1.

Project Background

1.1

Sample description

In this engineering material project our group was given three specimen with two lines
marked at the narrow center region of the specimens as shown in Figure 1.1. The specimen
is a dog bone shaped polymers. We can see that our specimen has the following
characteristics:

Figure 1.1: Sample

I.

Physical Appearance :
Three pieces of specimen which are in dog bone shape, at which the specimen is
narrow at the center region. It is white in colour, and light in weight.

II.

Size and specification

Table 1: Specimen Dimension
Specimen
Width overall (mm)
Width of narrow section (mm)
Length overall (mm)
Gage length (mm)
Thickness (mm)

A
18.68
12.80
162
50
3

B
18.40
12.80
162
50
3

C
18.50
12.80
162
50
3

III.

Mechanical properties
The specimen surface is smooth. It is bendable and ductile.

IV.

Chemical properties
The specimen surface is clean. No oxidation or corrosion sign can be observed from
the specimen.

V.

Optical properties
The specimen is opaque.

1.2

Problem Statement

In engineering application, it is important and critical to identify the properties of materials.

This is due to the difference of applications that required different and specific material
properties in order to achieve the desire design. Failure to do so can lead to a serious
problem that can affect human, environment and engineering application.
Therefore, it is vital to ensure that the properties and characteristics of the materials that are
discovered through testing are suitable and practicable for its corresponding application.
Thus by selecting appropriate materials with suitable properties for a given application,
catastrophes can be avoided.
The purpose of the project is to determine two mechanical properties of the given sample
specimen. Tests that are relevant and practicable with the sample specimen should be
identified and conducted in order to determine its mechanical properties. The tests can either
be destructive or non-destructive depending on the characteristic of the sample specimen.

1.3

Objectives and Scopes

The objectives of this research are as follows:

1. To identify and analyse the two mechanical properties of specimens (polymer).
2. To determine the suitable testing and testing standard based on the mechanical
properties chosen.
3. To justify the test conducted and the mechanical properties that have been identified.
4. To determine the material of the specimens.
The scopes of this research are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Identify and analyse the mechanical properties of the polymer.

Perform tests in compliance with ASTM standards.
Perform tensile tests to identify tensile strength and formability of the samples.
Analyse the results of the experiments.

2.0 Literature review

2.1 Polymer
According to American Chemistry Council (2014), polymer is defined as a chemical which is
composed of many repeating units. It can be a three dimensional or two-dimensional
network or a one-dimensional network. Polymers are often known as macromolecules
because they are large in size. (Callister & Rethwisch, 2008). A repeating unit in polymer is
the -mer. The word poly-mer means many repeating units whereas monomer means
small unit that can be synthesized into a polymer. Repeating units are usually consist of
carbon and hydrogen, sometimes oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, phosphorous,
and silicon. The polymer chain is formed by sequential addition and polymerization of many
-mers (Mitchell, 2004).
There is two type of polymer which are natural polymer such as proteins or enzymes and
synthetic polymer such as nylon or polyethylene. Since most of the polymers are organic or
synthesized from organic molecules, they are made of hydrocarbons which are compounds
of carbon and hydrogen. These polymers are specifically made of carbon atoms bonded
together, forming long chains known as backbone of the polymer (Callister & Rethwisch,
2008).
Properties of a polymer is affected by the attractive force between the polymer chains.
Dipoles in the monomer units affects the intermolecular forces in polymers Ionic or hydrogen
bonding which have stronger force can be formed between polymer chains. Polymers that
consist of amide or carbonyl groups can form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains. The
partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one chain and partially
negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on another are strongly attracted to each
other. These strong hydrogen bonds usually result in the high tensile strength and melting
point of polymers (K. S. Kumar, K. Rahman, G. M. Varma & K. Krishna, 2012).
2.2 Mechanical Properties of Polymer
Mechanical property is the characteristic shown by a material when it is subjected to a force.
It is measured by performing several tests, usually destructive test, on a specimen of the
given material (K. G. Budinski & M. K. Budinski , 2010). Mechanical property is used to
determine whether a material is suitable for a specific mechanical application where the
material need to withstand force or deformation. The mechanical properties studied help in
material selection for product and application, so as to prevent any failure. Strength,
formability, stiffness, toughness and durability are the five properties under mechanical
properties.
Generally, mechanical properties of polymer are different from metal and ceramic. Polymers
have lower stiffness and lower strength at room temperature as compared to metal and
ceramics. Many polymers are ductile (Callister & Rethwisch, 2008). Different type of
polymers have different mechanical properties. Mechanical properties of polymers depend
on several parameters such as nature of monomer unit, molecular weight, cross-linking,
degree of crystallinity and etc. (S.L. Kakani& A. Kakani, 2004). For example, the greater the
molecular weight of the polymer, the higher is its melting temperature.
3

In order to determine the mechanical properties of the specimen, tests are performed on the
specimen. This paper will focus on the strength and formability of the given polymer
specimens, which can be determined by performing tensile test. Tensile testing will be
discussed in next section before proceeding to strength and formability properties.
2.2.1 Tensile Testing
Tensile testing is a method of determining how specimen will react when it is subjected to a
force in tension. It give the tensile property data for the specification of plastic materials. The
standard tensile specimens are usually in dogbone shape so that the deformation is within
the narrow center region Dimension for the specimen must conform to ASTM Standard
D638. Load applied uniaxially along the long axis of the specimen are increased slowly,
pulling and deforming the specimen until it fracture (Callister & Rethwisch, 2008). Data on
property of material of a component or product can be obtained by measuring loads required
to elongate a materials up to fracture point. These data will ensure manufacturers that their
products are suitable for their application (Mecmesin Limited, 2010). Properties that can be
directly obtained from tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and
reduction area of the specimen. The universal testing machine is the most common testing
machine used in tensile testing experiment (as shown in Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1
According to ASTM Standard D683 (2010), tensile properties may change with the way
specimen is prepared and with speed and environment of testing. Therefore, in order to get
accurate and precise results, these factors must be controlled carefully. The samples
needed to be prepared in exactly same way when comparative tests of materials are
required. Significant data can be obtained from the tensile properties for plastics engineering
design purposes. These data cannot be considered valid for application which load-time
scales and environments are greatly different from those of tensile testing. This is because
plastic are highly sensitive to rate of straining and environmental conditions, the result
obtained are not reliable.
From the tensile test alone, we can detect important parameters such as yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength, fracture point and ductility of the interested materials that is in our
case, a polymer shape of a dog bone. When a specimen is subjected to a tensile loading,
the specimen will undergo elastic and plastic deformation. Initially, the specimen will
elastically deform giving a linear relationship of stress and strain relationship. These two
parameters are then used for the calculation of the engineering stress and strain to give a

relationship. Engineering stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load, P, to the original
cross-sectional area, A0 of the specimen (Callister & Rethwisch, 2008).
. Equation Number (2.1)

Engineering strain is expressed as the change in length L per unit of the original length L of
the material. It is expressed as the ratio of total deformation to the initial dimension of the
material body in which the forces are being applied (Callister & Rethwisch, 2008).
. Equation Number (2.2)

Engineering stress- engineering strain curve is plotted based on the stress and strain values
calculated.
2.2.2 Strength
Strength is the ability of a material to withstand stress. It is the limiting stress a material can
withstand under different types of loading. Its definition varies according to the material type,
applied load and application (K. G. Budinski & M. K. Budinski, 2010). This paper will focus
on yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
2.2.2.1 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
Ultimate tensile strength or sometimes known as tensile strength is the maximum tensile
stress that a material withstand during tension test (ASTM Standard D638, 2010). It is the
maximum stress on the stress-strain curve. The specimen will break if this stress is
maintained.
After yielding, stress will reach the maximum point in the stress-strain curve with the
continuously applied load. The corresponding stress at this point is known as ultimate tensile
strength (UTS). Generally, the stress at fracture is taken as tensile strength for plastic
polymer (Callister & Rethwisch, 2008). Tensile strength is very important in applications that
depends on a polymer's physical strength. Design stress must be less than the tensile
strength to prevent fracture of the structure.

2.2.3 Formability
Formability is the ability of a workpiece to undergo plastic deformation without being
damaged. Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture. Ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress. This
is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Tensile ductility of
the specimen can be represented as percent elongation or percent reduction in area
expressed in the equations given below. Knowledge of ductility of materials is important
because it indicates to a designer the degree to which a structure will deform plastically
before fracture and it specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication
operations (Hosford, 2005).
2.2.3.1 Percent Elongation
Percent Elongation is the percentage of change in gage length relative to the original gage
length. It is calculated by using Extension Indicator which determine the distance between
two designated points within the gage length of the test specimen as the specimen is pulled
and extended. Percent Elongation is usually determined at the yield point and at fracture
point (ASTM Standard D638).

%EL=

(ll)
l

. Equation Number (2.3)

Io initial length of specimen

l length of specimen at fracture

3.0 Methodology
3.1 Test Methodology
After observing and analysing completely the dimensions and shape of our sample which is
polymer, our group has decided to perform the tension test. According to ASTM D368-10, we
found that tension test is a suitable method to test for the strength and formability of
polymers in the form of standard dumbbell-shaped. The dimensions of our test specimen
conform to the dimensions of the Type I molded polymer.
3.1.1 Experiment Verifications
1. The distance between the ends of the gripping surfaces when using at specimens
shall be 115mm.
2. Do not tighten the grips to the point where the specimen would be crushed.
3. Speed is set to a proper rate of 50 mm/min.
3.1.2 Apparatus and materials:

Computerized tensile testing machine as shown in Figure 3.1

Extension indicator
3 specimens

Figure 3.1: Computerized tensile testing machine

3.1.3 Procedure
1. The specimen is placed in the grips of the testing machine.
2. The grips are tighten evenly and rmly to prevent slippage of the specimen during the
test.
3. The extension indicator is attached.
4. The speed of testing is set and the machine is started.
5. The load-extension curve of the specimen is recorded.
6. The load and extension at the yield point and the load and extension at the moment of
rupture is recorded.
7. The work piece is replaced with another one and the steps from 1 to 6 is repeated
respectively.
7

3.2 Project Activities

3.2.1 Tasks Assignment
Eileen Wong Wee Chin

Tasks assignment, key milestones, Gantt chart,

conclusion and compilation

Mohd Zaid Bin Rozilan

Project background, result

Muhammad Khairy Bin Jamaluddin

Literature review, result

Wong Lee Hong

Testing Methodology and tools required,

discussion

Soon Zhen Sheng

Minutes of meeting, discussion

3.2.2 Scheduling
Date
11/06/2014
18/06/2014
24/06/2014
09/07/2014
10/07/2014
10/07/2014
21/07/2014
04/08/2014
06/08/2014
08/08/2014

Agenda
Lab Briefing Sessions / 1st Meeting
2nd Meeting
3rd Meeting
Compiling Progress Report
Progress Report Submission
Progress Report Viva
Testing / 4th Meeting
5th Meeting
Compiling Final Report
Final Report Submission

3.2.3 Minutes of Meeting

MINUTES OF MEETING (1)

MCB 3023 Engineering MaterialsLaboratory Group 11

Date: 11 JUNE 2014
Time: 10.30am 11.00am
Attendance:

Venue: 17-00-04
Day: Wednesday
Prepared by:

Group Leader : Eileen Wong Wee Chin

Group Member :
1. Wong Lee Hong
2. Soon Zhen Sheng
3. Muhammad Khairy bin Jamaluddin
4. Mohd Zaid bin Rozilan

Soon
.....
(SOON ZHEN SHENG)
Secretary,
Approved by:
Eileen
.....
(EILEEN WONG WEE CHIN)
Leader

No.
1

Agenda
Lab Briefing
- Rules and Regulations
- Safety
- Lab booking procedure
Ice Breaking Session with members
- Introduce ourselves

ACTION
Lab Technician

All

MINUTES OF MEETING (2)

MCB 3023 Engineering Materials Laboratory Group 11
Date: 18 JUNE 2014
Time: 10.30am 11.00am
Attendance:
Group Leader : Eileen Wong Wee Chin
Group Member :
1. Wong Lee Hong
2. Soon Zhen Sheng
3. Muhammad Khairy bin Jamaluddin
4. Mohd Zaid bin Rozilan

Venue: 17-00-04
Day: Wednesday
Prepared by:
Soon
.....
(SOON ZHEN SHENG)
Secretary,
Approved by:
Eileen
.....
(EILEEN WONG WEE CHIN)
Leader

No
1

Agenda
Receive specimen from lab technician

ACTION
Eileen
9

Discussion with lab technician(s)

- Material of specimen
- Appropriate test for the specimen

All

Examining and measuring the specimens

All

MINUTES OF MEETING (3)

MCB 3023 Engineering Materials Laboratory Group 11
Date: 24 JUNE 2014
Time: 3.50pm 4.10pm
Attendance:

Venue: Pocket C (Caf)

Day: Tuesday
Prepared by:

Group Leader : Eileen Wong Wee Chin

Group Member :
1. Wong Lee Hong
2. Soon Zhen Sheng
3. Muhammad Khairy bin Jamaluddin
4. Mohd Zaid bin Rozilan

Soon
.....
(SOON ZHEN SHENG)
Secretary,
Approved by:
Eileen
.....
(EILEEN WONG WEE CHIN)
Leader

No.
1

Agenda
Introduction
- Discussion of suitable mechanical properties for
specimen
- Test selected: Tensile test
- Mechanical properties: Strength, Formability
Tasks Distribution
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ACTION
Eileen

Eileen

Project background
Literature review
Testing Methodology & tool required
Minutes of Meeting
Tasks Assignment, Scheduling & Gantt Chart

Meeting Adjourned

Zaid
Khairy
Lee Hong
Soon
Eileen
Eileen

MINUTES OF MEETING (4)

MCB 3023 Engineering Materials Laboratory Group 11
10

Date: 21 JULY 2014

Time: 12.00pm 2.00pm
Attendance:

Venue: Block 17
Day: Monday
Prepared by:

Group Leader : Eileen Wong Wee Chin

Group Member :
1. Wong Lee Hong
2. Soon Zhen Sheng
3. Muhammad Khairy bin Jamaluddin
4. Mohd Zaid bin Rozilan

Soon
.....
(SOON ZHEN SHENG)
Secretary,
Approved by:
Eileen
.....
(EILEEN WONG WEE CHIN)
Leader

No.
1
2
3

Agenda

ACTION
All

Conducting Tensile Test

Analysis and discussion of result
Task Assignment

All

1. Result
2. Discussion
3. Conclusion

Zaid & Khairy

Lee Hong & Soon
Eileen

MINUTES OF MEETING (5)

MCB 3023 Engineering Materials Laboratory Group 11
Date: 4 August 2014
Time: 11.00pm 12.00pm
Attendance:
Group Leader : Eileen Wong Wee Chin
Group Member :
1. Wong Lee Hong
2. Soon Zhen Sheng
3. Muhammad Khairy bin Jamaluddin
4. Mohd Zaid bin Rozilan

Venue: Pocket C (Caf)

Day: Tuesday
Prepared by:
Soon
.....
(SOON ZHEN SHENG)
Secretary,
Approved by:
Eileen
.....
(EILEEN WONG WEE CHIN)
Leader

No.
1
2

Agenda
Compilation of final report
Error Checking and Correction

ACTION
All
All

11

3.3 Gantt Chart

12

4.0 Result and Discussion

Material

: Polymer

Test method: ASTM D638

Test speed: 50.000 mm/min
Table 4.1: Test Specimen Initial Dimension
Test specimen
1
2
Width overall (mm)
18.68
18.40
Width of narrow section (mm)
12.708
12.728
Length overall (mm)
162
162
Gage length (mm)
50
50
Thickness (mm)
3.128
3.104

3
18.50
12.710
162
50
3.028

4.1 Tensile Test 1

Table 4.2: Result of Mechanical Properties of Specimen1

13

Figure 4.1: Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain Curve for Specimen 1

4.2 Tensile Test 2

Table 4.3: Result of Mechanical Properties of Specimen 2

14

Figure 4.2: Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain Curve for Specimen 2

4.3 Tensile test 3

Table 4.3: Result of Mechanical Properties of Specimen 3

15

Figure 4.3: Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain diagram for Specimen 3

Figure 4.4: Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain curve for Specimen 1, Specimen 2 and
Specimen 3

16

4.4 Calculations
Only Test number 1 and 3 are considered because the specimen break inside the marked gage
length but in test number 2, the specimen break outside the marked gage length thus can affect the
average value and result in inaccurate final result. Below is the sample calculation. The engineering
stress and engineering strain are calculated by using computer software.
Tensile Test 1: at time 7.09s
Area = 39.751 mm2
Engineering Stress=

105.397 9.81
=26.011 MPa
6
39.75110

Engineering Strain =

2.044
=0.0409
50

Tensile Test 3: at time 7.10s

Area = 38.486 mm2
Engineering Stress=

103.940 9.81
=26.494 MPa
6
38.486 10

Engineering Strain=

1.843
=0.0369
50

Average percentage of elongation at fracture based on test number 1 and 3:

Percentage of elongation at fracture =

78.5+115.117
=96.81
2

Average tensile strength based on test number 1 and 3:

Tensile strength =

26.231+27.033
N
=26.632
=26.632 MPa
2
2
mm

4.5 Discussion
The tensile test is conducted to study the mechanical properties, which is the strength and
formability of the material. The experiment is repeated three times to obtain the average tensile
strength and average percentage elongation. However, only the results of specimen 1 and 3 are
considered. The result of specimen 2 is disregarded because specimen 2 breaks outside of the
marked narrow cross-sectional section of length 57mm. Speed is set to 50 mm/min instead of 5

17

mm/min to speed up the test and save time instead of spending hours as suggested by our
technician.
Both specimen 1 and 3 exhibits consistent behaviour. From the tensile test graphs of specimen 1
and 3, both the specimens first elongate uniformly and deform elastically until they reach the point
of yielding where the curve depart from linearity of the stress-strain curve. After yielding, the
specimens continue plastic deformation and the stress increases to a maximum point which is the
ultimate tensile strength. After the maximum point, the specimens do not break immediately. The
specimens continue to elongate and necking occurs. The engineering stress corresponding to the
deformation decreases to fracture point where the specimens break. There is a considerable
amount elongation up to the fracture point.
The ultimate tensile strength for all the specimens varies little. This shows the repeatability of the
ultimate tensile strength of the specimens is good. The average ultimate tensile strength of the
specimen is 26.632 MPa, which is considerably lower as compared to metal and ceramic based on
the tensile strength value in reference book (Callister & Rethwisch, 2008). This proves that the
specimen is non-metal and has low strength. The percentage elongation is the indicator of the
ductility of a material. The percentages of elongation at break values of the specimens obtained are
highly variable because of the inconsistencies in necking center section of the specimens. The
average percentage elongation of the specimen is 96.81% at fracture, which is considered large.
Hence, we can conclude that the specimens are ductile.
Since only tensile strength and percentage of elongation are studied in this report, based on these
two mechanical properties, the values of tensile strength and percentage elongation at fracture of
the specimens fulfil all the characteristics of the material polymer. The values of tensile strength and
percentage elongation at fracture of the specimens are closest to the values of the high density
polyethylene based on the tensile strength (22.1 31.0 MPa) and percent of elongation (10%
1200%) of the tested material from book Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering (refer
to Appendix). Thus it is concluded that the specimen is high density polyethylene (HDPE).
There are some deviation of the actual result of the tensile strength and percentage of elongation
value compared to the tested material value from reference book. This is due to the difference in
condition of testing of the specimen. Tensile strength and percentage of elongation vary with
specimen preparation and testing speed and environment. The properties given in the book do not
specify the speed and environment of testing, hence the condition during tensile testing most
probably differs from the condition of the tested specimen from book. Besides, mechanical
properties of polymers are sensitive to temperature changes near room temperature, thus difference
in temperature during testing also affect the mechanical properties of the specimen, resulting in
different value obtained compared to the book. Other than that, the method preparation of the three
given specimens is not known. All the specimens have to be prepared in the exactly same way for
comparison of the result. The non-uniformity in preparation, treatment and handling of the three
specimens causes the result to vary from the tested material in reference book.
There are few errors that lead to discrepancy of the results. Poor adjustment of damping
mechanism and or worn knife edges of the extensometer can cause extensometer slippage which
will lead to inaccuracy of results. Regular inspectionshould be done on the extensometer to ensure
better performance. Specimen slippage due to worn or dirty grip faces can cause the results to be
inaccurate It is advised that inspection on the grip faces should be done regularly to ensure better
performance. Offsets in alignment of the grips and the specimen will affect the readings by creating
18

bending stress. It may even cause the specimen to fracture outside the gage length. The specimens
should to be properly aligned when they are clamped. Besides that, at least five specimens should
be used for the tensile testing according to the ASTM D638 standard. However, due to limited
number of specimen given, only three tests can be conducted. Furthermore, one of the specimen
broke outside of the marked narrow cross-sectional test section and had to be discarded, leaving
only two useful test result, cause the final result to be less accurate. Therefore, more number of test
specimens, at least 5 specimens, should be used for the testing to obtain more accurate result.

5.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, three polymer specimens were given to identify two mechanical properties of the
specimens. The mechanical properties chosen to be analysed are strength and formability which
are important properties in selection of suitable material for engineering application. Tensile test was
being conducted to find the two mechanical properties because the specimens are dog-bone
shaped. Through the testing, the tensile strength and percentage of elongation of the specimens
were identified, with average of 26.632MPa of ultimate tensile strength and 96.81% of elongation at
fracture. The polymer specimen given is concluded to have low strength based on the value ultimate
tensile strength and is ductile based on the value of percentage of elongation at fracture. With
reference to the book Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering, the specimen is
concluded to be High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) based on the mechanical properties
determined.
Due to the low strength of the material, the material cannot be used in application where it has to
withstand large load as it will deform easily and fail. The high percentage of elongation of the
material suggests it can be used in application of that require the material to be formed into various
shapes, such as bottles, toys or packaging film.
Several methods can be done to improve the result of the testing. More number of specimens
should be given, at least five specimens, to get more accurate results. The specimens should be
conducted under the same conditions as the referred standard tested materials, such as speed,
temperature of testing and treatment of specimens. More care should be given when handling the
specimens like avoiding excessive bending of the specimens. The testing equipment should be
inspected regularly to ensure it is under good condition during testing.

19

6.0 Reference
American Chemistry Council (2014). The Basics: Polymer Definition and Properties. Retrieved on
2014, July 4, 8:00pm from http://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Education-Resources/Plastics101/The-Basics-Polymer-Definition-and-Properties.html.
ASTM Standard D638, 2010, "Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics," ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010, DOI: 10.1520/C0033-03, www.astm.org.
Budinski, K. G. & Budinski, M. K. (2010). Engineering Materials Properties and Selection (9th ed.).
NY, USA: Prentice-Hall.
Callister, W. D. & Rethwisch, D.G. (2008). Fundamentals of Material Science and Engineering (3rd
ed.). United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Engineers Handbook. Engineering Materials - Mechanical Material Properties. Retrieved on 2014,
July 4, 8:00pm from http://www.engineershandbook.com/Materials/mechanical.htm.
Hosford, W. F. (2005). Mechanical Behavior of Materials. New York., NY:Cambridge University
Press.
Kakani, S. L. & Kakani, A. (2004). Material Science. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd.,
Publishers.
Kumar, K. S., Rahman, K., Varma, G. M. & Krishna K. (2012). Characterization of Bio-Degradable
Polymers and its PropertiesAn overview. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and
Chemical Sciences, 1 (3), 951 - 961.
Mecmesin Limited. (2013, Jun 11). Tensile Testing - Theory, Applications and Systems from
Mecmesin. Retrieved on 2014, July 4, 8.00pm from http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?
ArticleID=5551.
Mitchell, B. S. (2004). An Introduction to Materials Engineering and Science for Chemical and
Materials Engineers. New Jersey, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

20

7.0 Appendix

Source: Fundamentals of Material Science and Engineering (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

21