre migration

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CONCLUSIONS
This suspension analysis is to be used as a guideline for future FSAE suspension teams. The suspension has gone through rigorous
kinematic analysis, which has been detailed in this paper.

REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.

Milliken, W. F. Race car vehicle dynamics, 1 edition, SAE, 1995.

Gillespie, Thomas D. Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics, 1 edition, SAE, 1992.
Smith, Carroll. Tune to Win. Fallbrock, CA : Aero Publishers 1978.
Woods, David E. and Jawad Badih A. Numerical Design of Racecar Suspension Parameters, Paper No. 1999-01-2257, SAE
International, Washington, D.C., 1999.
5. Bae, Sangwoo and Lee, Jang Moo. Axiomatic Design of Automotive Suspension Systems, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing
Technology Volume 51, Issue 1, Pages 115-118, Elsevier, 2002.
6. Deo, Hrishikesh V. and Suh Nam P. Axiomatic Design of Automobile Suspension and Steering Systems: Proposal for a novel
six-bar suspension, Paper No. 2004-01-0811, SAE International, 1999.
7. Formula SAE Rules. Warrendale, PA: SAE International.

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