1

INTRODUCTION
All researchers used statistics to help reach their conclusions that would have been impossible to make with
any degrees of scientific validity without the benefit of statistics. Researchers needed to use statistics as a tool
to help them gain perspective on the particular problems of interest to them.
Why learn statistics?
Statistics is an integral part of research activity
Important questions and issues are addressed in research and statistics can be a valuable tool in
developing answers to these questions
In conducting research, statistical analysis will prove to be a useful aid in the acquisition of knowledge
Knowledge in statistics is important to help one understand and interpret the reports.
A knowledge of statistical analysis helps to foster new and creative ways of thinking about problems
Statistical thinking can be a useful aid in suggesting alternative answers to questions and posing new
ones
Statistics helps to develop ones skills in critical thinking, with both inductive and deductive inference
Science is best characterized as an interplay between theory and data and statistics serves as a bridge
between theory and data
VARIABLES
Most research is concerned with variables which is a phenomenon that takes on different values of levels. In
contrast, a constant does not vary within given constraints. Researchers distinguish between variables. One
distinction is between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Example: Suppose a researcher is interested in the relationship between two variables: the effect of
information about the gender of a job applicant on hiring decisions made by personnel managers. An
experiment might be designed in which 50 personnel managers are provided with descriptions of a job
applicant and asked whether they would hire that applicant. The applicant is described to all 50 managers in
the same way on several pertinent dimensions. The only difference is that 25 of the managers are told that the
applicant is a woman, and the other 25 managers are told that the applicant is a man. Each manager then
indicates his or her hiring decision.
In this experiment, the gender of the applicant is the independent variable and the hiring decision is the
dependent variable. The hiring decision is termed the dependent variable because it is thought to depend on
the information about the gender of the applicant. The gender of the applicant is termed the independent
variable because it is assumed to influence the dependent variable and does not depend on the other
variable (i.e. hiring decision). A useful tool for identifying independent and dependent variables is the phrase
The effect of (independent variable) on (dependent variable).
For example: in a study on the effect of psychological stress on blood pressure, the independent variable is the
amount of psychological stress an individual is feeling and the dependent variable is the individual blood
pressure. Similarly, if the effect of child-rearing practices on intelligence is studied, the independent variable is
the type of child-rearing practice and the dependent variable is the childs intelligence.
The term independent variable in general is any variable that is presumed to influence the dependent variable.
The distinction between independent and dependent variables parallels cause-and-effect thinking with
independent variable being the cause and the dependent variable being the effect. When reading studies or
evaluating certain statistics, it is useful to make distinctions between presumed causes and the presumed
effects.

2
STATISTICS DEFINED
STATISTICS

SPECIFIC NUMBERS:
numerical measurement
determined by a set of
data

METHOD OF ANALYSIS: a collection of methods for planning

experiments, obtaining data, and then then organizing,
summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and
drawingconclusions based on the data

Twenty-three percent of people polled

believed that learning statistics is difficult

Statistical investigations and analyses of data fall into two broad categories:

STATISTICS
(Collection, Organization,
Summary,
Presentation, Analysis and
Interpretation of Data)

DESCRIPTIVE
-deals with processing data without attempting to
draw any inferences/conclusions from them. It
refers to the representation of data in the form of
tables, graphs and to the description of some
characteristics of the data, such as averages and
deviations.

INFERENTIAL (INDUCTIVE)
-is a scientific discipline concerned with
developing and using mathematical tools to
make forecasts and inferences. Basic to the
development and understanding of
inferential/inductive statistics are the concepts
of probability theory.

THE NATURE OF DATA

MEASUREMENT
A major feature of scientific research is measurement. Measurement involves translating empirical
relationships between objects into numerical relationships. This frequently takes the form of assigning
numbers to respondents (or objects) in such a way that the numbers have meaning and convey information
about differences between respondents (or objects). The four types or levels of measurement used in sciences
are (a) nominal, (b) ordinal, (c) interval and (d) ratio. However, some scientific researches, interval and ration
were collapsed as one, thus, (a) nominal, (b) ordinal or ranks and (c) interval or ratio.

3
4 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO

DATA

QUALITATIVE

NOMINAL

QUANTITATIVE

ORDINAL

INTERVAL

RATIO

Nominal measurement involves using numbers merely as labels. A researcher might classify a group of
people according to their religion Catholic, Protestant, Jewish and all others and use numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4
for these categories. Also gender is a nominal measurement where male might take a value of 1 and 2 for a
female. In the nominal level, the numbers have no special quality about them; they are used merely as labels.
In research, the basic statistics of interest for variables that involve nominal level are frequencies, proportions,
and percentages.
Because nominal data lack any ordering or numerical significance, they cannot be used for calculations. Numbers
are sometimes assigned to the different categories (especially when data are computerized), but these numbers
have no real computational significance and any average calculated with them is meaningless
Ordinal measurement. A variable is said to be measured on an ordinal level when the categories can be
ordered on some dimension. Suppose that a researcher is studying the effects of stress during schooling on the
grades as one index of academic performance. The researcher takes several students who differ in letter
grades and assigns the number 1 to a grade of A, the number 2 to a grade of B, the number 3 to the next letter
grade, and the number 4 to the last and lowest letter grade. In this case, letter grade is measured on an ordinal
level, which allows the students to be ordered from best to worst. Another example is when the researcher
wants to know how often do teenagers aged 18 and above watch R-18 slasher/horror movies. The researcher
will take respondents who differs in the extent of watching and assigns the number 4 to always, the number
3 to oftentimes, the number 2 to sometimes, the number 1 to seldom and the number 0 to never. Thus,
with ordinal level, the researcher classifies individual into different categories but are ordered along a
dimension of interest.
Ordinal data provide information about relative comparisons, but not the magnitudes of the differences. They
should not be used for calculations.
Interval measurement. Interval measures have all the properties of ordinal measures but allows us to do
more than order objects on a dimension. They also provide information about the magnitude of the differences
between objects. For example, interval measures not only would tell us that one student is better in math than
another, but also would convey a sense of how much better one student is than another. Technically speaking,
interval measures have property that numerically equal distance on the scale represents equal distances on
the dimension being measured. Also, in an interval level, measurements do not start from 0 starting point like
the cases of number grades and calendar year. For example, a researcher might study the relationship
between IQ scores and EQ intelligences. The difference between an IQ score of 50 and 100 is the same as the
difference between an IQ score of 100 and 150. In both instances, the difference of 50 points corresponds to
the same absolute amount of scores. Interval measures provide information about the magnitude of
differences because of this useful property. However, since interval measurements have no 0 starting point,

4
we cannot say that a person whose IQ score of 100 is twice as intelligent, than a person whose IQ score is only
50. Likewise a temperature reading of 30oC does not mean 3 times hotter than a temperature reading of 10 oC
(this is also true for degrees Fahrenheit) unless the unit is degrees Kelvin.
Ratio measurement. Ratio measures have all the properties of interval measures but provide even more
information. Specifically, ratio measures have 0 starting point that map onto underlying dimension in such a
way that ratios between the numbers represent ratios of the dimension being measured. For example, if we
use inches to measure the underlying dimension of height, in the case that a child who is 50 inches tall is twice
the height of a child who is 25 inches tall. Similarly, a student who got a score of 75 points in a 100-point test
has thrice the score of a student who got a score of 25 points. Moreover, a runner who runs a 1-km distance in
a time of 10 minutes is twice as faster than a runner who runs the same distance in a time of 20 minutes.
Three Different Ways of Measuring the Heights of Four Building
The figure on the left shows graphically the
heights of four buildings and indicates how tall
each one is. The first way of measuring the
heights of these buildings is to assign the
number 1 to the shortest building, the number 2
to the next shortest building, the number 3 to
the nest and the number 4 to the tallest building
(figure b). This assignment represents ordinal
measurement. It allows us to order the
buildings on the dimension of height but it does
not tell us anything about the magnitude of the
heights.
A second method is to measure by how many
feet each building exceeds the 100-feet
criterion. In this case, building D is 2 feet taller
than the criterion, building B is 4 feet taller than
the criterion, building C is 80 feet taller than the
criterion and building A is 104 feet taller than
the criterion (figure c). In contrast to ordinal
level, now not only can we order the buildings
on a dimension of height, but also we have
information about the relative magnitudes of
the heights. Building B is 2 feet taller than
building D, building C is 76 feet taller than
building B, and so on.
We have measured height on a n interval scale. Note that on this scale, even though building B has a score of
4(that is 4 feet above the criterion) and building D has a score of 2 (2 feet above the criterion), it is not the case
that building B is twice as tall as building D. We cannot make a ratio statement because all measures were
taken relative to an arbitrary criterion (100 feet). Finally, we can measure each building from the ground (0 as
a starting point) which is a true zero point rather than a n arbitrary criterion. Building D is 102 feet high,
building B is 104 feet high, building C is 180 feet high and building A is 204 feet high (figure d). We can now
state with confidence that building A is twice as tall as building D.

5
Summary:
The four levels of measurements can be thought of as a hierarchy. At the lowest level, nominal measurement
allows us only to categorize phenomena into different groups. The second level, ordinal measurement, not only
allows us to classify phenomena into different groups but also indicates the relative ordering of the groups on
a dimension of interest. The third level, interval measurement, possesses the same properties as ordinal but, in
addition, is sensitive to the magnitude of the differences in the groups on the dimension. However, ratio
statements are not possible at this level since the measurement is based on some criterion which is arbitrary.
The fourth and final level, ratio measurement, have all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval
measurements and also permit ratio judgments to be made (0 as a starting point).
THE MEASUREMENT HIERARCHY
The four types of measurement can be thought of a hierarchy. At the lowest level, nominal measurement
allows us only to categorize or classify phenomena into different groups. The second level, ordinal
measurement, not only allow us to categorize or classify phenomena into different groups but also indicates
the relative ordering of the groups on a dimension of interest. Interval measurement, the third level, possesses
the same properties as ordinal but in addition, is sensitive to the magnitude of the differences in the groups on
the dimension. However, ratio statements are not possible at this level. It is only at the final level, ratio
measurement, that such statements are possible. Ratio measures have all the properties of nominal, ordinal
and interval measures and also permit ratio judgments to be made.
Variables measured on the ordinal, interval, or ratio level are known as quantitative variables, whereas
variables measured in nominal level are called qualitative variables.

Exercise: The following data describe the different data associated with a state senator. For each data entry,
indicate the corresponding level of measurement.
(1) The senators name is Carah Bao.
(2) The senator is 58 years old.
(3) The years in which the senator was elected to the senate are 1963, 1969, 1981, and 1994.
(4) Her total taxable income last year was $78,317.19.
(5) The senator sponsored a bill to protect water rights. Out of 1100 voters in her district, 400 hundred said
they strongly favoured the bill, 300 said they favoured the bill, 200 said they were neutral, 150 said they did
not favour the bill and 50 said they strongly did not favour the bill.
(6) The senator is married now.
(7) However, the senator has married three times.
(8) A leading news magazine claims the senator is ranked seventh for her voting record on bills regarding
public education

6
Answers:
(1) Name is nominal
(2) Years of age is ratio
(3) Years when the senator was elected are interval
(4) Income is a ratio
(5) Degree of agreement (strongly favoured, favoured, neutral, not favoured, strongly not favoured) is an
ordinal (ranks)
(6) Marital status is nominal
(7) Number of times the senator married constitutes counting which is ratio. (0, 1, 2, 3, . . .)
(8) Rank is a nominal data
Applicants for different positions of ABC Company
1
Age
(years)

2
Civil
Status

3
Nationality

4
Religion

5
No. of
dependent
s

6
Degree
earned

7
Sex

8
Job
applying
for

9
IQ Score

24
23
28
27
29
28
32
35
25

Single
Single
Married
Married
Married
Married
Widow
Married
Single

Thai
Thai
Thai
Filipino
Filipino
American
American
Chinese
Chinese

Christian
Buddhist
Buddhist
Baptist
Catholic
Protestant
Baptist
Protestant
Catholic

2
0
3
3
4
1
0
0
0

BSMath
BSMath
BSAcc
BSME
BSME
BSAcc
BSMath
BSEE
BSCoE

M
F
M
M
F
F
F
M
F

110
128
115
133
110
95
115
95
130

27

Single

Filipino

Baptist

BSCS

105

10

29
24

Single
Single

Thai
Chinese

Buddhist
Catholic

1
0

BSAcc
BSME

F
M

Statistician
Statistician
Accountant
Engg Head
Engg Head
Accountant
Researcher
Researcher
Systems
Analyst
Systems
Analyst
Accountant
Researcher

10
Years of
relative
experience
(months)
6
10
16
10
3
0
12
8
20

125
120

14
6

Answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Age
Civil Status
Nationality
Religion
Number of Dependents
Degree Earned
Sex
Job Applying for
IQ Score
Years of Relative Experience

Interval/Ratio
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Interval/Ratio
Nominal
Interval/Ratio
Nominal
Interval/Ratio
Interval/Ratio

7
ACTIVITY No. 1
(Level of Measurements)
Identify whether the following observations are nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio. Write N for nominal, O for
ordinal, IR for interval/ratio.
_____1. Weight in pounds of new born babies
_____2. Speed of a car in miles per hour
_____3. Degree of agreement or disagreement of respondents about the appropriateness of a television
program for children below 10 years old (Strongly agree, Agree, Disagree or Strongly Disagree).
_____4. Length of Milkfish in a fish pond.
_____5. Eye color
_____6. Skin tone
_____7. IQ level as low, average or high
_____8. Sound intensity of the noise made by students in a cafeteria
_____9. Educational attainment
_____10. Number of children in a family
_____11. Socioeconomic status of residence in Khon Khaen City (Low, Average, High)
_____12. Population of Thailand in the year 2010
_____13. Monthly salary of employees in the College of Asian Scholars
_____14. Religious affiliation
_____15. Gender of applicants
_____16. Anxiety level whether low, moderate, high or very high
_____17. Academic performance in math (poor, fair, good, very good)
_____18. Weight in pounds of babies born in the month of December 2008
_____19. Number of coffee-break hours per day spent by executives
_____20. Length in hours of the study time spent per day by students
_____21. Military ranks
_____22. Home address of students
_____24. The year when you were born
_____25. Softdrinks preference of Thai people
_____26. Number of foreigners migrating to Thailand every year.
_____27. Length of hair of females.
_____28. The boiling point of water is 1000C.
_____29. His cellphone number is 0929-9999875.
_____30. Johns height is 168 cm.
_____31. The number of children with missing/decayed teeth in a community is 200.
_____32. The following data are the densities of sample substances taken from River Kwai (in gm/cc): 23.6,
19.8, 15.0, 7.8, 1.6 and 2.4
_____33. The average speed of motorboats crossing in a river everyday is 5 meters per second.
_____34. Anxiety level of 8 selected female students in University of Baguio
Maria Low
Luisa Average
Marissa Low
Martha High
Lana High
Maridel Low
Kelly Average
Sandy Low
_____35. Religion of 5 job applicants at ABC Company
Applicant A Roman Catholic
Applicant D Baptist
Applicant B English Catholic
Applicant E Protestant
Applicant C Seventh Day Adventist

8
_____36. Average monthly income in pesos of 5 families in Irisan, Baguio City
Family A - 23,000.00
Family D - 18,000.00
Family B - 12,000.00
Family E - 55,000.00
Family C - 14,500.00
_____37. Contents of cola softdrink in ounces (oz)
Bottle A 2.3 oz
Bottle C 2.6 oz
Bottle E 2.3
Bottle B 2.5 oz
Bottle D 2.2 oz
_____38. The age in months of babies admitted at NDC Hospital for treatment of bronchopneumonia are as
follows:
14, 6, 29, 43, 40, 32, 60, 58
_____39. Weights in pounds of the students in Statistics
Luis 120
Lucia 200
Gerry 166
Manuel 125
Felna 145
_____40. Scores of students in Statistics Exam: 34, 56, 45, 78, 67, 98, 78, 66, 57, 75, 34, 43, 24, 77, 80
_____41. The average score of students in an English quiz is 45.8
_____42. The total area of farm lands in a certain town is 120,000 square meters.
_____43. The volume of a softdrink bottle is 1.5 liters.
_____44. The speed of a car travelling along a highway is 60 miles per hour.
_____45. The length of a snake caught in a forest is 4 meters.

9
Population (N) and Sample (n)
One of the goals of a statistical investigation is to explore the characteristics of a large group of items on the
basis of a few. Sometimes it is physically, economically, or for some other reason almost impossible to examine
each item in a group under study. In such situation the only recourse is to examine a sub-collection of items
from this group. In statistics we commonly use the terms population and sample.
DEFINITIONS:
Data are collections of observations (such as measurements, genders, survey responses).
A population is the complete collection of all individuals (scores, people, measurements, and so on) to
be studied. The collection is complete in the sense that it includes all of the individuals to be studied.
Example: Suppose an ornithologist is interested in investigating migration patterns of birds in the Northern
Hemisphere. Then all the birds in the Northern Hemisphere will represent the population of interest to him.
His choice of the population restricts him, for it does not include birds that are native to Australia and do not
migrate to the Northern Hemisphere.
Example: Every ten years the Bureau of Census conducts a survey of the entire population of a country
accounting for every person regarding sex, age, and other characteristics. In this case the entire population of
the country is the population in the statistical sense.
A population can be finite or infinite and is made up of study units
Target Population
The whole group of study units which we are
interested in applying our inferences or conclusions
Population
Study Unit
Study Population
The group of study units to which we can
legitimately apply our inferences or conclusions

Example: If we are conducting a telephone interview to study all adults (our target population) in a particular
city, we do not have access to those persons who do not have a telephone.
Example: We may wish to study in a particular community the effect of a drug A among all men with
cholesterol levels above a specified value; however short of sampling all men in the community, only those
men who for some reason visit a doctors office, clinic, or hospital are available for a blood sample to be taken.
Unfortunately the target population is not always readily accessible, and we can study only that part of it that
is available.
There are many ways to collect information about the study population. One way is to conduct a sample.
A sample is a subcollection of members selected from a population.

10
Example: A fisheries researcher is interested in the behavior pattern of Hermit crab along the coast of the Gulf
of Siam. It would be inconceivable and impossible to investigate every crab individually. The only way to make
any kind of educated guess about their behavior would be by examining a small sub-collection, that is, a
sample.
Example: Suppose a machine has produced 10,000 electric bulbs and we are interested in getting some idea
about how long the bulbs will last. It would not be practical to test all the bulbs, because the bulbs that are
tested will never reach the market. So we might pick 50 of these bulbs to test. Our interest is in learning about
the 10,000 bulbs and we study 50. The 10,000 bulbs constitute the population and the 50 bulbs a sample.

Relationship between population and sample

Sample data must be collected in an appropriate way, such as through a process of random selection. If sample
data are not collected in an appropriate way, the data may be so completely useless that no amount of
statistical torturing can salvage them.
The terms population and sample are relative. A collection that constitute a population in one context may well
be a sample in another context.
For instance, if we wish to learn how people in Khon Khaen City feel about a certain national issue, then all the
residents of Khon Khaen City would constitute the population of interest. However, assuming that Khon Khaen
City represents a cross section of Thailand population, if we use the response from these residents to
understand the feelings about the issue among all the Thai people, then the residents of Khon Khaen City
would represent a sample.
RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
SAMPLE SIZE
An important consideration in conducting research is the size of your sample. It must be large enough so that
erratic behavior of very small samples will not produce misleading results. Repetition of a research or an
experiment is called replication. A large sample is not necessarily a good sample. Although it is important to
have a sample that is sufficiently large, it is more important to have a sample in which the elements have been
chosen in an appropriate way, such as random selection.
Use a sample size large enough so that we can see the true nature of any effects or phenomena, and obtain the
sample using an appropriate method, such as one based on randomness.

11
RANDOMIZATION
One of the worst mistakes is to collect data in a way that is inappropriate. We cannot overstress this very
important point: Data carelessly collected may be so completely useless that no amount of statistical torturing
can salvage them.
COMMON METHODS OF SAMPLING
In a random sample members of the population are selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of
being selected. Sampling is a process or procedure which involves taking a part of a population, making
observation on this representatives and the generalizing the findings to the bigger population. (Ary, Jacob and
Razavieh, 1981).
Probability Sampling is a random sampling technique that each element in a population has an equal
chance of being selected.
Non-probability Sampling is a non-random sampling technique that each element in a population has no
equal chance of being selected.
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE

NONPROBABILITY
SAMPLING

PROBABILITY
SAMPLING

SIMPLE
RANDOM
SAMPLING

SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING

STRATIFIED
SAMPLING

CLUSTER
SAMPLING

ACCIDENTAL /
CONVENIENCE
SAMPLING

FISH-BOWL
TECHNIQUE

PURPOSIVE
SAMPLING

LOTTERY
TECHNIQUE

QUOTA
SAMPLING

TABLE OF
RANDOM
NUMBERS

SNOW-BALL
SAMPLING

12
SAMPLING STRATEGIES APPROPRIATE TO PARTICULAR FEATURES OF THE POPULATION
Personal Attributes
Homogeneous

Geographical Spread
Concentrated
Dispersed

Heterogeneous

Concentrated
Dispersed

Sampling Strategies
Simple Random or Systematic
1.) Cluster Sampling
2.) Simple Random or Systematic
1.) Stratified Sampling
2.) Simple Random or Systematic
1.) Stratified
2.) Cluster
3.) Simple Random or Systematic

Determination of sample size (n) provided that the Population size (N) is known
Slovins Formula

N
1 Ne 2

N = Population Size
n = sample size
e = margin of error (0.10, 0.05, or
0.01)

Lynch et. al Formula

NZ 2 p(1 p)
Nd 2 Z 2 p(1 p)

Z = value of the normal variable for a reliability level

Z = 1.645 (90% reliability in obtaining the sample size))
Z = 1.96 (95% reliability in obtaining the sample size)
Z = 2.575 (99% reliability in obtaining the sample size)
p = 0.50 (proportion of getting a good sample)
(1 p) = 0.50 (proportion of getting a poor sample)
d = 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, or 0.10 (choice of sampling error)
N = population size
n = sample size

Example:
Find a minimum sample n if a population size N is 5000 with a margin of error due to sampling of 5%.
Given : N = 5000
e = 5% = 0.05
Slovins Formula:

N
5000
5000
5000

370.37 370
2
2
1 12.5 13.5
1 Ne
1 (5000)(0.05)

Find a minimum sample n if a population size N is 5000 with a margin of error due to sampling of 5% and a
95% reliability in obtaining the sample size.
Given: N = 5000
d = 5% = 0.05
z = 1.96 (95% reliability)
Modified Lynch et. Al Formula:

(0.25) Nz 2
(0.25)(5000)(1.96) 2
4802
4802

356.75 357
2
2
2
2
Nd (0.25) z
(5000)(0.05) (0.25)(1.96)
12.5 0.9604 13.4604

13
Stratified Sampling:
The following are the population from 5 different communities. Use Modified Lynch et al. to find the sample
size for each community with a margin of error due to sampling of 5% and a 99% reliability in obtaining the
sample size.
Community Population
Size (N)
A
800
B
400
C
500
D
600
E
700
Total
N = 3000

(0.25) Nz 2
(0.25)(3000)(2.575) 2
4972.96875
4972.96875

543.04 543
2
2
2
2
Nd (0.25) z
(3000)(0.05) (0.25)(2.575)
7.5 1.65765625 9.15765625
Community Population
Size (N)
A
800
B
400
C
500
D
600
E
700
Total
N = 3000

Ratio i = nN
5433000 = 0.181
0.181 800
0.181 400
0.181 500
0.181 600
0.181 700

Sample size per

community
144.8 = 145
72.4 = 72
90.5 = 91
108.6 = 109
126.7 = 127
n = 544

Note: The minimum sample size n was 543, however in the computation the value of n is 544 which is
accepted as long as it is not less than 543.
Community Population
Size (N)
A
145
B
72
C
91
D
109
E
127
Total
n = 544
A researcher wants to know the study habits of the students in a particular school. Determine the size of the
sample units from each level using 2% margin of error with 95% reliability in obtaining the sample size.
Gender
Male
Female
Total

Freshman
750
580
1330

Year Level
Sophomore
Junior
600
550
650
450
1250
1000

Total
Senior
500
670
1170

2400
2350
N = 4750

(0.25) Nz 2
(0.25)(4750)(1.96) 2
4561.9
4561.9

1594.85 1595
2
2
2
2
Nd (0.25) z
(4750)(0.02) (0.25)(1.96)
1.9 0.9604 2.8604

Ratio i = n N = 1595 4750 = 0.3358 (up to 4 decimal places for accuracy)

14
Male Freshman
Male Sophomore
Male Junior
Male Senior

0.3358 750 = 251.85 = 252

0.3358 600 = 201.48 = 201
0.3358 550 = 184.69 = 185
0.3358 500 = 167. 9 = 168
-------806
Sample size n = 806 + 789 = 1595
Gender
Male
Female
Total

Freshman
252
195
447

Female Freshman
Female Sophomore
Female Junior
Female Senior

Year Level
Sophomore
Junior
201
185
218
151
419
336

0.3358 580 = 194.76 = 195

0.3358 650 = 218.27 = 218
0.3358 450 = 151. 11 = 151
0.3358 670 = 224.99 = 225
-------789
Total

Senior
168
225
393

806
789
1595

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1.) Accidental/Convenience Sampling Simply use results that are readily available or accessible. Usually
the first person who comes along who typifies a unit of analysis serves as the respondent of the study.
2.) Purposive Sampling Implemented with the researcher defining a criterion or set of criteria for
determining the respondents of the study. It is the researchers judgment that becomes the basis for
selecting an element or group that will serve as the unit of analysis. It is useful in qualitative or
exploratory studies. The objective is not to have many respondents but to make sure that the person
who would be interviewed will provide a wealth of information. The aim is not to quantify but to
characterize an event being studied.
3.) Quota Sampling - Similar to stratified sampling except that the selection of the elements per stratum is
done through the application of random sampling strategy. Quota sampling entails grouping elements
according to certain characteristics and ensuring that each group is represented. Quota sampling is
helpful if the sampling frame is not available per group or stratum. It refines the application of
convenience sampling since there is conscious intent on the part of the researcher to view the
probable differences of every stratum or group with regard to the critical variables of the study.
4.) Snowball or Referral Sampling Involves having a respondent refers other people who are in a position
to answer some of the questions of the researcher. This is a particularly helpful in the study of highly
sensitive topics where the identity of respondents is difficult to divulge or may even be unknown to
many. In other words, if the sampling frame cannot be provided and the topic has security
implications, a researcher could obtain referrals from the first respondent to the other respondents
who may be willing to talk.
A sampling error is the difference between a sample result and the true population result; such an error results
from chance sample fluctuations.
A nonsampling error occurs when the sample data are incorrectly collected, recorded, or analyzed (such as by
selecting a biased sample, using a defective measurement instrument, or copying the data incorrectly).

15
ACTIVITY No. 2
Determining Sample Size and Stratified Sampling
Use Slovins and Lynch et al formulas in determining the sample size of the following problems and use
stratified sampling if necessary.
1. A researcher uses a 5% margin of error in computing for his sample size. If the population size is
15,000 what is the sample size with 95% reliability?
a. Slovin Formula

b. Lynch et. al Formula

2. The following is a table about a population in a certain community:

Gender
Male
Female
Column Total

11 20
240
250
490

Age in Years
21 30
31 40
400
350
300
400
700
750

Row Total
41 50
260
250
510

1250
1200
N = 2450

a. What would be the required sample size with 95% reliability at 5% margin of error? (Use Lynch et.
Al formula)
b. Use stratified sampling to find the minimum sample size in each stratum.
Gender
11 20

Age in Years
21 30
31 40

Row Total
41 50

Male
Female
Column Total

n=

16
METHODS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA
Statistical data collected should be arranged in such a manner that will allow a reader to distinguish their
essential features. Depending on a type of information and the objectives of the person presenting the
information, data may be presented using one or a combination of three forms: TEXTUAL, TABULAR, and
GRAPHICAL.
TEXTUAL FORM The textual or paragraph form is utilized when the data to be presented are purely
qualitative or when very few numbers are involved. This method is, generally, not desirable when too many
figures are involved as the reader may fail to grasp the significance of certain quantitative relationships, but it
becomes an effective device when the objective is to call the readers attention to some data that require
special emphasis.
Example:
From a newspaper report, it was gathered that China has a population of 707 million, India has 505 million, US
has 207 million, USSR (before the break-up) has 245 million, and Indonesia has 125 million. That more than half
of the worlds people, about 2.1 billion live in Asia, 456 million in Europe, 354 million in North America, 195
million in South America, and 20 million in Oceana. Shanghai has 10,820,000; Tokyo has 8,841,000; New York
has 7,895,000; and Moscow has 7,050,000.
TABULAR FORM A more effective device of presenting data because the data are presented in more concise
and systematic manner. People who want to make some comparisons and draw relationships usually find
tabular arrangement more convenient and understandable than the textual presentation. The data are
presented through tables consisting of vertical columns and horizontal rows with headings describing these
rows and columns.
Example:
Continent/Region
Asia

North America
Europe
South America
Oceana

Population
2,100,000,000

Country
China
India
Indonesia

354,000,000 USA
465,000,000 USSR
195,000,000
20,000,000

Population
Cities
707,000,000 Shanghai
505,000,000
125,000,000
Tokyo
207,000,000 New York
245,000,000 Moscow

Population
10,820,000
8,841,000
7,895,000
7,050,000

GRAPHICAL OR PICTORIAL FORM Among the different methods of presenting data, the graph or chart is
perhaps the most effective device for attracting peoples attention. Readers who look for comparisons and
trends may skip statistical tables but may pause to examine graphs. Graph has a great advantage over tables
because graph conveys quantitative values and compares more readily than tables.

17
MEASURES OF CENTER
(CENTRAL TENDENCY)

Definitions:

A measure of central tendency is a single value that is used to identify the center of the data
A representative or average value that indicates where the middle of the data set is located.
o It is thought of as a typical value of the distribution.
o Precise yet simple
o Most representative value of the data

There are several different ways to determine the center, so we have different definitions of measures of
center, including the mean, median, and mode.

Mean The arithmetic mean of a set of values is the number obtained by adding the values and
dividing the total by the number of values. The (arithmetic) mean is generally the most
important of all numerical descriptive measurements, and it is what most people call an average.

Median The median of a data set is the middle value when the original data values are
arranged in order of increasing (or decreasing) magnitude.

Mode The mode of a data set is the value that occurs most frequently. When two values occur
with the same greatest frequency, each one is a mode and the data set is bimodal. When more
than two values occur with the same greatest frequency, each is a mode and the data set is said
to be multimodal. When no value is repeated, we say that there is no mode and the data set is
said to be nonmodal.
Procedures for Finding
Measures of Center

USES OF MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE

1. When a quantitative data is measured on a level that at least approximates interval characteristics and the
distribution of observations is not too skewed, all three
measures of center are meaningful.
2. When a distribution is skewed, both the mean and the median should be reported.
3. When a quantitative (or some qualitative) data is measured on an ordinal level that departs markedly from
interval characteristics, the mean is not an appropriate index of center but the mode or median must be used
instead.
Other uses of the Mean, Median and Mode
4. When a qualitative data is measured (that is, nominal measures), the mean or median are meaningless
because these concepts require ordering objects along a dimension. In this case, the mode (that is, the most
frequency occurring category) is the only applicable descriptor of center.
5. When a quantitative data that contain some outliers (extreme values that fall outside the overall pattern),
trimmed mean will be used. Because the mean is very sensitive to extreme values, we say that it is not a
resistant measure of center. The trimmed mean is more resistant.

18
RESISTANT MEASURE:
A resistant measure is one that is not influenced by extremely high or low data values (outliers). A measure of
center that is more resistant than the mean but still sensitive to specific data values is the trimmed mean. To
compute the 5% trimmed mean, order the data from the smallest to largest, delete the bottom 5% of the data,
and then delete the top 5% of the data. Finally compute the mean of the remaining 90% of the data.
THE MODE: The mode (x ) is the most frequent, most typical, or most common value in a distribution.
For example, there are more Catholics in the Philippines than people of any other Christina religion; and so we
refer to this religion as the mode. Similarly, if at a given university, Nursing is the most popular course, this too
would represent the mode. The mode is the only measure of center available for nominal-level variables and it
can be used to describe the most common score in any distribution regardless of the level of measurements.
To find the mode, find the score or category that occurs most often in a distribution. It can be easily found by
inspection, rather than by computation.
Example: Scores: 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 6, 5, 4, 1, 4, 4, 3
The mode is 1 because it is the number that occurs more than any other scores in the set (it occurs four times).
Note: The mode is not the frequency of the most frequent score (f = 4), but the value of the most frequent score
( x = 1)
Example: Scores: 6, 6, 7, 2, 6, 1, 2, 3, 2, 4
Some frequency distributions contain two or more modes. In the following set of data above, the scores 2 and
6 both occur most often.
Graphically, such distributions have two points of maximum frequency. These distributions are referred to as
being bimodal in contrast to the more common unimodal variety, which has only a single point of maximum
frequency.

~ ) : When ordinal or interval data are arranged in order of size, it becomes possible to locate
THE MEDIAN (x
the median, the middlemost point in a distribution. Thus, the median is a measure of center that cuts the
distribution into two equal parts.
If the number of cases in a distribution is odd, the median falls exactly in the middle of the distribution but if
the number of cases in a distribution is even, the median is always that point above which 50% of the cases fall
and below which 50% of the cases fall. It means that we add the two middlemost values and divided by 2. The
data should be in order from low to high (or high to low) in order to locate the median.
Example:

Scores:
Array:

1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 6, 5, 4, 1, 4, 4
1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6

Number of cases:
Position of median

n = 11 (odd)
= (n + 1)/2 (for odd)
= (11 + 1)/2
= 6th position either from left or right (top or bottom)

The median ~
x = 3 is the 6th score in the distribution counting from either end.

19
Example:

Scores:
Array:

Number of cases:
Position of median

6, 6, 7, 2, 6, 1, 2, 3, 2, 4
1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 7
n = 10 (even)
= n/2 (for even)
= 10/2 = 5th position (from left and right) or (top and bottom) )
3 = 5th position from left
4 = 5th position from right

Median ~
x = (3 + 4)/2 = 7/2 = 3.5
THE MEAN (x ) : By far the most commonly used measure of center, the arithmetic mean, is obtained by adding
up a set of scores and dividing by the number of scores. Thus, mean is defined formally as the sum of a set of
scores divided by the total number of scores in the set.
By formula:
Population Mean

Sample Mean

X
N

Example:
Respondent

X (IQ)

X
n

Computation

1. Albert
2. Beth

125
92

3. Connie

72

4. Drake

126

5. Elmer

120

6. Fritz

99

7. Gertz

130

8. Henry

100

X
n

864
108
8

X = 864
Unlike the mode, the mean is not always the score that occurs most often. Unlike the median, the mean is not
necessarily the middlemost point in a distribution. The mean is the point in a distribution around which the
scores above it balance with those scores below it. Thus, the mean is a balance point that the sum of the
deviations that fall above the mean is equal in absolute value to the sum of the deviations that fall below the
mean.
The Weighted Mean
Researchers sometimes find it useful to obtain a mean of means that is, to calculate a total mean for a
number of different groups.
Suppose the students in three different sections of Sociology class receive the following mean scores on their
final examinations for the course:
Mean:
Number of cases: (n)

Section 1
85
28

Section 2
72
28

Section 3
79
28

20
Because exactly the same numbers of students were enrolled in each section of the course, it is quite simple to
calculate a total mean score:
X 1 X 2 X 3 85 72 79

78.67
3
3
When groups differ in size, you must weight each group mean it its size (n). The weighted mean may be
calculated by first multiplying each group mean by its respective number of cases (n) before summing the
products, and then dividing by the total number in all groups:
Xw

Where:

X group

group

N total

X group = mean of a particular group

ngroup = number of cases in a particular group

N total = number in all cases combined (n1 + n2 + n3 + + nk)

X w = weighted mean
Section 1
85
28

Mean:
Number of cases: (n)

Xw

Section 2
72
40

Section 3
79
32

28(85) 40(72) 32(79) 2380 2880 2528 7788

77.88
28 40 32
100
100

Thus, the mean final grade for all sections combined was 77.88
Weighted mean can also apply in relation to Likert Scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 =
Strongly Agree)
Example: Suppose a survey was conducted regarding their extent of watching horror films, the following data
were gathered:
Question:
To what extent do you watch horror film movies?

Xw

X group

group

N total

Range
4.21 5.00
3.41 4.20
2.61 3.40
1.81 2.60
1.00 1.80

Always
(5)
n = 28

Oftentimes Sometimes Seldom

(4)
(3)
(2)
n = 39
n = 15
n = 26

Never
(1)
n = 12

(28)(5) (39)(4) (15)(3) (26)(2) (12)(1) 405

3.375
28 39 15 26 12
120

Verbal interpretation
Always
Oftentimes
Sometimes
Seldom
Never

Thus, the weighted mean of 3.375 suggests that on average the

respondents sometimes watch horror films.

21
Comparing the Mode, Median and Mean
The time comes when a researcher chooses a measure of center for a particular research situation. Will he/she
employ the mode, the median, or the mean? The decision involves several factors, including the following:
1. Level of measurement
2. Shape or form of the distribution of data
3. Research objective
OBTAINING THE MODE, MEDIAN AND MEAN FROM A SIMPLE FRREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Example: Suppose a researcher conducted personal interviews with 20 lower-income respondents in order to
determine their ideal conceptions of family size. Each respondent was asked: Suppose you could decide
exactly how large your family should be. Including all children and adults, how many people would you like to
see in your family?
Raw Data:

2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 4, 4, 6, 5, 7, 8, 9, 3, 7, 3, 7, 6, 8, 7

These data can be rearranged as a simple frequency distribution as follows

X
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

f
1
3
4 Mode
2
1
2
4 Mode
2
1
----------n = 20

The median is the middlemost score in the ordered list of scores. If there is an odd number of cases, the
median is the score in the exact middle of the list; if there is an even number of cases, the median is halfway
between the two middlemost scores.
n = 20
n/2 = 20/2 = 10th score
4 = 10th score from top
5 = 10th score from bottom

~
x = (4+ 5)/2 = 4.5

22
Determine the sum of the scores = 97
X

fX

Calculate the mean

1
1
(1)(1) = 1
2
3
(3)(2) = 6
3
4
(4)(3) = 12
4
2
(2)(4) = 8
5
1
(1)(5) = 5
6
2
(2)(6) = 12
7
4
(4)(7) = 28
8
2
(2)(8) = 16
9
1
(1)(9) = 9
-----------------------------------n = 20
fX = 97
Summary:

fX X
n

97
4.85
20

Modes (x ) = 3 and 7
~ ) = 4.5
Median (x
Mean (x ) = 4.85

There is a wide range of family size preferences, from living alone (1) to having a big family (9). Using either
the mean = 4.85 or the median = 4.5, we might conclude that the average respondents ideal family contained
between four and five members. Knowing that the distribution is bimodal, however, we see that there were
actually two ideal preferences for family size in this group of respondents one for a small family (Mode = 3)
and the other for a large family (Mode = 7).
Example:
Given the impact of television on childrens attitudes and behaviour, an important concern of behavioural
scientists is the amount of time children of various ages spend watching television. The following data are the
weekly viewing times (in hours) of 12-year-olds. Describe or interpret the data set using the measures of
center.
18
23
Solution:

17
23

22
23

20
24

25
24

20
22

16
21

19
19

Arrange the data either in ascending or descending order

X
f
fX
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

1
(1)(16) = 16
1
(1)(17) = 17
2
(2)(18) = 36
2
(2)(19) = 38
4
(4)(20) = 80
1
(1)(21) = 21
3
(3)(22) = 66
3
(3)(23) = 69
2
(2)(24) = 48
1
(1)(25) = 25
1
(1)(26) = 26
______________________________
n = 21
fX = 442

18
20

22
20

26

23
Mode:
The highest frequency (f) is 4 which corresponds to 20. Thus the modal time is 20 hours
Median:
Since n = 21 which is odd
Position of median = (n + 1)/2 (for odd)
= (21 + 1)/2 = 22/2
= 11th position either from left or right (top or bottom)
Median time = 21 hours
Mean:

fX X
n

442
21.05
21

Interpretation:
The weekly viewing times (in hours) of 12-year-olds ranges from 16 to 26 hours. Most of the 12 year-old
children spent watching television for 20 hours in a week (mode). Half of the children spent watching
television in a week for 21 or more hours (median). On average, a 12-year old child spent about 21 hours
watching television in a week.
=====================================================================================

Activity No. 3
Measures of Center
Problem: Tuitions at private colleges and universities vary quite a bit. Below are lists of tuitions per unit of
basic subjects at accredited colleges and universities in Thailand. A sample of 30 colleges and universities
showed annual tuition per unit (Baht) as follows:
270

290

345

295

300

245

240

325

300

295

310

265

275

285

330

295

270

285

270

265

275

320

310

335

345

335

265

280

245

260

Describe or interpret the data set using measures of center.

24
MEASURES OF DISPERSION/VARIABILITY/VARIATION
In summarizing a given set of data, sometimes, the measures of center (central tendency) alone are not
sufficient to give useful information. They have to be supplemented by other measures of description, and
such description is the MEASURES OF VARIABILITY.
A measure of variability indicates the extent to which values in a distribution are spread around the central
tendency. A measure of variation is a single value that is used to describe the spread of the distribution. A
measure of central tendency alone does not uniquely describe a distribution
INTERPRETING AND UNDERSTANDING STANDARD DEVIATION
We understand that the standard deviation measures the variation of values about the mean. Values close
together will yield a small standard deviation, whereas values spread farther apart will yield a larger standard
deviation. Because variation is such an important concept and because the standard deviation is such an
important tool in measuring variation, there are ways of developing a sense for values of standard deviations.
CONCEPTS:
Variation refers to the amount that values vary among themselves
Values that are relatively close together have lower measures of variation, and values that are spread farther
apart have measures of variation that are larger
Measures of
Variability or
Dispersion

Measures of
Absolute Variation

Range

Variance

Measures of
Relative Dispersion

Standard
Deviation

Coefficient
of Variation

Quantiles

Median

Quartiles

Deciles

Percentiles

(1) Range (R)

Difference between the highest and the lowest observed values in a distribution.
A very rough measure of spread
Provides useful but limited information since it depends only on the extreme values
(2) Sample Variance (s2)
Important measure of variation
Shows variation about the mean

25
RAW DATA (UNGOUPED DATA)
Population variance
Formula 1:

Sample variance

X X

n 1

Formula 2:

( )
(

(3) Sample Standard Deviation (SD)

Most important measure of variation
Square root of Variance
Has the same units as the original data

RAW DATA (UNGOUPED DATA)

Population Standard Deviation

Sample Standard Deviation

X X

s=

n 1
X2 -( X)2
n(n-1)

Remarks:
If there is a large amount of variation, then on average, the data values will be far from the
mean. Hence, the SD will be large.
If there is only a small amount of variation, then on average, the data values will be close to the
mean. Hence, the SD will be small.
Comparing Standard Deviations
Example: Team A - Heights of five marathon players in inches
Mean = 65
S = 0

65

65

65

65

65

26

X X

S
Height (X)
65
65
65
65
65
X = 325 (

n 1

(
)
(65 65)2 = 0
(65 65)2 = 0
(65 65)2 = 0
(65 65)2 = 0
(65 65)2 = 0
)

X X

S2

( )
)

Height (X)
65
65
65
65
65

X2
652 = 4225
652 = 4225
652 = 4225
652 = 4225
652 = 4225

X = 325

X2 = 21125

n 1
0
0
S2
0
5 1 4

( )
)

( )

( )

Example: Team B - Heights of five marathon players in inches

Mean = 65
S = 4.0

62

67

66

70

60

X X

S2
Height (X)
62
67
66
70
60
X = 325 (

X X

( )
(

n 1

(62 65)2 = 9
(67 65)2 = 4
(66 65)2 = 1
(70 65)2 = 25
(60 65)2 = 25
)

X X

n 1
64
64
S2

16
5 1 4

Height (X)
62
67
66
70
60

X2
622 = 3844
672 = 4489
662 = 4356
702 = 4900
602 = 3600

X = 325

X2 = 21189

( )
)

( )
( )

27
OBTAINING THE SAMPLE VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION
FROM A SIMPLE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

n fx 2 fx

S
2

n fx 2 fx

n (n 1)

n (n 1)

Example: Suppose a researcher conducted personal interviews with 20 lower-income respondents in order to
determine their ideal conceptions of family size. Each respondent was asked: Suppose you could decide
exactly how large your family should be. Including all children and adults, how many people would you like to
see in your family?
Raw Data:

2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 4, 4, 6, 5, 7, 8, 9, 3, 7, 3, 7, 6, 8, 7

These data can be rearranged as a simple frequency distribution as follows:

X

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1
3
4
2
1
2
4
2
1
n = 20

fX

fX2= (fX)(X)

(1)(1) = 1
(3)(2) = 6
(4)(3) = 12
(2)(4) = 8
(1)(5) = 5
(2)(6) = 12
(4)(7) = 28
(2)(8) = 16
(1)(9) = 9
fX = 97

(1)(1) = 1
(6)(2) = 12
(12)(3) = 36
(8)(4) = 32
(5)(5) = 25
(12)(6) = 72
(28)(7) = 196
(16)(8) = 128
(9)(9) = 81
fX2 = 583

Solving for the sample variance:

n fx 2 fx

S
2

n (n 1)

20(583) 97
11660 9409 2251

5.92
20(19)
380
380
2

Solving for the sample standard deviation

s s 2 5.92 2.43
WHEN THE VARIOUS MEASURES OF VARIABILITY ARE USED
1. Range. This is the least reliable of the measures and is used only when one is in a hurry to get a
measure of variability. It may be used with ordinal, interval, or ratio data.
2. Standard Deviation and the Variance. The standard deviation is used whenever a distribution
approximates a normal distribution. It is the basis for much of the statistics. As the most reliable
measure of variability it is used with interval and ratio data. Use standard deviation or variance when
two means are equal.

28
THE SAMPLE STANDARD DEVIATION (s) and SAMPLE VARIANCE (s2)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STANDARD DEVIATION AND VARIANCE
Variance = (Standard deviation)2

s2 = (s)2

Standard deviation =

STANDARD DEVIATION: A MEASURE OF DISTANCE

Theres an important difference between the standard deviation and its co-measure, the mean. The mean is a
measure of position but the standard deviation is a measure of distance (on either side of the mean of the
distribution)

(1) Majority within one standard deviation for most frequency distribution, a majority (as often as 68%)
of all observations are within one standard deviation on either side of the mean.
(2) Minority deviate outside two standard deviation for most frequency distribution, a small minority
(often as small as 5%) of all distributions deviate more than two standard deviations on either side of
the mean.
(3) Usual or normal within two standard deviation for most frequency distribution the usual or normal
values (as often as 95%) of all observations are within two standard deviations on either side of the
mean.
MAJORITY OF THE DISTRIBUTION
In a normal distribution, majority of the scores/values lie within one standard deviation from the left and right
of the mean. This is based on the principle that majority (64.26%) of sample values lie with 1 standard
deviation of the mean.
Majority of Scores/Values = (mean) 1(standard deviation) =
Lower Range:
Upper Range:

29
USUAL OR NORMAL VALUES
RANGE RULE OF THUMB (Rough estimates of the minimum and maximum usual sample values)
The Range Rule of Thumb is based on the principle that for many data sets, the vast majority (95.44%) of
sample values lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean. For interpretation: If the standard deviation s is
known/given, use it to find rough estimates of the minimum and maximum usual sample values as follows:
Lower Range: Minimum usual value = (mean) 2(standard deviation)
Upper Range: Maximum usual value = (mean) + 2(standard deviation)

SKEWNESS
Definition: A distribution of data is skewed (asymmetric) if it is not symmetric and if it extends more to one
side than the other. (A distribution of data is symmetric if the left half of its histogram is roughly a mirror
image of its right half)
Definition: Skewness is a degree of asymmetry (or departure from symmetry) of a distribution.

Lopsided to the right = Skewed to the left = Negatively Skewed

Lopsided to the left = Skewed to the right = Positively Skewed
Data not lopsided = Symmetric = Zero Skewness
For skewed distributions, the mean tends to lie on the same side of the mode as the longer tail. Thus a measure
of the asymmetry is supplied by the difference: mean minus mode. This can be made dimensionless if we
divide it by a measure of dispersion, such as standard deviation. To avoid using the mode, we can employ the
empirical formula (mean mode) = 3(mean median). Thus the coefficient of skewness (I) is given by the
formula:
(

Where : I = index of skewness

The equation above is called Pearsons second coefficient of skewness.
Intervals
I 1.00
I 1.00

data can be considered to be significantly skewed to the right

data can be considered to be significantly skewed to the left

Example: Find the Pearsons second coefficient of skewness for the Ages of Oscar-winning Best Actors and
Actresses (Mathematics Teacher magazine)

30
Actors:

32
37
42

37
42
44

36
40
41

32
32
56

51
60
39

53
38
46

33
56
31

61
48
47

35
48
45

45
40
60

55
43

69
62

76
43

Actresses:

50
30
60

44
33
34

35
41
24

80
31
30

26
35
37

28
41
31

41
42
27

21
37
39

61
26
34

38
34

49
34

33
35

74
61

Summary:
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation

Actor
45.97
43.5
32
11.08

Actress
38.94
35
34
13.55

Actor
Pearsons second coefficient of skewness: I = 3(45.97 43.5) 11.08 = 0.6687725663 0.67
Interpretation: approximates a normal distribution
Actress
Pearsons second coefficient of skewness: I = 3(38.94 35) 13.55 = 0.872324723 0.87
Interpretation: approximates a normal distribution

31
Level of acceptability of a four-year Fish Technology course along the area of Marketability as perceived by the
Community, Local Government and the Academe
Indicators

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Overall Mean

Mean Response
Community
LGU
(N = 100)
(N = 50)

Academe
(N = 100)

4.00
4.33
4.65
3.74
4.18
3.81
4.11

4.24
4.38
4.06
3.60
4.06
4.28
3.82

4.04
4.36
4.60
4.18
4.16
3.93
4.01

4.12

4.06

4.18

Standard
Deviation
To compute for the standard deviation based on the number of items (Community)
Indicators

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
n=7
(number of items)

Using Variance Formula:

Community
(N = 100)
X
4.00
4.33
4.65
3.74
4.18
3.81
4.11

X2
(4.00)2 = 16.0000
(4.33)2 = 18.7489
(4.65)2 = 21.6225
(3.74)2 = 13.9876
(4.18)2 = 17.4724
(3.81)2 = 14.5161
(4.11)2 = 16.8921

X = 28.82

X2 = 119.2396

Majority Range:
Lower Range: 4.12 0.31 = 3.81
Upper Range: 4.12 + 0.31 = 4.43

( )
(

) (
( )(

)
)

( )( )
Standard Deviation:

Usual or Normal Range:

Lower Range: 4.12 2(0.31) = 3.50
Upper Range: 4.12 + 2(0.31) = 4.74

Interpretation: The 100 community respondents who perceived the level of acceptability of a four-year Fish
Technology course along the area of Marketability, has an overall mean rating of 4.12 with a standard
deviation of 0.31. Based on these two results, it implies that majority of these community respondents who
perceived the level of acceptability, their mean response ranges from 3.81 (acceptable) to 4.43 (very
acceptable). Likewise, it is expected that it is usual or normal for these community respondents that their
perceived mean ratings ranges from 3.50 (acceptable) to 4.74 (very acceptable).

32
Activity No. 4
Exploratory Data Analysis
Male

The following are the number of cigarettes smoke on an

average day according to gender on Status of Cigarette
Smoking and Drinking Liquor among ESL Teachers in Baguio
City Korean Schools. Answer the following:

X
3
10
5
4
2
6
7
8
4
3
5
4
12
4
8
5
5
9
7
5
10
6
10
3

(1) What is the mean and median number of cigarettes

for male group?
(2) What is the standard deviation for the data set?
(3) What is the coefficient of skewness for the data set?
(4) The majority of the male group smoke cigarettes
between what two values?
(5) The male group usually smokes cigarettes between
what two values?

X =

X2

X2 =

33
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
One of the principal objectives of research is comparison: How does one group differ from another? This
typical question can be handled by the primary tools of classical statistical inference estimation and
hypothesis testing. The unknown characteristic, or parameter, of a population is usually estimated from a
statistic computed from sample data. Ordinarily, a researcher is interested in estimating the mean and the
standard deviation of some characteristic of the population. The purpose of statistical inference is to reach
conclusions from sample data and to support the conclusions with probability statements. With such
information, a researcher will be able to decide whether an observed effect is real or is due to chance.
Testing the significance of the difference between two means, two standard deviations, two
proportions/percentages is an important area of inferential statistics. Comparison of two or more variables
often arises in research or experiments and to be able to make valid conclusions, one has to apply an
appropriate test statistic.
Fundamentals of Hypothesis Testing
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a conjecture or statement that aims to explain certain phenomena. To seek for the answers to
queries, a researcher tries to find and present evidences then tests the resulting hypothesis using statistical
tools and analysis. In statistical analysis, assumptions are given in the form of a null hypothesis, the truth of
which will either be rejected or failed to be rejected (accepted) within a certain critical interval.
Components of a Formal Hypothesis Test
(a) Null Hypothesis (denoted by Ho) is a statement about a value of a population parameter (such as the
mean), and it must contain the condition of equality and must be written with the symbol =, , or .
(b) Alternative Hypothesis / Research Hypothesis (denoted by H1) is the statement that must be true if the
null hypothesis is false and it must be written with the symbol , < or >.
NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
You might legitimately ask, What does it really mean when researchers test hypothesis or perform tests of
significance? The concept is actually simple and direct. We are trying to find out if two (or more) things are
the same or if they are different. What actually are null and alternative hypotheses? The null hypothesis is that
there is no difference between or among population means, variances or proportions. For now, remember that
the key part of the definition is no difference.
The hypothesis that is subjected to testing to determine whether its truth can be rejected or failed to be
rejected (accepted) is the null hypothesis (H0). This hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship or
no significant difference between two or more variables, or that one variable does not affect another variable.
In statistical research, the hypotheses should be written in null form.
Example: Suppose you want to know whether method A is more effective than method B in teaching high
school mathematics. The null hypothesis for this study will be one of the following:
Ho: There is no significant difference between effectiveness of method A and method B in
teaching high school mathematics. (AMETHOD = BMETHOD)

34
Ho: Method A is as effective as method B in teaching high school mathematics (AMETHOD = BMETHOD)
The other type of hypothesis is the alternative hypothesis (H1 or HA) that challenges the null hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis is what is known as the research hypothesis. This hypothesis specifies that there is a
significant relationship or significant difference between two or more variables or that one variable affects
another variable. Sometimes the alternative hypothesis is referred to as the research hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis or research hypothesis is what the researcher expects to find. This is why the research,
and hence the statistical analysis, is being done.
In the example above, the alternative hypothesis can be one of the following:
Non-Directional (Area inTwo-tails)
H1: There is a significant difference between the effectiveness of method A and method B in
teaching high school mathematics. (AMETHOD BMETHOD)
Directional (Area in Right-Tail)
H1: Method A is more effective than method B in teaching high school mathematics. (AMETHOD > BMETHOD)
Directional (Area in Left-Tail)
H1: Method A is less effective than method B in teaching high school mathematics. (AMETHOD < BMETHOD)
Examples:
Null Hypothesis (Ho)
Non-Directional Alternative
Directional Alternative
Hypothesis (H1)
Hypothesis (H1)
(Research Hypothesis)
(Research Hypothesis)
Europeans are no more or less
Europeans differ from Americans
Americans are more obedient to
obedient to authority than
with respect to obedience to
authority than Europeans
Americans
authority
Christians have the same suicide
Christians do not have the same
Christians have more suicide
rate as Non-Christians
suicide rate as Non-Christians
rates than Non-Christians
The mean age of gamblers in the
The mean age of gamblers in the
The mean age of gamblers in the
Asia is 30 years old
Asians not 30 years old
Asia is below years old
The mean monthly salary of
The mean monthly salary of
The mean monthly salary of
statistics professors is at least
statistics professors is different
statistics professors is more
60,000.
from 60,000.
than 60,000.
One-half of all internet users make
All internet users making on-line
Fewer than one-half of all
on-line purchases
purchases is not one-half
Internet users make on-line
purchases
The proportion of defective
The proportion of defective
The proportion of defective
computers is equal to 0.05.
computers is different from 0.05.
computers is less than 0.05.
Womens heights have a standard
Womens heights have a standard
Womens heights have a
deviation that is equal to 2.8 inches
deviation that is different from 2.8
standard deviation less than 2.8
which is the standard deviation for
inches which is the standard
inches which is the standard
mens heights.
deviation for mens heights.
deviation for mens heights.
Test Statistic a statistic used to determine the relative position of the mean, variance or proportion in the
hypothesized probability distribution of sample means. Test Statistic is a value computed from the sample
data that is used in making the decision about the rejection of the null hypothesis. The test statistic converts
the sample statistic (such as the sample mean) to a score (such as the z score) with the assumption that the

35
null hypothesis is true. The test statistic can therefore be used to gauge whether the discrepancy between the
sample and the claim is significant.
Critical Region The region on the far end of the distribution. If only one end of the distribution, commonly
termed the tail, is involved, the region is referred to as one-tailed test; if both ends are involved, the region
is known as two-tailed test. When the computed test statistic (z, t, F, 2, etc.) falls in the critical region, reject
the null hypothesis. The critical region is sometimes called the rejection region. The probability that a test
statistic falls in the critical region is denoted by . The critical region is the set of all values of the test statistic
that cause us to reject the null hypothesis.
Nonrejection Region the region of the sampling distribution not included in ; that is, the region located
under the middle portion of the curve. Whenever the test statistic falls in this region, the evidence does not
permit the researcher to reject the null hypothesis. The implication is that the results falling in this region are
not unexpected. The nonrejection region is denoted by (1 - ).
Critical Value The number that divides the distribution (normal or skewed) into the region where the null
hypothesis will be rejected and the region where the null hypothesis will fail to be rejected. A critical value is
any value that separates the critical region (where we reject the null hypothesis) from the values of the test
statistic that do not lead to rejection of the null hypothesis. The critical values depend on the nature of the null
hypothesis, the relevant sampling distribution, and the significance level .

Test of Significance a procedure used to establish the validity of a claim by determining whether the test
statistic falls in the critical region. If it does, the results are referred to as significant. This test is sometimes
called the hypothesis test.
The significance level (denoted by ) is the probability that the test statistic will fall in the critical region
when the null hypothesis is actually true. If the test statistic falls in the critical region, we will reject the null
hypothesis, so is the probability of making the mistake of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. The
common level of significances are 10%, 5% and 1% but the most preferred in educational/
psychological/sociological research is 5%.
To test the null hypothesis of no significance in the difference between the two variables, one must set the
level of significance first. This is the probability of committing a type I error (). A type I error is the probability
of rejecting the null hypothesis when in fact it is a true hypothesis. The probability of accepting a null hypothesis
when in fact it is a false hypothesis is called a type II error ().

36

DIRECTIONAL (One-Tailed) AND NON-DIRECTIONAL (Two-tailed) TESTS

In testing statistical hypotheses, you must always ask a key question: Am I interested in the deviation of one
population mean from another population mean in one or both directions? The answer is usually implicit in
the way Ho and H1 are stated. If you are interested in determining whether the mean of one data is significantly
different from the mean of the other data, you should perform a two-tailed test, because the difference could
either be negative or positive. If you are interested in whether the mean of one data is significantly larger or
smaller than the other mean data, you should perform a one-tailed test.
A one-tailed test is indicated for questions like: Is a new drug superior to a standard drug? Does the air
pollution level exceed safe limits? Has the death rate been reduced for those who quit smoking? A two-tailed
test is indicated for questions like: Is there a difference between cholesterol levels of men and women? Does
the mean age of a group of volunteers differ from that of the general population? Notice the difference in the
way these questions are worded. In a potential one-tailed test, you will see words like exceed, reduced, higher,
lower, more, less, and better.
A test is called directional (area in one-tail) if the region of rejection lies on one extreme side of the
distribution (either left or right) and non-directional (area in two-tails) if the region of rejection is located on
both ends of the distribution.
Non-directional (Two-tailed) test:
The critical region is in the two extreme
regions (tails) under the curve.

37

Directional (Right-tailed) test:

The critical region is in the extreme right
region (tail) under the curve.
Directional (Left-tailed test):
The critical region is in the extreme left
region (tail) under the curve.
Conclusions in Hypothesis Testing
The original claim sometimes becomes the null hypothesis and at other times becomes the alternative
hypothesis. The standard procedure of hypothesis testing requires that always test the null hypothesis and
that initial conclusion will always be one of the following:
1.)
2.)

Reject the null hypothesis

Fail to reject the null hypothesis

ACCEPT vs. FAIL TO REJECT

Some texts say accept the null hypothesis instead of fail to reject the null hypothesis. Whether to use the
term accept or fail to reject, we should recognize that we are not proving the null hypothesis but merely saying
that the sample evidence is not strong enough to warrant rejection of the null hypothesis. The term accept is
somewhat misleading, because it seems to imply incorrectly that the null hypothesis has been proved. The
phrase fail to reject says more correctly that the available evidence is not strong enough to warrant rejection
of the null hypothesis.
TESTING HYPOTHESIS
The following are suggested steps when testing the truth of a hypothesis
1. Formulate the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (H1)
2. Set the desired level of significance ()
3. Determine the appropriate test statistic to be used in testing the null hypothesis
4. Compute for the value of the statistic to be used
5. Find the critical value (tabular value) from a table
6. Compare the computed value to the tabular value and state the decision rule:
If the absolute computed value is greater than the tabulated value (tabled value), reject the null
hypothesis.
7. Make a conclusion and interpret the result in a non-technical manner.

38
Activity No. 5
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
The following are claims about a phenomenon. Identify whether each hypothesis stated as null or alternative.
If it is an alternative, further identify whether the alternative hypothesis is one-tailed (directional) or twotailed (non-directional) test?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The mean amount of Coke in cans is at least 12 ounces.

Salaries among women business analysts have a standard deviation greater than 126,000.00
More than 50% of gun owners favour stricter gun laws.
Nasal congestion occurs at a higher rate among drug users than those who do not use drug.
Proportion of drinkers among convicted arsonists is greater than the proportion of drinkers convicted
of fraud.
Ages of faculty cars vary less than the ages of student cars.
The treatment and placebo groups have the same mean.
Men and women have different mean height.
Obsessive-compulsive patients and healthy persons have the same mean brain volume.
There is no difference between the mean for obsessive-compulsive patients and the mean for healthy
persons.
The mean amount of carbon monoxide in filtered cigarettes is equal to the mean amount of carbon
monoxide for non-filtered cigarettes.
Dyspepsia occurs at a higher rate among drug users than those who do not use drug.
There is a difference between the pre-training and post-training mean weights.
Women with a college degree have incomes with a higher mean than women with a high school
diploma.
Waiting times for the single line have lower standard deviation than the waiting times for any one of
several lines.
Dozenol tablets are more soluble after being stored for one year than before storage.
Percentage of women ticketed for speeding is less than the percentage of men.
The average number of sold paracetamol tablets is more than 100 per day.
There is a significance difference in the scores of the engineering and computer science students in a
mathematics quiz administered by their professor.
There is no significant difference between the mean heights of the two groups of trees planted with
two different types of soil.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20

39
PARAMETRIC VERSUS NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Parametric statistics require quantitative dependent variables and are usually applied when these variables
are measured on either interval or ratio characteristics. Statistical techniques that involve analysis of means,
variances and sums of squares are under parametric statistics. Parametric statistics require assumptions
about the distribution of scores within the population of interest. The nonparametric statistics focus on
differences between distributions of scores and that can be used to analyze quantitative variables that are
measured on an ordinal or even nominal level. Nonparametric statistics do not require many of the
assumptions about distributional properties of scores that parametric statistics rely on.
BETWEEN-VERSUS WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS
Experiment 1
Consider an experiment where the investigator is interested in the relationship between two variables: type of
drug and learning. The investigator wants to know whether two drugs A and B, differentially affect
performance on a learning task. Fifty participants are randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the first
condition, 25 participants are administered drug A and then read a list of 15 words. They are asked to recall as
many words as possible. A learning score is derived by counting the number of words correctly recalled
(scores can range from 0 to 15). In the second condition, a different 25 participants read the same list of 15
words and respond to the same recall task after being administered drug B. The relative effects of the drugs on
learning are determined by comparing the responses of the two groups.
In this experiment, the investigator is studying the relationship between two variables: (1) type of drug and
(2) learning as measured on a recall task. Type of drug is the independent variable and the learning measure is
the dependent variable. The independent variable is set up so that participants who received drug A did not
received drug B and those who received drug B did not received drug A, that is the two groups included
different individuals. A variable of this type is known as a between-subjects variable because the values of the
variables are split up between participants instead of occurring completely within the same individuals.
Research designs that involve between-subjects independent variables are referred to as between-subjects
designs or independent groups designs.
Experiment 2
Consider a similar experiment that is conducted in a slightly different approach. A group of 25 participants are
administered drug A and then given a learning task. One month later, the same 25 participants return to the
experiment and are given the learning task after being administered drug B. The performance of these
participants under the influence of drug B is then compared with their earlier performance under the
influence of drug A. In this experiment, the 25 participants or subjects who received drug A also received drug
B, that is, the same individuals participated in both conditions. A variable of this type is known as a withinsubjects variable. Research designs that involve within-subjects independent variable are referred to as
within-subjects designs or correlated groups designs or repeated measures designs.
SELECTION OF STATISTICAL TEST
The importance of the selection of a statistical test rests on distinguishing between qualitative and
quantitative variables and between within-subjects and between-subjects designs.
The requires steps are:
(1) identify the independent and dependent variables,
(2) classify each as being qualitative or quantitative,
(3) classify the independent variable as being between-subjects or within-subjects in nature and
(4) note the number of levels that each variable has

40
INFERENCES ABOUT TWO MEANS
Two samples are independent if the sample values selected from one population are not related to or
somehow paired with the sample values selected from the other population. If the values in one sample are
related to the values in the other sample, the samples are dependent. Such samples are often referred to as
matched pairs, or paired samples.

START

Dependent
(Matched)
Samples
NO

Independent
Samples?

PAIRED t-TEST

YES

t TEST
Pool the sample
variances
CASE 2

YES

Equal
Population
Variances?

NO

t TEST
Do not pool the
sample variances
CASE 3

INFERENCES ABOUT TWO MEANS:

Independent Samples
Assumptions
1.)
2.)

The two samples are independent.

The two samples are simple random samples selected from normally distributed populations.

When these conditions are satisfied, use one of the three different procedures corresponding to the following
cases:
Case 1: The values of both population variances are known (In reality, this case seldom occurs)
Case 2: The two populations have equal variances (That is 12 22 )
Case 3: The two populations have unequal variances (That is 12 22 )
Case 1: Both Population Variances Are Known
In reality Case 1 almost never occurs. Finding population variances typically requires that we know all of the
values of both populations, and we can therefore find the values of their population means so there is no need
to make inferences about their means.

41
(

Remember:

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no significant difference between two population means
1 = 2
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference between two population means
1 2 (Non-directional or two-tailed test)
1 < 2 (Directional: Right-tailed Test)
1 > 2 (Directional: Left-Tailed Test)
Notation for parameters and statistics when considering two populations

Choosing Between Cases 2 and 3: Preliminary F test approach: Apply the F test to test the null hypothesis
that 12 = 22. Use the conclusion of the test as follows:

Use case 2 if F 2.50 and conclude that the two groups have equal variances
Use case 3 if F > 2.50 and conclude that the two groups have different or unequal variances
CASE 2: Equal Population Variances: Pool the Two Sample Variances
Hypothesis Test: t-Test for two population means (assume equal variances)

( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2 )
s 2p
n1

s 2p
n2

( x1 x2 )
s 2p
n1

where pooled variance:

degrees of freedom:

s 2p
n2

( x1 x2 )
n n2
s 2p 1

n1n2

(n1 1) s12 (n2 1) s22

s
(n1 n2 2)
2
p

df = n1 + n2 2

42

43
Example:
Independent simple random samples of 35 faculty members in private institutions and 30 faculty members in
public institutions yielded the data on annual income in thousands of dollars in the following table. At the 5%
significance level, do the data provide sufficient evidence to conclude that mean salaries for faculty in private
and public institutions differ?
Private Institutions

Public Institutions

x1 88.19

x2 73.18

s1 = 26.21
n1 = 35

s2 = 23.95
n2 = 30

Solution:

Step 1: State the null and alternative hypotheses

Ho:
H1:

Mean salaries for faculty in private and public institutions does not differ (1 = 2)
Mean salaries for faculty in private and public institutions differ (1 2)

where 1 and 2 are the mean salaries of all faculty in private and public institutions, respectively. Note that
the hypothesis test is two tailed (1 2).
Step 2: Decide on the significance level, .
The test is to be performed at the 5% significance level, or = 0.05.
Step 3: Compute the value of the test statistic
Test the equality of variances:
Variances: s2
Std. Deviation:
Variance:

Private Institutions
s1 = 26.21
(s1)2 = (26.21)2
s12 = 686.9641

Public Institutions
s2 = 23.95
(s2)2 = (23.95)2
s22 = 573.6025

44
F = variance with the larger value / variance with the smaller value
F = 686.9641573.6025 = 1.1976 = 1.20
Since F = 1.20 is less than 2.5, thus, the variances are equals (use case 2)
Rule:

Use case 2 if F is less than or equal to 2.5

Use case 3 if F is greater than 2.5

Test Hypothesis: t-test (case 2)

(n1 1) s12 (n2 1) s22

s
(n1 n2 2)
2
p

Pool the variance

s 2p

(35 1)(686.9641) (30 1)(573.6025) 39991.2519

634.7817762 634.7818
35 30 2
63

Solve for the standard error of mean difference (SEM)

SEM

s 2p
n1

s 2p
n1

or

n n
s 2p 1 2
n1n2

n n
35 30
SEM s 2p 1 2 634.7818
(634.7818)(0.0619047619 ) 6.2687
(35)(30)
n1n2
Solve for t-value (using case 2)

( x1 x2 )
n n
s 2p 1 2
n1n2

( x1 x2 ) 88.19 73.18 15.01

2.3944
SEM
6.2687
6.2687

Step 4: The critical values for a two-tailed test

= 0.05
symbol used for H1: (1 2) implies a two-tailed test
df = n1 + n2 2 = 35 + 30 2 = 63
(Table A-3)

45

Since df = 63 is between 60 and 70 but closer to 60 than 70, we use the critical value for 60.
Critical Value: CV[ = 0.05, df =15] = 2.000
Region of
Rejection
(Critical Region)
Reject Ho

Region of
Non-rejection
(Non-Critical Region)

Region of
Rejection
(Critical Region)

Fail to reject Ho

Reject Ho

2.000

+2.000
2.3944

Step 5: If the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region, reject H0; otherwise, do not reject H0.
Decision: Reject H0 since the computed t-value of 2.3944 is within the critical region

Step 6: Interpret the results of the hypothesis test.

Conclusion: At the 5% level, mean salaries for faculty in private and public institutions differ indicating that
faculty in private are receiving higher salaries than faculty from public institutions.

46
CASE 3: Unequal Population Variances: Do not Pool the Two Sample Variances
Hypothesis Test: t-Test for two population means (assume unequal variances)

( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2 )
s12 s22

n1 n1

( x1 x2 )
s12 s22

n1 n1

where: df = smaller of (n1 1) and (n2 1)

This test statistic gives the number of degrees of freedom as the smaller of (n 1 1) and (n2 1), but this is
more conservative and simpler alternative to computing the number of degrees of freedom but continue to be
only approximate.
Example:
Stressed-Out Bus Drivers. Frustrated passengers, congested streets, time schedules, and air and noise
pollution are just some of the physical and social pressures that lead many urban bus drivers to retire
prematurely with disabilities such as coronary heart disease and stomach disorders. An intervention program
designed by the City Bus Transit District was implemented to improve the work conditions of the citys bus
drivers. Improvements were evaluated by researchers who collected physiological and psychological data for
bus drivers who drove on the improved routes (intervention) and for drivers who were assigned the normal
routes (control). Following are data, based on the results of the study, for the heart rates, in beats per minute,
of the intervention and control drivers.
Descriptive Summary
Intervention

x1 = 65.90

s1= 5.49 n1 =10

Control

x2 = 66.81 s2 = 9.04 n2 = 31

At the 5% significance level, do the data provide sufficient evidence to conclude that the intervention program
reduces mean heart rate of urban bus drivers in the city?
Solution:
Step 1: State the null and alternative hypotheses
Ho:
H1:

The intervention program does not reduces mean heart rate of urban bus drivers in the city
(1 = 2)
The intervention program reduces mean heart rate of urban bus drivers in the city
(1 < 2)

where 1 and 2 are the mean heart rates in beats per minute, respectively. Note that the hypothesis test is
left-tailed test (1 < 2)
Step 2: Decide on the significance level, .
The test is to be performed at the 5% significance level, or = 0.05.

47
Step 3: Compute the value of the test statistic
Test the equality of variances:
Variances: s2
Intervention
Std. Deviation:
s1 = 5.49
Variance:
(s1)2 = (5.49)2
s12 = 30.1401

Control
s2 = 9.04
(s2)2 = (9.04)2
s22 = 81.7216

F = variance with the larger value / variance with the smaller value
F = 81.721630.1401 = 2.7114 = 2.71
Since F = 2.71 is greater than 2.5, thus, the variances are different or unequal (use case 3)
Rule of:

Use case 2 if F is less than or equal to 2.5

Use case 3 if F is greater than 2.5

Test hypothesis: t-test (case 3)

( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2 )
s12 s22

n1 n1

( x1 x2 )
s12 s22

n1 n1

where: df = smaller of (n1 1) and (n2 1)

Solve for the Standard Error of Mean Difference (SEM)

SEM

s12 s22
30.1401 81.7216

3.01401 2.636180645 2.3770

n1 n2
10
31

Solve for the t-value t

( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2 )
s12 s22

n1 n1

( x1 x2 )
s12 s22

n1 n1

65.90 66.81 0.91

0.3828
2.3770
2.3770

Step 4: The critical values for a one-tailed test

= 0.05
symbol used for H1: (1 < 2) implies a left-tailed test
df = smaller of (n1 1) and (n2 1)
(n1 1) = 10 1 = 9
(Table A-3)
(n2 1) = 31 1 = 30
df = 9

( x1 x2 )
SEM

48

Critical Value: CV[ = 0.05, df =9] = 1.833

Region of
Rejection
(Critical Region)
Reject Ho

Region of
Non-rejection
(Non-critical Region)
Fail to reject Ho

1.833
0.3828
Step 5: If the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region, reject H0; otherwise, do not reject H0.
Decision: Fail to reject H0 since the computed t-value of 0.3828 is not within the critical region

Step 6: Interpret the results of the hypothesis test.

Conclusion: At the 5% level, the intervention program does not reduce mean heart rate of urban bus drivers in
the city. This suggests that the intervention program does not improve the work conditions of the citys bus
drivers.

49
ACTIVITY No. 6
(Independent t-test)
Testing Effects of Zinc. A study of zinc-deficient mothers was conducted to determine effects of zinc
supplementation during pregnancy. Sample data are listed below. The weights were measured in grams. Using
a 0.05 significance level, is there a significant difference of the mean weights between the experimental group
and the placebo group?
Zinc Supplement Group
Placebo Group
---------------------------------------------------------------No. of Cases:
Sample Mean:
Sample Standard deviation:

294
3214
669

286
3088
728

Data from: The Effect of Zinc Supplementation on Pregnancy Outcome, by Goldberg et al., Journal of the American Medical Association,
Vol. 274, No. 6

Effects of Alcohol. An experiment was conducted to test the effects of alcohol. The errors were recorded in a
test of visual and motor skills for a treatment group of people who drank ethanol and another group given a
placebo. The results are shown in the accompanying table. Use 5% significance level to test the claim that the
mean errors of the two groups differs significantly? Do these results support the common belief that drinking
is hazardous for drivers, pilots, ship captains, and so on?

No. of cases:
Sample Mean:
Sample Standard deviation:

Treatment Group
Placebo Group
----------------------------------------------------------15
20
4.20
1.71
2.20
0.72

Data from: Effects of Alcohol Intoxication on Risk Taking, Strategy, and Error Rate in Visuomotor Performance. By Streufert et al.,
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 77, No. 4.

50
INFERENCES ABOUT TWO MEANS:
Matched Pairs (Correlated t-Test)

Assumptions
1.)
The sample data consist of matched pairs (correlated data)
2.)
The samples are simple random samples
3.)
If the number of pairs of sample data is small (n 30), then the population differences in the
paired values must approximately normally distributed. If there is a radical departure from a
normal distribution, use nonparametric methods.
Hypothesis Test: Dependent t Test

d d
d
t

sd
sd
n
n

where d 1 2 0

d
d
n

n( d 2 ) ( d )
sd
n( n 1 )

Where degrees of freedom df = n 1

mean value of the differences d for the population of paired data
mean value of the differences d for the paired sample data
(equal to the mean of the x y values)
Standard deviation of the differences d for the paired sample data
number of pairs of data

d
sd
n

Example:
Effectiveness of Drug. Captopril is a drug designed to lower systolic blood pressure. When subjects were tested
with this drug their systolic blood pressure readings (mm/Hg) were measured before and after the drug was
taken, with the results given in the accompanying table. Is there sufficient evidence to support the claim that
Captopril is effective in lowering systolic blood pressure at the 5% level of significance?
Subject
Before
After

A
200
191

B
174
170

C
198
177

D
170
167

E
179
159

F
182
151

G
193
176

H
209
183

I
185
159

J
155
145

K
169
146

L
210
177

Based on data from Essential Hypertension: Effect of an Oral Inhibitor of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme, by MacGregor et. Al.,
British Medical Journal, Vol. 2.

Solution:
Step 1: State the null and alternative hypotheses
Ho: Captopril is not effective in lowering systolic blood pressure (1 = 2 or 1 2 = 0)
H1: Captopril is effective in lowering systolic blood pressure (1 < 2)
where 1 and 2 are the systolic blood pressure readings before and after taking captopril. Note that the
hypothesis test is left-tailed test (1 < 2)
Step 2: Decide on the significance level, .
The test is to be performed at the 5% significance level, or = 0.05.
Step 3: Compute the value of the test statistic

51
Student
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L

Before
X
200
174
198
170
179
182
183
209
185
155
169
210

After
Y
191
170
177
167
159
151
176
183
159
145
146
177

n=12

d
(Y X)
9
4
21
3
20
31
7
26
26
10
23
33
d= 213

Solve for the mean and standard deviation of the difference of scores

sd

sd

213
17.75
12

n( d 2 ) ( d )2
n( n 1 )

12( 5027 ) ( 213 )2

60324 45369

12( 11 )
132

14955
113.2954545 10.64403375 10.64
132

Solve for the t-value

d d
sd
n

17.75 0
17.75

5.778928916 5.7789
10.64
3.071503432
12

Step 4: The critical values for a one-tailed test

Degrees of freedom
Level of Significance

df = n 1 = 12 1 = 11
= 5% = 0.05

d2
(Y X)2
81
16
441
9
400
961
49
676
676
100
529
1089
d2 =5027

52

CV[0.05, 11] = 1.796

Region of Rejection
(Critical Region)

Fail to reject Ho

Reject Ho
t = 5.7789

Region of
Non-rejection
(Non-Critical Region)

1.796

Step 5: If the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region, reject H0; otherwise, do not reject H0.
Decision: Reject H0 since the computed t-value of 5.7789 is within the critical region

Step 6: Interpret the results of the hypothesis test.

Conclusion: At the 5% level, Captopril is effective in lowering systolic blood pressure

53
Activity No. 7
Correlated t-Test
Improving Car Emissions? The makers of the MAGNETIZER Engine Energizer System (EES) claim that it
improves gas mileage and reduces emissions in automobiles by using magnetic free energy to increase the
amount of oxygen in the fuel for greater combustion efficiency. Following are test results, performed under
international and U.S. Government agency standards, on a random sample of 14 vehicles. The data give the
carbon monoxide (CO) levels, in parts per million, of each vehicle tested, both before installation of EES and
after installation.
Vehicle
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Before (X)
1.60
0.30
3.80
6.20
3.60
1.50
2.00
2.60
0.15
0.06
0.60
0.03
0.10
0.19

After (Y)
0.15
0.20
2.80
3.60
1.00
0.50
1.60
1.60
0.06
0.16
0.35
0.01
0.00
0.00

d = (Y X)

At 5% level of significance, on average, does EES reduces CO emissions?

d2 = (Y X)2

54
ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
One-Way ANOVA is a test of hypotheses that three or more population means are all equal, as in the null
hypothesis: Ho: 1 = 2 = 3 = . . . = k. The calculations are intimidating and challenging. The term one-way is
used because the sample data are separated into groups according to one characteristic. Instead of referring to
the main objective of testing for equal means, the term analysis of variance refers to the method we use, which
is based on an analysis of sample variances.
F Distribution
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) methods require the F distribution that has the following properties
1. The F distribution is not symmetric.
2. Values of the F distribution cannot be negative.
3. The exact shape of the F distribution depends on the two different degrees of freedom
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a method of
testing the equality of three or more population means by
analyzing sample variances. One-way analysis of variance is
used with data categorized with one treatment (or factor),
which is a characteristic that allows us to distinguish the
different populations from one another.

The term treatment is used because early applications of

analysis of variance involved agricultural experiments in

Objective: Test a claim that three or more populations have the same mean.
Null Hypothesis (Ho)
Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

: 1 = 2 = 3 = . . . = k
: 1 2 3 . . . k

RATIONALE
The method of ANOVA, is based on the following concept: With the assumption that the populations all have
the same variance, we estimate the common value of the variance using two different approaches. The two
approaches for estimating the common value of variances are as follows:
(1) The variance between samples (also called variation due to treatment) is an estimate of the
common population variance that is, based on the variation among sample means.
(2) The variance within samples (also called variation due to error) is an estimate of the common
population variance based on the sample variances.

55

Test Statistic for One-Way ANOVA

The numerator of the test statistic F measures variation between sample means. The estimate of variance in
the denominator depends only on the sample variances and is not affected by differences among sample
means.
CALCULATIONS WITH EQUAL OR UNEQUAL SAMPLE SIZES
(

)
)

NOTATIONS:
ni = number of values in the ith sample
k = number of population means or groups being compared
xi = mean of values in the ith sample

si2 = variance of values in the ith sample

N = total number of values in all samples combined
N = n1 + n 2 + n3 + + n k

(
(

)
)

)
)

56

SS(total) or total sum of squares, is a measure of the total variation (around the overall mean) in all of the
sample data combined.
Formula:

( )

SS(between) also referred to as SS(treatment) or SS(factor) is a measure of the variation between the
sample means.
Formula:

()

SS(within) also referred to as SS(error) is a sum of squares representing the variation that is assumed to
be common to all the populations being considered.
Formula:

( )

Given the preceding expressions for SS(total), SS(between) and SS(within), the following relationship will
always hold. SS(total) = SS(between) + SS(within). SS(between) and SS(within) are both sum of squares and if
divided by its corresponding number of degrees of freedom, the mean squares are the results
MS(between) is a mean square for between,
obtained as follows:
Formula:
()
()

MS(within) is a mean square for within, obtained

as follows:
Formula:
( )
( )

k 1 = numerator degrees of freedom

(dfBETWEEN or dfTREATMENT)
k = number of groups/categories

N k = denominator degrees of freedom

(dfWITHIN or dfERROR)
N = total number of values in all samples combined
N = n1 + n2 + . . . + nk
k = number of groups/categories

MS(total) is a mean square for the total variation,

obtained as follows:
Formula:
()
( )

F-Ratio:

ANOVA TABLE
Source of Variation

Sum
(SS)

of

Squares Degrees
Freedom (df)

of

()
( )

Mean Square (MS)

F
Test Statistic
F ratio

Between

SS(between)

k1

MS(between)

Within

SS(within)

Nk

MS(within)

Total

SS(total)

N1

57
POST HOC TEST
Which procedure to use for determining the nature of the relationship after the null hypothesis has been
rejected is controversial among statisticians. Among the most common multiple comparison procedures are
the Scheffe test, the Newman-Keuls test, Duncans multiple range test, Tukeys honest significant difference
(HSD) test, Bonferroni t-test, and Fishers least significant difference (LSD) test. The most general technique is
the one proposed by Scheffe but tends to produce a high incidence of type II error.
Tukeys honest significant difference (HSD) test.
Tukey is used only after a significant F ratio has been obtained. By Tukey method, we compare the difference
between any two mean scores against HSD. A mean difference is statistically significant only if it exceeds HSD.

HSD q

MSWITHIN
N GROUP

Where
q = table value at a given level of significance for the total number of group means being compared
q(, k, dfERROR)
MSWITHIN = within-groups mean square
NGROUP = number of cases/observation in each group (assumes the same number in each group)
NGROUP = n1 = n2 = n3 = . . . = nk
When n1 n2 n3= . . . nk NGROUP is replaced by the harmonic mean of the group size.

1 1 1 1
1
HSD q MSWITHIN ...
nk
k n1 n2 n3
Where

k = number of groups
ni = number of cases in each group

Steps:
1.) Construct a table of difference between ordered means
2.) Find q (Tabulated Value)
3.) Find HSD
4.) Compare HSD against the table of difference between means
To be regarded as statistically significant, any obtained difference between means must exceed the
HSD.

58
TUKEY HSD TABLE

(Number of Groups)

59

= 5% = 0.05

60

= 1% = 0.01

61
Example: Solar Energy in Different Weather. A researcher lives in a home with a solar electric system. At the
same time each day, he collected voltage readings from a meter connected to the system and the results are
listed in the accompanying table. Use 0.05 significance level to test the claim that the mean voltage reading is
the same under the three different types of day. Is there sufficient evidence to support a claim of different
population means?
Sunny Days
Cloudy Days
Rainy Days
1
13.5
12.7
12.1
2
13.0
12.5
12.2
3
13.2
12.6
12.3
4
13.9
12.7
11.9
5
13.8
13.0
11.6
6
14.0
13.0
12.2
Statistic
n
n1 = 6
n2 = 6
n3 = 6
x
x 2 =12.75
x 1 = 13.57
x 3 12.05
s
s1 = 0.40
s2 = 0.21
s3 = 0.26
Step 1 State the null and alternative hypotheses.
Let 1, 2, and 3 denote mean voltage reading under sunny days, cloudy days and rainy days, respectively.
Then the null and alternative hypotheses are, respectively,
H0: 1 = 2 = 3 (mean voltage reading is the same under the three different types of day)
H1: 1 2 3 (mean voltage reading is different under the three different types of day)
Step 2 Decide on the significance level, .
We are to perform the test at the 5% significance level; so, = 0.05.
Step 3 Compute the value of the test statistic
Overall Total: N = n1 + n2 + n3 = 6 + 6 + 6 = 18
Overall Mean: x

6(13.57) 6(12.75) 6(12.05) 230.22

12.79
18
18
Sum of Squares Group (SS-Group)

SSBETWEEN ni ( xi x )2 n1 ( x1 x )2 n2 ( x2 x )2 n3 ( x3 x )2
SSBETWEEN = 6(13.57 12.79)2 + 6(12.75 12.79)2 + 6(12.05 12.79)2 = 6.9456
dfBETWEEN = (number of groups) 1 = k 1 = 3 1 = 2

SSWITHIN (ni 1)si2 (n1 1)s12 (n2 1)s22 (n3 1)s32

SSWITHIN = 5(0.40)2 + 5(0.21)2 + 5(0.26)2 = 1.3585
dfWITHIN = (Total number of cases) (number of groups) = N k = 18 3 = 15

62
Means Squares Group (MS-Group)

MS BETWEEN

SS BETWEEN SS BETWEEN

k 1
df BETWEEN

MSWITHIN

SSWITHIN SSWITHIN

N k
dfWITHIN

MS BETWEEN

6.9456 6.9456

3.4728
3 1
2

MSWITHIN

1.3585 1.3585

0.09056666667 0.0906
18 3
15

F Ratio

MS BETWEEN 3.4728

38.33112583 38.3311
MSWITHIN
0.0906

Step 4: The critical value is F with df = (k 1, n k).

Critical values (CV)

= 0.05
v1 = dfBETWEEN = 2

v2 = dfWITHIN = 15

Step 5: If the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region, reject H0; otherwise, do not reject H0.
Decision:
Reject Ho since F=38.3311 is within the critical region and greater than the critical value FCRITICAL = 3.68

63
Step 6: Interpret the results of the hypothesis test.
Conclusion: At 5% level, the mean voltage reading is different under the three different types of day
Summary Table
Source of
Variation

Sum of
Squares
(SS)

Degrees of
Freedom
(df)

Means Square
(MS)

6.9456

3.4728

Error
1.3585
(within)
CV[0.05, 2/15) = 3.68

15

Treatments
(between)

F
Test Statistic

38.3311
0.0906
Decision: Reject Ho

Since H0 was rejected, then proceed with the Post Hoc Test using Tukeys HSD for equal number of entries per
groups

HSD q

MSWITHIN
N GROUP

q = [, number of groups (k), dfWITHIN] q = [0.05, 3, 15] = 3.67

Using Table I: Studentized Range (q) for the 0.05 and 0.01 levels

64
MSWITHIN = 0.0906
NGROUP = n1 = n2 = n3 = 6 (since each group has the same number of cases/observations)

HSD q

MSWITHIN
0.0906
3.67
(3.67)(0.1229) 0.451043
N GROUP
6

Compare HSD (0.451043) against the table of difference between means. To be regarded as statistically
significant, any obtained difference between means must exceed the HSD.
Group Comparison
Absolute Mean Difference
Sunny Days
Cloudy Days
|13.57 12.75| = 0.82*
Rainy Days
|13.57 12.05| = 1.52*
Cloudy Days
Rainy Days
|12.75 12.05| = 0.70*
*significant at the 0.05 level of significance.

HSD = 0.451043
Significant
Significant
Significant

Interpretation:
A one-way analysis of variance compared the mean voltage reading under the three different types of day. The
alpha level was 0.05 and the test was found to be statistically significant, F(df = 2/15, Fcrit = 3.68) = 38.3311. A
Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean voltage reading for Sunny Days (M = 13.57, SD = 0.40) is significantly
greater than the mean voltage readings for Cloudy Days (M = 12.75, SD = 0.21) and Rainy Days (M = 12.05, SD
= 0.26). Likewise, the mean voltage reading for Cloudy Days is significantly greater than the mean voltage
reading for Rainy Days.
Example: A researcher is interested in the effect type of residence has on the personal happiness of college
students. She selected samples of students who live in campus dorms, in off-campus apartments, and home
and asks the 15 respondents to rate their happiness on a scale of 1 (not happy) to 10 (happy). Test the null
hypothesis that happiness does not differ by types of residence.

Number of cases
Sample mean
Sample standard deviation

Dorms
8
9
7
8
6
5
7.6
1.14

Apartments
2
1
3
3
5
5
2.8
1.48

At Home
5
4
3
4
5
5
4.2
0.84

Step 1 State the null and alternative hypotheses.

Let 1, 2, and 3 denote mean personal happiness of college students living in campus dorms, off-campus
apartments and home, respectively. Then the null and alternative hypotheses are, respectively,
H0: 1 = 2 = 3 (happiness does not differ by types of residence)
H1: 1 2 3 (happiness does differ by types of residence)
Step 2 Decide on the significance level, .
When level of significance is not indicated we assume 5; so, = 0.05.

65
Step 3 Compute the value of the test statistic
Overall Total: N = n1 + n2 + n3 = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15
Overall Mean:

5(7.6) 5(2.8) 5(4.2) 73

4.87
15
15
Sum of Squares Group (SS-Group)

SSBETWEEN ni ( xi x )2 n1 ( x1 x )2 n2 ( x2 x )2 n3 ( x3 x )2
SSBETWEEN = 5(7.6 4.87)2 + 5(2.8 4.87)2 + 5(4.2 4.87)2 = 60.9335
dfBETWEEN = K 1 = (3 1) = 2

SSWITHIN (ni 1)si2 (n1 1)s12 (n2 1)s22 (n3 1)s32

SSWITHIN = 4(1.14)2 + 4(1.48)2 + 4(0.84)2 = 16.7824
dfWITHIN = N k = 15 3 = 12
Mean Squares Group (MS-Group)

MS BETWEEN

SS BETWEEN 60.9335

30.46675
df BETWEEN
2

MSWITHIN

SSWITHIN 16.7824

1.39853
dfWITHIN
12

F Ratio

MS BETWEEN 30.46675

21.7848
MSWITHIN
1.39853

66

Critical values (CV)

= 0.05
v1 = dfBETWEEN = 2
v2 = dfWITHIN = 12
Decision:
Reject Ho since F=21.7848 is within the critical region and greater than the critical value F CRITICAL = 3.89
Conclusion: At 5% level, happiness does differ by types of residence
Summary Table
Source
Variation
Treatments
(between)

of

Sum
Squares
(SS)
60.9335

of Degrees
Freedom
(df)

of

Means Square
(MS)

F
Test Statistic

30.46675
21.7848

Error
16.7824
(within)
CV[0.05, 2/12) = 3.89

12
1.39853
Decision: Reject Ho

Since H0 was rejected, then proceed with the Post Hoc Test using Tukeys HSD for unequal number of entries
per groups

HSD q

MSWITHIN
N GROUP

q = [, number of groups (k), dfWITHIN]

q = [0.05, 3, 12] = 3.77
Using Table I: Studentized Range (q) for the 0.05 and 0.01 levels

67

MSWITHIN = 0.0906
NGROUP = n1 = n2 = n3 = 5 (since each group has the same number of cases/observations)

HSD q

MSWITHIN
1.39853
3.77
(3.77)(0.5289) 1.9938
N GROUP
5

Compare HSD (1.9938) against the table of difference between means. To be regarded as statistically
significant, any obtained difference between means must exceed the HSD.
Group Comparison
Absolute Mean Difference
Dorms
Apartment
|7.6 2.8| = 4.8*
At Home
|7.6 4.2| = 3.4*
Apartment
At Home
|2.8 4.2| = 1.4
*significant at the 0.05 level of significance.

HSD = 1.9938
Significant
Significant
Not Significant

Interpretation:
A one-way analysis of variance compared the mean rating of college students happiness of who live in campus
dorms, in off-campus apartments, and home. The alpha level was 0.05 and the test was found to be statistically
significant, F(df = 2/12, Fcrit = 3.89) = 21.7848. A Tukey HSD test indicated that the students happiness rating
living in Dorms (M = 7.6, SD = 1.14) is significantly greater than the students happiness rating living in
Apartments (M = 2.8, SD = 1.48) and at home (M = 4.2, SD = 0.84). However, the students happiness rating
living in Apartments does not differ from students happiness rating living at home.

68
Activity No. 8
Analysis of Variance
Starting Salaries. The National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) conducts surveys on salary
offers to college graduates by field and degree. The following table provides summary statistics for starting
annual salaries, in thousands of dollars, to samples of bachelors-degree graduates in four fields.
Engineering
n1 = 45
x1 = 57.8
s1 = 5.65

Biology and Chemistry

n2 = 11
x2 = 48.05
s2 = 4.85

Life Sciences
n3 = 30
x3 = 35.9
s3 = 4.0

Mathematics
n4 = 18
x4 = 48.9
s4 = 4.8

At the 1% significance level, do the data provide sufficient evidence to conclude that a difference exists in
mean starting salaries among bachelors-degree candidates in the four fields? If there are significant
differences, conduct a multiple comparison of means by Tukeys method to determine where the significant
differences occur.
=====================================================================================
ONE-WAY (GOODNESS-OF-FIT)
AND TWO-WAY (INDEPENENCE AND HOMOGENEITY)
CHI-SQUARE TESTS
Chi-Square (2) Test is used to test claims about categorical data consisting of frequency counts for different
categories (attributes). Below are some common applications of a 2 Test.
(1) Goodness-of-fit Test: used to test the hypothesis that an observed frequency distribution fits (or
conforms to) some claimed distribution. Since we test how well an observed frequency distribution fits
some specified theoretical distribution, this method is called as such.
(2) Contingency Tables: Independence and Homogeneity: A contingency table (two-way frequency table) is
a table in which frequencies correspond to two variables. (one variable is used to categorize rows, and
a second variable is used to categorize columns)
(2.1) Test of Independence: test the null hypothesis that the row variable and the column variable in a
contingency table are not related (the null hypothesis is the statement that the row and column
variables are independent/not related/not associated).
Association between variables: We say that two variables of a population are associated (or that an
association exists between the two variables) if the conditional distributions of one variable given the
other are not identical.
(2.2) Test of Homogeneity: test the claim that different populations have the same proportions of some
characteristics
Properties of the Chi-square Distribution
1. Distribution may not necessarily symmetric.
2. The value of a chi-square distribution can be 0 or positive but not negative.
3. The chi-square distribution is different for each number of degrees of freedom.
Assumptions
1. The data have been randomly selected
2. The sample data consist of frequency counts for each of the different categories
3. For each category, the expected frequency (fe) is at least 5. There is no requirement that he observed
frequency for each category must be at least 5.

69

TEST OF INDEPENDENCE AND HOMOGENEITY (two-way)

Assumptions
1. The sample data are randomly selected
2. The null hypothesis (Ho) is the statement that the row and column variables are independent; the
alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement that the row and column variables are dependent.
3. For every cell in the contingency table, the expected frequency (fe) is at least 5. (There is no
requirement that every observed frequency must be at least 5.)
FORMULA:

Expected frequency:

)(
(

Degrees of freedom (df) = (row 1)(column 1)

df = (r 1)(c 1)

)
)

70

71
Example1:
Does voting behaviour vary by social status? To find out, a political scientist questioned a random sample of
80 registered voters about the candidate for office, Candidate A or B, they intended to support in an upcoming
election. The researcher also questioned members of his sample concerning their social status whether
upper, middle, working, or lower. The results are as follows:
Social Status
Row Total
Upper
Middle
Working
Lower
Candidate A
14
9
8
6
37
Candidate B
10
9
11
13
43
Column Total
24
18
19
19
Overall = 80
Using chi-square, test the null hypothesis that voting behaviour does not differ by social status at 5% level of
significance.
Solution:
Step 1 State the null and alternative hypotheses
H0: Voting behaviour does not differ by social status
H1: Voting behaviour differ by social status
Step 2 Decide on the significance level, .
We are to perform the test at the 5% significance level; so, = 0.05.
Step 3 Compute the value of the test statistic
Expected Frequencies:

Candidate A

)(

Social Status
Middle
Working
9
8

Upper
14

)(

)
Row Total
Lower
6

(24)(37)
11
80

(18)(37)
8
80

(19)(37)
9
80

(19)(37)
9
80

37

10

11

13

Candidate B

(24)(43)
13
80

(18)(43)
10
80

(19)(43)
10
80

(19)(43)
10
80

43

Column Total

24

18

19

19

Overall = 80

Comparison

fo

fe

(fo fe)

(fo fe)2

Candidate A Upper
Candidate A Middle
Candidate A Working
Candidate A Lower
Candidate B Upper
Candidate B Middle
Candidate B Working
Candidate B - Lower

14
9
8
6
10
9
11
13

(24)(37)80 = 11
(18)(37)80 = 8
(19)(37) 80 = 9
(19)(37) 80 = 9
(24)(43) 80 = 13
(18)(43) 80 = 10
(19)(43) 80 =10
(19)(43) 80 = 10

(14 11) = 3
(9 8) = 1
(8 9) = 1
(6 9) = 3
(10 13) = 3
(9 10) = 1
(11 10) = 1
(13 10) = 3

(3)2 = 9
(1)2 = 1
(1)2 = 1
( 3)2 = 9
( 3)2 = 9
( 1)2 = 1
(1)2 = 1
(3)2 = 9

( fo fe ) 2
fe
9 11 = 0.8181
1 8 = 0.1250
1 9 = 0.1111
9 9 = 1.0000
9 13 = 0.6923
1 10 = 0.1000
1 10 = 0.1000
9 10 = 0.9000
2 = 3.8466

72
Step 4: The critical value is CV with df = (r 1)(c 1)
Degrees of freedom: (Two-way Chi-square)
df = (number of rows 1)(number of columns 1)
df = (2 1)(4 1) = (1)(3) = 3
Critical Value: CV[ = 0.05, df = 3] = 7.815

Step 5: If the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region, reject H0; otherwise, do not reject H0.
Decision: Fail to reject Ho since the computed chi-square value of 3.8466 is not within the critical region or not
greater than 7.815

Step 6: Interpret the results of the hypothesis test.

Conclusion: At 5% level, voting behaviour does not differ by social status.
Example2:
The accompanying table lists sample data that statistician Karl Pearson used in 1909. Does type of crime
appear to be related to whether the criminal drinks or abstains? Use 5% level of significance

Drinker
Abstainer
Column
Total

Arson

Rape

Violence

Stealing

Fraud

379
300

Coining
(Counterfeiting)
18
14

63
144

Row
Total
753
673

50
43

88
62

155
110

93

150

265

679

32

207

1426

Solution:
Step 1 State the null and alternative hypotheses
Ho: The type of crime is not related to whether the criminal drinks or abstains.
H1: The type of crime is related to whether the criminal drinks or abstains

73
Step 2 Decide on the significance level, .
We are to perform the test at the 5% significance level; so, = 0.05.
Step 3 Compute the value of the test statistic
Comparison
Drinker-Arson
Drinker-Rape
Drinker-Violence
Drinker-Stealing
Drinker-Coining
Drinker-Fraud
Abstainer-Arson
Abstainer-Rape
Abstainer-Violence
Abstainer-Stealing
Abstainer-Coining
Abstainer-Fraud

fo

fe

(fo fe)

(fo fe)2

( fo fe ) 2
fe

50
88
155
379
18
63
43
62
110
300
14
144

(93)(753) 1426 = 49
(150)(753) 1426 = 79
(265)(753) 1426 = 140
(679)(753) 1426 = 359
(32)(753) 1426 = 17
(207)(753) 1426 = 109
(93)(673) 1426 = 44
(150)(673) 1426 = 71
(265)(673) 1426 = 125
(679)(673) 1426 = 320
(32)(673) 1426 = 15
(207)(673) 1426 = 98

(50 49) = 1
(8879) = 9
(155140) = 15
(379359) = 20
(1817) = 1
(63109) = 46
(4344) = 1
(6271) = 9
(110125) = 15
(300320)= 20
(1415) = 1
(144 98) = 46

(1)2 = 1
(9)2 = 81
(15)2 = 225
(20)2 = 400
(1)2 = 1
( 46)2 = 2116
( 1)2 = 1
( 9)2 = 81
( 15)2 = 225
(20)2 = 400
( 1)2 = 1
( 46)2 = 2116

1 49 = 0.0204
81 79 = 1.0253
225 140 =1.6071
400 359 = 1.1142
1 17 = 0.0588
2116 109 = 19.4128
1 44 = 0.0227
81 71 = 1.1408
225 125 = 1.8000
400 320 = 1.2500
1 15 = 0.0667
2116 98 = 21.5918

Step 4: The critical value is CV with df = (r 1)(c 1)

2 = 49.1106

Degrees of freedom: (Two-way Chi-square)

df = (number of rows 1)(number of columns 1)
df = (2 1)(6 1) = (1)(5) = 5
Critical Value: CV[ = 0.05, df = 5] = 11.071

Step 5: If the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region, reject H0; otherwise, do not reject H0.
Decision: Reject Ho since the computed chi-square value is within the critical region or greater than 11.071
Step 6: Interpret the results of the hypothesis test.
Conclusion: At 5% level, the type of crime is related to whether the criminal drinks or abstains.

74
Comparison

fo

fe

(fo fe)

(fo fe)2

Drinker-Arson
Drinker-Rape
Drinker-Violence
Drinker-Stealing
Drinker-Coining
Drinker-Fraud
Abstainer-Arson
Abstainer-Rape
Abstainer-Violence
Abstainer-Stealing
Abstainer-Coining
Abstainer-Fraud

50
88
155
379
18
63
43
62
110
300
14
144

(93)(753) 1426 = 49
(150)(753) 1426 = 79
(265)(753) 1426 = 140
(679)(753) 1426 = 359
(32)(753) 1426 = 17
(207)(753) 1426 = 109
(93)(673) 1426 = 44
(150)(673) 1426 = 71
(265)(673) 1426 = 125
(679)(673) 1426 = 320
(32)(673) 1426 = 15
(207)(673) 1426 = 98

(50 49) = 1
(8879) = 9
(155140) = 15
(379359) = 20
(1817) = 1
(63109) = 46
(4344) = 1
(6271) = 9
(110125) = 15
(300320)= 20
(1415) = 1
(144 98) = 46

(1)2 = 1
(9)2 = 81
(15)2 = 225
(20)2 = 400
(1)2 = 1
( 46)2 = 2116
( 1)2 = 1
( 9)2 = 81
( 15)2 = 225
(20)2 = 400
( 1)2 = 1
( 46)2 = 2116

Most Positive/Negative

( fo fe ) 2
fe
1 49 = 0.0204
81 79 = 1.0253
225 140 =1.6071
400 359 = 1.1142
1 17 = 0.0588
2116 109 = 19.4128
1 44 = 0.0227
81 71 = 1.1408
225 125 = 1.8000
400 320 = 1.2500
1 15 = 0.0667
2116 98 = 21.5918

Values greater than 1.00

Interpretation: Fraud is most like committed by an abstainer but less like committed by a drinker as expected
while rape, violence and stealing were most likely committed by a drinker but less like committed by
abstainer as expected.
=====================================================================================
Activity No. 9
Chi-Square (Test of Independence)
The accompanying table lists results obtained from random sample of different crime victims. At the 0.05 level
of significance, test the claim that the type of crime is not related to whether the criminal is a stranger or an
acquaintance. How might the results affect the strategy police officers use when they investigate crimes?
Criminal was a stranger
Criminal was acquaintance or relative
Column Total

Homicide
12
39
51

Robbery
379
106
485

Assault
727
642
1369

Row Total
1118
787
1905

75
Research often involves the measurements of two variables for the same individuals. A common question in
this situation concerns the way in which scores on the first variable are related to scores on the second
variable. There are many different ways in which two variables might be related however, research is often
concerned with linear relationship. When both variables under study are quantitative and are measured on an
interval or ratio level, the statistical technique of Pearson product-moment correlation known more simply as
Pearson correlation can be used to determine the extent to which they are linearly related. However, when
both variables under study are at least ordinal or ranks, the statistical technique of Spearmans Rho known
more imply as Rank correlation can be used.
CORRELATION
The main objective of a correlation is to take a collection of paired sample data (sometimes called bivariate
data) and determine whether there appears to be a relationship between two variables. In Statistics, such
relationship is referred to as correlation. A correlation exists between two variables when one of them is
related to the other in some way.
ASSUMPTIONS
1.) The sample of paired (x, y) data is a random sample.
2.) The pairs of (x, y) data have a bivariate normal distribution
PROPERTIES OF LINEAR CORRELATION COEFFICIENT r
1.) The value of r is always between 1.00 and 1.00 inclusive, that is, 1.00 r 1.00
2.) The value of r does not change if all values of either variable are converted to a different scale.
3.) The value of r is not affected by the choice of x or y. Interchange all x values and y values and the
value of r will not change.
4.) r measures strength of a linear relationship. It is not designed to measure the strength of a relationship
that is not linear.
Interpreting the Linear Correlation Coefficient
If the absolute value of the computed value of r exceeds the value in Table A 6, conclude that there is a
significant linear correlation. Otherwise, there is not sufficient evidence to support the conclusion of a
significant linear correlation.
Interpreting r: Explained Variation (Coefficient of Determination)
The value r2 is the proportion (in percent) of the variation in y that is explained by the linear relationship
between x and y.
H0 : r = 0
H1: r 0

Statement of the null and alternative hypotheses

(There is no correlation between the two variables)
(There is a correlation between the two variables)

LINEAR CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

The linear correlation coefficient r measures the strength of the linear relationship between the paired x
and y values in a sample. Its value is computed by using the formula which follows. (The linear correlation
coefficient is sometimes referred to as the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient in honor of
Karl Pearson (1857 1936), who originally developed it.)
(
(

( )( )

( ) (

( )

76
Notation for the Linear Correlation Coefficient
n

x
x2
(x)2
xy
r

represents the number of pairs of data present

denotes the addition of the items indicated
denotes the sum of all x values
indicates that each x value should be squared and then those squares added
indicates that the x values should be added and the total then squared. It is extremely important to
avoid confusing x2 and (x)2
indicates that each x value should first be multiplied by its corresponding y value. After obtaining
all such products, find their sum
represents the linear correlation coefficient for a sample
represents the linear correlation coefficient for a population
Degree of Correlation (r) according to Guilford

Numerical
0.00
0.01 0.20
0.21 0.40
0.41 0.70
0.71 0.90
0.91 0.99
1.00

Interpretation:
: zero correlation; no relationship
: slight correlation; almost negligible relationship
: low correlation; definite but small relationship
: moderate correlation; substantial relationship
: high correlation; high/dependable relationship
: very high correlation; very dependable relationship
: perfect correlation; perfect relationship

Definition:
A scatterplot (or scatter diagram) is a graph in which the paired (x, y) sample data are plotted with a
horizontal x axis and a vertical y axis. Each individual (x, y) pair is plotted as a single point.

77

Question:

The results of your correlation analysis show that you have a correlation of +.8932 between salary and
productivity.
What do you know?
What information is provided by the numeral value of the Pearson correlation?
What proportion of variation in the number of productivity can be explained by the variation in the
amount of salary
LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Linear regression is the simplest type of prediction. When we take the observed values of X to estimate or
predict corresponding Y values, the process is called simple prediction. When more than one X variable is used,
the outcome is a function of multiple predictors. The simple and multiple predictions are made using a
technique called regression analysis.
Regression is a term used to describe the process of estimating the relationship between two variables. The
relationship is estimated by fitting a straight line through the given data. The method of least squares permits
us to find a line of best fit called regression line which keeps the errors of prediction to a minimum.
DEFINITION: Given a collection of paired sample data, the regression equation
algebraically describes the relationship between two variables. The graph of the regression equation is called
the regression line (or line of best fit, or least-square line). This definition expresses a relationship between x
(called the independent variable, or predictor variable) and y (called the dependent variable or response
variable).
(equation of the regression line)

(y intercept of regression equation)

( )

(slope of regression equation)

( )

78
Note: We cannot use the linear regression analysis to predict the expected value ( ) when the x value in the
data set is beyond the minimum and maximum observed values. Meaning if the lowest observed x-value is 10
and the highest observed x-value is 95, we cannot predict the expected y-value for x less than 10 or x more
than 95.

79
EXAMPLE OF CORRELATION USING PEARSONS r
The table below shows the monthly income (X) and the monthly expenses (Y) in thousands of pesos of 12
families in a certain community in Baguio City.
Family Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Monthly Income (X)

16.5
16.0
17.0
15.0
16.0
16.0
17.0
20.0
19.0
18.0
17.5
19.5

Monthly Expenses (Y)

14.10
14.68
15.65
13.70
15.67
14.26
16.38
16.00
15.50
15.60
16.00
17.00

1.) What is the strength and direction of relationship between the monthly income and monthly expenses
of the 12 families in a certain community in Baguio City?
2.) What proportion of the variation in the amount of monthly expenses can be explained by the variation
in the amount of monthly income?
3.) Test the null hypothesis that monthly income and monthly expenses are not related at the 0.05 level of
significance.
4.) What will be the expected monthly expenses if a certain family has a monthly income of 18500?
Solution:
Compute the value of the test statistic
Step 1. Find the values of n, X, Y, X2, Y2 and XY
Family
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
n = 12

Monthly
Income
(X)
16.5
16.0
17.0
15.0
16.0
16.0
17.0
20.0
19.0
18.0
17.5
19.5
X
= 207.5

Monthly
Expenses
(Y)
14.10
14.68
15.65
13.70
15.67
14.26
16.38
16.00
15.50
15.60
16.00
17.00
Y
= 184.54

X2
(16.5)2=272.25
(16)2 =256
(17)2 = 289
(15)2 =225
(16)2 = 256
(16)2 = 256
(17)2 = 289
(20)2 = 400
(19)2 = 361
(18)2 = 324
(17.5)2=306..25
(19.5)2=380.25
X2
= 3614.75

Y2
(14.10)2= 198.81
(14.68)2= 215.5024
(15.65)2= 244.9225
(13.70)2= 187.69
(15.67)2= 245.5489
(14.26)2= 203.3476
(16.38)2= 268.3044
(16.00)2= 256
(15.50)2= 240.25
(15.60)2= 243.36
(16.00)2= 256
(17.00)2= 289
Y2
= 2848.7358

XY
(16.5)(14.10)
(16.0)(14.68)
(17.0)(15.65)
(15.0)(13.70)
(16.0)(15.67)
(16.0)(14.26)
(17.0)(16.38)
(20.0)(16.00)
(19.0)(15.50)
(18.0)(15.60)
(17.5)(16.00)
(19.5)(17.00)
XY
= 3203.22

80
Step 2. Substitute the values from Step 1 into Pearsons correlation formula.

r
(

)
(

n x x
)(

)(

n xy x y

n y 2 y

)
)

Answer the questions:

1.) What is the strength and direction of relationship between the monthly income and monthly expenses
of the 12 families in a certain community in Baguio City?
The result of r = 0.7184, indicates a dependable relationship (high positive correlation) between family
income and monthly expenses. This implies that an increase in monthly income will result to an increase in
monthly expenses
2.) What proportion of the variation in the amount of monthly expenses can be explained by the variation
in the amount of monthly income?
r = 0.7184 r2 = (0.7184)2 = 0.5161
Interpretation:
0.5161 or 51.61% of the variation in monthly expenses (y-variable) of the 12 families in Baguio City
can be explained by the variation in the amount of their monthly income.
3.) Test the null hypothesis that monthly income and monthly expenses are not related at the 0.05 level of
significance.
H0: Monthly income and monthly expenses are not related
(There is no correlation between the monthly income and monthly expenses)
H1: Monthly income and monthly expenses are related
(There is a correlation between the monthly income and monthly expenses)
Level of Significance = 5% = 0.05
Critical Value: CV[, n]
CV[0.05, 12] = 0.576 (Table A 6)
Decision Rule: Reject H0 if the absolute coefficient of correlation r is greater than CV = 0.576
Compare the obtained Pearsons r with the critical value CV in Table A 6 and make a conclusion.
Decision: An r = 0.7184 is greater than the critical value of 0.576, thus reject H 0
Conclusion: We conclude that monthly income and monthly expenses are related.

81
4.) What will be the expected monthly expenses if a certain family has a monthly income of 18500?
n = 12
X
Y
X2
Y2
XY
= 207.5
= 184.54
= 3614.75
= 2848.7358
= 3203.22

( )

( )

Given x = 18500 = 18.5 (in thousands)

( )

)(

)(

( )
(

Prediction Equation:
(

)(

)
(

Interpretation:
The expected monthly expenses of a family receiving a monthly income of 18,500 is around 15,930
Example: The Kelley Blue Book provides information on wholesale and retail prices of cars. Following are age
and price for 10 randomly selected cars between 1 and 6 years old. Here, x denotes age in years and y, denotes
price in hundreds of dollars.
x
y

6
290

6
280

6
295

2
425

2
384

5
315

4
355

5
328

1
425

4
325

1. What is the strength and direction of the correlation between a cars age and price?
2. At 5% level of significance, is the correlation between cars age and price significant?
3. Most likely, what would be the price of a selected car whose age is 3 years?
Step 1. Find the values of n, X, Y, X2, Y2 and XY
No.
x
y
x2
y2
xy

1
6
290
36
84,100
1,740

2
6
280
36
78,400
1,680

3
6
295
36
87,025
1,770

4
2
425
4
180,625
850

5
2
384
4
147,456
768

6
5
315
25
99,225
1,575

7
4
355
16
126,025
1,420

8
5
328
25
107,584
1,640

9
1
425
1
180,625
425

10
4
325
16
105,625
1,300

Sum
41
3,422
199
1,196,690
13,168

82
Step 2. Substitute the values from Step 1 into Pearsons correlation formula.

( )

( )

)(

)(

) (

)(

)(

)
)

Anwer the following questions:

1. What is the strength and direction of the correlation between a cars age and price?
The result of r = 0.9679, indicates a very dependable relationship (very high negative correlation) between a
cars age and price. This implies that the older the car is (increase in age) will result to a decrease in price.
2. At 5% level of significance, is the correlation between cars age and price significant?
Ho: There is no correlation between cars age and price
H1: There is a correlation between cars age and price
Level of Significance = 5% = 0.05
Critical Value: CV[, n]
CV[0.05, 10] = 0.632 (Table A 6)
Decision Rule: Reject H0 if the absolute coefficient of correlation r is greater than CV = 0.576
Compare the obtained Pearsons r with the critical value CV in Table A 6 and make a conclusion.
Absolute value = | 0.9679| = 0.9679
Decision: Reject Ho since the absolute value of |r| = | 0.9679| is greater than the critical value of 0.632
Conclusion: We conclude that at 5% level, there is a correlation between a cars age and its price.
3. Most likely, what would be the price of a selected car whose age is 3 years?

( )

( )

( )
(

)(

)(

( )

( )

Interpretation:
The expected price of a 3 year-old car is about 372.9 (hundreds of dollars)

83
Activity 10
Linear Correlation and Regression Analysis
Tax efficiency is a measure ranging from 0 to 100 of how ta due to capital gains stock or mutual funds
investors pay on their investments each year. An investor examined the relationship between investments in
mutual fund portfolios and their associated tax efficiencies. The following table shows percentage of
investments in energy securities (x) and tax efficiency (y) for 10 mutual fund portfolios.
X
Y

3.1
98.1

3.2
94.7

3.7
92.0

4.3
4.0
5.5
6.7
89.8 87.5 85.0 82.0

7.4
7.4 10.6
77.8 72.1 53.5

1. What is the strength and direction of the correlation between the percentage of investments in energy
securities and tax efficiency?
2. At 1% level, is the relationship between the percentage of investments in energy securities and tax
efficiency significant?
3. What is the expected tax efficiency value when the percentage of investments in energy securities is
(a) 8.5%? (b) 6.0%